Learning to Read Effectively

UNIT 3 LEARNING READING

COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Warm up
3.2 Definition and Levels of Comprehension
3.3 Types of Reading Comprehension
3.4 Strategies of Reading Comprehension
3.5 Skills for Reading Comprehension
3.6 Academic Reading and Knowledge in Comprehension
3.7 Let us Sum Up
3.8 Suggested Readings
3.9 Answers

3.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit will develop in the learners the ability to do the following in a
comprehension passage:

identify the main idea(s) in the text, identify specific details, distinguish
main idea(s), distinguish fact from opinion; make inferences and predictions
based on information in the text; infer meanings of unfamiliar words and
achieve an overall understanding of the text;

skim for main idea(s) in the passage, scan for details in the contents of the
passage, summarize and paraphrase information in a text;

develop reading speed and enhance academic vocabulary, make use of

contextual clues to infer meanings of unfamiliar words from context,
distinguish main ideas from specific details, facts from opinions, make
inferences and predictions based on comprehension of a text;

identify author’s purpose and tone, discuss and respond to content of the
text orally as well as in writing;

utilize digital literacy tools to develop reading and vocabulary skills, use
graphic organizers to better understand a text, transfer information in the
text into a graphic organizer, and create mind maps if required;

discover and utilize academic vocabulary appropriately, orally and in

writing; and answer questions related to the text of the passage as well as
summarize/paraphrase information in a text; and

use various strategies of reading such as receptive reading, reflective

reading, skimming, scanning, intensive reading and extensive reading.

36
Learning Reading
3.1 WARM UP Comprehension Strategies

Answer the following questions about reading based on your own opinion and
experience.

What do you aim to do to understand a literary text by reading?

Do you like reading? If so why? What is your speed of reading in words or

pages per minute?

What is your focus when you read a literary text? Do you focus on
exhaustive reading, skimming, scanning or cursory reading?

What do you do to understand the meanings of difficult words? Do you

use a dictionary or try to guess the meaning from the context?

What is your favourite style of reading and why? How often do you read?

Do you prefer short passages or longer extracts? What are the factors that
govern your choice of passages to be read?

3.2 DEFINITION AND LEVELS OF

COMPREHENSION
Comprehension is the most necessary academic activity in reading and academic
discourse. It is one of the most important skills in language teaching. It refers to
understanding of a literary or linguistic passage by a reader in terms of both the
lexical and the syntactical structures as well as the many layers of meaning
embedded in the content of a passage. It involves the accurate association of
meanings with word symbols, the choice of the appropriate meaning implied in
the context, the logical arrangement of words to form contextual meanings, the
ability to logically and rationally analyse smaller ideas and vocabulary segments,
and the ability to understand the larger meaning of the ideas contained in the
content of any literary work.

Reading comprehension can be described simply as understanding by thinking.

To comprehend a passage, one needs to understand language patterns, to recognise
the structural elements in composing a sentence and to grasp the syntactic
interrelationship of these elements. Comprehension comprises the use of two
general mental abilities, the ability to remember word meanings and the ability
to logically analyse and see the connection between verbal concepts i.e. words.
Comprehension is a process of deep thinking and it involves meticulous reading.
Thus, it is dependent upon the readers’ basic cognitive and intellectual skills,
upon their background of cultural and intellectual experience and upon their
language skills. Readers use their thinking and verbal reasoning skills to read for
main ideas, for details, for organisation and for appreciation.

In traditional academic environments a successful comprehension is said to have

been achieved if the reader can answer a question or restate any information
given in the passage. However, in the contemporary academic milieu this concept
of reading comprehension has been expanded to include recall, remembrance,
application, inference and even the reader’s knowledge of language, syntax and
37
Learning to Read Effectively vocabulary patterns. This knowledge may be categorised linguistically into
different levels. First is a phonemic level where visual or acoustic input is recorded
into basic speech sounds called phonemes. Second is a lexical level, which roughly
corresponds to words or verbal patterns. Third is a syntactic level, which includes
a set of rules that specify the process and methods of categories of word-groups.
Fourth is a semantic level, which specifies the process and ways of sentence
construction and the patterns of sentence structure. The meaning of a sentence is
not simply the sum total of the lexical meaning of its constituent words but also
involves the deeper layers of meanings that may exist beyond the superficial.
Fifth is a pragmatic level, which corresponds to the use of the language in
dialogues and social interaction.

