ACTIVITIES wdletivityos +) To make a paper scale of given least count e.g. 0.2 cm, 0.5 em. Apparatus ‘A sheet of thick white paper, half meter rod, a paper cutter Theory Least count js the minimum distance that can be mea sured by an instrument. Procedure (i) Paper scale of least count 0.2 em. 1, Take a thick white paper and cut a strip of length 15 em and width Lem. ce | 2. Mark point A as zero and mark points on PQ at a distance of 1.0 cm and write on 0, 1.2... 15 (Fig. 1.0). Fig. 1.4 3. Now divide 1.0 cm into 5 equal parts, so length of each part is tem = 0.2 em, Mark these points up to 15 em mark. 4, Paste this scale on a wooden strip. 5. Now paper scale of least count 0.2 em and of range of 15 cm is ready. (ii) Paper seale of least count 0.5 em 6, Repeat the steps I and 2 as above. 7. Now di fe 1.0 cm into 2 equal parts, so length of each part is ~ =0.5 em, Mark these points upto 15 em mark (Fig. 1.2). 10 11 ry ; alo i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 2 13 14 15 Fig. 1.2 8, Paste this scale on the wooden strip. 9. Now paper scale of least count 0.5 cm and range of 15 em is ready. Precautions 1. The divisions should be marked with a sharp ball pen, 2. The cm marking should be longer than [Link] and 0.5 em markings 3. The scale should be cut along the boundary using a sharp paper cutter —— peor.VIVA VOCE (Q. 1. What is count of an instrument ? \\ns. Least count is the minimum distance that can be measured by a given instrument What is the significance of determining least count ? \us. We know that in a given scale, the value of each division is not marked, so in order to know the value oj unmarked division we generally find out the least count of the given scale before taking the reading with th instrument. ‘ale having least count 0.2 em ? I usin, Q.3. Can we measure the length of a pen Ans. Yes. Q.4. Should fi \ns. The lines should be sharp. Q.5. What is 8.1. of length es showing graduations be sharp or thi Ans. S\L unit of length is metre (m). Q.6. What is the least count and ve jer constant mathemati \ns. Least count = I main scale division ~ I vernier scale division ie LC=1MSD.-1V.S.D. = Vernier constant. What is a micrometer ? ‘A micrometer is an instrument (or screw gauge) having least count 10 micron. i of a commonly available vernier callipers What is the least c Q.9. What is the unit of least count of an instrument ? Ans. It depends on the nature of instrument. t count less than that of a metre scale. Q. 10. Name three instruments having Ans. Vernier callipers, spherometer and screw gauge. To determine mass of a given body using a meter scale by principle of moments. ‘A metre scale, a wedge, known mass, unknown mass and thread. Theory Principle of moments Irstate that jf body is in equilibrium under the action of number of forces, then the sum of clockwise moments ofthe ‘forces is equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments of the forces. ale is balanced at the centre of gravity using a wedge and two masses m, (known) and m, (unknown) are A metre sci hung with the help of two threads at points A and B an shown in Fig. 2.1. ee ODERN'S abe OF PRACTICAL PHYSICS (X!)Kk * +4 2 20 30 40508 ° pee! 1] Collet ugly V \ y Bap [de oes Unknown mass Fig. 21 At equilibrium Clockwise moment = Anticlock wise moment m8 ay = m, 8.4, may m= ay Procedure Arrange the metre scale horizontally by supporting it atthe sharp edge heavy wedge at 50 cm mark. Suspend a known mass in, (= 50 g say) on the left side of centre of gravity and unknown mass Mp (= 80 g say) con the right side of the centre of gravity Adjust the position of known and unknown masses till the metre scale becomes horizontal Note the position of known mass and unknown mass. Repeat steps 2 to 4, three times by changing the masses my and my Observations No. | Masses Distances Unknown mass may my | my my my a, | a; me 1 2 Result ‘The unknown mass of the body My = nwo Precautions 1. The wedge should be sharp. 2, Metre scale should have uniform mass distribution 3. Metre scale should be balanced accurately. 4, Only light weight threads be used for suspending the weights, 5. The thread loop should be parallel to the marking on the metre scale in each case ACTIVITIESSources of Error 1. The value writen on the slotted masses of the hangers may not be correct 2. Edge of the wedge may not be sharp. 