Environment Lecture 2 - Solutions (Revised)

The Thought Tailor Learning Centre

JC Division – General Paper (2023)

The Environment II: Solutions

Part 1: Recap on General Trends & Reasons for Environmental Degradation

In the previous lecture, we discussed several facts about the environment, including global trends reflecting
environmental degradation, as well as some of the leading causes of environmental degradation.
General Facts on the Environment

• Global warming: humans have increased the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by 45% since
the Industrial Revolution.
• Decrease in sea ice: The 10 lowest Arctic sea ice extents have all occurred since 2007.
• Global ocean heat content: The upper ocean heat content (from 0-2000 meters depth of the ocean) was
a record high in 2022.
• Rapid deforestation: According to the British Broadcasting Corporation, deforestation of the Amazon
rainforest in Brazil hit a six-year high in 2022. Some 3988 square kilometres of land were cleared in the
region between January and June 2022. This was more than the 3088 square kilometres of rainforest that
was destroyed between January and June 2021.
• Ocean acidification: The acidity of the ocean has increased by 26% since the beginning of the industrial
era. More carbon dioxide are emitted in the world, and as CO2 dissolves in seawater, it forms carbonic
acid, decreasing the ocean’s pH.
• Air Pollution: The World Health Organisation’s data show that almost all of the global population (99%)
breathe air that exceeds WHO guideline limits and contains high levels of pollutants, with low- and middle-
income countries suffering from the highest exposures.
• Loss of Biodiversity: A 2019 UN report on the biodiversity crisis estimated that extinction threatens up
to a million animal and plant species.
• Overfishing: In 2015, 33% of marine fish stocks were being harvested at unsustainable levels; 60% were
maximally sustainably fished, with just 7% harvested at levels lower than what can be sustainably fished
(UN, 2019)
• Plastic Waste: Plastic production has increased exponentially, from 2.3 million tons in 1950 to 448 million
tons by 2015. Production is expected to double by 2050. Every year, about 8 million tons of plastic waste
escapes into the oceans from coastal nations. That is the equivalent of setting five garbage bags full of
trash on every foot of coastline around the world. (National Geographic, 2019)
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The Thought Tailor Learning Centre (2023)
Source: Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF)
The degradation of the environment in today’s world is a hydra-headed problem — for it is the product of the
interplay of several anthropogenic factors. As evident above, in all of the major deforestation fronts,
deforestation occurs as a result of a multitude of reasons (which would seemingly suggest that it is difficult to
eradicate deforestation).
A second important point to note is that food production is a major reason for deforestation in all of the major
deforestation front.
Reasons for Environmental Degradation (discussed in previous lectures):

• The excesses of capitalism and consumerism
• Energy needs
• Economic development – race to the bottom; difficulty in balancing economic interests with
environmental regulation (for both the state and also for individuals)
• Urban development
• Global rise in tourism
• Technological advancements (e.g. crypto mining; data servers)
• Food production
• Climate denial, general apathy
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Part 2: Solutions
Let us now consider the different solutions to environmental degradation. As we consider each type of solution,
we will need to consider the strengths, the limitations, and whether there are any potential drawbacks of these
solutions.
1. Governmental Policies and Regulation

Good governance often entails far‐sightedness and a consideration of the long‐term. It is precisely this that is
vital to environmental protection, especially since the impact of neglecting the environment on citizens is often
cumulative and not immediate. Good governance considers the interests of the people in the short‐term
and long‐term and finds a way to balance the two.
One way in which governments can effect positive change in terms of dealing with environmental issues is to
implement legislation in favour of the environment. Governmental legislation involves employing a multitude
of push-pull approaches such as regulation, fines and incentives to effect change on a wider scale. The hope
is for such effective policing to have a positive effect on the environment, whilst resulting in minimal disruptions
to our daily lives today.
1.1 Potential
Wealthier countries:
Consider Singapore. Since our founding days, land allocation was planned 50 years ahead. The concentration
of our waste and garbage on Semakau, an island far from the mainland shows that the government recognises
the need to minimise the impact our trash has on the environment. Demarcation of land for parks and natural
reserves is a recognition of the long‐term benefits protecting these nature reserves have on our well‐being.
Such carbon sinks greatly reduce the urban heat island effect that Singaporeans struggle with in the tropics.
The Singapore Green Plan 2030 is a national sustainability movement which seeks to rally bold and collective
action to tackle climate change, and to make Singapore a greener and more liveable home. It builds on
Singapore's sustainability efforts over the past decades and sets ambitious and concrete targets for the next
10 years. It is spearheaded by the Ministries of Education, National Development, Sustainability and the
Environment, Trade and Industry, and Transport. One aspect of the plan is the government’s push towards
Electric Vehicles (EVs), compared to traditional fuel-powered cars. In order to get there by the target deadline
of 2040, the government has adopted a multi-pronged approach via tax incentives, regulations, and standards,
and increased EV charger deployment. (Also watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oNFeOl7pW9s)
In 2023, as part of the amendments to the Resource Sustainability Act tabled in Parliament, the Singapore
government announced that from mid-2023, shoppers at most supermarkets (those with an annual turnover
of more than 100 million dollars) will need to pay at least five cents for each disposable carrier bag. Beverage
in drink cans and bottles will also cost 10 cents to 20 cents more, but this deposit can be refunded when
consumers return their used bottles and cans at supermarkets larger than 200 square metre. The aim of
this proposed changes is to reduce packaging and food waste in Singapore.
Finland’s government tames the profit incentive of businesses by demarcating zones for environmental
protection and prohibits any development in that area. Large subsidies for green technology and renewables
for businesses have been paramount to greatly reducing reliance on non‐renewables. Finland, as a result, has
the majority of its energy needs taken care of by renewables, with 16% on nuclear and 20% on wind.
China’s finance ministry allocated a total of 407.3 billion yuan ($57.22 billion) to ecology and environment
protection in 2020, up from 390.6 billion yuan last year. From this total, 25 billion yuan were to be allocated to
air pollution prevention and control, 31.7 billion yuan to water and 4 billion yuan to soil protection. China also
launched the national green development fund, and stepped up efforts to establish trans-regional
compensation mechanisms for ecological conservation in the Yangtze and Yellow river basins (Reuters 2020).
