Concepts and Developments

in Physics

Dr. Radhakrishnan A N
Assistant Professor of Physics
T J M Govt. College, Manimalakunnu

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Science

• The word science originally came from the Latin word ‘Scientia’ which

means ‘to know’.

• Knowledge is a familiarity, awareness, or understanding of facts or ideas

acquired through experience or education

• Science is a systematic attempt to understand natural phenomena in as

much detail and depth as possible, and use the knowledge so gained to

predict, modify and control phenomena.

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Scientific Method
• The Scientific method is a process with the help of which scientists try to investigate, verify, or

construct an accurate and reliable version of any natural phenomena.

• The scientific method has four steps:

1. Observation and description of a phenomenon (a concept)

2. Formulation of a hypothesis to explain the phenomenon

3. Test the hypothesis. If experiments do not confirm the hypothesis, the hypothesis must be rejected or

modified (Go back to Step 2)

4. Establish a theory based on repeated verification of the results.

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Hypothesis and Theory

• A hypothesis is a suggested explanation for an observable phenomenon based on

reasoning.

• A hypothesis is only a suggested possible outcome, and is testable and falsifiable.

• When a hypothesis is supported by experimental observations, it becomes a law

• A limited number of laws which explains a natural phenomena or behaviour of a

physical system is called a theory.

• A good theory not only explains observations and measurements, but also predicts

some new phenomena

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Modification of a theory

• A theory needs modification when new observations contradicts or deviates from the

theory

• Example 1: Geocentric theory by Greek astronomer Ptolemy in first century AD.

Heliocentric theory by Copernicus in 16th century AD

• Example 2: Corpuscular theory of light by Isaac Newton

Wave theory of light proposed by Christian Huygens

Quantum theory of light by Max Planck

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

What is Physics?

• The word physics is derived from a Greek word ‘Phusis’ which means ‘Nature’

and was first used by Aristotle, a Greek Philosopher.

• Physics is the study of nature.

• Physics is the study of everything

• Physics is the branch of Science which deals with the properties of Energy and Matter

'All science is either physics or stamp collecting’

by New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Aristotle (384 -322 BCE)

• The Greek Philosopher Aristotle was the

first to suggest in his book “The Physics” a
quantitative law of motion which states
that the velocity of any object is
proportional to the applied force and
inversely proportional to resistance
(F = mv)
• Aristotle’s four-element theory: All matter
are made up of four elements - earth,
water, air, and fire
• Aristotle proposed a geocentric model of
universe

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Ptolemy (100 – 170 CE)

• Alexandrian astronomer and

mathematician Ptolemy (150
CE) put forward a geocentric
model of the universe
• In this model, Earth is the
center of the universe and it is
not moving
• Planets like sun, moon,
mercury, Venus, Jupiter, Saturn
etc. revolves around the earth
in circular paths

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543 CE)

• In 1543, a Polish astronomer

Nicholas Copernicus proposed a
revised model of Universe by
putting the Sun at the centre – the
heliocentric model of the universe.

• Earth and other planets revolving

around the Sun in circular paths

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Tycho Brahe (1546 – 1601 CE)

• Tycho Brahe was a Danish pre-telescopic astronomer

• Tycho Brahe observed the night sky with his naked eye, using tools to make

careful measurements of celestial objects

• He was known for his comprehensive and unprecedentedly accurate

astronomical observations.

• He tried to combine geocentric model with Heliocentric model

• In Tychonic model, Sun is revolving around the Earth and all other planets

revolving around the Sun

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Johannes Kepler (1571 –1630 CE)

• Johannes Kepler was a German astronomer, mathematician, and natural philosopher.

• In 1600 CE, Johannes Kepler started assisting Tycho Brahe to analyze his accurate astronomical data

• Kepler was certain that Copernicus’ heliocentric model with the Sun at the centre was correct. But,

he was not able to convince Tycho Brahe.

• After the death of Tycho Brahe, Kepler mathematically analyzed his data and published his findings in

his book ‘Astronomia Nova’ in 1609.