3. The C.G. of the meire scale may be inaccurate. 4. Metre scale may have faulty calibration. VIVA VOCE Q. 1. What is the principle of mo Ans. See theory Q.2. What is the difference between torque and moment of force ? nS. Moment of force is also called torque. Q.3. Define mass. of matter contained in a body. Sle Ans. Mass is the quanti Q.4. What is the unit of mass Ans. In $.L, the unit of mass is kilogram (ks). Q.5. What do you mean by weight of a body ? Ans. Weight of a body is the force with which a body is pulled by earth towards its centre. Q.6. Wha of weight and how mass is related to weight ? Ans. In S.L, the unit of weight is newton (N). ‘And weight = mass x ace, due to gravity ie, Wem. Q.7. What is the name of point about which a body is free to turn isthe wi Ans. Ttis called fulerum. Q.8. What is a couple “Two equal and opposite parallel ines acting at different points ina body con Ans. Q.9. Can mass of a body be zero ? As. No, mass cam never be zero asi is quantity of matter in body Q.10. Can weight of a body be zero Ans. Yes, weight of a body is zero at the centre of earth, GRAPHS Aetivityos) To plot a graph of given set of data with proper choice and scales and error bars. | Apparatus Graph paper, metre scale, pencil, sharpner and the given data. pheory Graphs: 4 Graph sa pictorial representation ofthe vara a io variation of one quantity with respect to another. It is a straigh line or a curve showing the exact mode of variation of one quantity with respect to the other. By the help of graph. tit numerical values ofthe quantities yield geometrical results like the length of the line, the area enclosed by the graph. 3 slope of the curve ete. The various uses of the graphs are " ae 8. MODERN'S abc OF PRACTICAL PHYSICS (!hi: A graph is used Uses of (i) to verify certain laws, Gi) to find minimum or maximum value of dependent variables. (iii) for calibration of instruments, (iv) for finding mean value from a large number of observations Precautions 1. Choose a scale which show uncertainty by at least one smallest division on the graph sheet 2. The curve or line should be thit 3. The graph should be a free hand curve 4 Every graph must be given a suitable headin; 1g, which should be written on the top of the graph Sources of error 1. Improper choice of origin and the scale. 2. Improper marking of observation points. VIVA VOCE Q. 1. What do you mean by graph ? \ns. A graph is a pictorial representation of the variation of one quantity [Link]. other. Q.2. What do you mean by error bars ? Ans, Error bars are graphical representation of the variability of data and are uncertainty in a reported measurements, used on graph to indicate the error or Q.3. How do we show two variables on a graph papers by error bars ? Ans, In error bars, the variables, are not shown by points but by bars. Q. 4. What are independent and dependent vari Independent variable is variable (or physical quantity) which varies on its own. Dependent variable is the quantity which varies due to variation in independent variable Ans, What does the area of the rectongle indicate ? Ans, Area represents the region of uncertainty of two variables (say «oF ¥), Q.6. What is the shape of the graph of the given equation y = mx + Ans. y= mx +e represents a straight line. To measure the force of limiting friction for rolling ofa roller on edletivitys 4) a horizontal plane. Aparatus Inclined plane apparatus with glass sheet Filte box, spring balance and a spirit level 1d and a pully attached at one end, metallic roller, thread, pan, weight Theory xeolling friction + When a body rolls or tends to roll over a surface, the Force of friction comes into play is ealled rolling friction, For the same normal pressing force, rolling friction is for less than the sliding friction, Also the rolling friction is inversely proportional to the radius of the rolling body and is more for rigid surfaces, ‘The laws of rolling friction are the Same as those of sliding friction. However the coefficient of rolling friction (4) is very small for the same two surfaces, Ibis for this reason that all vehicles are