projects jnvestigatory Scanned with CamScannerPROJECT 1 RUSTING OF IRON Experiment To study the effect of rusting of iron in the presence of air, water, acid and alka. Theory ‘When iron articles are exposed to moist tir containing carbon dioxide, they are covered with a brown layer of iron oxide known as rust. This process of formation of rust is called rusting of iron, This rust is a mixture of both ferric hydroxide and ferric oxide, Most probable theory is oxygen oxidises iron to brown ferric oxide first and then reacts with water to form hydrated iron oxide or ferric hydroxide Fe,0,xH,0. Tron + Oxygen —> Tron oxide valet Hydrated (iron oxide) rust (om i) (Grown sod) from atmosphere This shows oxygen and water are essential for rusting of iron. The presence of CO, and SO, in the atmosphere and electroiytes accelerates the process of rusting. Once the rusting starts, it continues because rust formed acts as auto catalyst. Rusting is a slow electrochemical process in which iron acts as the anode. It releases two electrons to become ferrous which reacts with hydroxyl ions to become ferrous hydroxide which loses water molecules to become hydrated ferric oxide. Anodic region: FeO —> Fett De ‘ron ferous ion Cathodic region: 0, + © 2H,0 + = 4e- > 40H oxygen water tyson! ions Rusting : sR + 0, + 42K) HO —> 2Fey0gxH0 + SHY Fig, P11 : Electrochemical Theory of Rusting ‘The presence of acid also favours rusting as H* of the acid remove OH” formed in the above reaction, Rusting is inhibited in the presence of alkali since the cathodic region reaction is reversed (Le Chatelier’s principle) and also does not take place in the absence of either, air or moisture. Requirement : Five boiling tubes, corks, conical flas, iron nails, cotton wool, dilate HCI or H,S0,, dilute NaOH, anhydrous CaCl oie solvent like CCl,, vaseline and distilled wate. Procedure Drop the iron nails carefully into a conical flask containing CCly. Cork the Mask. Keep them for 10 minutes with occasional shaking, Decant the CCl, and add fresh CCl,. Repeat the process tll the organic solvent is free from any impurities. Take out the nails and dry them in an oven at 100°C. Label five clean and dry test tubes from 1 to 5, 168 Scanned with CamScanner‘e Intube 1 put some pieces of anhydrous wool. Cork the tube. Tous CaCl, followed by a small plug of cotton wool, Place four cleaned nails over the cotton In tube 2, take a few mL of tap water a te Tube. i water and place 4 cleaned nails in such a way that half of their Fengths dip in water. Cork In tube 3 take 4 dry and mi Si ickes vaniee spaced mails and add toi aout 10 ml of boiled dailed water (afer CO, removal). Then a itl Wil Ht (ax Yaaclion idee Gacy Rec 8 ot ae Th lo make ie ‘the nails don't come in ine solidifies once the water cools and gives an air proof layer) cork it Intube 4, take four nails (cleaned and dri ee ivka tie ried). Add hot dilate sodium hydroxide solution to it (fre from CO). Then add molten fe In test tube 5 take 4 clean and dry nails. Add dil HCL tc 1 few days and note in which of the tubes nails get rusted. 0 that the nails are covered. Leave the five tubes undisturbed for Dry air} 4 Cotton. "woo! Antyd7TubeT Tube Tube3 Tubed Tube 5 Cac Nallsnot —_Nails_—Nals_ Nails in Nails in incontact incontact notin, dil, NaQH_ dil. HC ‘with withairand contact in absence with air and moisture "moisture with air of air moisture Fig. P1.2 : Experimental Setup to Study Fusting of Iron Observations Tube number ‘Nails in contact with ‘Rusting occurred or not 1. ‘Dry air (no moisture) no rusting, 2 ‘Ait, moisture, electrolytes in tap water Rusting in observed 3. Moisture (n0 ait) No rusting 4. Dil NaOH (no air) No rusting 5. Dil HCI, air, moisture Rusting is observed Precautions (@ The iron nails should be thoroughly cleaned. : Gi) Air proof vaseline layer is taken to prevent the dissolution of oxyBen from the air into the solution in which nails under observations are placed. i iy “Te mas in tube 3, 4,5 shoul be uly covered with sid wate, it NAOH andi HCI solutions (all free from dissolved CO, and 0,). Result Tks seen that rusting taken place in presence of air and moisture VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS is catalysed by impurities and H* but inhibited by OH ions .1, What Is rusting? ‘Ans. When a piece ot iron Surface, This process of formation of brown ou 0.2, What Is rust? ‘Ane. Chemically rust I hydrated fore oxide, Fez032H,0, ‘0.3. Name a few methods used to prevent rusting: ‘Ane. Fusing can be provnted by () paling H) coating wih a hin yer of ol or grease (i) metal-coupting. ts exposed to atmosphere for some time, a bromn powdery supsiance called rust is formed on its stance is called rusting of iron. 169 Scanned with CamScannerCe toa aed DIALYSIS AND ANALYSIS OF SEWAGE WATER FOR IONS Sewage means waste matter that passes through sewers. It may be domestic wastes or industrial waste. This will contain suspendeg inmpurites, colloidal impurities and crystaloidal impurities. For proper disposal of sewage water, they are analysed for presence of fons and treated in plans before releasing into river or lakes. This ions generally present and hence tested are as follows, Cations ; Pb?+, Hg?*, Ca2+, Hg, Na* and K* Anions : S*, Cr, S02, PO Experiment To study the dialysis of different sewage water samples and identify the different fons present in the resulting solutions, Apparatus Funnel, beaker, cellophane paper, test tubes ete. Chemicals . Minimum of four samples of sewage water and laboratory reagents used for the tests for inorganic ions (qualitative) Procedure ‘There are two parts in this experiment. First is dialysis and second is analysis of the ions, Dialysis of sewage water Filter the sewage water to get rid of the suspended impurities. Take the filtrate in a beaker. Fold a cellophane paper into the shape of a bag and tie it to the end of the stem of a funnel by means of thread or rubber band. Pour the sewage water sample (filtered from the beaker) through the funnel until wo-third of the bag is full. Immerse the bag in distilled water taken in a beaker, clamp the funnel with the help of clamp (sce Fig. P3.1 (a) ] and leave the arrangement for 24 hours. Repeat the process for other samples. This helps the ions from sewage to come into the distilled water. colloidal sol, into the bag Te with thread or AFF rubber band Cellophane or parchment bag — Impure colloidal sol, Distiled water + ions (a) (o) Fig, P3.1 : Dialysis of Sewage Water Analysis of the ions present ‘Afier 24 hours, concentrate the solution in the beaker by heating to increase the concentration of the ions and perform the following tests to detect the presence of various ions. [see Fig P3.1 (b] (A) Test for Na* fons = 1. Flame test : Take 1 mL of the concentrated solution in a test tube and boil flame test. Golden yellow flame indicates the presence of sodium ions, 2. To 1 mL of the concentrated solution add magnesium uranyl acetate solution. A yellow ppt. confirms Na* ions 3. To I mL of the concentrated solution add few drops of both cone KOH and potassium pynoantimonate solution. Scratch the s ofthe test tube. A white ppt. or milkiness confirms Na* ions. (B) Test for K* fons : I. Flame test : Repeat as done for Na* ions, a violet flame confirms presence of K* ions, 2. To 1 mL of the concentrated solution add 1 mL of pcrc acid solution. Formation of yellow ppt. indicates K* ions presence 3. To I ml of the concentrated solution add 1 ml. of sodium cobaltntite solution. A yellow ppt confines K* loos 172 it to dryness. Take the residue and perform the Scanned with CamScanner(C) Test for Ca?* ions : 1, To 1 mLof the concentrated solution add of Ca** ions. 2, Repeat the fame test procedure done for Nat ions A bik red ame conims Cx ions. (D) Test for Mg?* ions : To 1 mL of concentrated solution add i 7 sshaloas craich he lain oe mn add ammonium hydroxide until alkaline and then excess of ammonium OT See ids of ‘in a tube with glass rod. Formation of white precipitate indicates the presence of Mg? ian eet ioe It nitrate test with the above precipitate. Pink residue confirms Mg? f » t ey = cnet - aa drops of KI solution, A yellow ppt. confirms the presence of Pb% ions. . lution add few di i low ppt. soluble in hot Nat To 1 of e copctnaed slo afew drops of pasa crate sletin. A yellow pp soluble in hot NaOH (F) Test for Hg?