The European Union has established an emissions trading system (ETS) intended to cut greenhouse gas
emissions by 55 percent by 2030 (compared to 1990 levels). The ETS creates a financial incentives for the
biggest emitters to cut back. Since 2005, the ETS has set a cap on the total amount of greenhouse gases that
a company can emit each year and requires monitoring of these emissions. A fixed number of allowances
which are the currency of the carbon market are issued and each year, companies hold enough allowances
to cover their emissions or face significant fines. If they do not have enough allowances, they are then
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encouraged to either cut back on their emissions or to buy extra allowances from another emitter. If they have
extra allowances, they can keep them for next year or sell them. This flexibility ensures that emissions are cut
when it costs the least to do so. Over time the cap is reduced, fewer allowances are issued, techniques to cut
emissions are developed and total emissions drop. Companies have a financial incentive to cut their
emissions, or pay others to do so. The ‘polluter pays’ scheme is viewed by climate change campaigners as an
effective way to tackle carbon emissions.
By the end of 2024, all mobile phones, tablets and cameras sold in the EU will have to be equipped with a
USB Type-C charging port. From spring 2026, the obligation will extend to laptops. The new law is part of a
broader EU effort to reduce e-waste and to empower consumers to make more sustainable choices.
Less Developed countries:

Contrary to popular belief, developing countries are likewise capable of doing their part in becoming more
sustainable. Perhaps the most prominent example would be Costa Rica, which remains one of the first to turn
pledges into solid policies and to frame the shift in terms of economic and social benefit. Costa Rica’s
environmental credentials are impressive: more than 98 percent of its energy is renewable, and its forest cover
now stands at more than 53 per cent after painstaking work to reverse decades of deforestation. Around a
quarter of the country’s land has also been turned into protected parks and reserves.
As the only carbon negative country in the world, Bhutan’s achievements in terms of environmental
sustainability are not to be overlooked. A large part of this is its government’s commitment towards protecting
the environment. Policies such as a ban on log exports help to reduce the country’s carbon footprint.
Hydroelectric power generated by Bhutan’s many rivers is used instead of less environmentally friendly fossil
fuels, with free electricity provided to rural farmers. Bhutan’s unwavering focus on reducing its negative impact
on the environment and the promotion of environmentally friendly practices has ultimately had positive results
in the country itself, as well as worldwide.
Overtourism and its concomitant effects of severe pollution have resulted in the Philippines and the Thai
authorities to shut down Boracay Island and Maya Bay on Phi Phi Island for six months and 3 years
respectively. Both destinations are some of the most popular destinations in Southeast Asia, and though the
closure of these islands brought about great economic and employment loss in these tourism-dependent
region, the governments of the Philippines and Thailand view long term sustainability as more crucial to short
term profitability.
Recognising the severe ecological impacts oil spills could have, developing countries have also implemented
heavy fines on companies whose negligence has resulted in such large-scale oil spills. For example, Spanish
energy giant Repsol has been hit with almost €5.5 million in fines by Peru’s environmental authorities over an
oil spill off the country’s coast in 2022. The company has already been forced to pay over €11 million for its
poor handling of the disaster.
Contrasting Example:
On the contrary, negligence of the government has the ability to set back environmental progress to a
significant extent. The United States, a historical emitter that contributes a hefty one quarter of the world’s
emissions, has allowed fossil fuel businesses to thrive. During Trump’s era, cutting funding from the
Environmental Protection Agency and increasing subsidies for fossil fuel companies have made these
companies ever more arrogant and entitled, allowing them to continue extracting and profiting off the depletion
of our resources.
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More recently, the Biden administration has approved the massive Willow oil drilling project in Alaska,
triggering a flurry of angry outbursts from climate advocates. The Willow Project is a decades-long oil drilling
venture in the National Petroleum Reserve, which is owned by the federal government. By the administration’s
own estimates, the project would generate enough oil to release 9.2 million metric tons of planet-warming
carbon pollution a year – equivalent to adding 2 million gas-powered cars to the roads.
Similarly, in the past, in the former Soviet territory of present-day Uzbekistan, the Soviet government led by
Khrouchtchev in the 1950s deliberately deprived the Aral Sea of its main source of water. The diversion of
water away from the Amu Darya and Syr Darya River towards the program to promote agriculture and boost
economic plans resulted in the largest manmade loss of water recorded in history. In 1998, the water level fell
by 80% with a volume of 210km3 compared to 1,060km3 in 1960. This basin’s rapid disappearance was also
a major public health hazard as the receding sea exposed the plains that were testing sites of biological
weapons and dumping grounds for agriculture chemicals. The increase in water salinity levels eradicated the
surrounding fish supply, contributing extensively to the pollution released in the atmosphere. and generated
dust storms contaminated with salt, fertiliser and pesticides. As a result of the government's focus on economic
gains, it ultimately led to an irreversible impact on the environment.
In Israel, the ongoing water crisis in the region reveals the negligence of its governance in environmental
protection. Israel credits its use of desalination plants and drip-irrigation with enabling the desert to bloom.
Less attention is given to the Knesset report commissioned in 2002, nearly four decades after Israel’s national
water carrier began diverting the Jordan river to Israeli citrus orchards in the Negev region. The report
concluded that the region’s ongoing water crisis – a desiccated Jordan river and shrinking Dead Sea – was
“primarily man-made”. A brief review of the state’s dominion over water resources shows that Israel diverts the
Jordan river into Lake Tiberias, as do Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon to their respective territories, leaving the
Dead Sea with a declining sea-level. A declining sea level can have wide-ranging impacts on the environment,
including soil erosion, geological hazards, changes in climate and weather patterns, and impacts on local
industries and economies. The sheer negligence of the Israeli government towards environmental protection
and its focus on profits has led to detrimental effects on the environment.
1.2 Limitations
[Developing vs Developed countries] It is important to acknowledge that while the ideal government would
be able to balance both the needs of the environment with its other goals, such as improving the socio-
economic conditions of its people, not all governments can actually execute such lofty ideals. This is especially
so in developing countries where more pressing priorities exist (e.g. poverty). These obstacles would thus
undermine the state’s role in our fight to protect the environment.