provided with wheels. TNT TNS ee ggProcedure ‘Adjust the free running of the pulley and oil, if ne Place the inclined plane apparatus horizontally on a table and level it with help of spirit level. ssa 1 3. Find the least count of the spring balance and find the weight of the weighing pan. hs 4. The one end of the thread to the roller and other end to the pan, so that the pan hangs freely in the ai 3 Metatie Thread Roler {—— aii << . / LIN) LLL, [st >> Pulley Jef x | ( } Pan FF aN ~* Weight Fig. 41 5. Put some weights on the scale pan (P) until the metallic roller, when tapped gently just begins to roll over ‘he j surface of the glass. Record the total weight in the pan including the weight of the pan, | 6. Repeat the experiment by placing other known weights. Record the observations and hance measure force limiting friction in each case. Observations Least count of spring balance =...........2f Zero error of spring balance of Zero correction of spring balance = af Observed weight of the pan (p) gf Comected weight of the pan (p) = so...8f [Link]. Weight placed on Force of limiting friction the pan (W) (in gf) (for rolling the roller) F, = (W+p) ef I 2 3 4 5 Mean = recog Result Force of limiting friction for rolling the roller = Pope MODERN'S abc OF PRACTICAL PHYSICS (X!)Precautions |. Surface of the inclined plane apparatus should be horizontal and dust free. 2, Pulley should be frictiontess, 3. Tap the glass gently Sources of error 1. Pulley may have some friction. 2. Spring balance may not be accurate. 3. The plane of the base may not be exactly horizontal VIVA VOCE Define friction, Friction. Friction may be defined as the force which acts when a body slides or rolls or tends to do so on the surface of another body and acts in tangential direction to the surface in contact opposite to the direction of motion of body. Q. 2, Define limiting friction and dynamic friction Aus. Limiting friction. The maximum value of force of friction which comes into play when a body just begins to slide over the surface of another body is called limiting friction. Dynamic or kinetic friction. When the applied force exceeds the limiting friction, the motion stars, the force of friction is called kinetic friction. ‘The force of friction which comes into play between the surfaces of contact of two bodies, when one body is in steady motion over the surface of another body, is called kinetic friction, Q.3. Define rolling friction, Ans. When a body rolls over a surface, the force friction which comes into play between the two surfaces is called rolling friction. Q. 4. What is the cause of frietion ? In which case is it maximum ? |\ns. It is force of attraction between the molecules of substances in contact, It is maximum when both the surfaces are extremely smooth. Q.5. How is coefficient of friction altered when the weight of the body is doubled ? Ans. It remains constant. It depends only on the nature of the surfaces in contact Q.6. What is the direetion of force of fi 2 Ans. The direction of force of friction is always opposite to the direction of motion of the body. Q. 7. Why is limiting friction greater than kinetic friction ? Ans. When a body is placed over another body. the molecular bonds are formed at the surfaces of actual contact. In order to move the body, we have to break these bonds. The maximum force required to break these bonds is called limiting friction and when the body starts moving on the other body, new bonds are formed at the point of actual contact. It is easy to break these new bonds. Hence kinetic friction is less than limiting friction. In “other words, limiting friction is greater than kinetic friction. Q.8._ Are rolling and sliding friction equal ? Ans. No, Rolling friction is always less than the sliding friction. Q.9. Is friction self-adjusting force ? Ans. Static friction is a self-adjusting force. Other forces of friction are not self-adjusting, Q.10, How is the friction reduced in a fast moving vehicle ? Ans. Fast moving vehicles are given streamlined shape to reduce the force of friction. TESTo study the variation in range of a projectile (jet of water) with ay) ee ene Apparatus A water pipe and metallic nozzle of narrow opening, source of water under