Comprehension is then an interaction with the text on multiple levels, both

linguistic and literary. It is a reader’s response to a passage. It demonstrates his
or her level of interaction and involvement with and interpretation of the
comprehension passage. It leads to a holistic and integrated development of
intelligence in an individual reader.

3.3 TYPES OF READING COMPREHENSION

Reading Comprehension is the ability to easily and efficiently read text for
understanding meaning and making inter-connections between words and ideas,
lexicon and syntax in a literary or linguistic passage. It is the last step of the
reading process after the acquisition of phonics, fluency, and vocabulary. There
are five categories of reading comprehension that may be taught in a language
classroom. These are:
Lexical Comprehension
Literal Comprehension
Interpretive Comprehension
Applied Comprehension
Affective Comprehension
These may be explained as:
Lexical Comprehension refers to understanding the key vocabulary in a text.
The successful comprehension of a text depends on the activation of appropriate
content and background knowledge. This in turn depends upon the reader’s lexical
knowledge. No comprehension is possible in any language unless the reader has
a foreknowledge of the lexicon and also a basic understanding of syntactical
patterns. If this is lacking then the reader will not be able to read accurately and
appropriately and therefore the impetus of the passage will be lost. Since it will
not have the desired impact upon the reader the essence of the exercise of the
comprehension will be lost. Therefore, an awareness and knowledge of lexicon
is fundamental to attaining skill in comprehension.

Literal comprehension involves two dimensions: chronological and surface

understanding of the explicitly stated content details in a passage. It can include
the perception and processing of factual information; the recall or recognition of
main thematic ideas, detailed chronology of the sequence of occurrences and
events, comparison of language and content, appearance and traits of character
description, and the cause and effect relationship explicitly stated in a story may
38
be regarded as literal level comprehension tasks. Recall would require the reader Learning Reading
Comprehension Strategies
to refer to and furnish an idea or ideas stated by the author, however recognition
on the other hand would require the reader to decide whether or not a type specific
information was presented in the story. Recall questions are usually more difficult
to answer than recognition questions since recall requires the generation of the
response after remembering what was read. In contrast questions of recognition
require the reader to select a correct answer by recognizing it. The ability to
comprehend literal information presented in a story leads to higher levels of
understanding and appreciation and is thus important for the reader as a linguistic
and literary skill. Literal understanding is thus the cornerstone of the
comprehension skill as it enhances the reading and retention abilities of the reader.
Reading without understanding is as futile as understanding without retention.

Interpretative or Inferential Comprehension is the process through which

readers infer, analyse or interpret the meaning embedded and implied beyond
explicitly stated information in the content. They understand the passage to arrive
at a deeper understanding of the entire content. This process is similar to that of
literal comprehension and involves the sequencing of main ideas, the
understanding of chronological sequences as well as their application to the events
in the narrative, details of actions, characterization and a complete understanding
of the cause or underlying effect of an action by a character whose subtle traits
are elucidated in his or her behaviour. This information is not explicitly stated
and the reader must discern an underlying nuance of meaning by trying to “read
between the lines” to comprehend at an inferential level.