Fossil fuels are still the cheapest, most reliable energy resources available. When a developing country wants
to build a functional economic system and end rampant poverty, it turns to fossil fuels. India, for example, is
home to one-third of the world’s 1.2 billion citizens living in poverty. That is 400 million people in one country
without sufficient food or shelter (for comparison, the entire U.S. population is roughly 323 million people).
India hopes to transition to renewable energy as its economy grows, but the investment needed to meet its
renewable energy goals “is equivalent to over four times the country’s annual defence spending, and over ten
times the country’s annual spending on health and education.
Developing countries often face a multitude of urgent challenges, including poverty, education, healthcare,
and infrastructure development. While environmental concerns such as the impact of climate change and
pollution cannot be ignored, they may not always be a top priority for these countries.
Economic development
This is evident in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Despite being home to one of the largest old-growth
rainforests on Earth, it is auctioning off vast amounts of land in a push to become “the new destination for oil
investments.” Mr. Tosi Mpanu Mpanu, the nation’s lead representative on climate issues and an adviser to the
minister of hydrocarbons, said in an interview that Congo’s sole goal for the auction is to earn enough revenue
to help the struggling nation finance programs to reduce poverty and generate badly needed economic growth.
Evidently, for developing countries like Congo, improving its citizens’ welfare means prioritising the
development of its economy over environment to be better equipped to boost the country’s standard of living.
In contrast, a country such as Denmark is able to have its capital, Copenhagen, recognised as the World’s
most cycling friendly city, allowing for a thriving bicycle industry, and a tourism sector that benefits greatly from
the city’s positive branding, attracting international conferences like COP 15 and many investors. This is largely
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because of Denmark’s already developed economy, which enabled an environmental movement to emerge in
the 1970s as its populace became more educated and environmentally-conscious. The country’s strong
governance also allowed for the initial policy changes, such as car-free Sundays, and the construction of biking
infrastructure like independent bikeways and cycle parking facilities.
Conflict
According to Afghan scientists, the recent droughts are illustrative of the broader impact of climate change on
a country already ravaged by decades of conflict and poor water management. The situation was exacerbated
in 2021, when the Taliban seized control of the country. The regime abolished the National Water Affairs
Regulation Authority, the government agency responsible for water management, showing how a shift in
political power can do damage to an already despairing situation.
Individual level
In search of a more stable source of income, individuals in developing countries may choose to continue with
unsustainable and environmentally damaging practices despite regulations in place. Such regulations are thus
rendered useless as many continue to ignore them.
Though much of the amber mined in Kaliningrad, Russia is obtained illegally, many still continue to engage in
such practices. This is because official punishment for illegal digging remains light — a fine of 5,000 rubles
($77) and confiscation of shovels and pumps. Amber diggers earn so much illegally that they can pay fines
easily without any damage to their income
About 70% of Colombia’s gold production was mined illegally in 2020, affecting roughly 64,000 hectares
(158,000 acres) of land, according to a report by the U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). Though legal
mining has long proven to be more environmentally sustainable, to become legal or formalised, mining
operations must adhere to strict environmental and bureaucratic requirements set by the government. This
process can cost tens of thousands of dollars and require dozens of technical consultants. For small
operations, that burden is too heavy to bear as they rely on measly returns to earn a livelihood.
[Dependent on individual politicians] Though certain countries may employ sustainable practices for a
period of time, presidents can change quickly and they can quickly roll back on reforms, resulting in the positive
impacts on the environment being unsustained.
In Brazil’s case, the election of Jair Bolsonaro in 2019 after the jailing of his political rival, Luiz Inácio Lula da
Silva has set the world back many, many years in its quest to become environmentally sustainable by allowing,
and even encouraging otherwise illegal mining and logging activities in the Amazon forest during his previous
term. Thus, many considered the 2022 elections between the two rivals to be the main determining factor of
the fate of the Amazon forest.
Upon his election, United States’ former President Donald Trump aggressively rolled back the Obama
administration’s climate-change-mitigation policies. Trump immediately approved the Keystone XL pipeline
and the Dakota Access pipeline, two contentious projects moving vast amounts of oil that were cheered by
industry but enraged various farming, climate and Native American groups. However, immediately upon taking
office, Biden halted oil and gas leasing on public lands, opening up a pathway for a total ban. Such dependency
on individual politicians only serves to destabilise the directions of domestic policies as the world continues to
face a worsening climate crisis.
Furthermore, Mr. Trump had, in 2012, said on Twitter, “The concept of global warming was created by and for
the Chinese in order to make U.S. manufacturing non-competitive.” Amongst many other claims, his denial of
climate change was also a factor that gained him popularity with the right-wing, propelling him to victory in the
2016 US Presidential Elections. Yet this contradicted his actions back in 2009; along with dozens of other
business leaders, he signed a full-page ad in The New York Times urging Mr. Obama to push a global climate
change pact being negotiated in Copenhagen, and to “strengthen and pass United States legislation” to tackle
climate change. Such an incident shows how climate change is seen as naught but a bargaining chip for
politicians, taking advantage of public sentiments and propelling their campaign through politicising climate
change. Ultimately, depending on politicians to effect change is highly unreliable given their tendencies to
pander to the population and its beliefs.
[Business and Political lobbying] Additionally, when we look at America’s Congress itself, there are climate
deniers as well. According to new analysis from the Center for American Progress, there are still 139 elected
officials in the 117th Congress, including 109 representatives and 30 senators, who refuse to acknowledge
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the scientific evidence of human-caused climate change. All 139 of these climate-denying elected officials
have made recent statements casting doubt on the clear, established scientific consensus that the world is
warming—and that human activity is to blame. These same 139 climate-denying members have received more
than $61 million in lifetime contributions from the coal, oil, and gas industries. When political lobbying is
intertwined with environmental efforts, no real progress can be made to protect the ecological integrity of our
planet.