• Kepler summarized his learning with three laws of planetary motion by adopting Copernicus’

heliocentric model

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

1. The planets all move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus.
2. The line joining the sun and the planet sweep out equal areas in equal interval of time.
3. The square of the orbital period of the planet is directly proportional to the cube of the
semi – major axis.

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Galileo Galilei (1564 –1642 CE)

• Galileo Galilei was an Italian polymath : astronomer, physicist, engineer, philosopher and

mathematician.

• He has been called the father of Modern physics, Modern Science and Observational

astronomy

• He constructed the first astronomical telescope with 10x magnification using convex lens as

objective and concave lens as eye piece.

• In 1610, Galileo observed the four largest moons of Jupiter – Io, Europa, Ganymede and

Callisto.

• He also used his telescope to observe Venus having a cycle of phases just like the Moon.

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Galileo Galilei (1564 –1642 CE)

• He also observed the rings of Saturn, but he thought it was a moon on either side of the

planet.

• Galileo observed craters and mountains on the Moon.

• He also discovered that the sun has sunspots, which appear to be dark in color.

• It was these discoveries that convinced Galileo that Copernicus’ heliocentric model of the

universe was correct.

• Galileo published his famous book ‘Dialogues concerning the Two Principal Systems of the

World’.

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Galileo Galilei (1564 –1642 CE)

• Galileo studied speed and velocity, gravity and free fall, the principle of relativity, inertia,
and projectile motion.
• Galileo Galilei who performed the famous experiment that proved that the acceleration at
which objects fall is the same irrespective of their mass. That experiment is known as
Galileo's Leaning Tower of Pisa Experiment.
• Galileo’s law of Inertia: A body continues to be in its state of rest or of uniform motion unless
an external force is applied on it.

• Galileo found that each pendulum has a constant period.

• Galileo designed a new form of hydrostatic balance, an instrument for weighing objects using
air and water.

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Sir Isaac Newton (1643 –1727 CE)

• Newton was an English physicist and mathematician, who was the culminating figure of the
Scientific Revolution of the 17th century.

• He published his famous book Philosophia Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical

Principles of Natural Philosophy) in 1687.

• In Principia, Newton constructed a refined and unified theory of mechanics from the works
of his predecessors like Tycho Brahe, Kepler, Galileo etc.

• Newton invented calculus independently of Leibniz and used it to express the laws of nature.

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Sir Isaac Newton (1643 –1727 CE)

• Newton’s three laws of motion set the foundation for modern classical mechanics.
• Newton’s First law of motion: Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion along a
straight-line unless compelled by an external force to change that state.
• Newton’s first law gives a qualitative definition of force and concept of inertia (mass)
• Newton’s second law of motion: Rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to
the applied force and takes place in the direction o the force.

𝒅𝒑
• Second law 𝑭= defines force quantitatively
𝒅𝒕

• Newton’s Third law of motion: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
• Action and reaction are simultaneously occurring pair of forces
• Action and reaction do not cancel each other since they act on different objects

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Sir Isaac Newton (1643 –1727 CE)

• Newton’s law of Gravitation : Every body in the universe attracts every other body with a force
which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square o the distance between the masses.

𝑮 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
• 𝑭=
𝒓𝟐
• By using the law of gravitation, Newton calculated the orbital periods and greatest distance
between five planets and the sun.

• His discovery of the gravitational force gave man the ability to predict movements of celestial
objects, while simultaneously validating Kepler’s laws and the heliocentric Copernican model of
the solar system.

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Sir Isaac Newton (1643 –1727 CE)

• In 1706, Newton published a book in the field of optics titled “Opticks”.

