Introduction to

Instrumentation and
Control Engineering
Objectives:
1. To gain understanding about the basic concepts and principles in
Instrumentation and Control Engineering.

2. To explain the difference of the classifications of instruments.

3. To know the basic elements of a control loop.

Measurement

Measurement (also called metrology) is the science of determining

values of physical variables. It is a method to obtain information
regarding the physical values of the variable. Measurement of a given
quantity is essentially an act or result of comparison between the
quantity (whose magnitude is unknown) and predetermined or
predefined standards. Two quantities are compared the result is
expressed in numerical values.
Why do we measure?
For a few minutes think of an answer for this question and be ready
to share it to the class.
The Needs for Measurement

The measure for the weight of the precious stones, such as diamond,
carat is used. Carat was the weight of four carob (Keçiboynuzu) beans.
Today carat is standardized as 0.2 gr.
Metric System
SI Units: Systemes Internationales d’Unites
Two different units are defined:
- Fundamental Units
- Derived Units
Standards

• International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

• International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• Standards Council of Canada ( SCC)
• British Standards (BS)
• Institute of Turkish Standards (TSE)
Standard Bodies

1. International standards:

Defined by international agreements.

2. Primary standards:

Maintained at institutions around the world.

Main function is checking accuracy of secondary standards.

Instrumentation

Instrumentation is used in almost every industrial process and

generating system, where consistent and reliable operations are
required. Instrumentation provides the means of monitoring, recording
and controlling a process to maintain it at a desired state. A typical
industrial plant such as an electric generating station yields many
process variables that have to be measured and manipulated.
Process Variables

Variables such as boiler level, temperature, pressure turbine speed,

generator output and many others have to be controlled prudently to
ensure a safe and efficient operation. With instrumentation, automatic
control of such presses can be achieved. Specific instrumentation can
be selected to measure, and to indicate process conditions so that a
corrective action could be initiated if required.
Instrumentation based on industrial
application:
“It is a collection of instruments, devices, hardware
or functions or their application for the purpose of
measuring, monitoring or controlling an industrial
process or machine, or any combination of these.”
What is an instrument?

“It is device used for direct or indirect measurement,

monitoring, and/or control of a variable including
indicators, controllers, and other devices such as
annunciators, switches and pushbuttons.”
Measurement Instrument

A measurement instrument is a
device capable of detecting change,
physical or otherwise, in a particular
process. It then converts these
physical changes into some form
of information understandable by the
user.
Instrument Examples:
Classification of Instruments

Critical Instruments - an instrument which, if not conforming to

specification, could potentially compromise product or process
quality and safety.
Non-critical Instrument - an
instrument whose function is
not critical to product or
process quality, but whose
function is more of an
operational significance.
Reference Only Instrument - an instrument whose function is
not critical to product quality, not significant to equipment
operation, and not used for making quality decisions.
Control Systems and Process Control
Control in process industries it refers to the regulation,
command or direction of all aspects of the process.

2 Types of Control

• Manual Control
• Automatic Control
System is an arrangement, set or collection of physical
components connected or related in such a manner as to form
and/or act as an entire unit. Therefore control system is an
arrangement of physical components connected or related in such
a manner as to command, direct or regulate itself or another
system. A process simply refers to the methods of changing or
refining raw materials to create end products and
Process Control

Process Control play an important role in how a plant process

upset can be controlled and subsequent emergency actions executed.
Without adequate and reliable process controls, an unexpected process
occurrence cannot be monitored, controlled, and eliminated. Process
controls can range from simple manual actions to computer logic
controllers, remote from the required action point, with supplemental
instrumentation feedback systems.
Control Systems

A system, whose output can be managed, controlled or

regulated by varying its input is called Control System. A control
system can also be a combination of smaller control systems and
are normally used to get desired/required output. If we look
around, we will find many control systems in our surroundings i.e.
Refrigerator, Air Conditions, Washing Machines etc.
Block Diagram of Control System
The above figure represents a simple control system and we can
think of this control system as a mathematical equation i.e.