In the case of the European Union’s Emissions Trading System (ETS), lobbying against regulation was
successful in weakening and reducing the effectiveness of the ETS. For instance, in 2022, instead of voting
through measures that would reduce ETS emissions by 70% - in line with climate science -, or the 68%
proposed by the Environment Committee, MEPs (Members of the European Parliament) in plenary voted for
a feeble 64%. Further, they also gave up on implementing the timely phase-out of free permits to pollute for
related sectors. This will hinder industrial decarbonisation and come at a huge cost to citizens and climate
action.
Furthermore, companies that pollute and destroy the environment are often able to find a way out of legal
trouble, if only with a light tap to their wrist. This is especially the case for large, multinational companies that
are exceedingly powerful and wealthy. A salient example would be Shell, one of the world’s largest oil giants.
In 2020, a Shell pipeline burst and saturated Ekpeye land’s surrounding area with crude oil. A heavy downpour
swept the oil all over, drenching farms and swampland with oil. Shell denies responsibility for the oil spill,
making it nearly impossible to hold them accountable in Nigerian courts. Even if the company did admit liability,
the community likely would not receive any compensation for years. The subsidiary is known for filing a merry-
go-round of lengthy defence statements, objections and appeals against communities filing for damages. Even
if evidence in cases like this are overwhelming, Nigerian courts are often tilted in favour of oil companies.
Nigerians seeking to hold the industry accountable face personal attacks on their lawyers, arguments that their
claims are not legitimate and delays in the filing process, according to allegations in court documents.
[Loopholes] Despite the need for companies to stick to regulations implemented by the government, it is not
uncommon to see them taking advantage of loopholes to continue to maximise their profits without care for
the environment. For instance, though the new EU law on mandating all new smartphones sold to be equipped
with a USB Type-C charging port, Apple has found a way to continue monopolising the market on cables for
its devices. Though the new iPhone 15 series will have a USB Type-C charging port, Apple will restrict the
charging speed and data transfer speed of the USB-C to work with only MFI-certified chargers and cables.
MFI here stands for Made for iPhone, iPad etc, thus defeating the purpose of the law as iPhone users continue
to have to purchase a separate cable for their devices.
2. Global Cooperation
Global cooperation to combat environmental issues may involve contributing to agenda-setting for tackling
environmental issues, capacity building by tapping on various resources in different countries, as well as
managing and linking scientific communities to intergovernmental processes. Global cooperation is essential
to tackle environmental issues, given that the nature of such issues is very complex and often affects almost
every country.
2.1 Potential
International Agreements
The Paris Climate Agreement is an international treaty that commits most of the world’s governments to
addressing climate change. Forged through decades of negotiations, the Paris Agreement is the world’s first
comprehensive climate treaty. The goal of the Paris Agreement is to stop the world’s average temperature
from rising more than 2 °C, or ideally 1.5 °C.
The Convention on Biological Diversity is a legally binding treaty with 196 parties that aims to ensure the
sustainable use of biodiversity, secure its long-term conservation, e.g. to halt human-induced extinctions by
2050, and the fair and equitable sharing of genetic resources.
The Minamata Convention on Mercury (2017) is an international treaty designed to protect human health
and the environment from anthropogenic emissions and releases of mercury and mercury compounds. (132
countries have ratified it, including Singapore) A highlight of the Convention is a ban on new mercury mines.
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The Kyoto Protocol was an international treaty which extended the 1992 United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits state parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions,
based on the scientific consensus that (part one) global warming is occurring and (part two) that human-made
CO2 emissions are driving it.
Foreign aid:
For countries lacking the fiscal capacity to invest in expensive green technology (such as renewable sources
of energy), there is hope that as the world becomes increasingly aware of the need to curb the climate crisis,
foreign investors and governments will help said countries to adopt alternative energy forms. One such
example would be China’s help in building a Nehru Tim Mu Hydropower Station in Pakistan to make up for its
500 million megawatt electricity deficit. As Pakistan continues to focus on lifting the country out of poverty,
China’s support has become crucial in ensuring sustainable economic growth as the hydropower station is
entirely environmentally friendly.
Indonesia recently launched the most ambitious energy transition program in its history as part of an
international partnership to combat climate change. A cadre of rich countries, including the United States,
offered $20 billion to bankroll Indonesia’s transition to renewable energy in exchange for a commitment that it
retire its large fleet of coal-fired power plants early. The program, known as the Just Energy Transition
Partnership (JETP), will see an initial US$20 billion mobilized over the next three to five years toward
Indonesia’s adoption of renewable energy. Indonesia and its international partners, including the US, the EU,
Japan, and Canada, launched the JETP at the Partnership for Global Infrastructure and Investment event at
the G20 Summit in November 2022.
2.2 Problems:
[Dependent on Political Will] The U.S.’s exit from the historic 2015 Paris climate agreement took effect on
November 4 2020, capping four years of President Donald Trump aggressively rolling back the Obama
administration’s climate-change-mitigation policies. However, On January 20 2021, on his first day in office,
President Biden signed the instrument to bring the United States back into the Paris Agreement again. The
indecisiveness at the higher levels necessarily impacts whether plans for environmentally sustainable lifestyles
actually follow through.
[Limited Commitment] Some experts say that the Paris Agreement is still not enough- according to a German
non-profit tracker, Climate Action Tracker. Even if governments follow through on pledges they have made so
far under the Paris Agreement, it will still result in a 2.6°C rise by 2100. The terms laid out in the Paris
Agreement are difficult to enforce. There are no repercussions for countries who fail to meet their targets (and
this goes for many other climate agreements too).
Although the Kyoto Protocol represented a landmark diplomatic accomplishment, its success was far from
assured. Indeed, reports issued in the first two years after the treaty took effect indicated that most participants
would fail to meet their emission targets.