pressure, a measuring tape, a protractor, Theory Projectile : Any object thrown in space or air such that it moves under the effect of gravity alone is called a projectile, ‘Trajectory : The path followed by a projectile is called its trajectory. Horizontal range is the horizontal distance between point of projection and point of return, covered by a jet of water during its flight. If the water jet leaves the nozzle with a velocity u having angle of inclination @ with the horizontal, then horizontal range R is given by w sin20 8 R= Making a protractor of large size : Take a circular plyboard sheet of radius about 25 cm. Draw a diameter. Cut it into two halves to form two dees. On one of the dees, draw the angles at an interval of 15° from 0° to 180°. Fix it vertically ‘on a wooden board (Fig. 5.1). Protractor Horizontal Range, R Fig. 5.1 Procedure Make arrangement of constant water reservior at one end of a horizontal slab of the laboratory. Fix the nozzle at one end of the water pipe and connect the other end of the pipe to the tap of reservior. I. 2. 3. Turn on the tap and ensure that there is no leakage of water from the pipe (remove if itis there). 4. Fix the protractor vertically with its graduated face towards yourself as shown in Fig. 5.1. 5. Keep metallic nozzle at the centre O of the protractor and direct the nozzle of the jet along 15° line on the dee. MODERN'’S abc OF PRACTICAL PHYSICS (Xi)6. Open the tap in such a wi pen fe ip in sch a way that jet of water moves in a parabolic path and comes ack onthe same level ASK Your Point A where the water falls. Close the tap. 7. Change the angle to 30°, 4: es fo 30°, 45°, 60° and 75° and rey s. 7 “ 3 Plot a graph between ‘graph between angle of projection 6 (along x-axis) and range (R) along y-axis. Observations [Link]. Angle of projection of water Range of water jet Jet 6 (in degree) (nem) 1 ; 15° OA= 30° OB 3 3 45° oc= ‘ 60° op 75° OE= Graph Plot a graph between angle of i ae gle of projection (6) (along x-axis) and range (R) along y-axis. The graph will be as shown lag . Rem) —> 015 3 4 60 75 (Degrees) —> Fig. 5.2 Result From the graph we find that : 1, The graph is parabolic in shape. 2, Range is maximum at 6 = 45°. 3. Range is same for @ and 90-0 (i.e. 15° and 75° or 30° and 60"). Precautions 1. The angle of projection should be measured 2, Water level in reservior should remain cons 3, The trajectory of the jet of water should fie inthe plane of the protractor. 4, Jet should be narrow to get a sharp point of return. 5, There should not be any leakage in the pipe. accurately. fant to keep Velocity of projection (v) constant. 47 ACTIVITIESSouces of erroy Qu Ans, Q2 Ans, a inclined plane (using double inclined plane). 1. The pressure of water and hence the projection velocity of water may not remain constant 2. The marking on the protractor may not be uniform, VIVA VOCE Lile and (rajectory of penjectile What do you mean by proj See theory. Give examples of projectil (WA bullet fired from a gun. (ii) A javelin thrown by an athelete. (ii) A stone thrown by a body. On what factors does the range of a projectile depend ? Range depends on both the initial velocity and angle of projection of a projectile. How much is the speed of the projectile at its highest po Iti zero. At what point of its trajectory does a project Its minimum speed is zero at the highest point of the trajectory. - of trajectory an object thrown upward is the acceleration perpendicular to the velocity ? hhas its minimum speed ? At what pi At the highest point of trajectory, the acceleration is perpendicular to the velocity. What is meant by the range of a projectile ? Write an expression for it Range (or horizontal range) of a projectile is horizontal distance between the point of projection to the point on the ground, where the projectile retums again. 