X+5=Y

where, X is input, Y is output and Constant 5 is acting as a Control

System. So, by changing the value of input parameter ( X ), we can
change our output value (Y). Similarly, if we want a particular
output value, we can achieve it by fixing input value.
Explain the
shown example
of a simple
Control System.
Control Systems are classified into two main categories, which are:

1. Open Control Loop – exist when the process variable is

not compared, and action is taken not in response to on the
condition of the process variable.

2. Closed Control Loop – exists when a process variable is

measured, compared to a setpoint and action is taken to
correct any deviation from setpoint.
In Open Loop Control Systems, we have three main components i.e.
Input, Controller & Output. Input signal is directly fed to the controller, which
utilizes it and generates the required output. In Open Loop systems, generated
output has no affect on the Input signal i.e. no feedback provided.
Example of an Open Loop Control Systems:

Clothes Dryer is a very simple example of an open loop system.

When damp clothes are put in the dryer machine, the operator / user
sets the time for drying the clothes. This time acts as the input signal
for the dryer. Correspondingly at the end of that time, the machine
stops and clothes can be taken out. Now the thing to be noted here is
that no matter if the clothes are dry enough or not, the machine will
stop because of the time (input signal) fed to it.
So the output of the system does not affect the input in this
case. For a better understanding the block diagram of a cloth dryer
control system is shown below:
Traffic Light system is another easy to understand example of
an open loop system. Certain input signals are fed to the controller,
which then displays one of the three lights at the output turn by
turn. The direct input signals can be altered to change the output
light but the output has no affect on the input. As we are not
passing any feedback i.e. which light turned ON or OFF.
Closed Loop Control System (Feedback control system) is
an advanced automated system, which generates the desired output
by using inputs, Controllers and feedback elements. These systems
use feedback element to fed the Output back to the controller. By
doing that, we can compare the current output with input to get
errors.
Here's the block diagram of a Closed Loop Control System:
The block diagram above is an excellent representation of a
closed loop control system. As seen, the system output is being fed
back to the controller through an error detector. The function of
the error detector is to find the difference in the input and output
signal, and feed this difference to the controller so that the output
can be adjusted. In this way the system output is being
automatically adjusted all the time with the help of the feedback
signal and the operator does not have to worry about it.
Example of an Closed Loop Control Systems:
Air conditioner is a very typical example of a closed loop control system.
The input signal in the form of required room temperature is fed into the
controller of the air conditioner. The compressor along with its various electrical
and mechanical components help in achieving the required temperature. Now
whenever the room temperature changes, the temperature sensor at the output
senses the change in the room temperature and the signal from the sensor is
calculated by the error detector and fed back to the controller through the
feedback loop to maintain the required room temperature.
In this way the required output is always maintained automatically without
any manual interference. The block diagram illustration of this process is shown
below:
Four Basic Elements of a Control Loop

1. Primary Element/Sensor

2. Secondary Element/Signal-generating Element

3. Controlling Element/Controller

4. Final Control Element

Primary Elements

It measures process parameters and variables. Measurement of

the variables or properties are based on certain unique phenomena,
such as physical, chemical, thermo-electrical factors.

Note: Process Variables sensed by the primary element cannot be

transmitted unless converted to an electrical (or pneumatic) signal
by a secondary element.
Primary Element Examples

1. Sensors

Integral part of loop that first senses the value of a process variable that
assumes a corresponding predetermined state and generates an output signal
indictive of or proportional to the process variable.

2. Detectors

It is a device that is used to detect the presence of something, such as

flammable or toxic gases or discrete parts.
Secondary Elements/Signal Generating Element

1. Transducer

Transducers are often employed at the boundaries of

automation, measurement, and control systems, where electrical
signals are converted to and from other physical quantities (energy,
force, torque, light, motion, position, etc.). The process of converting
one form of energy to another is known as transduction.
2. Converter

Converters are used to convert AC power to DC power. Virtually

all the electronic devices require converters. They are also used to
detect amplitude modulated radio signals. A power electronic
converter uses power electronic components such as SCRs, TRIACs,
IGBTs, etc. to control and convert the electric power. The main aim
of the converter is to produce conditioning power with respect to a
certain application.
3. Transmitter

As its name implies, the general purpose of a transmitter is to transmit

signals. These signals contain information, which can be audio, video, or data.
It converts a reading from one sensor or transducer into a standard and
transmits that signal to a monitor or controller. Transducers and transmitters
are virtually the same thing, the main difference being the kind of electrical
signal each sends. A transducer sends a signal in volts (V) or millivolt (mV)
and a transmitter sends a signal in milliamps (mA).
Types of Signal

1. Analog Signal - a signal that has no discrete positions or states and

changes value.
• Pneumatic : 3-15 psi
• Electrical : 4-20 mA (Current)
: 1-5 VDC (Voltage)

2. Digital Signal - a signal that generates or uses binary digit signals to

represent continuous values or discrete states.
Controlling Element

Known as the controller and is the brain of the control system.