One key principle of the Kyoto Protocol was the “common but differentiated responsibilities” principle. This
principle is a key principle of international environmental law establishing that all states are responsible for
addressing global environmental destruction yet not equally responsible. However, the principle was opposed
by developed countries such as the USA, and runs the risk of discouraging developed countries, who may feel
that they are making a disproportionate sacrifice since developing countries will not need binding
commitments. Furthermore, there is the risk of the distinction between developed and developing countries
becoming outdated – after all, income levels of states are constantly evolving. This was seen in the Kyoto
Protocol, where developing countries were exempt from any emission reduction commitments. This paved the
way for significant problems in the scope and effectiveness of the Protocol. Although in 1997, the US and EU
were the world’s largest emitters, by 2006 China surpassed the United States in annual emissions, and India’s
emissions are currently almost equal to those of the EU. Still further, the Kyoto Protocol failed to equate
emissions reductions with economic opportunity and some countries grew to view mitigation as a costly
punishment. Following this line of reasoning the US Senate refused to ratify the Kyoto Protocol, citing potential
damage to the US economy as their motive, setting a precedent for countries such as Canada and Japan to
pull out of the deal without penalty in 2011 and providing a serious setback on the agreements effectiveness
right from the get-go. In fact, the ultimate criticism of the Kyoto protocol is that global emissions are still
increasing relative to 1990 levels to this day and much of this increase is driven by the very countries that were
excluded from reduction targets under the Protocol.
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[Ineffective Policing] On the international stage, many countries came together to agree and pledge to protect
our natural environment. This includes our rainforests, landscapes and oceans. However, what makes such
agreements largely ceremonial is the fact that they are not effectively carried out. Even though areas with
diverse ecosystems are protected by law, the problems of corruption and ineffective policing are faced by
many countries. Even when areas are protected, many corporations and syndicates are not deterred from
carrying out activities which ultimately lead to environmental degradation. This is acutely seen in the case of
Indonesia, where even though it is against the law to carry out “slash-and-burn” tactics commonly used in
farming, the smog that enveloped multiple Southeast Asian countries in 2015 was caused by many farmers’
uncontrolled burning of forests to make way for farmlands. This is due to the ineffective monitoring of
Indonesia’s forests that emboldens corporations to use farmers to break environmental laws.
Additional Notes on the relations between countries: Rich vs Poorer nations

In line with the results of other studies, a study published in Nature found the presence of an enormous global
inequality where 20 of the 36 highest emitting countries are among the least vulnerable to negative impacts of
future climate change. Conversely, 11 of the 17 countries with low or moderate GHG emissions, are acutely
vulnerable to negative impacts of climate change.
• At the Glasgow climate negotiations, Barbados Prime Minister Mia Mottley is leading a push for richer
countries to compensate poorer ones for the "loss and damage" caused by climate change. Their
argument is this: developed countries, like the U.S and those in the European Union, are responsible
for most of the heat-trapping emissions pumped into the atmosphere since the Industrial Revolution.
Developing countries have lower emissions, but are still bearing the brunt of a hotter climate through
more severe heat waves, floods and droughts. Despite this, industrialised countries have been
reluctant to commit funding, hence leaving vulnerable countries still unable to address the burgeoning
climate crisis.
Poorer countries argue that rich countries with a more developed economy have emitted more greenhouse
gases over time. They say these rich countries should now carry more of the burden because they were able
to grow their economies without restraint. Indeed, the United States has emitted the most of all time, followed
by the European Union.
• Rich countries have consistently backed out of strong climate commitments, causing talks to frequently
fall through. As they continue to have the greatest influence on the climate regime, they abuse their
power to evade climate action (and often prioritise economic gain). This was seen with Trump leaving
the Paris Agreement.
• Wealthier nations pledged to donate $100 billion a year to the Green Climate Fund to help developing
countries reduce emissions and adapt to the inevitable effects of climate change that are already
underway. However, in 2018, Oxfam found that the donor nations had fallen behind in meeting their
pledge for the Green Climate Fund.
However, China and India are now among the world’s top annual emitters, along with the United States. So
far, no country has managed to lift itself out of poverty without a concomitant surge in emissions. China’s
spectacular economic rise, for example, led to an explosive jump in its carbon emissions. Developed countries
have argued that those countries must do more now to address climate change. As wealthy nations drive the
world toward ecological disaster, it is clearly the poor countries that will face the gravest consequences and
have the most difficulty coping.
• President Xi Jinping announced that China will strengthen its 2030 climate target, peak emissions
before 2030 and aim to achieve carbon neutrality before 2060. The government remains committed
to renewable energy and electric vehicles. However, China’s coal activities are inconsistent with the
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Paris Agreement: it remains committed to supporting the coal industry while the rest of the world
experiences a decline, and is now home to half of the world’s coal capacity.
Clearly, both developed and developing countries have a long way to go in helping combat the environmental
crisis. Perhaps we should also consider avoiding the blame game and realising that the responsibility for
mitigating climate change belongs to all of us: a global problem requires a global solution.
3. Reduce: Greener Solutions using tech (Energy, food production, transport)
3.1 Potential
To combat Logging and Deforestation: A global network of 200 satellites by San Francisco firm Planet.com
now guards our rainforests, corals, and coastal mangroves by sending real-time data monitoring the density
and health of our ecosystems. With these deep transparency tools, we can begin to reshape capitalism: any
firm that dares to conduct illegal logging would be clearly captured and exposed to the consumers, triggering
consumer boycotts.
Traditional agriculture causes about 80% of our worldwide deforestation. By doing so, it also ruins the natural
habitat of many species. In order to combat such a problem, solutions such as vertical farming, which is the
practice of growing crops in vertically stacked layers, have been developed. It is common to see land-scarce
countries such as Singapore adopting such methods; the first commercial vertical farm in Singapore opened
in 2022. Not only does vertical farming save an enormous amount of space, it also reduces the need for arable
land, thus reducing deforestation for the sake of agriculture.
To reduce livestock and CO2 emission: The development and advancement of plant based meats brings
about the potential of reducing the need to raise livestock to meet the world’s burgeoning demand for meat. In
particular, Impossible Foods has created a purely plant-based beef that is able to mimic the texture and taste
of real beef, and is now integrated into the menus in many restaurants globally. With its large commercial
success, the company has been able to keep the prices of its plant-based meats affordable.
The process of feeding livestock for meat is known to produce hefty amounts of CO2, especially for free-
ranging cows that consume huge amounts of plant matter daily. However, some companies are experimenting
with the use of black fly larvae to produce animal feed, making the process more carbon efficient without
forcing us all to go vegetarian.
