Figures of Speech

 Alliteration : Sound of letter is repeated

On reading the next, the grin grew broad.

 Repetition : Words are repeated.

I stand and look at them long and long.

 Tautology : Two words having same meaning are used

in the same sentence.
My father a sceptic, a rationalist.

 Antithesis : Two words having opposite meanings are used

in the same sentence.
Not one is respectable or unhappy over the whole earth.
Tried every curse and blessing.

 Onomatopoeia : Word indicates sound produced.

They do not sweat and whine about their condition.

 Apostrophe : The poet addresses God (an abstract idea)

In to that heaven of freedom, my Father, let my country awake.

 Transferred Epithet : An adjective is transferred from original

word to some other word.
Ten days and nights with sleepless eye.

 Climax : Ideas expressed are arranged in increasing order.

Trying every curse, blessings. Powder, mixture, herb, hybrid.

 Personification : Human qualities are given to non-living

things.
Watched the flame feeding on my mother.
 Inversion : The prose order is incorrect.
A sober man am I.

 Synecdoche : Part is used for the whole and the whole is

used for the part.
May toss him to my breast.

 Metaphor : Indirect comparison between two things, objects,

people etc.
All the world’s a stage.

 Simile : Direct comparison between two things, objects,

people etc.
And then the lover, sighing like a furnace.

 Hyperbole : The given statement is an over-statement.

I laughed as I would die.
Direct /Indirect speech
Actual conversation between two people is referred to as ‘Direct speech’
The same conversation if told to a third person is referred to as ‘Indirect
speech’
Important Rules :
1. Always use Past tense whenever you change from Direct speech to
Indirect speech.
2. All the changes take place within inverted commas.
3. Nouns never change.
4. Only the Pronouns change.

5. Simple Present tense becomes Simple Past tense.

Amit said, “I always buy vegetables from the super market.”

Smita said, “We give medicines to the poor people.”

6. Present Continuous tense changes to Past continuous tense.

Raj said, “We are playing cricket in the garden.”

Ravi said, “I am writing a novel.”

7. Present Perfect tense changes to Past Perfect tense.

Smita said, “I have purchased a new laptop.”

Raj said, “We have completed our science project.”

8. Simple Past changes to Past Perfect tense.

Sita said, “I went to see a movie yesterday.”

Steve Jobs said, “We designed a new animation software?”

9. Present Perfect Continuous tense changes to Past Perfect
Continuous tense.
Ram said, “I have been reading a mystery novel.”

Reema said, “We have been designing a new bridal outfit.”

10. Past Continuous tense changes to Past Perfect Continuous

tense.
Ankit said, “I was watching a horror movie in the evening.”

Anil said, “We were playing cricket in the indoor stadium.”

Non-finite verbs
 Gerund (verb + ing) : Ask the question ‘What’
Smoking is injurious to health.
 Present Participle (verb + ing)
My new class teacher narrated an interesting story.
 Infinitive (to + verb)
Hari Singh took a new name to keep himself ahead of the police.
 Past Participle.

Transitive / Intransitive verb

Ask ‘What’ to identify the Transitive verb

Eg. i) A rainbow colours the entire sky. (Transitive verb)
ii) One can witness and experience the beauty of nature.
(Transitive verb)

Eg. i) It smiles and dances. (Intransitive verb)

ii) Nature soothes and nurtures. (Intransitive verb)
Determiners
Determiners are the words which are always used in front of nouns.
Articles are the most common type of determiners. Some important
categories of determiners are explained below with a list of examples.

1 Articles a , an , the
2 Demonstratives This, that, these, those
3 Quantifiers Less, little, some, many, more ,most, few,
least, each, every, any, much
4 Ordinals First, second, fifth, eleventh, twentieth
5 Numerals One, two, three, twenty, fifty, hundred
6 Possessives My, mine, your, yours, our, ours, his, her,
their, theirs

Examples of Determiners :

1. I came here to submit three applications.

2. These three books which are kept on the table are expensive.
3. He bought some textbooks from the book-shop.
4. Each and every student will get a chance to speak.
5. This temple is the oldest temple in Maharashtra.
6. Those children are greatly interested in reading story-books.
7. This is my new laptop which is expensive.
8. That is our new bungalow which my father has designed.
9. This is the outfit which is designed by my sister.
10. Some children in the class are notorious.
11. This library has few story-books for children.
12. There is little milk in the vessel.
13. My brother got second rank in the entrance exam.
14. There are few apples in this basket.
15. Hawking has written and co-written a total of 15 books.
There are nine types of Adverb Clauses.

Sr.no Adverb Clause of To identify the clause, ask the

Question

1 Time Ask ‘When’

2 Place Ask ‘Where’
3 Reason Ask ‘Why’
4 Condition Ask ‘On what condition’
(if / Whether / Unless) appear in
subordinate clause
5 Purpose Ask ‘For what purpose’
(so that / such that) are the words
that appear in subordinate clause
6 Result What was the result
Words ‘so’ / ‘such’ appear in the
main clause, the word ‘that’
appears in subordinate clause.
7 Concession/Supposition Words that appear in subordinate
clause are, though, although, even
though, even if
8 Manner How
9 Comparison of Degree The given sentence is either positive
degree or comparative degree.