2 pe sine e When the horizontal range of a projectile is maximum z Since R = “$028 8 So R will be maximum if sin 26 = 1 or 26 =90" or 6 =45° A man wants to hit « bird sitting on the top of a tree, In what direction should he point his rifle ? ‘The man should aim his rifle a little higher than the target, To study the conservation of energy of a ball rolling down on an oN Apparatus Double inclined plane (with glass surfaces), a steel ball, wo wooden blocks, metre scale, plumb line, spirit level Theory Principle of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but can be changed Jrom one from to another. If energy in one form disappears, an equivalent amount of ‘energy appears in some other form. —_——_____ MODERN'S abe OF PRACTICAL PHYSICS (Xi)«of several types like mechanical energy, lear enerey and SO on. Here we shal a” magentic energy: ot ch chemical ly. Mechanical energy is + heat energy, sound energy, light energy: Fe I confine ourselves to mechanical energy On! ppaneiceerty due © motion fa body and KE = Ly? «a psenial enerzy de 10 position or configuration ofa body and PE = mgh y of conservation of energy of spherical ball down an inclined plane, we make use a double inclined plane 3 in Fig. 6.1. We know that an object tends to roll down an inclined plane, with increased speed if friction or other ‘ons allow. This, Because the force of earth gravitation acts on the object to the lowest possible point, In double stesine te inclination of (Wo tacks may not be equal {ball of mass 'm'is placed on AO plane at point P at height h, above the horizontal plane OO" has Kinetic enerzy and cial eNeTEY KE jr? (Ball at P is at rest, v = 0) PE = mgh, ‘al energy at P E, =KE+PE=04 mgh, is E, = mgh, “o ‘When the ball is released from point A, it rolls down, a a tnsope and go up the opposite side on the plane O'B sterain height f, due to conversion of PE into kinetic, xy. Atpoint Q KE = dmv? 0 Ball at Qat rest v = 0) PE = mgh, Taal energy at Q E, =KE+PE=0+mgh, mn E, = maha (ii From law of conservation of energy E, =E, ic mgh, = mghy, hy hy Procedure horizontally with the help of spirit level. 1. Adjust the experimental table : 2. Clean the stee! ball and the double inclined plane with cotton or tissue paper 3. Taset the meoden block under each track to make it inclined as shown in Fig. 6.1 (angle of inclination) of the be equal. 4 Bole te el tall’ aa point P and measure the height PM = hy using a scale, 5. Note the point Q upto which the ball rises on the other inclined plane and measure the height QN = h scale Repeat the experiment at least five ti first inclined plane. ae > i using a imes by changing the inclination ofthe tacks or position P of the ball on 49Observations and Calculations Vertical heights [Link]. Position of the ball PM QN= hy ontrack OA | ontrack 0'B Result Within the limits of experimental eror, we find that h, = ty. So we find thatthe ball has same initial and final poten Tat orcs ouah during the motion, the form of energy changes and the total mechanical energy remains the same. Thus aw of conservation of energy is verified, Precautions |. Clean the steet ball and inclined plane with cotton cloth or tissue paper. 2. Both inclined plane must be stable, 3. Note the initial position and final position ofthe stee! ball carefully. 4. Note the vertical heights of points P and Q carefully, Sources of error 1. Some energy is always lost due to friction, 2. Some energy is lost due to collision of the ball with second inclined plane. VIVA VOCE Q. 1. What do you mean by energy ? Ans. Energy is the capacity to do work. Q.2. What is the unit of energy ? Ans. In S.L, the unit of energy is joule and in egs, the unit of energy is erg, Q.3. What is the relation between joule and ¢ rg? Ans. } joule = 107 erg. - Q.4. What do you mean by mech PS. In physical sciences, mechanical energy is the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy. In other words, itis energy in an object due to its motion o position or path, Q.5. Define kinetic energy. ‘APS. Kinetic energy. It is defined as the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion and is measured as. ical energy ? KE. = Lmv2, where m = mass of body and v = velocity of body. KLE. is always positive and is a scalar quantity. —_—— 80 = MODERN'S abc OF PRACTICAL PHYSICS (XI)6, On what factors, the rate of tp depends upon cooling depend ? (@ Area of the surface (i) 1. _ surface through which heat i Ie ifference between the body and the suiroundings and (i) nature of Isit possible that there is a Yes, during boiling of erties in the temperature of a body despite being heated ? at melting of ice the ins