In some instances of inferential or interpretative comprehension readers may be

required to elaborate on ideas and in other instances in the contextual repertoire
to concretize abstract ideas. These ideas must first be integrated and then used as
a basis for making inferences. Inference thus requires an integration of the content
of the passage which shall subsequently result in the creation of inferences about
the passage for comprehension. It involves a combination of conjecture and
explanation based on a synthesis of the literal context, personal knowledge,
intention, and imagination. Inference can take the form of either convergent or
divergent thinking. Convergent thinking is involved in such skills as identifying
topic sentences, determining sequences and recalling details. Convergent
inferences cause the reader to come to a specific correct answer or an agreed
upon hypothesis that may be verified through the data supplied by the writer.
Divergent thinking on the other hand is imaginative or creative thinking. It is an
inference that does not have to be judged as right or wrong. In divergent thinking
the individual develops alternative answer, none of which is necessarily correct
but none of which is incorrect either. Divergent thinking is a synonym for creative
thinking and convergent thinking can be considered a synonym of analytical
thinking. In a nutshell then, one must understand that strategies of reading
comprehension can encompass a variety of thought processes, multiple types of
thinking and diverse ways of negotiating with the text.

Applied Comprehension refers to the application of the content in the passage

to some idea or opinion stated externally. This involves understanding the meaning
of the passage, making inferences, relating ideas logically and sequentially in
the content, making external associations of ideas contained in the passage and
answering questions which are not superficial but analytical. This may involve
drawing comparison, making contrasts, highlighting sameness and discerning
39
Learning to Read Effectively differences. For instance, a study of a fairy tale involves the application of the
lesson of the same to real life, the parallel of the situation to daily incidents and
the moral of the subtext as a didactic lesson. Even a fable or an allegory when
read with meticulous attention can bring about a realization of the fact that this
can be applied to contemporary reality and is thus universal.

Affective Comprehension involves an understanding of the emotional and social

aspects of the content of a literary passage and it happens when the readers have
the ability to understand and establish a connection between motive and plot
development. This shows the topicality and immediacy of the passage and the
intensity and relational ability of the reader. For example, the characters in a
novel may propel the narrative forward by their actions but in a short story the
situations may impact a character to act in a specific way. Both plot and character
are inter-related in a literary passage and thus the development of the latter is
dependent on the progress and actions of the former. The moment this connectional
understanding and linking ability is manifested by the reader, the comprehension
becomes affective in nature.
Check Your Progress 1
1) How is comprehension dependent upon the readers? Explain.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

2) Briefly discuss the various linguistic levels of comprehension.

.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

3) State one major similarity between applied and affective comprehension.

.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

4) What is meant by “read between the lines” in comprehension?

.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
40
Learning Reading
3.4 STRATEGIES OF READING Comprehension Strategies

COMPREHENSION
Comprehension involves both intensive and extensive reading and these are
dependent on several skills that may be classified as literal skills, interpretive
skills, critical skills and creative skills. Literal skills are skills used for
understanding the surface of content information; interpretive skills are skills
that are needed to analyse the deeper meanings of the content, critical skills are
skills needed to compare and contrast facts and details, cite and substantiate
arguments related to the passage; creative skills are skills of summary, paraphrase,
reproduction of facts by rewording ad rewriting the content of the passage as
well as extracting relevant portions and answering questions based on the content.
These skills should be practiced together to achieve complete and holistic
understanding of the content on a comprehension passage.

To enhance the skill of reading and understanding a literary passage, to analyse

it thoroughly and also to submit and express parts of it as answers to be evaluated,
there are five main strategies that should be adhered to. They are: framing content-
based questions, creating content summary, visualising and predicting the
development of the text, analysing the textual patterns and structures and finally
scaffolding previous knowledge with new concepts. A detailed explanation of
these is given below:

Framing Content Based Questions: Comprehensive learning in any literary

and linguistic comprehension passage can occur only through self-directed
questioning done by a reader before and after reading. It is the interrogative
mode of understanding post reading that can deeply entrench the information of
the content in the reader’s mind. Questioning has multiple uses: it arouses
curiosity, it embeds the learning within the mind, it also propels the exploration
of deeper nuances in a text. Above all it serves as useful skill for pre-practice of
evaluation. Framing questions mostly self-directed can thus be a useful way of
examining the level of the reader’s self-understanding of the text by an exercise
by introspection.