* ions : % z 4 ‘mL of the concentrated solution add KI solution (few drops). A scarlet red precipitate confirms the presence of Hg”* 2. To 1 mL of the concentrated solution add few copper turnings (shi f sw copper turnings (shining) and allow to stand. Greyish white deposit on the copper turnings confirms the presence of Hg** ions, ” ° 43, To I mL of the concentrated solution add excess of stannous chloride solution. A white precipitate turing grey confirms Hg? ions. (© Test for Cr ions : To 1 mL ofthe concentrated solution add few drops of dil HINO,, boil, cool and add 1 ml. of AgNO solution. Formation of white precipitate confirms the presence of CI- ions. (8) Test for S* ions : 1. To 1 mL of the concentrated solution add dilute acetic acid and lead acetate solution. A black precipitate confirms S* ions. 2. To 1 mb of the concentrated solution add ammoniacal sodium nitroprusside solution. A violet or purple colour confirms S- ions. (© PO; fons : To 1 mL of the concentrated solution add few drops of conc. HNOs, Heat it and add amor solution. A yellow ppt. confirms PO,? ions. () Test for S0,2 fons : To 1 mL of the concentrated solution add BaCl solution, A white precipitate insoluble in HCI or HINO, confirms the presence of SO,?- ions. Results Write down the ions present and absent in each sample of sewage water as in table below = | mL of ammonium oxalate solution. Formation of white ppt. confirms the presence molybdate Sr. No. ‘Sample of sewage water ‘Presence/Absence of fete tec tese o eneeN ee bP, He? Ca, Mg?*, Nat K+, S%, Cr, SOf”, POF 1 ‘Sample F 2 Sample ti 3. + Sgmpte=Hie 4 Samplesl¥ VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS 1. Name some organic matter which can be present In Sewage water. ‘Ans. Proteins, urea, sugars, starches, soap, cooking oll, grease ete. ‘22, Why de You think quantitative determination of soluble orgale mater of a sample of sewage water evict? ‘Ans, The inorganic matter exists in various forms such as complex, Ions, salts and as free metal. So it will be difficult to do, quantitative analysis. 3. Name some common fons present in sewage, ‘Ans. Anion : stor, Soe. and POF , Nos Cation : PO, Hg2*, Ca, Ho, Kt and Nay | 4, what is dialysis? "~~ tho particles of colli from those of estas (lectohjtes) by ctusion of the mixture trough Ans. The process of sopratog Te roca teen nial montrane fs kown as day 173 Scanned with CamScannerPROJECT DETERMINATION OF THE MINIMUM QUANTITY OF MANGANESE DIOXIDE RE- QUIRED FOR THE PREPARATION OF OXYGEN GAS Decomposition of solid potassium chlorate by heating evolves oxygen gas. The rate o a a ‘also reaching that temperature (800-900°C) in the lab is difficult, It is found that rate of evolution of oxygen gas increases if potassium chlorate is mixed with manganese dioxide and heated. (Even at 300°C). Using this concept oxygen gas is prepared inthe laboratory aKcio, —MaO2 300°C , 2Kci + 30, hhere Manganese dioxide acts as a catalyst. , Catalyst is defined as a substance that accelerates a chemical change without itself undergoing any permanent chemical change, Its further found that a catalyst does take part in a reaction but its amount and composition remains the same before and after the chemical reaction. They are required in very small amount. Some catalyst can't be used for catalysing all types of reactions A catalysed reaction takes place in a series of steps, the catalyst being used up in the frst step and regenerated in a subsequent step. For a bimolecular reaction, A+B — products ‘equations in presence of a catalyst may be written as : A+C —> AC AC+B—> AB+C Where A & B are the reactants, C is the catalyst, AC is the intermediate product and [AB is the final product. For a reaction to take place molecules must possess a minimum energy called threshold energy. Otherwise they don't react. The minimum energy required for the molecules to reach the threshold energy is called the energy of activation of the reaction. The catalyst forms an intermediate. compound with the reactant which requires lower activation energy. Greater the decrease in activation energy, higher will be the reaction rate. In another words the catalyst changes the reaction path, This is shown in Fig P6.1 Fig. P6.1 + Potential energy diagram for ipa Catatyed reaction and uncaaysed reacon To determine the minimum quantity of manganese dioxide required for the preparation of oxygen gas. Theory ‘To determine the minimum quantity of manganese dioxide required forthe preparation of oxygen gas, a given mass of potasium chlorate is mixed with varying amounts of manganese diotide. Each mixture is then heated on the same bumers having equal length oftheir flames and the oxygen gas evolved is collected. The time required for collecting the same volume of O,(5 mL) is noted in cach case. Prom these data, i is posible to find out the mixture which contains minimum quantity of MnO, but evolves O, atthe fastest rte, Apparatus. : Fifteen hard glass tubes, delivery tube, bechive shelf, graduated tube, trough of water, iron stand with clamps and stop watch Chemical required KCIO, and MnO, Procedure (Clean 15 hard test tubes and label them from 1 to 15, Fill all the hard glass tubes each with a Sg sample KCIO,. Weigh accurately various samples of solid manganese dioxide as shown in Table below : Progress of fadion— tiene 1] 27 3 st7i}s[sTofulelsale« [is xco,ine{ 5] 5] 5/5 ];5[s[s]s[sfs]fsfs]s]tsls m0, ing | 0 | 02] 04 [ 06 | os | 10 | 12 | 14 [16 | 18 | 20] 22 | 24 | 26 | 28 and transfer them to the corresponding Hard glass tubes. Mix the KCIO, & MnO, thoroughly. Arrange the apparatus for the 178 Scanned with CamScannerjon of oxygen gas as shown in Fi Fig. P6.2, Start the stop watch when you start heating the test tube, Stop the stop watch when the 5 mL of the gas is collected, Let it be t, minut Sic ont te thon mobo eens ages ms ee omnes on C103 + Mad Fig. P62: Proparaton of Oxygen ‘Observation _ Tune no. | Mass of Mn0, | Volume of oxygen | Time taken in minutes Rate of decomposition added (g) | coed in mt iat akenivaaae 1 0 5 ‘S) 2 02 5 ye 3 04 5 4 06 5 5 08, 5 Result From the data collected and calculations, itis of oxygen by decomposing 5 g of KCIO3 is «-~ VOCE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS 4. How is oxygen prepared In the laboratory? By heating a micure of potassium chorale and manganie dioxide in a hard glass testtube. Wht fs the effect of Mn, on the decomposition of KCIOs? Pea he devorpostion temperature fom about 600-200" 19 290°C. Q.3, What is a catalyst? ae, abstance which alters the rate ofa reaction without self undergcing any change in its mass and chemical composition is called a catalyst. Q.4, How does a catalyst alter the ‘Ans. By providing an altermate path with lower ener 5. What is homogeneous catalysis? ‘Ans. A catalytic reaction in which the reactant ound that the minimum amount of manganese dioxide required for the preparation ‘Also calculate % of MnO, required. rate of @ reaction? ray of activation for the reaction. ts and the catalyst are present‘ the same phase is called homogeneous catalysis? 