Agro-technology and farming techniques: Smart agriculture, also called precision agriculture, is another
way the industry has evolved to become more sustainable. It is a much greener way of practising agriculture
which uses data from various sensors for diagnostics and decision making. Sensors and drones provide
farmers with real time data that they can use to monitor the crops. This data is then used by precision
machinery for irrigation or pesticide use. This form of farming reduces the use of resources such as water and
energy while increasing crop yield with minimal chemicals and fertilisers in use.
Egypt suffers from significant water shortages, due to the combined effects of climate change, pollution and a
growing population with increasing water demands, water and development experts say. Technological
transfer to the country has been extremely helpful in this aspect - particularly in the form of drip irrigation
systems. The government of Egypt has mandated a switch to water-saving drip and sprinkler irrigation,
compared to the old method of flooding agrarian fields with water, which used up much more of the resource
than necessary. Not only does this help to significantly reduce the amount of water used, it also reduces cost.
To reduce traffic pollution and carbon emissions: AI can be a powerful tool to fight climate change. AI self-
driving cars, for instance, may reduce emissions by 50 percent by 2050 by identifying the most efficient routes.
Employing AI in agriculture produces higher yields; peanut farmers in India achieved a 30 percent larger
harvest by using AI technology. In addition, AI can provide faster and more accurate analysis of satellite images
that identify disaster-stricken areas in need of assistance or rainforest destruction.
Furthermore, new planes such as Airbus A350 are designed to be more environmentally friendly. The new
aircraft is claimed to be 25% more fuel-efficient than traditional models, owing to the fact that they are built
from lighter materials, with lighter installed equipment, powered by engines built by the latest technology, and
have wings that curl up at the tips to cut through air more easily. Furthermore, whilst sustainability is often
associated with the loss of a certain degree of comfort, it is the opposite for the A350. Among other features,
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the A350 cabin boasts wider aisles, larger luggage compartments, an efficient air-renewal system, and
panoramic windows.
Alternative forms of energy: To curb our climate crisis whilst addressing ever increasing energy demands,
there has been increasing research and investment into clean energy alternatives, such as wind energy,
geothermal energy and solar energy. These alternatives were designed to become the metaphorical silver
bullet to eliminate the threat of environmental degradation.
In Denmark, there is heavy emphasis on renewable energy such as wind, solar and biomass energy. Rather
than using fossil fuels to generate electricity like most countries do, renewable energy provides for 67% of
Denmark’s electricity supply. The country has also pledged to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in sectors
such as transportation and agriculture and has already started harnessing the power of bioethanol and electric
vehicles rather than utilising fossil fuels. Such efforts are costly investments, and Denmark has already done
its fair share for the environment through these projects.
Wind is a renewable energy source. Overall, using wind to produce energy has fewer effects on the
environment than many other energy sources. Wind turbines do not release emissions that can pollute the air
or water (with rare exceptions), and they do not require water for cooling. Wind turbines may also reduce
electricity generation from fossil fuels, which results in lower total air pollution and carbon dioxide emissions.
Nuclear energy produces very low emissions overall due to the energy density of nuclear fuel and the absence
of combustion for electricity generation. Furthermore, nuclear fuel produces minimal waste and drastically
reduces space required for fuel disposal, saving more land for human development as the population grows.
Nuclear fuel has a density about 1 million times greater than that of other traditional energy sources and hence,
all of the used nuclear fuel produced by the US nuclear energy industry over the last 60 years could fit on a
football field at a depth of less than 10 yards.
The patent system, when applied to green technology, allows for a legal-binding system that spurs innovation
and invention of eco-friendly technologies, which will overtime make such technological and scientific
advancements more widespread and less resource-intensive. The number of renewable energy patents filed
worldwide has jumped from 28 per cent to 20,905 in 2019, up from 16,287 the previous year, according to UK
commercial law firm EMW (Science Business, 2020)
3.2 Limitations
[Cost concerns] However, in reality, these efforts, although virtuous, have not reaped significant success.
What makes it so difficult to effectively use these alternatives are the attitudes towards their implementation.
For example, agro-technology may simply be too exorbitant to adopt. Take the indoor “farms” built by Freight
Farms in Boston for example. These shipping container systems, though space efficient and more
environmentally friendly, cost between $82,000 and $85,000 per container — an astonishing sum for a box
that just grows greens and herbs. Just one container costs as much as 10 entire acres of prime American
farmland — which is a far better investment, both in terms of food production and future economic value.
Furthermore, even though many countries are aware of the benefits of investing in and using alternative energy
sources instead of fuel, many of them are unwilling to do so due to the costs involved. These alternatives are
often very expensive, and require enough land and appropriate conditions to be effective. This is what causes
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many countries, especially those with developing economies, to shy away from such alternatives and focus
on using fossil fuels instead to achieve economic growth. This is seen in the case of countries such as India,
which eschewed climate agreements. India’s prime minister, Narendra Modi, has said that India will not
sacrifice its economic progress for the environment, as other western developed nations have achieved
success from the use of fossil fuels. He argues that India should be allowed to do the same.
Arguably, the costs of renewable energy have been rapidly declining within the past decade as scientists
continue to develop better ways to harness such alternative forms of energy, making the processes more cost
efficient. However, ultimately, there are still other economic concerns that deter its widespread adoption.
For now, the reality is that wind and solar energy are only cheap during the early stages. Until now, renewables
have been viable because of the massive base of fossil fuel generation that supplies most of our energy needs.
However, this changes as renewable penetration increases. Relying on more and more fossil fuels to shore
up a growing share of intermittent renewables becomes increasingly costly and risky, as Europe is finding out.
On the surface, Europe’s energy crisis is due to soaring natural gas prices as the global economy bounces
back from the COVID-19 pandemic. In reality, the problem is that as countries like Germany and Britain have
built out their wind and solar capacity causing energy supply to become more unpredictable and variable, thus
increasing reliance on gas to make up for when the wind does not blow and the sun does not shine.
To make matters worse, we are quickly using up the best locations for wind and solar. These are places near
to existing transmission lines that receive strong and steady wind or sun. To build out more renewables, we
will need to lay out thousands more miles of transmission lines to reach remote windy and sunny areas. Peter
Fox-Penner, author of Power After Carbon, estimates that the United States’ transmission grid will need to
expand by at least 50% in order to do this. This is a conservative projection, because the country will also
need 90% more electricity by 2050 to electrify cars, factories, and home heating. All of this new technology
and infrastructure will have to be paid for by someone. While large companies and financiers can provide
much of the upfront investment, public spending and higher energy bills will have to make up the rest.