Three types of questions must be framed for a better understanding of any passage.
They are: direct or factual questions, analytical or interpretive questions, and
research questions. A direct question is based on the data presented in the content
of the passage and it highlights the outline details of the material read with the
facts being explicitly stated. For example, in a fairy tale like Cinderella a direct
question would refer to the details of the transformation of the pumpkin into a
coach and the mice into liveried attendants. An analytical question makes the
readers evaluate and seek deeper meanings in the outcomes of their learning and
understanding. For instance, in the story of Cinderella, an analytical question
would deal with the relevance of the story in contemporary society and would
seek universal and topical relevance of the situation presented to a similar situation
in human life in a particular culture. A research question encourages the readers
to seek information beyond what is in the text. For example, in the story of
Cinderella, the research question would be what the glass slipper in Cinderella
symbolises. These types of questions taken together provide a technique for
holistic and integrated understanding of a literary passage, or in this case a fairy
tale. Such a technique proves effective because it generates self-interest and self-
41
Learning to Read Effectively motivation to obtain a better understanding of the text by imbibing the skills
needed for the same.

Creating Content Summary: Summary is the ability to encapsulate the essence

of a text in a limited number of words. It deletes irrelevant details, combines
similar ideas, condenses main ideas, and connects major themes into concise
statements that capture the purpose of reading for the reader. In any comprehension
activity related to reading a literary passage a summary can be made by jotting
down ideas and statements, underlining key words and phrases, mind mapping
of the themes and sequence of actions, or even simply attempting a chronological
arrangement of the key ideas so that a sequential understanding is achieved. For
example, in the essay “Of Studies” by Francis Bacon, a summary would contain
the following ideas: the purpose of studies, their use in daily life, their abuse or
excess and their remedy of various diseases of the mind. Metaphors of pruning
and other aphorisms and/or Latinate phrases may be deleted in the summary
since they enhance the linguistic style of the essay and are not so integral to its
meaning.

Visualising and Prediction of Text: The importance of visualizing the content

of a text is immense as a strategy of reading comprehension. As they read the
text, readers should be encouraged to form visual images in their mind as structural
images or diagrams instead of mere pictures, as pictures have a tendency to fade.
The ability to visualise is a key element of comprehension since pictorial retention
aids understanding better than simply verbal or mnemonic aids. The structural
images of textual progression will help readers retain, recall and even predict the
future progress of thought and action of the text through conjecture and educated
guesswork. For example, if the text of “The Lagoon” by Joseph Conrad is read
slowly and closely, and if during the reading process the reader is able to form
mental images of the Congo scenery and the forests depicted, the river journey
can be easily visualised as a travel inward into the isle creek. Once this is done
the reader will be able to see parallels in the river journey with the journey of
life, with a voyage deep within the jungle as the voyage into the deep and dark
sub-conscious of the human mind. The reader then will face little difficulty in
making the symbolical analogy of the river journey within the forest to the journey
of the human mind into the depths of its subconscious. Many symbols and many
layers of meaning will be unravelled by visualisation and mind mapping of the
text. Moreover, the reader will also understand how the White Man is a foil to
the swarthy Arsat, how he serves as a trigger to Arsat’s realization, how even the
setting of the island cut off from visible civilization is a symbol of Man’s existence
in the world. Visualization will enable a reader to predict that Diamelen will
eventually die and that her death will be a moment of epiphany for Arsat. It will
enable the reader to understand the flashback better and also to relate the
consequences of the flashback to the present point of crisis in the main story.