It performs appropriate functions for maintaining the desired level
(set point) of parameters to restore quality and rate of production.
A controller is a device that receives data from a measurement
instrument , compares that data to a programmed setpoint, and, if
necessary, signals a control element to take corrective action.
Common examples of controller:

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) – usually computers

connected to a set of input/output (I/O) devices. The computers are
programmed to respond to inputs by sending outputs to maintain all
processes at setpoint.

Distributed Control System (DCS) – are controllers that, in addition

to performing control functions , provide readings of the status of the
process, maintain databases amd advance man-machine-interface.
Final Control Element

The part of the control system that acts to physically change the
manipulated variable. Typically used to increase or decrease fluid
flow.
Common Final Control Elements

1. Actuator - the part of a final control device that causes a

physical change in the final control device when signaled to do so.

2. Control Valves - manipulate the flow rate of gas or liquid;

whereas, the control switches manipulate the electrical energy
entering a system.
Instrument applications:
❖Factory automation instruments
❖Plant safety or safeguarding instruments
❖Product Quality monitoring/control instruments
❖Environmental condition monitoring /control
instruments.
❖Process variable measurement and control instruments.
“You are worth more than just your grades.”

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Process Measurement
Measurement
Measurement is an important subsystem of a
mechatronics system. Its main function is to collect the
information on system status and to feed it to the micro-
processor(s) for controlling the whole system. Measurement
system comprises of sensors, transducers and signal
processing devices.
Measurement
Measurement is an important subsystem of a
mechatronics system. Its main function is to collect the
information on system status and to feed it to the micro-
processor(s) for controlling the whole system. Measurement
system comprises of sensors, transducers and signal
processing devices.
Methods of Measurement

Direct Method
➢ the process variable is directly measured in units that
represent the basic nature of that variable.

Inferential Method
➢ is the measurement of a process variable indirectly by
using another variable.
Direct Method

The measurement for level in this tank

is measured directly in units of height
since the level of the tank is seen
directly through a sight glass (scaled)
representing the current level of the
tank.
Inferential Method

The level of liquid is measured based

on the hydrostatic pressure below the
tank. Since pressure is directly
proportional to the height of the
liquid, any change in level will also
have the same proportionate change
in the readout pressure.
Types of Measurement

Single Point Type

➢ the measurement depends on a fixed value of the
process variable.
➢ the reading is indicated either as high or low

Continuous Type
➢ the measurement indicates the actual value of the
process variable.
Single Point Type Measurement

Sensor A and Sensor B will only

trigger when the level reaches
the set height high and low
respectively.
Continuous Type Measurement

The magnetic float indicates the

current measurement of the level
through a sight glass according to
its range regardless of the current
height of the liquid in the tank.
The actual level, in real time, is
monitored.
Instrument Range - refers to the capability of the
instrument to measure a variable.

Calibration Range - refers to the set of values within the

instrument measuring range where the scaled output;
4-20 mA, 3-15 psi or 1-5 V is set during calibration.
Instrument Span
It is the distance (or difference) between the upper range
value (URV) and lower range value (LRV).