179 Scanned with CamScannerON THE FREEZING AND BOILING POINTS AFFECTS OF IMPURITIES Melting Point “The temperature at which the solid melts i called the melting point of the substances 273 K under normal atmospheric pressure. ‘The melting point is defined as the characteristic temperatw ‘equilibrium. In other words, melting point is the temperature at w seking solid ==> Liguid ‘ieezng It is that temperature at which there is no tendency of the sotid to melt Melting and freezing are reverse processes i.e. solidification occur at the ‘Melting point of the solid and freezing point of the liquid are the same. ‘A pute liquid will have a small freezing point range, (0.5 to 1.0°C). Such a substance of impurities lowers the freezing point and widens the range. Boiling Point ‘The temperature at which the liquid boils is called the boiling point of the substance. Boi 373K The boiling point is defined as the characteristic temperature at which the liquid and vapour states are in equilibrium. In oter ‘words, boiling point is the temperature at which the liquid and vapour states of the substance coexist. ‘A pure liquid will have a smal boiling point range (0.5 to 1.0°C). Such a substances is said to have sharp boiling point. Presence of impurities raises the boiling point and widens the range. Experiment 1 ‘To determine the effect of impurities on the freezing point of the solvent using a 110°C thermometer with calibration of 01°C. Apparatus '500 mL. beaker, boiling tubes, 110°C thermometer with 0.1°C calibration, cork, Iron stand, stirrer. Chemicals needed Glucose, ice, NaCl. Procedure ‘Take 3 boiling test tubes, clean, dry and label them 1, 2 & 3, Take 20 mL. isilled water in each boiling tube. Add 1.0 g of glucose to boiling tube no. 2 & 20 g of glucose to 4 boiling tube no. 3. Shake it well so that the glucose is totally dissolved. Put a mixture of ice and NaCl in the 500 mL beaker and fix tube no. 1. Insert a stimer in the tube. Arrange the apparatus as shown in Fig. going tube. Pr. Sart string the water in the tube and see the temperature in the thermometer. First the temperature falls gradually and it becomes constant and Baker the water starts freezing (solidifying). Note this temperature, This is freezing point of water. Repeat the experiment with tube no. 2 & 3, Freezing ‘Observations mre Freezing point of pure water = ...°C Freezing point of water containing 5% glucose = . Freezing point of water containing 10% glucose For example Melting point of ice 0°C o re at which the solid and liguid states of the substance are ix vhich the solid and the liquid states of the substance coexisy ‘or liquid to freeze. ‘same temperature at which the melting takes place, is said to have sharp freezing point. Presence point of water is 100°C or Thermometer Iron stand Fig. P7.1 : Determination of freezing point Result Freezing point of wale decreases because ofthe presence of glucose as impuri is decrease in frering point of Watt. impurity. Greater the amount of impurity sree is 180 Scanned with CamScannerExperiment 2 ine the effect of impurities ‘To determine the effect of impurities on the boiling point of the solvent using 110°C thermometer with calibration of 0.1°C. ‘Apparatus. '3 boiling tubes each fitted with a cork with 2 ho [Samet oes vine les, 10°C thermometer with 0.1°C chemicals Required Glucose. Procedure ‘Take 3 clean and dry boiling tubes. Fit them with 2 holed corks. Take wit corks, Take 20 mL of Cu(OI, + (NH,),S0, Fale ble peipitate CuO), + 4NH,OH —> (CuNH) HOH), + 41,0 [CuNH,),],(OH), + pieces of filter paper left for 10-15 days gives a viscous solution called “viscose.” Procedure A. Preparation of Schweitzer’s Solution ig grams of CuSO,,5H,0. 2 Tate thw S00 mL of distilled water and add 15 ml of ue sulphuric aid to prevent the hydrolysis of CuSO,. (see Fig: P9.1] 187 Scanned with CamScanner3. Stir it with a glass rod til clear solution is obtained, Add 11 ml. of liquor ammonia drop by drop with slow stirring. The precipitate of Cupric hydroxide is separated out, Handle ammonia with care! Do not inhale it! 4. Filter the solution containing Cuprie hydroxide through a funnel with filter paper. (see Fig. P9.2C2)] 'S. Wash the precipitate of Cupric hydroxide with water until the filtrate fails fo give a positive test for sulphate ions with barium chloride solution. 6. Transfer the precipitate to a beaker that contains $0 mL. of liquor ammonia or wash it down the funnel. [see Fig. P92) ‘The precipitate dissolved in liquor ammonia and gives a deep blue solution of tetra-ammine cupric hydroxide. This solution is known as Schweitzer’s soi B. Preparation of Cellulose Material i 1. After weighing 2 grams of filter paper, divide it into very fine pieces and then transfer these pieces to the tetra-ammine cupric ‘hydroxide solution in the beaker. [see Fig. P9.2(¢)] 2. Seal the flask and keep for 10 to 15 days, during this period the filter paper is dissolved completely. [see Fig. P9.2(d)] . Formation of Rayon Thread 1. Take $0 mL of distilled water in a glass container. To this add 20 ml. of concentrated sulphuric acid drop by drop. Cool the solution under tap water. In a big glass container pour some of this solution. 2. Fill the syringe with cellulose solution prepared in step B. 3. Place the big glass container containing the sulphuric acid solution produced in step 1 in ice. (the reaction being spontaneous results in excess release of energy in the form of heat which makes the fibres weak and breaks them). 4. Immerse the tip of the syringe in the solution and press gently. Notice the fibres getting formed in the acid bath. Continue {to move your hand and keep pressing the syringe to extrude more fibres into the bath. [see Fig. P9.2(€)] 5. Leave the fibres in solution till they decolorise and become strong enough. 6. Filter and wash with distilled water. ® © Fig. P9.2 : Schematic Diagrams for Preparation of Rayon Fibres. Precautions (i) Addition of excess of ammonia should be avoided. i) Before taking the viscose in the syringe, make sure that it does not contain any particles of paper otherwise, it would clog the needle of the syringe. iii) Addition of ammonia should be done only in a fume cupboard and with extreme care. The fumes if inhaled may cause giddiness. Use a thick needle otherwise the fibres don’t come out. Scanned with CamScannercul BLUE PRINTING General Introduction i process fc i Pear as aamiony he architectural drawings was developed by a Brsh astonomer Sir John Herschel in 1840. a i ied ate net in Seecloning of nog Wn orate wn vid een, experiment. eerie cal aspects, the experinent provides an opportunity to study a photocheca reaction. ‘In an era of Computer Assisted Design (CAD), it is hard to believe that any 19th century technique to do anything is still used, biueprinting is one of them. The word, infact, hs to come tos 1 ae Se or aser olan in fact, has to come to signify more than just reproducing copies of a drawing, it also Theory ‘Blue print, white-on-blue photographic print, commonly of a working drawing, used during building or manufacturing is also called a cyanotype. The plan is just drawn to scale ona special paper or tracing cloth through veh ight ean penetrate "The éawing fs then placed over so-called blue print paper, prepared by treatment with a mixture of potassium ferricyanide and ammonium ferric rate, When the drawing and the blue print paper thus attached are exposed to a strong light, ferric salt not lying beneath the Tines fhe drawing and hence unprotected is changed to a ferrous salt that reacts withthe fericyanide to form turnbull’s blu » which is the background of the finished print. The ferric salt under the lines ofthe drawing, hence protected from the light remains unchanged toa js dissolved away during the washing in water that must follow exposure. As a result, the lines ofthe original drawing appear white in the finished blue print. Photosensitisation 'A substance, which can absorb light and thus induce @ photochemical change without itself taking part in the reaction, is called sa semitzer and this phenomenon is termed photosensitization. The funtion of the sensitizer is to absorb the light energy and pass it over the reactants enabling them to enter the reaction. Photochemistry of Ferrloxalate System Perke end Hatchard caried out studies on rate which was realy independent ofthe concentration of feionalate, Therefore the rte contlling stage was not expected bimolecular reaction between oxalate radical an ferronalats. The reaction scheme was then tnodified as follows to include some possible first order stages. Proposed mechanism only : [Fe(ox),J2—> "[Fe(ox)]? ——> Metastable state ox foo FY) eon 108 [oore—oo78 er —rireion +260 és 3 hotoreduction of Fe? ions in these reactions are also involved in the blue Both the photodecomposition of [Fe(0x),]” and the pt Re a ee ‘Print process. The photovoltaic occurring aT aqueous soliton of ferioalate was studied with flash photolysis. micesre tochemi tinuously but ata regularly low intensity level, As a result, the ical tight enters the system continuously but at a regula densi sa ca et erfow and tir observation is dificult. In fash photolysis, on the other hand te ‘concentratic tl intermediaries is ver Fa ei aed pert beam of Hight for avery sort period