Analysis of Textual Patterns and Structures: There are many genres, styles,
modes and techniques of narration by which writers organize their textual material.
These can also be in the form of literary patterns or linguistic structures. The
patterns used may be in the form of cause-effect pattern, problem-solution pattern,
or a descriptive pattern. A cause-effect pattern can be a series of reasons or motives
leading up to the climax of action or resolution of narrative. A problem solution
pattern may present the argument or premise as a crisis or situation and then
submit various alternative outcomes and solutions to the same. The descriptive
42
pattern is one in which the pros and cons of a situation are evaluated, described Learning Reading
Comprehension Strategies
and assessed. Understanding the pattern through which the material is presented
is essential for the reader in order to achieve complete comprehension of the
information provided. It is important to understand and analyse the patterns of a
text so that the reader can gauge if the purpose of the passage has been fulfilled.
For instance, if one is reading a newspaper report or a journalistic article, it is
imperative that one should note the different headings, sub-headings, captions
and also study the tables, charts, or statistical data mentioned. Readers must also
note the concise, pithy and balanced sentence structure and analytical content
presented as substantiation, cause-effect or even narrative input. In any
commercial report the data presented will be different from that presented in a
newspaper report. Similarly, an article in a magazine will be different from an
editorial in a newspaper. The tone of a scholarly discourse will be radically
opposite to that of a subjective perspective on the same topic. Readers can plan
their understanding better once they have discerned the textual pattern and
structure of a text in a comprehension passage. For instance, the pattern of a
fictional prose passage is very different from that of a non–fictional passage and
both in turn are very different from that of a journalistic passage, a commercial
report, a newspaper article, a blog or a review.

Scaffolding Old Knowledge with New Concepts: Brainstorming is vital for

reading and understanding any passage on any topic. It serves to stimulate a
reader’s previous knowledge of the ideas contained in the passage given for
comprehension. A memory of a similar text, if activated, will make the readers
understand better and deeper. This will help them connect the present content
being read to their already existing knowledge and make the new reading more
stimulating and engaging. The strategy allows readers to work their way up from
an already existing schema, instead of starting a new one. Thus, it is useful to
activate prior knowledge and use it to support the embedded structures of
knowledge within the reader thereby creating a support for the new knowledge
to be acquired through fresh comprehension and new reading. For instance, in
any passage related to environmental studies, one can always activate prior
knowledge of biology, geography and maybe even economics as a means of
reading deeply into the passage given. Thus, even before one has started reading
the passage, one is aware of embedded knowledge about pollution, energy,
economic policies, geographical changes and other minute details that may have
a bearing upon the topic of environmental studies given for reading. This will be
the scaffold or embedded support of the new knowledge of the details given in
the content of the main passage. Thus, on the sub-structure of prior knowledge
the superstructure of new knowledge and understanding will be built and the
finished intellectual edifice will be strong and deep-seated.

3.5 SKILLS FOR READING COMPREHENSION

Reading Comprehension is a skill that may be innate but can also be acquired
through various strategies imbibed in the course of reading and polished with
continuous practice. The acquisition of reading comprehension skills has myriad
importance in academic and personal life and mastery over this skill can be
attained through various practices like decoding, fluency, vocabulary enhancement
and sentence construction, retention and attention span development among many
others.
43
Learning to Read Effectively Decoding words: Decoding is a vital step in the reading process and this
skill is employed to understand words which a reader may have heard
before but never read or spelt. This is the first step of comprehension. The
ability to express and understand words which are unfamiliar or only partly
familiar is the basis for other reading skills. Decoding is inextricably
interlinked with phonemic awareness (which is a subset of a broader skill
called phonological awareness). Phonemic awareness enables readers to
hear individual sounds in words (known as phonemes) as well as to enable
them to combine different phonemes into creating new words. Decoding
also involves the skill of connecting individual sounds to letters. Words
can only be pronounced and then spelt correctly if the reader has made a
connection between a letter, or group of letters, and the sounds they typically
make.

Fluency in reading: Fluency involves the immediate recognition of sounds

and words, which may be either familiar or unfamiliar to the reader. Fluency
accelerates the pace at which readers can read and understand the text.
Decoding every word may be both tedious and time-consuming and this is
where the sub-skill set of word recognition is used for immediate recognition
of complete words by silent reading instead of sounding them out. Fluent
readers can read smoothly and swiftly, skimming and scanning for words
and understanding meaning in the content as they read. They group words
together to aid in the understanding of the meaning, and they use the
appropriate diction and tone of their voice when reading aloud. Reading
fluency is one of the most essential skills for accuracy in reading
comprehension. The understanding of the content depends largely on the
ability to read with fluency and speed.

