2.

1 Trans-Himalayan Region

T he Trans-Himalayan region of India consists of the

cold deserts of Ladakh and Kargil in Jammu and
Kashmir, and the Lahaul and Spiti valleys of
Himachal Pradesh.

1. LADAKH
Ladakh, located at the edge of the Tibetan plateau, gets an
annual rainfall of only 140 mm. Most areas of the hot Thar
Desert in Rajasthan get more rainfall than Ladakh. The } s
central and eastern portions of the region receive less than
100 mm of annual precipitation. The villages situated in the
southwest are slightly better off. Kargil, which is situated in have learnt to make intelligent and optimal use of their
this region, gets about 239 mm of rain. The major portion of limited resources and have built a glorious civilisation
the precipitation occurs in the form of snow in the winter in the process. Indeed, a large portion of Ladakh is
months and, hence, cannot be used for agriculture. still uninhabited. Only 57,716 ha of land, constituting
At first glance, one would think that human survival 0.6 per cent of the total area, is inhabited; even within this
is impossible in this harsh climate. Yet, the local people area, only 28.23 per cent is under cultivation.
The key to civilisation in Ladakh is the
A water official known as Churpun is elected by the inhabitants of village intelligent use of water. Ladakh has abundant
every year. The Churpun’s primary task is to ensure equitable di ibution of sunlight and good soils, but without water it is a
water. This practise makes Ladakh stand out in comparison with modern vast, barren desert. Nearly 68 per cent of the total
irrigation systems, where bigger landlords get more irrigation water. land of Ladakh lies 5,000 m above sea-level, and is
7 virtually unfit for vegetation and human life. Land
lying between 4,500 m and 5,000 m, constituting
WATER WILL BE approximately 5.8 per cent of the total land, can be
‘ used for grazing. Agriculture is confined to areas
DISTRIBUTED AS PER THE
\ LA SIZE... WHAT 155
below 4,500 m in height. Another major constraint
is the climate. Temperatures generally do not
exceed 30°C. July and August are the hottest
\ DIp YoU EXPECT2/ months, with a mean temperature of 19.4°C and
19°C, respectively. January and February are the
7 coldest months, with a mean temperature of
-10.9°C. Hence, the growing season in Ladakh is
restricted to less than six months in a year.
Dryland cultivation is not possible and the
entire cultivated area of 19,000 ha depends on
assured irrigation from the waters of melting
snow through long, winding streams from the
upper mountain reaches. Snow and glaciers are
the only sources of water. They melt slowly
/
\_fl CHURPUN |7 ““"H
through the day, and water is available mainly in
‘ the late evening, too late for cultivation. Also,
WATEROFFICIAL lll!lll.
e ul' there are considerable differences in stream flows
during the farming season, which creates
AITNINAN

> ‘éll(llur/ | immense difficulties. At sowing time, when water

30 Traditional Water Harvesting Systems

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River

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The entire cultivated area of Ladakh, which stands out like an oasis in a cold, rocky desert, depends on assured irrigation from the waters of
melting snow through long, winding streams from the upper mountain reaches. Snow and glaciers melt slowly throughout the day and water is
available for irrigation in-the late evening. This water is collected in tanks, locally called zings, and used the next day.

Trans-Himalaya 31
he key to civilisation in Ladakh is the intelligent use of and the flow of the streams is much greater late in the
water. Ladakh has abundanit sunlight and good soils, summer season. The people of Ladakh have built a system of
but without water it is a vast, barren desert. The arid Water reservoirs to meet their water needs. Glaciers melt
Ladakh region depends on glacier melt for its water supply. slowly through the day, and fill the streams mainly in the late
Water is available mainly late in the evening i the streams, evening.