of me: The powerful light flash produces a much higher concentration of intermediaries such as atoms oF fee radicals. “ Ferric ions = redueed by oxalic acid to ferrous stale ‘nd exposing the reactant to light enhances the rate of reduction. When fers a ct wl enieyende ions, a biv colour (Turnbull's Bve) developed. The quantity of ferric salt reduced to ferrous ue colour ‘ate under the influ ght is made apparent by the depth of Dl of ean ferric oxalate on pe sensed paper may be prepared in te died Haht ofthe laboratory. If ammonium 189 Scanned with CamScannerPhosphate is not added, the use of dark room is essential in order to prepare sensitive blue paper. A very dilute solution of K,Cr,0, (0.03 M) is used to wash the finished print. In the printing operation, a negative of an object or any design whose silhouette is 10 be printed is exposed to sunlight. Finally, the paper is treated with potassium ferricyanide solution and the excess of unreacted ferric oxalate is washed away with wate. [see Fig. P10.1] Experiment Materials Chemicals: Oxalic acid, Feric chloride, Diammonium phosphate, Potassium ferricyanide, Potassium dichromate, Hydrochloric acid Apparatus : Conical flasks, Measuring flasks, Glass rod, Trays, Beakers, Typewriter Papers or filter papers, Glass plates, Negative opaque objects or designed objects Procedure 1, Prepare the following solutions in water : (@) 0.5 M Oxalic Acid : Weigh 15.75 g of Oxalic Acid in a clean weighing bottle and transfer it to a 250 ml, standard flask. Dissolve it in distilled water and make up the solution upto 250 mL. Shake it well for uniform concentration. (©) 0.67 M Ferric Chloride : Weigh 27.15 g of Ferric Chloride in a clean weighing bottle and transfer it to a 250 mL, standard flask, Dissolve it in distilled water and make up the solution upto 250 mL. Shake it well for uniform concentration. (©) 0.1 M Potassium Ferricyanide : Weigh 3.28 g of Potassium Ferricyanide in a clean weighing bottle and transfer it to a 100 mL. standard flask. Dissolve it in distilled water and make up the solution upto 100 mL. Shake it well for uniform concentration, (4) 3.5 Diammonium Phosphate : Weigh 4.42 g of Diammonium Phosphate in a clean weighing bottle and transfer it to a 100 mL, standard flask. Dissolve it in distilled water and make up the solution upto 100 mL. Shake it well for uniform concentration, (©) 0.03 M Potasstum Dichromate : Weigh 2.2 g of Potassium Dichromate in a clean weighing bottle and transfer it toa 250 mL. standard flask. Dissolve it in distilled water and make up the solution upto 230 mL. Shake it well for uniform concentration. ( 0.1 M Hydrochloric Acid : Using the equation M,V,=M,V;, determine the volume of concentrated HCI that to be mixed with water to prepare 250 ml of 0.1M HCI solution, and prepare the solution. 2. Ina 400 ml. beaker, mix 100 mL of Oxalic Acid Solution with 20 mL. of Diammonium phosphate solution, Place the beaker in diffused light in the locker. Add 100 ml. of ferric chloride solution tothe solution of oxalic acid and diammonium phosphate with stiring (n diffused ligh). A small precipitate formed intlly will dissolve on further string. Close the locker and open it only when needed. - 3. Take picoes of typewriter paper or ordinary filter paper. Open the locker and immerse the papers in the senstising solution of ferric oxalate. This is best done by curling the pieces of paper in semi-cylindrical way and sliding them into the beaker. Suir as possible in the partially closed locke. Leave the pieces of paper between the filter paper shets for 15 to 20 minucs wv the ‘hey must get sufficiently dy. I sharp prints needed, they shouldbe dred overnight in the locker, otherwise the edges ofthe print will be fuzzy. Keep the sensitized paper in sheets of black chart paper! 5. After the papers have dried sufficiently, take one of them and place the opaque object or a negative on the tip of the sensitised Paper. Compress it between the sheets of glass and expose it to light. The time of exposure for a normal printing is 2to 3 minutes, if bright sunlight is used, In diffused sunlight more exposure may be required. While printing, do not hold the glass plates but lay them on the desk or any other fat surface. 6, After exposure to sunlight, reat the paper with the potassium ferricyanide solution, HCI solution, then wash it with water and very dil K,Cr,0; solution. 7, Leave the print to dry. Perform these steps in a tray. Wear gloves to proteet your hands from becoming Blue! 190 Scanned with CamScannerPhoto sensitised paper ee f lass plates f ) \ Se ae \ blue print Ear ma | Flash Photolysis (Containers should be covered with black paper to protect from light) (Contains rig. P102 : Soluons to be prepared Scanned with CamScanner(c) ) ) Dry the paper Typewriter oF Filter Paper Dip the fiter paper in solution (Photo sonelaed paper propored) Photo sensitised paper Empty tray or ase pte (a) Place the leaf sample on the photo sensitised paper and expose to sunlight for 30 to 60 seconds only 0 Dip in developing solution Blue prints developing Be pre developed Woshing of he Blu pt \Weshing ofthe be print otuon Fig. P10.3 : Schematic dlagrams in Blue Printing 192 Scanned with CamScannerline Prints. je-line prints get their names it hi in i mie an original with inverted colour is used. This inverted original is called a brown print. utiity and Applications rerted original is called a brown prin (@) Itis used for making architectural drawings, It can be applied in the teaching process, Chil © Shuprints. 8 ‘Children can be taught about eaves, flowers ec. of inaccessible plants through (©) Prints of important objects like keys, etc. can be made prior to duplication (These of oping os aly en ec yaaa eo ping ee ht eae Ht papery ar palert -apheherrhers-pcdrheonirdniakaer cry ‘method, preparing a whiteprint does Pals eenlau poneepr pepe etcetera! ‘which the architectural diagrams have been eee’ top of the whiteprint paper. The light sensitive whiteprint paper is exposed to light, then developed using Precautions {@) Weigh the salt accurately and make up the solutions in the measuring flask. (i) Shake the solutions well for uniform concentration (Gi) Perform the experiment in diffused light. (iv) Keep the senstising solution of ferric oxalate in diffused light (9) The paper must be submerged in the seniisng soltion at once, weting it thoroughly and no dry spots should be thers: Co) The tof pieces of paper from the beaker must be placed between the sheets of filter paper as quickly as possible in the er Goi) While printing, do not hold the glass pts in whch the sestsed paper and the opaque objector the negative have besa compressed, but lay them on the desk or any other fat surface. Sources of Error (@) Over exposure to light (more than 6 minutes) may result in very dark print () The entire paper might not have been dipped properly for developing: (©) The solution might have been absorbed more at some placcs, causing spos in the developed blocerins VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS 1. What is flash photolysis? ‘Ans. Exposure to a very powerul beam ofl Q2. Why are blue prints ‘blue’? ne, Don tothe formation of Turubal’s blue, Complex betwoen ferrous ions and feicyanide ens. 0.3. Why Is diammonium phosphate added In procedure. 