Building Vocabulary: A key skill component of reading comprehension

is acquiring a wide–ranging and diverse vocabulary. Readers may acquire
vocabulary through classroom instruction, everyday experience and also
by reading. The enrichment of vocabulary especially by exposing a reader
to multiple contexts, having frequent conversations, playing word-games,
and giving readers explicit instructions of a specialised nature in a direct
way in the classroom can enhance the skills of reading comprehension.
Vocabulary building must be regarded as an aggregate skill of reading
comprehension. The repertoire of words used by a reader or familiar to a
reader may be augmented by words in the passage for comprehension and
the only way to understand these words and append them to the readers’
vocabulary is by situating the meaning in context and then adding the word
to their personal repertoire for future use. Here also retention and recall
play an important role.

Sentence Construction and Arrangement: Sentence construction is

primarily a writing skill and in any skill of reading comprehension, this is
closely integrated with a fundamental reading skill called cohesion which
helps the readers identify the format and clarify the arrangement of ideas
in a sentence. This is an essential and vital skill of reading comprehension
called cohesion and coherence, i.e. the ability of the reader to understand
the structure, order and pattern of a sentence and create a sentence similarly
by linking the ideas of a comprehension passage. This skill can be acquired
by achieving explicit classroom instruction on the same and can be
44
elucidated in the connection of ideas in the content of a passage. To imbibe Learning Reading
Comprehension Strategies
this skill the reader must keep an analytical and objective outlook towards
the content of the passage while reading and also maintain sufficient
detachment to form multiple perspectives on the content of the passage.
An unprejudiced and clear approach towards the text can always be used
to strengthen this skill of reading comprehension.

Reasoning and Background Knowledge: Background knowledge is a

must for a better understanding of the comprehension passage. Reading
becomes easier with familiarity of the topic and the same can be achieved
by foreknowledge or familiarity of the topic and its contextual background.
Before reading a passage, one must activate background knowledge that
may be embedded within the mind about the topic of the passage. This
multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary approach to the text will enhance
the holistic understanding of the passage through scaffolding of knowledge.

Retention Span and Attention Span: These two skills are both subsets of
the larger activity set called executive function. Retention span is the
duration of the time period in which the reader can remember the vital and
key details of the passage after one complete reading of the passage. These
details may be factual, sequential, chronological, descriptive, linguistic
etc. Attention span is the meticulousness with which the readers read the
passage and the details they remember during the course of their reading.
While reading, the attention span of readers will allow them to process and
grasp information from the text whereas retention span allows them to
retain, recall and even reuse that information to gain meaning and build
knowledge from what they are reading. The ability to self-monitor while
reading a passage is connected to the retention and memory span of a reader.
Examples of comprehension skills that can be taught and applied to all
reading situations include summarizing, sequencing, inferencing,
comparing and contrasting, drawing conclusions, self-questioning, problem-
solving, relating background knowledge, distinguishing between fact and
opinion, finding the main idea, important facts, and supporting details and
substantiating them. These skills are particularly important for
comprehending what is generally known as information reading or
expository reading.
Check Your Progress 2
1) Briefly discuss the three types of questions a reader can frame and give a
textual example of each.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
45
Learning to Read Effectively 2) Explain what is meant by scaffolding of knowledge.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

3) How does reading become easier with familiarity of the topic?