MORNING
g
Phossioli 2000 AGARYAL/ G

In the afternoon a little more water can be seen in the same More water is available in the evening as the glaciers have
stream. fully melted.
is needed for irrigation, it is still cold and, hence, water 2. LAHAUL AND SPITI
from the snow-melt is very limited. On the other hand, as
the growing period is short, all farmers need irrigation Bounded by Tibet in the east and Ladakh in the north,
almost at the same time. the Lahaul-Spiti district of Himachal Pradesh is located at a
Despite these enormous odds, the Ladakhis have mean elevation of 3,048-4,572 m. The district is spread over
developed an excellent irrigation system. Water is an area of 1.22 mha, which makes it one of the largest
diverted from streams with the help of guiding channels, districts in the country. But it had a population of just
and towards the evening, it is taken to a small tank, locally 32,000 in 1981. Thus, it is one of the highest inhabited areas
known as a zing. The stored glacier water is then used the in the world with one of the lowest population densities.
following day in the fields. Each village has a large In the wild and desolate Lahaul and Spiti valleys,
network of canals and zings.12 temperatures plummet to -40°C. Rainfall is scanty and the
To ensure equity in the distribution of the scarce water, annual average from 1971 to 1979 was 279 mm, ranging
the villagers elect a water official known as churpun, at the from a low of 27.1 mm in 1976 to a high of 583.8 mm in
start of each agricultural season. The churpun ensures that 19723 The low monsoon clouds get blocked by the high
each farmer gets adequate water in proportion to the area mountains and leave the area dry and devoid of
of land he owns. The water official also ensures that no vegetation. Very little published material is available on
field is left unirrigated. Hence, disputes over use of water the irrigation methods of the local cultivators. They
are very rare. Canals are repaired by community effort. depend largely on diversion channels to irrigate their
Almost the entire irrigated area in the district is based on crops, as in Ladakh and Kargil. The area under cultivation
traditional canals, constructed and maintained by the in Lahaul-Spiti is just 3,007 ha and of this, only 137 ha is
villagers. The desert development programme (DDP) has cultivated more than once a year. The entire cropped area
recently undertaken some minor irrigation works, and the in Lahaul-Spiti has to be irrigated, which poses an
maintenance and repair of the traditional canals in the enormous constraint for agriculture. The per capita net
region. But the major emphasis of the government is on sown area is just 0.1 ha. Yet, more than 84 per cent of the
two medium-sized canals — the Kharbathang canal in total work force is engaged in agriculture. Given the
Kargil and the Igo-Phey canal in Ladakh. rugged terrain of the area and absence of rain, extension of
Streams are so important to a Ladakhi’s livelihood that minor irrigation schemes like the traditional diversion
they are traditionally worshipped. No activity that channels is the only hope for the area. Government
pollutes the streams, including washing of clothes, is departments have restricted their activities mainly to the
permitted. Unfortunately, this is not practised now in repair of the existing channels but they need to construct
urbanised places like Leh.2 more channels for adequate distribution of water.

Streams are so important to a Ladakhi's livelihood that they are traditionally worshipped. No activity that pollutes the streams, including
washing of clothes, was permitted. But modern ion is breaking down traditions.
e

. WERE IN A FIX
FOR TAKING ACTION...
THEY WORSHIP AS THEY

li

Trans-Himalaya 33
KUL WATERS FROM GLACIERS down precipitous mountain slopes and across crags and crevices.
Some kuls are 10 km long, and have existed for centuries.
The Spiti area of Himachal Pradesh is a cold desert but Water rights
surprisingly, agriculture is its mainstay. Spiti’s lunar-like
terrain was transformed into an agrarian success story by an The crucial portion of a kul is its head at the glacier, which is to
ingenious system, devised centuries ago to tap distant glaciers be tapped. The head must be kept free of debris, and so the kul
for water. But short-sighted developmental policies, though is lined with stones to prevent clogging and seepage. In the
well-intentioned, now threaten both this unique irrigation village, the kul leads to a circular tank from which the flow of
system and the social consciousness that spawned it. water can be regulated. For example, when there is need to
Spiti is an important trading post on the route connecting irrigate, water is let out of the tank in a trickle. Water from the
Ladakh and the plains of Himachal Pradesh. Villages in the kul is collected through the night and released into the exit
Spiti subdivision are located between 3,000 m and 4,000 m, channel in the morning. By evening, the tank is practically
which means they are snowbound six months a year. Rainfall is empty, and the exit is closed. This cycle is repeated daily.
negligible in Spiti because it is a rainshadow area. The soil is The kul system succeeds because Spiti residents mutually
dry and lacks organic matter. But, despite these handicaps, the cooperate and share. The culture also is instrumental in
Spiti valley has been made habitable and productive by human maintaining the carrying capacity of the surrounding cultivable
ingenuity. land. However, this system, carefully nurtured through the
The cropping season in Spiti is between May and October. centuries, now runs the risk of being upset through
Wheat and black pea are grown in black soil, green pea in government intervention.
sandy soil, and black pea and barley in yellowish soil. A Due to limited water availability, inheritance laws in Spiti
remarkable feature of farming in Spiti is the meticulous traditionally seek to prevent fragmentation of landholdings.
utilisation of all available space, however small. Even the The eldest son inherits not only the land, but also the farm
boundaries of fields and edges of pathways are used to grow implements, the family house and the family’s water rights. His
fodder grasses. Fertilisation in winter is done with human siblings either serve in the common household or, more likely,
waste collected in a novel way: each of Spiti’s double-storeyed become monks or nuns in Buddhist monasteries. Thus, a sort of
houses is equipped with a dry latrine on the top floor, the population control has been evolved, which serves to stave off
waste being collected in a room below. pressure on the landholdings.
But Spiti's unique contribution to farming is kul irrigation, Water rights are owned exclusively by members of the hada
which utilises kuls (diversion channels) to carry water from ghars (big houses), who are descendants of the original settlers
glacier to village. The kuls often span long distances, running or founders of the village. This system, besides establishing the
pre-eminence of the bada ghars, has also
A kul (channel) is found in precipitous mountainous area. Where the terrain is installed a local social hierarchy. The greater the
muddy, the kul is lined with rocks to keep it free from clogging. A satellite picture share of a family’s water rights, the more land it
of a kul.
controls. In Kaza, for example, water rights
over the single kul, irrigating 32 ha, are shared
by 18 bada ghars. Other families in Kaza have to
buy water from the bada ghars, and payment is
generally made in kind or by providing free
labour, but often the water is given freely.
Water transactions are based on trust and are
neither written down nor codified.
When a good snowfall assures abundant
water, kul water is freely dispensed, but when
water is scarce, equality gives way to a
preferential system. During a water shortage,
bada ghar members irrigate their fields first;
others get water only later in the season. This
practise has the advantage of ensuring that the
demand for labour is spread over the entire
harvest season because the bada ghat's crops
ripen early, when other families are free to help
in harvesting. This spacing of the need for
labour does away with demand peaking at the
| same time throughout the valley, and provides
a firm basis for community labour. These
g cooperative efforts also mean that time and
effort do not become areas of conflict between
28 those who require labour and those offering it.
Nevertheless, water distribution from kuls
can create tension, for, when there is a water
shortage, the bada ghars in effect are in a
dominant position and suffer the least, unlike
3 those with secondary access who have to await