7 To reduce the senstviy ofthe paper so tat i cane faxed In dituted Hah 4, Give the example of photo sensitive paper. ‘ans, Paper dipped in ‘eric oxalate. ight for a very short period of time, 193 Scanned with CamScannerALLOY ANALYSIS. General Introduction An alloy is a material composed of two or more metals, or of a metal combined with a smaller quantity of some non-metal. Most familiar metals are not of very high purity : impurity atoms are added intentionally, thus forming an alloy. Alloying is used in metals to improve their mechanical strength, electrical and magnetic properties, resistance to corrosion, and many other characteristics, For ‘example, pure silver is very soft, but the addition of 75 per cent copper {0 form the alloy sterling silver produces a significant increase in its hardness and thus in its usefulness. ‘When elements are mixed to make an alloy, the metallic element present inthe largest amount by weight is called the parent metal and the others are the alloying agents. The alloying agents are dissolved in the parent metal but do not combine chemically with it Instead, they also arrange themselves in a regular pater, filling the spaces between the atoms of the parent metal without disturbing its basic atomic structure. Applications of Alloys in Modern Society Alloys have become an indispensable part of our daily life. Historically, alloys have played an extremely vital role in the evelopment of civilization as we see it today (The Bronze Age being the most vital among these). They have penetrated into all sections of our life and have changed the face of modern society in a unique manner. ‘An alloy can be made to match a predetermined set of characteristics for a specific purpose. This is very useful in designs of rockets, spacecraft and supersonic aircrafts ‘Alloys of heat-resistant metals like tantalum, niobium, tungsten, cobalt and nickel and lightweight ones like aluminium and titanium have been developed specially for these purposes. Alloys of boron, hafnium, zirconium find use in nuclear reactors, njobium- tin in semiconductors and nickel in desalination plants. Alloys have applications in everyday life too, Utensils in the kitchen, machinery and tools in industry, transport facilities... the list is endless. After a few cut, the blade of an ordinary iron Knife loses its edge and becomes dull. Now take a knife made of stainless steel (just adding 10-20% chromium) and see how long it lasts!! Inthe field of medicine, alloys have become indispensible. From fillings to braces on one's teeth the dentist uses alloys. Every prosthetic (artificial) implant consists of strong and lightweight alloys. Thus, in small but extremely significant ways, alloys are revolutionizing our society by providing economical and effective altematives to pure metals. Experiment 1 Aim ‘To identify the presence of metal fons in a given alloy sample by qualitative analysis. Apparatus China dish, Tripod stand, bumer, glass rod, tongs, test tube, test tube stand. enemies Fig, P11.1 : Dissolve the alloy sample in Cone. HNO, cone. HCI, all chemicals used in salt analysis, ‘aqua regia ‘Aqua regia Procedure 1, Take the alloy sample in the form of borings, turnings or filings or even old broken objects/ coins etc. 2. Treat about 2 grams of the sample with 25 mL of concentrated nitric acid in a China dish in the fume chamber, warming. gently until the evolution of fumes ceases. 3. If the alloy dissolves completely, add 25 mL, water to the China dish and filter the contents. 4, If the alloy remains partially undissolved, dissolve the alloy again in 20 mL. aqua regia (IS mL. cone, hydrochloric acid and 5 mL cone. nitric acid). 5. Heat in the fame chamber until the alloy dissolves completely. Evaporate to dryness on a water bath very carefully. 6. Add 5 mL of cone. hydrochloric acid to solution, heat and dilute with 15 mL. water. Cool and filter. 194 Scanned with CamScannerthe alloy resists the action of a Fo ae cool and ental the sects the alloy with NAOH ples in iver erie. When decomposition is a Doe Water. Strongly aciify contents with cone. nitric aid, evaporate to dryness §, Perform the systematic procedure of basie radi i ‘outlined below). Of basic radical detection, with the various wet tests according to the scheme (as ‘9, Itis extremely important that once detected, x 1, a group should be ‘pit fore in prostates ofthe succes proupe might be onan Oy Be oe i mane fees 5s wONP ‘Alloy Analysis: ‘Substance under analysis. : Solder wire ‘Solubility + Soluble in cone. nitric acid Observation 2 Yellowish solution obtained Experiment Observation Inference GROUP I: ‘Add a few drops of dilute HCI to ‘A white precipitat was obtai * indi Ti of solution precipitate of PbS obtained. Pb** indicated. (CONFIRMATORY TEST : 1 Add few ml of FCO, 0 te {A yellow ppt. of PhCrO, was obtained. PO? confirmed. solution. 2. Add a few mL of KI to the solution} A yellow ppt. of PbI, was obtained. Pb? confirmed. precipitate the PO? by adding the sroup reagent in excess. GROUP It: Pass HS gas through the solution ‘A brown precipitate is obtained. Sn? indicated. of group I. CONFIRMATORY TEST : ‘Add few mL of HgCl, to the solution. | __A grey ppt. of Hg is obtained Sn? confirmed. GROUP I : ‘To 2 mL of the solution add a pinch No precipitation. of NH,CI and excess NHOH. Group III absent. GROUP IV: To the solution of Group III pass No precipitation HS gas. Group IV absent Alloy Analysis Substance under analysis : Indian coin Solubility {Soluble in cone. nite acid Observation Bright blue solution obtained Observation Inference Experiment GROUP I: A [Add a few drops of dilute HCL to No precipitation Group I absent 2 mL of solution. GROUP Ht: Pass HS gas through the solution of group I. ‘CONFIRMATORY TEST : 5 " Soe tar ops of K,Fe(CN)g © | A chocolae-brown ppt. is obined cut confirmed. the solution. - * 2. Add rn excess to solution. | A blue solution is obtained due to cut confirmed. NHOH in ex formation of [Cu(NH,),?* ‘A black precipitate is obtained. ‘Cu? indicated. 195 Scanned with CamScanner(GROUP II : ‘To 2 mL of the solution add a pinch of NH,Cl. Dissolve and add excess NH,OH, CONFIRMATORY TEST : 1, Add a few mL of K,Fe(CN), to the solution, 2. Add a few drops of KCNS to the solution, Precipitate the Fe™ completely from the solution by adding the group reagent in excess A reddish brown ppt. is obtained Solution tums Prussian blue. A blood red coloration is observed. Fe* indicated. Fe confirmed. Fe confirmed. ‘GROUP TV : ‘Through the solution of group II pass HS gas. No precipitation. Group IV absent. GROUP V: ‘Add a pinch of NH,CI to the solution, followed by excess NH,OH and (NH,),C0;. No precipitation observed. Group V absent. ‘GROUP VI: ‘To 2 mL of the solution add excess of NH,OH followed by NaH,PO,. No precipitation. Group VI absent. ‘The radicals detected in the alloys analysed were : L 2 Pb*, Sn? Cu, Fe Solder Coin ‘You can take any other sample and analyse it. Some important alloys are given below Duralium ‘Manganin Stainless Stee! ‘Copper—80% Tin—20% ‘Copper—65-90% ine—35-10% Copper—92% Tin—6% Zine—2% ‘Alurinium—94% Copper—S% ‘Copper—82.5% Manganese—16% Nickel—1.5% Tron—60-80% Nickel—8-20% (Composition ‘Magnesium, Manganese—0.5% Chromium—10-20% “Manufacture of Bells Resistance Wire VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS ‘What Is an alloy? | An alloy is @ homogeneous mixture of two or more metals or a metal and anon metal. . Is It possible to make alloys having required properties? . Yes. 196 Machinery, Coins, Statues Metal work, Industrial Tubing, Plumbing Fittings ‘Aircraft Frame work, Boat Hulls, Railway Carriages Kitchen utensils, Tools, Surgical Equipment Scanned with CamScannereer Introduction PREPARATION OF DYES ~~ Dye isa chemical compound used to proce ong ast . ste Manat ao de od rin ftir per ta bay all dyes were made from natural sources, such as various parts of plans and of cet Is. During the late 00's and early ts developed synthetic dys, Theve des fold er on of certain animals. During the lt ee Today, dusty Uses synthetic dyes almost ene. ir colour beiter and cost less to produce than natural ‘A dye must not only be capable of attaching itself to the material to be dyed but it must also retain its colour on prolonged exposure t light, soap and water. This px is ref n a eee ah ry lo Ts opery ee wing of he Tie non vg eb at why are dyes coloured? Presence of certain groups in molecules form conjugated Pa conjugated centres of unsaturation, which make the electron capable of bein ae Sy Ee lane td abn a sas ot wate gests cor Ree Ppa fave that colour. Dyes impart colour to fabric by absorbing the complementary colour. Examples of such groups are : industry uses dyes to colour fibres, yarns -NeN- azo group nitroso group “C=C- ethylene group NH; amino group _-HSO, sulphonic group EXPERIMENT 1 amen of Para Red EIA ow a 300 mL Beaker, Physical Balance, Measuring glass, Funnel ice bath, Weight Box. Chemicals Required Paranitro Aniline—2 g, Sodium Nitrite, Conc HO-8 mL, B-Napthol—0.2 g, NaOH Fakes—04 g Procedure 1. NaOH solution is prepared by dissolving 04g of wien Ain! NaOH flakes in 4 mL of water. 