• His contribution to optics includes corpuscular theory of light, dispersion of light in prisms, Colour
spectrum of white light, Newton’s colour disc, Newton’s rings and invention of reflecting
telescopes.
𝑷
• Newton derived a formula for velocity of sound in gases 𝒗 = 𝝆

• Newton’s law of viscosity: The shear stress between the two adjacent layers of the fluid is
directly proportional to the negative value of the velocity gradient between the same two
adjacent layers of the fluid.
• Newton’s law of cooling: if the temperature of a body is not very different from the
surroundings, then the rate of cooling is proportional to the temperature difference between
the body and its surroundings.

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Joseph John Thomson (1856 –1940 CE)

• J J Thomson was a British physicist and Nobel Laureate in Physics

• From the late 17th century onward, it was widely accepted among the scientific
community that the atom was the smallest unit of matter.

• Scientists had shown that cathode rays produced in a cathode ray tube could be
deflected by magnetic field and cathode rays were composed of negatively charged
particles.

• J J Thomson was able to deflect the cathode rays using an electric field and found
that cathode ray particles were 1,800 times lighter than the lightest atom
(hydrogen).

• In May, 1987 he announced the first discovery of sub-atomic particles, which

Thomson called ‘negative corpuscle’. Later these particles were named as
electrons.

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Joseph John Thomson (1856 –1940 CE)

• J J Thomson put forward a new mode of atom called plum

pudding model

• In this model, negatively charged electrons are embedded

in a uniform positively charged sphere of matter

• Thomson’s atomic model explained the overall neutrality

of an atom.

• Its assumption that the total mass of an atom is uniformly

distributed all over the atom was inconsistent with some
experimental results.

• J J Thomson won Nobel Prize in Physics in 1906 for his

work on conductivity of electricity through gases and
discovery of electron

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Marie Curie(1867 –1934 CE)

• Marie Curie was a Polish and naturalized-French physicist and chemist who
conducted pioneering research on radioactivity.

• She was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the first person to win a Nobel
Prize twice, and the only person to win a Nobel Prize in both Physics and
Chemistry.

• W.C. Röntgen reported the discovery of X-rays in December 1895

• In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts emitted rays that
resembled X-rays in their penetrating power.

• Marie Curie decided to do her thesis on rays emitted by Uranium.

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Marie Curie(1867 –1934 CE)

• She discovered that the radiation emitted by Uranium composed of more than
one type. In 1898, Curie named this phenomenon as ‘radio activity’

• She also found out that radioactive rays can ionize the gas through which they
pass making it capable of conducting electricity.

• She is succeed in showing that degree of radioactivity is proportional to the

amount of Uranium in the radioactive materials.

• She hypothesized that the radiation was not the outcome of some interaction
of molecules but must come from the atom itself.

• She made another discovery that the heavy element thorium is also
radioactive.

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Marie Curie (1867 –1934 CE)

• Marie Curie along with her husband Pierre Curie, discovered a new element called
polonium which is hundreds of times more radio active than Uranium

• They discovered another element called radium which even more radioactive than
Uranium and Polonium.

• In 1903, She shared Nobel prize in physics with Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel for
their pioneering work developing the theory of "radioactivity“

• Marie won the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for her discovery of the elements
polonium and radium, using techniques she invented for isolating radioactive
isotopes

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Pierre Curie(1859 –1906 CE)

• Pierre Curie was a French physicist, a pioneer in crystallography, magnetism,

piezoelectricity, and radioactivity

• In 1880, Pierre and his older brother Paul-Jacques demonstrated the phenomenon
of piezoelectricity in some crystals.

• Piezoelectricity is the ability of some materials to generate an electric charge in

response to applied mechanical stress

• They invented a piezoelectric quartz electrometer

• They also demonstrated that crystals could be made to deform when subject to an
electric field leading to the development of crystal oscillators

• Curie's Symmetry Principle: Any symmetry or asymmetry present in an effect must

have been present in its cause.

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Pierre Curie(1859 –1906 CE)

• He designed and perfected an extremely sensitive torsion balance for measuring

magnetic coefficients

• Curie’s law: The magnetic susceptibility of a paramagnetic material is inversely

1 𝐶
proportional to absolute temperature 𝜒 ∝ 𝑇 𝑜𝑟 𝜒 = 𝑇 where C is Curie constant

• The Curie temperature is the temperature at which a ferromagnetic material turns

to a paramagnetic on heating.