.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

4) Differentiate between attention span and memory span in reading

comprehension.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

3.6 ACADEMIC READING AND KNOWLEDGE IN

COMPREHENSION
Academic reading has different purposes depending upon the nature of the passage
and the type of comprehension it requires. The varieties of academic reading are
diverse and may include the purposes of obtaining data and information,
understanding ideas and arguments, discovering the authorial perspectives and
mode of narration, seeking evidence of their own perspectives, formation of new
perspectives, understanding and knowledge, forming personal ideas and opinions
as well as building a wider linguistic repertoire. There are various strategies of
reading a text and these may range from prediction, skimming, scanning, defining
the contrast between factual and non-factual information, important and
unimportant items, relevant and irrelevant details, explicit and implicit
realizations, ideas, examples and opinions. The other purposes of academic
reading may include drawing inferences and conclusions, deducing unknown
words, understanding graphic presentation and pictorial representation,
understanding text organisation especially linguistic and semantic aspects like
relationships between and within sentences. There are four main reading
approaches to the various types of comprehension passages and these are
psychological, content-oriented, linguistic and pedagogically-oriented. The
46
psychological approach focuses on what takes place in the mind of the reader as Learning Reading
Comprehension Strategies
he or she reads the passage and negotiates the meanings and the semantic patterns
as well as syntactical structures and lexicon. The content-oriented approach
focuses on extraction of information by readers provided they are given a
comprehension passage in accordance with their aptitude and experience. The
linguistic approach focuses on word and sentences in the passage, genre, style,
rhetoric and the semantic and syntactic patterns with lexical significance. The
pedagogically-oriented is focused on the implementation of learning theories
which enable readers to work at their own pace so that reading becomes a self-
controlled, self-directed and introspective exercise.

There are six types of knowledge in a comprehension passage which enable a

reader to understand the text. They may be classified into: general, generic,
morphological, sociocultural, syntactic and topical. General knowledge refers to
the knowledge of the circumstances in which the text was written and the content
it may have in it. Generic knowledge refers to the knowledge of the type, nature
and stylistic pattern of the text being highlighted through its content.
Morphological knowledge refers to the knowledge of a relationship between a
word and its structures such as affixes and derivatives. Socio-cultural knowledge
refers to the knowledge of the overall idea of the content described in the text
and its social implications and / or any cultural stereotypes it may elaborate.
Syntactic knowledge refers to the knowledge of grammar and semantic patterns
in a text. Topical knowledge is the knowledge of the details of the text and its
relation with contemporary reality.

These categories of knowledge may be achieved by the various ways of reading

a comprehension passage such as receptive reading, reflective reading, skimming,
scanning, intensive and extensive reading. Receptive reading is done for
enjoyment by a reader usually in a passage of prose fiction. Reflective reading is
done when a reader reads certain positions in a text and then pauses to reflect,
recall or revise a line of fact or explore a line of argument or to arrive at a changed
perspective. Skimming reading refers to a rapid cursory glance through the text
with an intention to search for specific dates, skipping large chunks of information
and focusing on select highlights in the text. Scanning involves searching rapidly
through a text to find some specific data to which attention has been sought or
directed. Intensive reading is a careful appreciation of theme, tone, language,
syntax, vocabulary to understand the explicit and implicit connotations in a text.

In Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom by Tricia Hedge (Oxford

University Press, 2000) a procedure called SCROL is elaborated as a technique
of reading for comprehension. This is aimed at using texts to help understand,
remember and locate information using heading segments and introductory
paragraphs or text portions of a passage. The SCROL Process of Comprehension
involves the following steps: survey, connect, read, outline and look back.

S- Survey the headings and sub-headings of a comprehension passage and then

activate prior knowledge of the subject within oneself.

C- Connect the key words in the first portion or paragraph or lines (if the passage
contains more than two paragraphs) to make relational associations between them
and also to connect them to the title or heading and sub-heading.

47
Learning to Read Effectively R- Read by returning to each heading or segment or portion and mark words,
phrases, jargon, terms that may express some important information, fact, opinion
or even argument.

O- Outline the major ideas in the segments to reflect on structure, perspective

and other relevant details.

L- Look Back and check for inaccuracy in recording and noting details and relate
the same to the outline.
Check Your Progress 3
1) Which are the skills important for Expository Reading and why?
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

2) What are the various strategies of reading a text?

.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

3) Explain the various types of knowledge that help a reader to understand a

text.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

4) Read the sample Comprehension Passage below and answer the Questions
in the end in your own words as briefly as possible, for practice.