2.2 g of NaOH and 0.2 g of BNaphihol were Fig. P12.1 : Preparation of Azo Dye weighed. 3. The solutions were a follows : Solution A : 2 pe seat “Aniline, 20 mL of water and 8 mL. of conc, HCL oa ay Solution B : 2 g of NaNO, and 20 mL of water. sani © ag of Nao dissolved in 10% NaOH slaion and was Sted further with 10 mL of water. . lut Jed in an ice bath for 30 min. Solution B was added 4 Ale tome ie ay ss filtered and dried. No, to the above solution slowly with stirring and then wa 5. Para Red was obtained. Observation ‘The filtrate, after coupling was deep red in colour shaped erysals crushed to powder and displayed. EXPERIMENT 2 Preparation of Fluorescent Dye What is fluorescen The’ re ent cstuorescence” is closely related 0 moles spestromety. ‘After molecules have absorbed radiant x, It was dried to give needle 197 Scanned with CamScanner‘energy and have excited to higher electronic state, they must lose their excessive energy in order to achieve ground state, Fluorescence is the immediate emission (of the order of 108 sec) of light from a molecule after it has absorbed radiation. ‘Apparatus Test tubes, Spatula, Physical balance, Weight box, Bumer, Conical flask Chemicals Required epération Resorcinol—2 g, Phthalic anhydride—2 g, Sodium hydroxide—5%, Cone. Sulphuric Acid—2 mL Procedure 1, Take 2 Resorcinol and 2 g of Phthalic anhydride and add 2 mL. of cone. : sulphuric acid to it 2. Heat the contents on a bummer tll the contents turn black. Fig. P12.2 + Preparation of Fluorescent Dye CO i res eel ak a Sa hydroxide in a e lask. 4. Vary concentration of Sodium hydroxide and water to obtain different intensities of colour. Observation “The dye formed shows properties of fluorescence. It appears green from certain angles and orangish yellow from others. ‘The dye when putin the sink with large amounts of water tured into a bright yellow colour. FLUORESCENT DYE q H oN 2 * C ‘OH . I 9 pronaiefrindie | Resor Na CO., 6 Papeete Experiment 3 Preparation of Malachite Green Apparatus “Test tube, China dish, Water bath, Watch lass, Flask, Beaker—400 mL Chemicals Required Benzaldehyde—3 mL, Dimethylaniline—6 mL, Anhydrous Zinc Chloride—3 g, Lead dioxide—2 g, Sodium sulphate, Ice cold water Procedure 1. Place 3 g of Anhydrous Zinc chloride in a China dish and add 3 mL Benzaldehyde and 6 mL Dimethylaniline to it. 2. Cover it with a watch glass and heat for about 90 minutes on ‘a water bath. Stir frequently and in case the mixture is too viscous to stir, add 1 mL of hot water. 43. After heating, the mixture should be deep but dull green 4, While the China dish is still on the water bath add 5 mL of Fig. P12.3 : Preparation of Malachite Green 198 Scanned with CamScannerwater, stit the contents with a glass. 5, Lar ias of ce cod ere isle as much dye a8 posible and transfer the sluion wo a 400 ml beaker. Aad 125 of ld water Lao form of tee oie Now a with stn. sspension of 2 PO, in 20 Sulphate in 20 mL of water 6 Warm and fier to precipitate lead as PSO, ‘observations ‘A dark green dye is obtained. MALACHITE GREEN CHO N(CH) Benridehyde N.Nedincthy aniline O5-O- rene N(CH), Malet ren USES/APPLICATIONS OF DYES Life without colour is unimaginable. Dyes are needed everywhere in every field. Some important uses of dyes besides textile aplication are : 1. Paper Coloration : The coloration of paper is usually carried out by the addition of colorants to the beter containing cellulose pulp. The choice of colorants is determined by the cost, fastness and the use of requirements of the manufactured paper. Pigments are applied which adds surface coating to the finished cardboard, 2. Leather : Leather is generally sprayed by pigment suspensions or dye solutions for colorants. 3. Fur : Fur and woolen sheep skin are only dyes in dispersed dyes. 4Oils : They are coloured by dyes, which are soluble in organic solvents rather than those that dissolve in water. 5. Soaps : The colorants used for tinning soap most have high stength and no tendency to stick to skin and towel, Food, cosmetic, metal surface, painting inks, plastics, coloured smokes, indicators, biological stains—all use dyes for coloration. 6 Photography + In coloured photography dye is used as a sensitizing agent 1. Fabric : Dyes are used to dye fabric in tie and dye technique, batik, hand printing ete (®) Anti Haltioners. VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS Q.1. What are dyes? ‘Ans. Dyes are coloured substat materials. These are used to imp 2. Why are dyes used 7 ‘Ans. Dyes are used to impart colour to toxtl 3, Which type of dyes are best for synthetic clothes? ‘Ans, ()) Acid dyes for nylons, (i) Disperse dyes for polyester, nylon etc Give two examples of basic dyes: Ans. (i) Malachite green, aniline yellow. rnces which absorb strongly in the visible region and are capable of adhering to the surtace of colour to textiles (such as cotton, woo), sik), leather, food stuff and paper et. les, leather, food stuffs, paper and cosmetics ete. 199 Scanned with CamScannerTONING OF BLACK AND WHITE PHOTOGRAPHS general Introduction to the Photographic Process the photographic process involves the followi pore songratet 3 thrown for a definite lengt ‘vith an emulsion containing silver salts (light senring a ier compound to metalic tiie ty he eater atin Te ele of hs expose fhe im aly rea AF etal silver on those portions of the film that had been ig. Developers produce a black deposit of fine particles an exposed to light, thus giving a negati, ‘This is called fixing the image The image so obtained i usualy a finished negative in which te right pars ofthe ongial seme appar dark and the dark ‘appear bright. The negative is printed upon another light sensitive layer, in fisible i Fe Snes bee on sce ee me he a tc This is called poste peat The light a ‘material is almost always a compound of silver. Photographic Is are in general of two types : negative and positive, usual a 2 i s e ive, usually paper. Both negative and positive films are vm igherme ane — on he Bae: Nests emulsions ar suspensions in elin of silver bromide, containing litle te Positive emulsions may have onsttution as the negative ones, bu the emulsion of raphe papers is silver Chloride of a mixture of chloride and bromide, = eae If the photographic emulsions is immersed in a suitable reducing solution called the developer, no change occurs for a considerable amount of time provided the emulsion has not been exposed to light. If an exposure to a very small amount of light has teen given, the grains are transformed into masses of metallic silver and bromide going to alkali bromide. The photographic process thus depends upon the fact that reaction where Ag* ion gains electron to become Ag, ie. reduction of silver ions to metalic silver by e developing solution, proceeds more easily for an exposed silver halide rain than for an unexposed gran. A physical developer contain a reducing agent such as a benzoid compound, fce silver ions and a weak acid such as acetic acid or citric acid. The solutions deposit depends upon suitable nuclei such as those formed inthe silver halide grains by light In a physical developer the silver which foams the image is not derived from the silver halide from the solution. On the other hand, in chemical developer, te silver bromide ‘rins itself is removed. The developer does not contain free silver ions and is a strong reducer Fixation and Washing “The escential process following development ae fixing, washing and drying. Besides the reduced metal forming the image, the developed photograph contains the residual slver halide, unaffected by the developer. It is held ina gelatin layer. This is swollen in coluton of sodhans carbonate or other alkali, Fixing consists of the chemical action of sodium thiosulphate (hypo) and other reagent ca te unchanged iver sats to give a sable compound. Basically, it exerts the primary funtion of dissolving the Ralide and the secondary one of stopping development. : ‘Washing is used to remove reagents. The purpose of inal washing sto remove the fining sls, which are contaminated with silver compounds, Thus, a visible image (negative and postive) free of light sensitive silver salts is obtained. an veri be obtained having bright col ‘Te slver image formed by the development