• He and Marie discovered radium and polonium in their investigation of radioactivity

• In 1903, He shared Nobel prize in physics with Mary Curie and Henri Becquerel for
their pioneering work developing the theory of "radioactivity“

• The unit of radioactivity is curie, named in honour of Pierre Currie after his death

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Lord Rayleigh (1842 –1919 CE)

• Lord Rayleigh was a British physicist and mathematician who worked in many disciplines
including electrodynamics, optics and acoustics.

• He published a book titled “ Theory of Sound” and also published 446 research papers

• Rayleigh Scattering: The elastic scattering of light by molecules of gas that are smaller than
the wavelength of the light.

• Raleigh found that blue colour of sky is due to the scattering of light by the molecules of
the atmosphere.

• Rayleigh’s Scattering Law: Intensity of scattering of light is inversely proportional to the

fourth power of the wavelength.

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Lord Rayleigh (1842 –1919 CE)

• Lord Rayleigh developed methods for studying the physical properties of gases in the
atmosphere.

• When he compared nitrogen extracted from air with nitrogen extracted from chemical
compounds, he found that the nitrogen from air was heavier.

• He concluded that the air must contain another, previously unknown substance.

• In 1894 he, along with William Ramsay, succeeded in extracting the previously unknown
element, argon, in pure form and in analyzing its properties.

• In 1904 Rayleigh was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for the discovery of Argon

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Lord Rayleigh (1842 –1919 CE)

• Rayleigh – Jeans law: Raleigh derived an equation for black body radiation using classical
theories

• A black body is an idealized physical body that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation,
regardless of frequency or angle of incidence.

• A black body emits radiation which depends on the temperature o the black body

• Rayleigh derived the equation connecting frequency of the emitted radiation and temperature
of the body

• The proportionality constant in the equation is corrected by Jeans and hence it is known as
Rayleigh – Jeans law

• It is experimentally found that Rayleigh – Jeans law is valid for low frequencies.

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Max Planck (1858 –1947 CE)

• Max Planck was a German theoretical physicist who originated quantum theory

• In 1894 , Max Planck turned his attention to black body radiation problem

• A black body is a perfect absorber and perfect emitter

• The problem to find a relation between frequency of black body radiation and temperature of

the black body satisfying experimentally observed black body radiation curve.

• Wein proposed Wein’s law or black body black body radiation which correctly predicted the

behaviour at high frequencies.

𝝀𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑻 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Black Body radiation curve
Max Planck (1858 –1947 CE)

• The Raleigh – Jeans law for black radiation agreed with experimental results at low frequencies
and created “ultrasonic catastrophe” at high frequencies.

• Planck formulated an equation for black body radiation called Planck’s radiation law:

𝟖𝝅𝒉𝝂𝟑 𝟏
𝑢 𝝂 𝒅𝝂 = 𝒅𝝂
𝒄𝟑 𝒉𝝂
𝐞𝐱𝐩 −𝟏
𝒌𝑻

• This equation successfully explained black body radiation curve at all frequencies

• To derive this equation, Planck assumed that the oscillators in the cavity of the black
body must have only discrete energies given by 𝜺𝒏 = 𝒏𝒉𝝂 where n = 0, 1, 2 ….

• An oscillator emits radiation of frequency 𝝂 if the oscillator drops from higher

energy state to next lower energy state

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Max Planck (1858 –1947 CE)

• Each discrete bundle of energy ℎ𝜈 is called quantum

• The concept that light is emitted or absorbed in multiples of quantum, ℎ𝜈 , is

called Quantum theory

• In 1905, Albert Einstein used the Planck’s theory to explain the photoelectric
effect

• Einstein established the particle nature of light using Planck's theory

• In 1913, Neils Bohr used Planck theory to develop a new and accurate model of
atom

• 1n 1918, Max Planck received Nobel prize for his work

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Werner Heisenberg(1901 –1976 CE)

• Werner Heisenberg was a German theoretical physicist and one of the main
pioneers of the theory of quantum mechanics.