Upper Range Value (URV) is the highest value of the measured

process variable that the output of a transmitter is currently
configured to measure.
Lower Range Value (LRV) is the lowest value of the measured process
variable that the analog output of a transmitter is currently
configured to measure.
Discrete Process Measurement
In engineering, a “discrete” variable or measurement refers to
a true-or-false condition. Thus, a discrete sensor is one that is only
able to indicate whether the measured variable is above or below a
specified setpoint.
Discrete sensors typically take the form of “switches”, built to
trip when the measured quantity either exceeds or falls below a
specified value. These devices are less sophisticated than so-called
continuous sensors capable of reporting an analog value, but they
are quite useful in industry.
“Normal” Status of a Switch

The “normal” status for a switch is the status its electrical

contacts are in under a condition of minimum physical stimulus. For
a momentary-contact pushbutton switch, this would be the status of
the switch when it is not being pressed.
Electrical switch contacts are typically classified as either
normally-open or normally closed, referring to the open or closed
status of the contacts under “normal” conditions.
Normally-Open Status
The lamp will energize only if someone presses the switch, holding its
normally-open contacts in the closed position. Normally-open switch are
sometimes referred to in the electrical industry as form-A contacts
Normally-Closed Status
The lamp would energize only if the switch was left alone, but it would
turn off if anyone pressed the switch. Normally-close switch are sometimes
referred to in the electrical industry as form-B contacts.
Hand Switches
A hand switch is an electrical switch actuated by a person’s hand
motion. This may take a form of toggle, pushbutton or rotary.
Limit Switches
A limit switch detects the physical motion of an object by direct contact
with that object. A limit switch will be in its “normal” status when it is not in
contact with anything.
Proximity Switches
A proximity switch detects the proximity (closeness) of an object. By
definition, these switches are non-contact sensors, using magnetic, electric
or optical means to sense the proximity of objects.
Pressure Switches
A pressure switch detects the presence of fluid pressure. Pressure
switches often use diaphragms or bellows as the pressure sensing elements,
the motion of which actuates one or more switch contacts.
Level Switches
A level switch detects the level of liquid or solid (granules or powder) in
a vessel. Level switches often use floats as the level-sensing element, the
motion of which actuates one or more switch contacts.
Temperature Switches
A temperature switch detects the temperature of an object.
Temperature switches often use bimetallic strips as the temperature-sensing
element.
Flow Switches
A flow switch detects the flow of some fluid through pipe. Flow
switches often use “paddles” as the flow-sensing element, the motion of
which actuates one or more switch contacts.
Discrete Control Elements
On/Off Valves
An on/off valve is the fluid
equivalent of an electrical
switch: a device that either
allows unimpeded flow or acts
to prevent flow altogether.
Valve styles commonly
used for on/off service include
ball, plug, butterfly, gate and
globe.
Continuous Process
Measurement
Analog Electronic Instrumentation
An “analog” electronic signal is a voltage or current whose magnitude
represents some physical measurement or control quantity. An instrument
is often classified as being “ analog” simply by virtue of using an analog
standard to communicate information.
4 to 20 mA Analog Current Signals
The most popular form of signal transmission used in modern
industrial instrumentation systems is the 4 to 20 mA DC standard. This is
an analog signal standard, meaning that the electric current is used to
proportionately represent measurements or command signals.
Relating 4 to 20 mA signals to instrument variables
To calculate the equivalent milliamp value for any given
percentage of signal range, the equation takes the form of the
standard slope-intercept line equation y=mx + b.
y = equivalent current in milliamps
x = the desired percentage of signal
m = the span of the 4-20 mA (16mA)
b = the offset value, or the “live zero” of 4mA
Example 1:
A flow transmitter is ranged 0 to 350 gallons per minute,
4-20mA output, direct responding. Calculate the current
signal value at a flow rate of 204 GPM.
Example 2:
An electronic loop controller outputs a signal of 8.55 mA
to a direct-responding control valve (where 4mA is shut and
20MA is wide open. How far open should the control valve be
at this MV signal level?
Example 3:
A pneumatic temperature transmitter I ranged 50 to 140
degrees Fahrenheit and has a 3-15 PSI output signal.
Calculate the pneumatic output pressure if the temperature is
79 degrees Fahrenheit.
Example 4:
A pH transmitter has a calibrated range of 4pH to 10pH,
with a 4-20mA output signal. Calculate the pH sensed by the
transmitter if its output is 11.3mA.
Example 5:
A current-to-pressure transducer is used to convert a 4-
20mA electronic signal into a 3-15 PSI pneumatic signal. This
particular transducer is configured for reverse action instead
of direct, meaning that its pressure output at 4mA should be
15 PSI and its pressure output at 20mA should be 3 PS I.
Calculate the necessary current signal value to produce an
output pressure of 12.7 PSI
“You don’t want to look back and know you could’ve
done better.”
-Anonymous

-end-
Piping &
Instrumentation
Diagram
Fundamentals
Objectives:
To understand the following essentials of a P&ID Layout:
– Symbology.
– Piping that connects the equipment.
– Lines and instruments used to monitor and control the
process.
– Tag numbers and functional identifiers.
Piping and Instrumentation Diagram
• It is the overall design document for a process plant

• It shows the interconnection of process equipment

and the instrumentation used to control the process.