Noun clause : Ask ‘What’ to main clause

Adjective clause : Ask ‘Which’ / ‘Who’ to main
Examples of Clauses
1. He informed me that he was not feeling well.
2. Do you know when will the next local train arrive?
3. Pay careful attention to what the doctor is going to tell you.
4. The novel that was written by Ruskin Bond became the best-seller.
5. This is the place where Stephen Hawking was born.
6. I lost the watch which was gifted to me by my father.
7. The boy who delivers our newspapers is honest and hard-working.
8. She worked hard because she wanted to get promotion.
9. I shall accept the job if I get a good salary.
10. I opened the door when I heard the footsteps.
11. He is going to Europe so that he can pursue higher studies.
12. He failed in the exam because he neglected his studies.
13. My belief is that the test cricket is losing its popularity.
14. Although spider webs are delicate, they are very strong.
15. You will have to pay the fine if you don’t follow the traffic rules.
16. The Indian Army fought so bravely that all the terrorists were killed.
17. Although the weather was bad, we enjoyed our holidays in Shimla.
18. He is not as clever as his sister is.
19. It rained so heavily that all the streets turned in to streams.
20. I decided to skip the meeting because I had a severe headache.
21. Why he left the meeting early is not known to us.
Types of sentences

1. Assertive : i) Affirmative,
ii) Negative

2. Interrogative : i) Wh questions
ii) Verbal question (Yes/No)

3. Imperative

4. Exclamatory

Identify the type of sentences

1. What is the reverse of what can I give?
2. It leaves me in complete awe.
3. Start the car.
4. Abhishek and John are best friends.
5. He neither goes to temple nor believes in God.
6. She is not as clever as her sister is.
7. Does anything succeed like success?
8. Can there be smoke without fire?
9. How beautiful the sunset is!
10. Oh, that I were a child again!
11. A dishonest man cannot be trusted.
12. Please show me the way to the station.
13. No one is perfect in this world.
14. When will the next local train arrive?
15. Kill not your children because of poverty.
16. Wow! How delicious the cake looks.
17. What is the reverse of what can I give?
Tenses :

Present Past Future

Simple Main Verb Main Verb Will / Shall +
verb
Continuous Is /am / are + Was / were + Will be / shall
Verb + ing Verb + ing be + Verb +
ing
Perfect Has / have + Had + Past Will / shall +
Past participle participle have + Past
participle
Perfect Has / have + Had + been + Will / shall +
Continuous been + verb + verb + ing have + been +
ing verb + ing
Identify the verbs and state the tense
1. I had located the right shop.
2. A rainbow colours the entire sky.
3. Along the shore, he knocked down an albatross.
4. I gave him my most appealing smile.
5. I took a new name every month.
6. He needs all the rest and the sleep to recover from his ailment.
7. The audience gave the artists a standing ovation.
8. Raj had purchased a new laptop from a reputed electronic shop.
9. They will publish the novel next year.
10. I have been reading this interesting novel.
11. She ate the caviar and the salmon.
12. She has been writing a novel.
13. He took me to a room which had a gramophone in it.
14. He saw a tiny bird rushing towards fire.
15. My doctor has advised me to go home.
16. Your bodyguards recognised and wounded me.
17. The king brought some fresh water for the bearded man.
18. The king will be going to meet the hermit next week.
19. The earth revolves around the sun.
20. William, Elizabeth and their children had been travelling in a ship.
21. The old man had collapsed before the doctor arrived.
Types of Modal Auxiliaries.

Sr. No Modal Auxiliary Function

1 Can / Could Ability
2 Can’t / Couldn’t Inability
3 Can / Could / Will Polite Request
4 Can / Could / May Permission
5 May / Might Possibility
6 Might Remote possibility
7 Should / Must / Have to Advice, Suggestion
8 Should / Must / Have to Duty, Obligation, Compulsion
9 Would / Used to Past Habitual Action
10 Need Necessity
11 Will / Would Determination / Willingness /
Preference

12 Has / have / had Possession

1. You _____ respect your elders. (advice/suggestion)

2. _____ you please help me to solve this problem? (polite request)
3. They ______ watch a movie every Sunday when they were in
college. (Past habitual action)
4. He ____ easily clear the entrance exam. (ability)
5. This gas _____ be dangerous in air. (Possibility)
6. You ____ strictly follow the traffic rules. (compulsion)
7. His ancestral house _____ urgent repairs. (necessity)
8. My sister _____ understand classical music. (Inability)
9. We _____ always take care of our aged parents. (obligation)
10. ____ you like to have tea or coffee? (preference)
11. ____ I park my car in your garage? (permission)
12. My mother ____ a very fair complexion. (possession)
List of Coordinators :
And, but, either … or, neither … nor, as well as, not only … but
also, yet, therefore, otherwise, or … else, for, nor, so, or, still,
since, hence, nevertheless.

List of Subordinators :
Who, which, when, what, where, why, how, whose, whom,
whichever, whenever, wherever, however, whoever, whomsoever,
though, although, even though, even if, before, after, if, whether,
unless, that, so … that, such … that, in order … that, as soon as,
no sooner … than, because.

1. He finished his dinner. He went to meet his friends in the garden.

(combine in to complex sentence)
2. He cannot afford a car. He is extremely poor. (combine in to
compound sentence)
3. You must hurry. You will miss the bus. (combine in to compound
sentence)
4. He must work hard otherwise he cannot clear the entrance exam.
(Rewrite in to complex sentence)
5. Even though spider webs are delicate, they are very strong.
(Rewrite in to compound sentence)
6. I saw a monkey. It was sitting on the branch of a tree. (Combine in
to complex sentence)
7. My father goes to office by train although he owns a car. (Rewrite
in to compound sentence)
8. Karan completed his science project. He kept the project book in his
satchel. (combine in to complex sentence)
9. He became rich. He adopted unfair means. (combine in to
compound sentence)
10. Nature soothes and nurtures. Nature whispers and commands.
(combine in to compound sentence)
11. Ernest Hemingway was injured by a sharpnel. He worked for the
Red-Cross society during the First World War. (combine in to complex
sentence)
12. Stephen Hawking was a great scientist. He has done ground
breaking work in Physics and cosmology. (combine in to complex
sentence)