Hence, while it is still abundantly clear that the long-term gains from a switch to renewable energy makes it a
worthy cause to invest into, we cannot deny that its short-term costs may be far too exorbitant to neglect for
some - especially for those who already lack fiscal capacity to support its citizens.
[Lack of appropriate conditions] A typical 1,000-megawatt nuclear facility in the United States needs a little
more than 1 square mile to operate. The National Energy Institute (US) says wind farms require 360 times
more land area to produce the same amount of electricity and solar photovoltaic plants require 75 times more
space. To put that in perspective, you would need more than 3 million solar panels to produce the same
amount of power as a typical commercial reactor or more than 430 wind turbines. This is thus a hurdle for the
implementation of such forms of renewable energy in smaller countries, who might not have the space to
accommodate such farms.
The uptake of certain forms of renewable energy is largely unfeasible in certain countries, given their
circumstances. In Singapore’s case, its small size, urban density, low wind speeds, relatively flat land, and
lack of geothermal resources, presents it with serious difficulties in pursuing alternative energy options such
as nuclear, hydro-electric, wind, or geothermal power. For instance, hydroelectricity harnesses the energy of
flowing water for the generation of electricity, which is difficult given that Singapore is generally flat and less
than 15m above sea level. Its alternative-energy disadvantaged status is even officially recognised by the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
[Political costs] The widely publicised catastrophic effects of nuclear meltdown has resulted in widespread
fear of the impacts of nuclear energy. Governments, which play a central role in policy making, may not be
attuned to investing in nuclear energy due to the political costs involved. For example, Japanese public opinion
moved decisively against atomic power after the 2011 Fukushima disaster, with most of the country’s operable
nuclear reactors remaining shut. During the Japanese elections in 2021, Prime minister Kishida faced domestic
opposition against his push to restart Japanese nuclear power plants, especially in the rural prefecture
Kashiwazaki - home to the world’s largest atomic power complex. Globally, countries such as Austria, Belgium,
Germany, Italy, Philippines and Switzerland have decided on a phasing out of nuclear power reactors.
[Complexity of environmental problems] Environmental problems are cross-border issues that are often
caused due to the accumulation of a myriad of issues centred around the increasing strain on the Earth’s
natural resources. These issues are often very complex and hence, technology is often insufficient to
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adequately address such issues. Often, technology targets the symptom of the problem, rather than the root
cause. At the end of the day, technology only remains as a mitigating factor, rather than a cure-all.
The first factor that results in the increase in complexity of environmental issues is the growing population size.
According to the United Nations Population Fund, the global population size has soared from seven billion in
2011 to eight billion in November 2022. The increasing population size globally results in greater strain on
Earth’s natural resources, which is further worsened due to the rapid urbanisation that further adds to the strain
on the limited natural resources. This causes environmental issues to exacerbate further. Thus, technology
needs to be used on a much larger scale in order to meet the increasing needs of the growing global
population. More often than not, space constraints and financial constraints hamper the progress of the usage
of technological advancements in tackling environmental issues.
Another factor that increases the complexity of environmental issues is the unequal access of technological
advancements catered to addressing such issues. Due to the differing financial funds for different countries
and the different pressing issues that each country faces, the amount of funds allocated to tackling
environmental issues by each country is different. Thus, since technological advancements catered to
addressing environmental issues are often more expensive compared to the less eco-friendly alternatives, not
every country can afford such technologies. This renders some countries greater ability to tackle environmental
issues compared to the rest. For example, electric vehicles are examples of technologies that help to minimise
pollution produced by (private) transportation. They are generally more expensive compared to the less eco-
friendly options that are currently primarily used such as gasoline and diesel-powered vehicles. This causes
the ability of different countries to contribute to tackling the environmental crisis to differ, leading to conflicts,
especially when countries are forced to contribute equally to tackling climate change.
For example, Italy, Portugal, Slovakia, Bulgaria and Romania have been trying to delay a European Union
plan to effectively ban the sale of new petrol and diesel cars from 2035 at least by an additional five years,
according to leaked documents seen by Reuters. The rule calls for eliminating carbon dioxide emissions in
new cars by hundred percent by 2034, which means that any fossil-fuel powered vehicle would be banned
and only zero-emission vehicles, like electric cars, would be allowed. However, according to the leaked memo,
these five countries which oppose that law are instead proposing the elimination of carbon dioxide by ninety
percent in new car sales by 2035 and moving the hundred percent target to 2040.
3.3 Problems
[Jevons Paradox] One major problem of over-relying on science as a panacea to environmental issues is the
Jevons paradox. In 1865, the English economist William Stanley Jevons observed that technological
improvements that increased the efficiency of coal use led to the increased consumption of coal in a wide
range of industries. He argued that, contrary to common intuition, technological progress could not be relied
upon to reduce fuel consumption - hence giving it the name “Jevons Paradox”. It occurs when technological
progress increases the efficiency with which a resource is used, but the falling cost of use increases its
demand, increasing, rather than reducing, resource use. Take, for instance, the heated debate surrounding
electric vehicles developed by Tech Giants like Tesla and BMW. Though they were designed to reduce our
consumption of non-renewable energy through reducing usage of traditional fuel-powered cars, it has perhaps
achieved the opposite effect. Due to the widespread commercialisation and advertising on its reduced impact
on the environment, people now feel less morally remorseful when driving. As a result, roads get more
congested and the consumption of electricity skyrockets instead.
[Electric Vehicles] Though electric vehicles are lauded to be the solution to reducing emissions from cars,
they also come with their own problems that raise questions on whether they truly are beneficial to the
environment. In particular, EV batteries consist of materials like nickel, lithium, cobalt and others, which are
energy-intensive to mine. These minerals are also often mined in regions with a poor environmental record.
Take, for example, the lithium mining currently happening in Argentina. According to Time, Argentina accounts
for 21% of the world’s lithium reserves and plans are already in place to open 13 more mines (in addition to
the two already in production). Many worry the mining could cause massive destruction, corrupt an already
fragile ecosystem and pillage the country’s natural resources all in the name of “green progress”.