• Set of symbols are used to depict mechanical

equipment, piping, piping components, valves,
equipment drivers and instrumentation and controls.
P&IDs
– Piping & Instrumentation Drawing (original)
– Process & Instrumentation Diagram (also used)
– Process Flow Diagram – PFD (simplified version of the
P&ID)
– Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams or simply P&IDs are
the “schematics” used in the field of instrumentation and
control (Automation)
Who Uses P&IDs?
•Planning a job
•Writing a job safety analysis (JSA)
•Lockout before a repair
•Troubleshooting when problems arise
•Process hazard review
•Training new employees
Types of Instrumentation Symbols

• Instrument Symbols
• Line Symbols
• Valves and Actuators
Instrument Symbols

• Symbols such as circles, lines, letters, and numbers

are used to provide information about the process.

• Symbols may represent devices in the system or

indicate how devices are connected to each other.

• In this notation, shapes denote function while the

lines in the middle denote location or mounting
Line Symbols

• Line symbols indicate how instruments are

connected to each other and to the process and
represents the types of signals transmmited in the
process.

• Line Symbols could either be a process line symbol

or a signal line symbol.
Process Line Symbols
• Used to represent process lines and instrument connections.
• Process piping is generally shown with thick solid lines.
• Thin solid lines indicate instrument-to-process connections or
instrument tubing.

Signal Line Symbols

• Signal line symbols indicate the type of signal that connects
two instruments.
Valve and Actuator Symbols

• Indicates the action of actuation in a valve-

actuator instrument.

• Also indicates the position during fail mode.

• Valve are usually drawn as a bow tie shaped

symbol.
Tag Numbers

• Instrumentation Identification Number or Tag

Number is an alphanumeric code that provides
specific information about an instrument or its
function.

Contains two information

- Functional Identification
- Loop Identification
Loop Identification
• Loop identification numbers indicate the loop/system in which an
instrument belongs.
Functional Identifier
• A functional Identifier is a series of letters, or letter code, that
identifies the function of the instrument.
• The first letter identifies the measured or initiating variable.
• The succeeding letters designate one or more readout or passive
functions and/or output functions.
Different Engineering Documents

• Process Flow Diagram

• Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID)
• Instrument List
• Logic Diagrams
• Instrument Loop Diagram
• Installation Details
• Location Plans
Process Flow Diagram
• It is the fundamental representation of a process
that schematically depicts the conversion of raw
materials to finished products without delving
into details of how that conversion occurs.

• It defines the flow of material and utilities, basic

relationships between major pieces of
equipment, and establishes the flow, pressure
and temperature ratings of the process.
Instrument List
• Is an alphanumeric list of date related to a
facility’s instrumentation and control systems
components and functions.

• Reference the various documents that contain

the information needed to define the total
installation.
Logic Diagrams
• Drawings used to design and define the on-off or
sequential part of a continuous process plant.

• May involve the action of a simple switch or it

may entail a series of steps comprising a
complex automatic system.
Instrument Loop Diagrams

• A schematic representation of a single control

loop including its hydraulic, electric, magnetic
and pneumatic components.
Installation Details

• Used to show how the instrumentation and

control system components are connected and
interconnected to the process
• Define the requirements to correctly install an
instrumentation and control component.
Location Plans

• Orthographic views of the plant, drawn to scale,

that show the locations of instruments and
control system components.

• Show other control system hardware including

marshalling panels, termination racks, local
control panels, junctions boxes, instrument
racks, and power panels.
“If you lose hope, somehow you lose the vitality that keeps

moving, you lose that courage to be, that quality that helps you

go on in spite of it all. And so today I still have a dream.”

- Martin Luther King Jr

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