Philosophy of Education is a label applied to the study of the purpose,

process, nature and ideals of education. It can be considered a branch of
both philosophy and education. Education can be defined as the teaching
and learning of specific skills, and the imparting of knowledge, judgment
and wisdom, and is something broader than the societal institution of
education we often speak of.

Many educationalists consider it a weak and woolly field, too far removed
from the practical applications of the real world to be useful. But
48
philosophers dating back to Plato and the Ancient Greeks have given the Learning Reading
Comprehension Strategies
area much thought and emphasis, and there is little doubt that their work
has helped shape the practice of education over the millennia.

Plato is the earliest important educational thinker, and education is an

essential element in “The Republic” (his most important work on philosophy
and political theory, written around 360 B.C.). In it, he advocates some
rather extreme methods: removing children from their mothers’ care and
raising them as wards of the state, and differentiating children suitable to
the various castes, the highest receiving the most education, so that they
could act as guardians of the city and care for the less able. He believed
that education should be holistic, including facts, skills, physical discipline,
music and art. Plato believed that talent and intelligence is not distributed
genetically and thus is be found in children born to all classes, although
his proposed system of selective public education for an educated minority
of the population does not really follow a democratic model.

Aristotle considered human nature, habit and reason to be equally important

forces to be cultivated in education, the ultimate aim of which should be to
produce good and virtuous citizens. He proposed that teachers lead their
students systematically, and that repetition be used as a key tool to develop
good habits, unlike Socrates’ emphasis on questioning his listeners to bring
out their own ideas. He emphasized the balancing of the theoretical and
practical aspects of subjects taught, among which he explicitly mentions
reading, writing, mathematics, music, physical education, literature, history,
and a wide range of sciences, as well as play, which he also considered
important.

During the Medieval period, the idea of Perennialism was first formulated
by St. Thomas Aquinas in his work “De Magistro”. Perennialism holds
that one should teach those things deemed to be of everlasting importance
to all people everywhere, namely principles and reasoning, not just facts
(which are apt to change over time), and that one should teach first about
people, not machines or techniques. It was originally religious in nature,
and it was only much later that a theory of secular perennialism developed.

Answer these questions:

a) What is Philosophy of Education used to refer to?

.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

b) What extreme methods does Plato advocate?

.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
49
Learning to Read Effectively c) According to Aristotle what was the ultimate aim of education?
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

d) What is Perennialism and how did it develop?

.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

3.7 LET US SUM UP

Reading Comprehension should aim to build the specific linguistic ability to
engage in purposeful reading, to adopt a range of literary styles necessary for
interacting successfully with authentic texts to develop critical awareness. This
implies that comprehension must be used to develop and enhance competence in
the English Language with an awareness of the structure of written texts, and
overall knowledge in general about the world. It also aims at developing
confidence by using comprehension to create meaning from a text. Both
competence and confidence in the didactic environment of a controlled classroom
can be supportive and persuasive enough to instill in the reader-cum-learner a
desire for attaining mastery in English through reading comprehension.

3.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

If you would like to learn more reading comprehension strategies, you may
consult:

Camille Blachowicz & Donna Ogle, Reading Comprehension: Strategies for

Independent Learners Second Edition (New York: The Guilford Press, 2008)

Danielle S. McNamara (ed.), Reading Comprehension Strategies: Theories,

Interventions, and Technologies (New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2007)

These are only suggested as additional readings and are in no way compulsory.

50
Learning Reading
3.9 ANSWERS Comprehension Strategies

Check Your Progress 1

For answers to 1 & 2, refer to 3.2.
For answers to 3 & 4, refer to 3.3.
Check Your Progress 2
For answers to 1 & 2, refer to 3.4.
For answers to 3 & 4, refer to 3.5.
Check Your Progress 3
For answers to 1, 2 & 3, refer to 3.6.
For answers to questions at the end of 4, refer to the passage in 4.

51