34 Traditional Water Harvesting Systems.

7 -
A kul leads to a circular village tank, as the one seen above in the Kaza village, from which water is released as and when required.

their turn, but are not certain if their share will be adequate. modernising agent, whose actions are profoundly changing
But even among bada ghars, the distribution of water shares traditional production practises and social patterns. Its
may be unequal. The factors that determine sharing among sponsorship of facilities ranging from schools to hospitals has
them are ot clear, and probably were settled when the kul was opened up a variety of government jobs and agriculture is no
constructed. Padma Dorjea, a Kaza schoolteacher, says the longer the valley’s only source of sustenance and employment.
family that contributed the most in labour and other resources The irrigation department has taken control of the kuls and
when the kul was constructed, gets the largest share under introduced a number of technical and physical innovations. Kul
water rights passed on through generations. heads, for example, have been reinforced with cement or
The unit of kul water is one day’s supply. Between sowing concrete and some of the kuls have been complemented with
in April and harvesting in September, water availability 1s for rubber pipes. Old kuls have been repaired and renovated in this
approximately 70 days. But if a family whose share is 30 days manner and new kuls have been constructed.
need kul water for only 20 days, it can sell its surplus. These interventions, along with the increasing dominance
In Kibber, water is supplied by three kuls whose shares are of a market economy, a rise in labour mobility, and the
owned jointly by 32 bada ghars. The kuls, named Phil, Phizur availability of alternative sources of employment, have doomed
and Shrik, together irrigate 73 ha of land. Bighteen bada ghars traditional social mechanisms for the repair and maintenance of
use the waters of the Phil kul, whose supply is sufficient to kuls. Traditionally, community labour was used to repair kuls
irrigate 4 ha daily. The 18 families using it are divided into two and each household contributed either in labour or in kind to
groups of nine families each, and the water supply is alternated keep the kuls in good condition. But residents of Kibber, Losar
between the two groups on a daily basis. Water from Shrik, the and Sagnam villages complain that the irrigation department's
smallest of the three kuls, is shared by six bada ghars, also intervention and the lack of labour arising from increased
divided into two groups. But the eight bada ghars that share the alternative job opportunities have resulted in the breakdown of
Phizur kul, are divided mnto four groups, with each getting the traditional system.
water just once every four days because the kul's capacity is Furthermore, the government’s stipulation that kul water
limited, Other families in Kibber have to acquire water from the must be distributed equally is jeopardising the valley’s
32 bada ghars. traditional social order, and the bada ghars face the loss of both
Water shares are renewed and adjusted every season control over water and their position in the village hierarchy.
according to need, but a share cannot be lent, sold or disposed However, the disbanding of the traditional hierarchies does not
of in perpetuity. This restriction preserves the position of the automatically result in egalitarianism because the emerging
bada ghar families. social order is based on market forces and money power. This
means that access to kul water will no longer be based on
Controlling rules availability and need, and monetisation of this resource will
leave many of Spiti’s families impoverished. -
Over the past 15 years, however, the Union government has
slowly made its presence felt in the Spiti valley as a Rohan D'Souza

Trans-Himalaya 35