• In 1925, Heisenberg developed the matrix mechanics formulation of quantum

mechanics.

• In matrix mechanics, the physical properties of particles are described by

matrices that evolve over time.

• Using matrix mechanics, he was able to extend the Bohr’s model of atoms by
desribing how quantum jump occurs.

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Werner Heisenberg(1901 –1976 CE)

• In 1926, Heisenberg proposed uncertainty principle which states that it is

impossible to know both the exact position and momentum of an object at the
same time.

𝒉
∆𝒙 ∆𝒑 ≥
𝟒𝝅
• This uncertainty is not caused by disturbances in measuring process, bu it is
an inherent property of nature.

• The basic cause of uncertainty is wave – particle duality

• Uncertainty principle is now regarded as a fundamental principle of

Quantum mechanics

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Werner Heisenberg(1901 –1976 CE)

• From 1925 to 1927, Neils Bohr and Heisenberg devised an interpretation of quantum
mechanics called ‘The Copenhagen Interpretation’

• According to Copenhagen Interpretation, physical systems generally do not have definite

physical properties prior to being measured and the quantum mechanics can only predict the
probability distribution of possible results of a given measurement.

• The act of measurement affects the system, causing the set of probabilities to reduce to one
o the possible values immediately after measurement. This known as collapse of the
wavefunction.

• In 1932, Nobel prize in Physics was awarded to Heisenberg for his contributions to quantum
mechanics

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Erwin Schrodinger (1887 –1961 CE)

• Erwin Schrodinger was Australian theoretical Physicist who achieved fame for
his contribution to quantum mechanics

• In 1926, Schrodinger developed wave mechanics, a mathematical technique

that describes the relationship between the motion of a particle that exhibits
wavelike properties (such as electron) and its allowed energies.

• Schrodinger derived a differential equation describing the behaviour of a

quantum mechanical system, called Time Independent Schrodinger wave
equation.

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Erwin Schrodinger (1887 –1961 CE)

Where 𝝍 is called wave function of the quantum mechanical system.

In quantum mechanics, a system or a particle is represented by a wave function which

contains measurable information about a system.

Wavefunction is obtained by solving the Schrodinger equation corresponding to the system

under consideration

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Erwin Schrodinger (1887 –1961 CE)

• Schrodinger’s wave mechanics was used to describe the energies and spatial distributions of
electrons in atoms and molecules.

• Using wave equation, Schrodinger was able to find the energy levels of quantum harmonic
oscillator, rigid rotator and diatomic molecule.

• Schrodinger also derived a time dependent Schrodinger equation which describes the time
evolution of a quantum mechanical system

H is the Hamiltonian operator

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Erwin Schrodinger (1887 –1961 CE)

• Using his method, Schrodinger was able to explain stark effect (shifting and splitting of
spectral lines of atoms and molecules due to the presence of an external electric field).

• He was also able to treat problems in which the system changes with time such as
scattering problems.

• In 1935, he proposed a thought experiment called ‘Schrodinger’s cat’ to establish the

validity of Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics

• In 1933, the Nobel prize was awarded to Heisenberg, Schrödinger, and Dirac, who have
created and developed the basic ideas of modern atomic physics

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Albert Einstein (1879 –1955 CE)

• Einstein was a German Physicist, generally considered as the most influential scientist of 20th
century
• In 1905, Einstein published four papers that contributed substantially to the foundation of
modern Physics
• Quantum theory of Light: Einstein proposed that light is composed of small packets of energy
called photons.
• Using quantum theory, Einstein was able to explain the photo electric effect – the emission
of electron from a metal when it is irradiated by light.
• Energy of the photon incident on the metal is used for two purposes:
1. Photoelectric work function – energy required to remove an electron from metal surface
2. Kinetic energy of the ejected electrons

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Albert Einstein (1879 –1955 CE)

𝟏
• Einstein’s Photoelectric equation: 𝟐 𝒎𝒗𝟐 = 𝒉 𝝂 − 𝝂𝒐

• In 1921, Nobel prize in Physics was awarded to Albert Einstein for the explanation of

Photoelectric effect

• Brownian Motion: The random movement displayed by small particles that are suspended in

fluids.