c* Q.7. What is black body 2 temperature femains constant. ‘A black body is the one which absorbs al the rai ‘What is Newton's law of cooling ? See theory. ations falling on it Activity To study the effect of load on depression of a suitably clamped metre Activi (8) scale loaded at (i) its end (ii) in the middle. _ Apparatus ‘A metre scale, thread, slotted weights with hanger (100 g, 150 g, 200 g, 250 g), two sharp wedges, clamp stand, travelling microscope, spirit level. Theory Beam is a rod of uniform cross-section whose length is very large as compared to its thickness. So that shearing suesses over any cross section are small and may be neglected. ( The cantilever (beam loaded at one edge) Acantilever is a beam fixed horizontally at one end and loaded at the other. ‘The depression d of a beam (or cantilever) of length ! and of rectangular cross-section having breadth b and depth d clamped at one end and loaded at the free end is given by (Fig. 6.1) awe Yb Fig. 64 ts tre , ‘metre scale) is loaded at cent a ‘When beam - corted on two knife edges at its two ends A and B as shown in Fig 6.2. Leta load W is suspended a beam be su f tC. ‘ rom S ae ao of the beam having breadth b and depth d. The depression at point C is given e lens ee we. 4Ybd* —— 107 TS ——_—_ ,Wema Fig. 6.2 Procedure (@ When metre scale is loaded at one end 1. Find the vernier constant of the travelling microscope. Clamp the metre scale firmly with clamp stands at one end on the corner of a table as shown in Fig, 6. 2. 3. Focus the microscope on the edge of the metre scale corresponding to zero weight and note the reading on hy veritcal scale of the microscope. Add 50 g weight at free end again focus the microscope on the edge of the metre scale. Go, on increasing the load in steps of 50 g and go on noting the corresponding readings after focussing ty microscope on the edge of the metre scale. 6. Now goon decreasing the load gradually in steps of 50 g and take reading as before. For a given load there wi be two readings of the scale one for the increasing load and one for the decreasing. (i) When beam (metre scale) loaded at the middle Find the positions of C.G. of the metre scale by balancing it on a sharp wedge. Place the metre scale symmeticlly 7. on two knife edges keeping them about 80 cm as shown in Fig. 6.2. 8. Tie a thread at the C.G. and record the reading with the help of travelling microsope and (make the microscope horizontal by using spirit level) at the lower edge of the metre scale. 9. Add $0 g weight gently on the hanger and focus the microscope again at the lower edge of the metre scale. 10. Repeat steps 5 and 6 and note the positions of the microscope at the lower edge of the metre scale, Observations Vernier constant of the travelling microscope cm (i) When metre scale is loaded at one end [Link].| Load Microscope readings Depression per added | Load increasing Load decreasing Mean unit loand 6/W W (in gf é 1 0 2 50 3. 100 4. 150 5. 200 6. 250 2. 300 | ee ange ree i er or ree 08 $$ MODERN’ abe OF PRACTICAL PHYSICS (X)We find that the dey Pression is di irecth iy When metre scale is Y Proportional loaded atthe midge n° om applied i. B/W is constant with experimental ror [Link]. Load added Ww " = Load decreasing [~~ Mean fr esr a é 50, 100 150 200 250 300 Microscope readings Voading increasing saweeper Result We find that the dey , ‘pression is directly proportional to the load applied i Gragh to the load applied i 4/W is constant with experimental error. If we plot a graph Braph between load W and depression 3, in both the cases, the graph is a straight line means 6 « W. ' 3 Ee Precautions ‘The metre scale should be clamped firmly and be horizontal. ‘The load should be placed and removed gently. Load should not be incresed beyond elastic limit, Reading on the metre scale should be taken carefully. ‘The support forthe krife edges shoud be rigid and heavy and the knife edges shouldbe sharp and gi 6 Kanife edges should be placed symmetrical each oler and at equal distance from C.G. werner Sources of error 1. The result is affected by the force of friction between the metre scale and knife edges. 2. Sometimes there is an error in weight of 50 g. 3, The wedges may not be sharp. ACTIVITIES