is normally black oF grey silver images may be obtained having bright colours itt partes of tees ace call in comparison withthe wavelength of ight This ean be accomplished by retained development Te eee acter solvent After the Back and whit print hasbeen enlarged, it may be desinble to give ita tome to enhance its pictorial beauty or its representative quality: Chemical Toning renee ‘The modification of the colour of a silver image by a change in its chemical een is known a ee Toners come the The maifcation of the color of in They are commonly sed fr giving black and white pit of colour mor: su Ca ei ming mech caoured erat fs portato il enh, 0 om nee oer Oo SP cee yually well on lantem slides or itive transparencies. There or green coloured print of sea study. Most toners can be used equally wel on Ian other posit rencie 2 four general types of toners = + Sulphide and selenium toners, which convert of reddish brown toners. + Metal toners convert the black silver im salto a double salt with another meta: + Dye toners act by depositing a dye image om completely in a suitable reducer the silver image into silver sulphide andlor selenide. These usually give a range age into 8 compound of the desired colour. This compound may be insoluble coloured top of the silver image. The silver image ean, if necessary, be removed 207 Scanned with CamScanner*+-Colour developers, which form a dye image as well as a silver image, The dye is formed during development by oxidation products Sulphide Toning Metallic silver readily combines with sulphur to yield silver sulphide that is one of the best soluble and most stable compound of silver. Therefore, silver images are easily converted to silver sulphide. ‘Methods used in Sulphide Toning Direct Method in which silver images are converted by a single operation into silver sulphide. . de. Indirect Method in which silver is first transformed into silver chloride or bromide, which is then reacted with Sodium sulphide to convert it into silver sulphide. Direct Method (Sulphide Toning) The Hypo & Alum toning solutions can be prepared as follows : * sodium thiosulphate (hypo) - 40 grams + cold water ~ 250 mL. The hypo should be dissolved thoroughly, and to it, the following solution should be added : * potassium alum > 30 grams + hot water > 160 mL To the above, add the following solution sting all the time + water - 32mL + silver nitrate = 02 grams * sodium chloride = 02 grams Procedure Silver nitrate should be completely dissolved before sodium chloride is added. The prints to be toned should be soaked thoroughly in water. Then, the toning solution should be poured in a tray and heated, the toning time is about 15 minutes. After toning is ‘completed, the print should be wiped with soft sponge and dipped in warm water so as to remove the sediments from the surface of the print. The print is then washed in running water. The exact nature of reaction involved in the thiosulphate alum toning is unknown, AAs numerous interreactions are possible, one suggested way is aluminum thiosulphate may decompose according to the following reactions : AL(G;0); + 3H0 —> 3HS + ALSO) sluriaiom wate Iydrogen luminiom ‘honlphte sulphide sulphate This is followed by a reaction of hydrogen sulphide with thiosulphide.: NoS,0; + = HS’ —> NaHSO, + NaH + s sodium sodium sexi Atiostphate inlpite Iyeride The end of reaction involves the sulphiding of the image, zag + Sy Ags ser sulphur siher sul Precautions The photographs should not be soaked in water for a very ong time. Because this might result in washing away of the photographs! (Gi) Heat the potash alum solution lightly as it isnot soluble in water at room temperature, (Gi) The vessel used for toning should be of aluminum. If any other material is used, it may cause unwanted reactions. Gv). While toning the photographs a holder shouldbe used to hold the photograph. They shouldnt be dipped in the heated solution rectly undisturbed. The photograph should be taken out at regular intervals (from the toning solution, of 4 to 5 seconds Otherwise it may result in large deposition of the sediments on the photograph, (¥) The photographs should be dried in a clean place, free from dust. 208 Scanned with CamScannerproblems Faced (Sharing experience with readers!) 1. In the first try, the photographs were soaked in water for about. i hed away in water! ced in water for about one day due to which the pictures were washed away 2. A few photographs were dipped in the toning solution fora long time due to which the deposition of the black sediments ftom the solution on the photographs was more and instead of bein clean they became more dirty and had black spots on 3. by Le! while drying got some dust particles stuck on them due to which a few of the toned photographs spoil Fig. P152 : The same photograph looks new after toring 209 Scanned with CamScannerProject 8 / -.: . STUDY OF COMMON FOOD ADULTERANTS IN VARIOUS /\ FOOD MATERIALS ~/ theory Adulteration of food is one of the most serious problem faced by the consumers today. The adulterated food produces serious effects such as stomach ulcers, respiratory diseases, cancer and allergy. The adulterants used by the manufacturers and retailers are cheap substituents. For example (i) Fats, oils, butter are adulterated with paraffin wax, vanaspati ghee, powdered sweet potatoes or some starch material. (ii) Brick powder is mixed with red chilli. (iii) Argemone oil is mixed with sarson oil. (iv) Chalk powder is mixed with sugar. (v) Lead chromate or yellow chalk is mixed with Turmeric powder. (vi) Dried papaya seeds are mixed with pepper (Kali Mirch). All these adulterants can be easily identified by simple chemical tests. This project deals with the study of detection of food adulterants in our daily food. Bowe detect the adulterants in the given sample of Desi ghee. Theory Desi ghee is usually adulterated by adding starchy materials such as sweet potatoes or with vanaspati ghee. Starch can be detected by adding iodine solution which gives a blue colour with starch. Vanaspati or vegetable ghee can be detected by Baudouin test. —_—_—_—_— Scanned with CamScannerApparatus ‘ ‘Test tubes and test tube stand. ' | i chemicals ! | Be Hay, conc. H,SO4, acetic Sd iodine Shatin, 205 Procedure ' 1. Detection of starchy material Toke about 0-5 9 of Desi ghee or butter in a test tube, add 2-0 mi. of water and boll. Cool and add about 1-2 drops of iodine solution, a blue colour indicates starch in the given sample of Des! ghee or butter. 2, Detection of vegetable or vanaspati. ghee. - : ‘Take about 1-0 9 of the given sample of Desi gtiee or butter in a test tube. Add 1-0 ml of dil HCI and 1-2 drops of 2-0% alcoholic solution of furfural. Shake the mixture thoroughly ~ @ pink or red colour in the acid layer indicates adulteration of Desi ghee by vegetable/vanaspati ghee. ES study the adulteration of Mustard oil and fats. Theory Mustard oil is adulterated with Argemone oil. Fats and oils are adulterated with cheap paraffin wax and other hydrocarbons. These may be tested by suitable tests as given below : Apparatus ‘Test tubes, burner. Chemicals Dil. NaOH solution, conc. HNO, sample of mustard oil, sample of fat (butter). Procedure 4. Detection of Argemone oil in Mustard oil. ‘Take about 5 ml of Mustard oil in a test tube and add a few’ drops of conc. HNO. Shake for a minute and allow ee cat Fae cone, Inconeer Oe prevent oF Magerene of fn the ghen, sample of 2. Detection of Paraffin Wax and Hydrocarbons in Fats. Take about 2-0.g of the given sample of fat in a test tube and.add about 4-5 mi of dil NaOH solution. Boil for 4-5 minutes with dil, NaOH solution. Fats undergo saponification and dissolve in water whereas paraffin ‘wax and other hydrocarbons remain unaffected. Therefore, any oil droplets floating on the surface indicate presence of paraffin wax or other hydrocarbons. Basanti le] To detect adulteration In the given samples of Turmeric powder, Chilly powder and Pepper. é Theory ‘Turmeric powder Is adulterated with yellow coloured chalk or lead chromate. Lead is extremely harmful for health if consumed. The presence of chalk may be detected by brisk evolution of carton dioxide on treatment with dil. HCl. Presence of lead salt may be detected by the appearance of yellow ppt when the solution of the sample in HNO; is treated with pot. iodide solution, Red chill powder is usually adulterated with red coloured brick powder. On dissolving in water, brick powder settles down because it fs heavier than the chilly powder. Black pepper Is usually mixed with dried papaya seeds because they have the same colour and size, But papaya seeds are much lighter than pepper seeds. On adding water papaya seeds float on the surface of water and pepper seeds settle down, . Apparatus Test tubes, beakers. alcoholic solution of Furfural, sample of Desi ghee or Scanned with CamScannerChemicals Dil. HNO, conc. HCI, KI solution, samples of turmeric, chilli powder, pepper Procedure 4. Detection of adulteration in turmeric powder ; a (2) Take about 1-0 g of the given sample in a test tube and add about 1-0 mi. of dil. HCl. Evolution of CO, gas with effervescence indicates presence of yellow chalk in the sample. (b) Take about 0-5 g of the given sample in a test tube and add about 2-0 mil of dil. HNO3. Shake and filter ‘Add a few drops of KI solution to the filtrate — a yellow ppt of PbI, indicates adulteration of lead salts in the given sample of turmeric. 