• Einstein reasoned that if tiny but visible particles were suspended in a liquid, the invisible

atoms in the liquid would bombard the suspended particles and cause them to jiggle

• Einstein formulated a diffusion equation for displacement of Brownian particles and he was

able to determine the size of atoms and Avogadro number

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Albert Einstein (1879 –1955 CE)

• In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed a new theory called special theory of relativity – Mechanics of

objects moving with a velocity close to the velocity of light

• He showed that the measurement of time and space are affected by the relative motion

between the observer and the object.

• Two postulates of special theory of relativity are:

1. The laws of Physics are invariant in all inertial frame of references

2. The speed of light in vacuum is same for all observers regardless of the motion of the

source or observer.

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Albert Einstein (1879 –1955 CE)

• The main consequences of special theory of relativity are:

1. Length contraction: A moving object’ length (L) is measured to be shorter than it is length

𝒗𝟐
at rest or proper length (𝑳𝟎 ) 𝑳 = 𝑳𝟎 𝟏 − 𝒄 𝟐

2. Time dilation: Time interval on a clock in motion relative to an observer (t) will appear to

𝒕𝟎
be increased or dilated compared to time interval on a clock at rest (𝒕𝟎 ) 𝒕=
𝒗𝟐
𝟏− 𝟐
𝒄

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Albert Einstein (1879 –1955 CE)

3. Mass – Energy Equivalence: Mass and energy are different manifestations of the same thing.

Mass can be converted into energy and vice versa according to Einstein's mass – energy relation

𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐
4. Relativistic mass : Relativistic mass is the mass equivalent to total energy of the system

𝒎𝟎
𝒎=
𝒗𝟐
𝟏− 𝟐
𝒄
𝒎𝟎 is the rest mass of the particle.

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Albert Einstein (1879 –1955 CE)

5. Relativity of simultaneity: Two events which are simultaneous for an observer at rest may not

be simultaneous for an observer in motion.

Time interval between two events

Frame S at rest : ∆𝒕 = 𝟎

𝒎𝟎 𝒗
Frame 𝑺| 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒗: ∆𝒕|= 𝒄𝟐
∆𝒙
𝟐
𝟏−𝒗𝟐
𝒄

∆𝒙 is the separation between S and 𝑺|

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Albert Einstein (1879 –1955 CE)

• The special theory of relativity implies that only particles with zero rest mass (i.e., photons) may travel at

the speed of light, and that nothing may travel faster.

• Particles with non-zero rest mass can never achieve the speed of light in vacuum

• Special theory of relativity is the most accurate description of motion when gravitational effects are

negligible

• Special theory of relativity concerned only with inertial frame of references (frames that are not

accelerated)

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Albert Einstein (1879 –1955 CE)

• General Theory of Relativity is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1916

• General Theory of Relativity is a generalization of specially theory of relativity to accelerated frames of

references

• General relativity follows from Einstein’s principle of equivalence: on a local scale it is impossible to

distinguish between physical effects due to gravity and those due to acceleration

• Space and time are part of one continuum called space –time continuum.

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)

Albert Einstein (1879 –1955 CE)

• According to general theory of relativity, the forces of gravity arises from the wrapping of a space-time

around a body of matter.

• As a result an object moving through such region in general follows a curved path rather than straight one

and may even trapped there.

• There are some experimental evidences which supports general theory of relativity

1. Bending of light around massive bodies (gravitational lensing)

2. Shift in the orbit of mercury

3. Gravitational redshift

4. Detection gravitational waves

BSc. Physics Semester 1 : Methodology and Perspectives of Physics (Module 1)