2. Detection of adulteration in Chilli powder TTake about 2-0 g of the chilli powder in a 100 ml conical flask and add about 50 ml of water. Shake and allow to stand. Settling of any heavier red coloured particles at the bottom indicates adulteration by brick powder. 3. Detection of adulteration in Pepper ‘Take about 50 ml of water in a beaker and add about 5-0 g of the given sample of pepper. Stir with a glass rod and allow to stand, Any light material floating on the surface indicates presence of papaya seeds in the sample, eee Theory Sugar is adulterated with chalk or washing soda or some water insoluble material. Since sugar is soluble in water, any insoluble material may be detected by dissolving the given sample of sugar in water. Presence of washing soda or chalk can be detected by treatment with dil. HCI and evolution of carbon dioxide. Apparatus Beaker, test tubes. Chemicals ‘Sample of suger, dil. HCI, water. Procedure 1, Detection of insoluble materials ‘Take small amount of sugar in a test tube and dissolve in water. Presence of any insoluble material indicates adulteration. 2. Detection of chalk powder and washing soda. Take a pinch of the given sample of sugar in a test tube and add 2-3 drops of sugar in a test tube and add 2-3 drops of dil. HCI. Brisk effervescence of CO, gas shows presence of chalk powder or washing soda in the given sample of sugar. Scanned with CamScanner_ STUDY OF CONSTITUENTS OF ALLOYS ‘A homogeneot a metal and a non-metal is known as alloy. The constituents of an alloy ate mixed together in Fe a eked ina fire clay crucible, stirred with pieces of charcoal and then allowed to Cool. Brass, bronze and gun metal are the common alloys obtained from the copper metal. Stee! is an alloy of iron and ‘carbon (metal and non-metal). An alloy is prepared from the pure metal with one of the following aims : (i) To increase hardness, Gold is mixed with copper to increase hardness. Gi):7To lower the melting point. fuses. (Gi)To improve appearance. ‘Aluminium bronze has golden colour (To increase resistance to corrosion. Stainless steel as an alloy of iron, carbon and chromium. (¥) To improve chemical activity. Alloy of a metal with mercury is known as amalgam. Conversion of the metals into alloys makes them more Useful. Some common alloys and their composition is given below : one Copper = 60-65% 7 Utensis, coins, ° ornaments 5 Copper = 80 ~ 85% Machinery parts . Zinc = 4~6% ‘The composition of the alloys may differ depending upon qualty ofthe alloys required though the main components remain the same. The complete analysis of an alloy involves qualitative as well as quantitative analysis, In the present project, we will deal with qualitative analysis only. EXPERIMEN [a] ann lyse the given sample of Brass qualitatively, Apparatus China dish, tripod stand, wire gauze, burner, Kipp’s apparatus ete, Materials and chemicals Brass and common laboratory reagents used in qualitative inorganic analysis, Scanned with CamScannerTheory Brass is af alloy of copper and zinc. These metals are soluble in 50% dil. HNO; in 50% dil. HNO, Both the metals are converted into their nitrates. 3Cu + BHNO,—> 3Cu (NOs), + 2NO + 4H,0 é 4 Zn + 10 HNO; —> 4 Zn (NOs), + NO + SH,0 The solution is bolled to expel oxides of nitrogen and the resulting solution Is in the same way as for qualitative analysis of inorganic salts/mixtures. a Procedure 1, Toke about 1:0 g of brass in a china dish and add minimum quantity of 50% HNO to dissolve it 2. Bol it to remove excess of HNO,, Dissolve the residue in cistiled water to get a clear solution. 3. Adify the solution with dil. HCl and pass H,S gas. A black ppt will appear. Continue passing the gas til complete precipitation. Separate the precipitate by filtration and keep the fitrate for the subsequent groups, 4. Dissolve the black precipitate in 50% HNO; by boiling and divide into two parts. (2) NH,OH solution test : To part I, add NH,OH solution. A deep blue colour confirms presence of copper in the alloy. (b) Pot. Ferrocyanide solution test. ar ‘Acidfy part TI with dil. acetic acid and add potassium ferrocyanide solution. A chocolate coloured precipitate confirms copper in the alloy. 5. To the filtrate from step no. 4, add 0-5 g NH,CI (solid). Warm to dissolve, cool and add excess of NH,OH til it gives smell of NH3. Appearance of no precipitate indicates absence of aluminium, iron or chromium in the alloy. 6. Pass H,S gas through the above solution. A dirty white precipitate indicates presence of zinc in the alloy. Separate the precipitate by fitration and dissolve in minimum quantity of dil HCI. Now add pot. ferrocyanide solution. A bluish white precipitate confirms zinc in the alloy. < Result ’ ‘The given brass alloy contains copper and zinc. Theory Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin, both of which are soluble in nitric acid. The sample of the alloy is dissolved in HNO; and excess of nitric acid is removed by boiling. The remaining solution is diluted with distilled water, It is acidified with il. HCl and H,S gas is passed through it. Copper is precipitated as CuS and Sh (tin) as SnS, cut +S*—> cus (wack rt) H,Sn0, +2H,S —* SS, +3H,0 Nelatpcie A small piece of brass is dissolve used for detection of Cu and Zn2 fo study the constituent of the given sample of Bronze. ‘The two sulphides formed are separated by boiling with yellow ammonium sulphide, SnS, dissolves forming thiostannate Whereas copper remains unaffected. SnS, +(NH,), S, —* — (NH4), SnS, ‘Ammsciumthiestannate ‘solibe) CuS + (NH,),, —> No action Black ppt. of CuS and the filtrate are analysed qualitatively. Apparatus China dish, tripod stand, wire gauze, burner, Kipp’s apparatus. Materials and Chemicals Bronze and common laboratory reagents required for qualitative analysis of inorganic salts. Scanned with CamScannerProcedure a Result’ Take about 1-0 g of the given sample of bronze and dissolve in dil. HNO3 by boiling in a china dish. Boil to expel excess of HNO;. Dilute the residual solution with distilled water. Acidify the solution with dil. HCI and then pass HS gas till complete precipitation. Separate the precipitate by filtration and reject the filtrate. Wash the precipitate with water and then boil with yellow ammonium sulphide. Separate the black ppt. by filtration and collect the filtrate for detection of tin. Dissolve the black ppt. in 50% HNO3 and divide into two parts. (2) NH,OH solution test. To part I add NH,OH solution — A deep blue colour indicates copper (5) Potassium Ferrocyanide solution test, To part II add pot. ferrocyanide solution - @ chocolate coloured precipitate confirms copper in alloy. Acidify the filtrate of step no. 2 with dil. HCl — A yellow precipitate indicates tin. Dissolve the above yellow precipitate in conc. HCI, add 0-5 1-2 ml of mercuric chloride to the filtrate. A white g zinc dust, boil for 2~3 minutes and filter. Add alloy. precipitate turning grey on standing confirms — Sn in the The given bronze alloy contains copper and tin. Scanned with CamScanner