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Furthermore, EV tires tend to wear out faster due to the heavier weight and increased torque of the vehicle.
Expected lifespan on EV tires is only between 30,000 to 40,000 miles. This means that EV car owners would
be buying tires more often and thus contributing to increased emissions. Worse still, tire dust Is one of the
biggest source of microplastics In our world today - around 6.1 million metric tons of tire dust end up in our
atmosphere and waterways annually. It is one of the most common microplastic pollutants in our oceans – and
has even been found in remote places like the Arctic. Hence, EV owners would tend to contribute greater
towards this invisible source of pollution.
[Inadequacy of plant-based meats] Dan Blaustein-Rejto, director of food and agriculture at the Breakthrough
Institute explained: “There’s relatively little evidence that plant-based meat alternatives are currently displacing
conventional meat.” He also said data suggests that most people are using plant-based meats as an extra
source of protein rather than a direct replacement for meat. The plant-based industry has also had a negative
reputation of exaggeration, such as when Pat Brown, founder (and former CEO) of Impossible Foods, claimed
that the meat industry will be “obsolete” by 2035, a remark which drew much derision from Forbes. (Forbes,
2023)
Ultimately, we have to recognize that technology itself can hardly solve the root cause of the issue and instead,
mitigates the effects of our actions. It is barely sufficient to simply rely on technology to solve all our issues
while ignoring the effects of our irresponsible behaviour, giving us tacit permission to continue polluting the
environment in various ways.
[Hydroelectric energy] China’s Three Gorges Dams and its various dam projects has shown how seemingly
environment-friendly projects can still have detrimental effects. While providing a stable source of renewable
energy to China and aiding in its reduction of climate change, it has also led to many social (eviction), economic
(job loss) and even environmental problems (sedimentation, landslides). The Mekong River Commission,
which China has refused to be a part of, is another case of how China restricts access to water and river
systems from downstream nations, as this ‘control’ is achieved through the construction of dams.
[Nuclear energy] The Fukushima Nuclear disaster, brought about by the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and
Tsunami, affected not just the epicentre, Japan, leaving Fukushima uninhabitable, but many countries around
the world had to recall their food imports due to the radiation, This is because of how our food networks have
become ever more interconnected than ever. Japan is also no longer able to find the storage space to keep
the huge amount of water contaminated with radioactive substances that has been accumulating for more than
ten years, and will be gradually releasing this water (after treatment) into the ocean.
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[Solar / Wind energy] As mentioned above under the limitations of such technological solutions, solar and
wind energy farms require large amounts of space in order to operate. Since solar farms and wind farms
require large amounts of land to generate sufficient energy, it has contributed to large amounts of deforestation
that has greatly robbed wildlife of their habitats, and removed large carbon sinks that take in CO from the
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atmosphere.
4. Reduce: Sustainability in urban design and living (net zero buildings, treescrapers,
use of carbon laminates building materials)
4.1 Potential
Given that the building industry is responsible for 38%, or around 14 gigatons, of all energy-related greenhouse
gas emissions each year, targeting buildings is an excellent way to reduce emissions. One way to do this is to
construct “net-zero buildings”, which are defined as buildings which rely on renewable sources to produce
as much energy as it uses. The National University of Singapore’s School of Design and Environment 4 (SDE4)
is Singapore's first net-zero building.
There are also several net-zero buildings in India. Some of them include the Paryavaran Bhavan of the Ministry
of Environment and Forests, Jaquar headquarters in Manesar, Akshay Urja Bhavan in Haryana, Godrej Plant
13 Annexe in Mumbai, Grid Corporation of Odisha building among others.
Treescrapers was a term that became popular when Italian Architect Stefano Boeri and architecture firm,
Gustafson Porter, came together to design a smart architecture that promoted the concept of a vertical forest.
Boeri designed a futuristic vision of infrastructure, which preserves the environment. One of the successful
tree scrapers worldwide is Boeri's 'Bosco Verticale' also known as 'Vertical Forest', built in Milan. These
developments build on a growing trend in high level urban construction – softening parts of our concrete jungles
by incorporating greenery into their designs.
The designers and engineers working on these treescrapers are also mindful of the environmental impacts
that traditional materials used to construct buildings have – a considerable amount of energy is consumed
when manufacturing steel and concrete. Increasingly, carbon-negative materials such as Cross Laminated
Timber (CLT) or glue laminated timber, commonly known as glulam, are being used. These materials are
considered as carbon-negative because they contain more carbon than was emitted during their manufacture
and use.
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An eco-neighbourhood is an urban planning project designed, organised, and managed in accordance with
sustainable development principles. As well as meeting strict environmental performance criteria, an eco-
neighbourhood is also intended to ensure social and functional diversity (housing, shops, public amenities,
tertiary activities, etc.). This approach was first adopted in London in the early 2000s with the construction of
the BedZED eco-village (Beddington Zero (fossil) Energy Development). This development includes 2,500 m²
of office and retail space and 82 homes. Its energy footprint is 80% lower than a traditional neighbourhood
and it uses 50% less water thanks to environmentally friendly buildings, waste recycling, and the development
of the local economy. Similar projects have been completed around the world, for example in Malmo, Sweden,
and Mata de Sesimbra in Portugal.
Västra hamnen is a neighbourhood of Malmö, situated in the borough of Centrum, Malmö Municipality, Skåne
County, Sweden. The district combines living, working, education and leisure time and is the first project of its
kind in Scandinavia, which is carbon neutral through its sustainability-oriented overall concept and received a
corresponding environmental certification. The energy supply of the district is completely self-sufficient and is
based 100 percent on wind and solar energy and biogas. The air conditioning of the buildings is done by solar
panels and heat pumps, seawater and groundwater.
Closer to home, one example of an eco-friendly district would be the Jurong Lake district. Identified as a model
for urban sustainability under the Singapore Green Plan 2030, the district will support Singapore’s ambition to
be a carbon services hub and a leading centre for green finance in Asia and globally. It aims to do so through
various methods; for example, increased accessibility through public transport coupled with reduced parking
spots encourages residents to reduce travel via private transport. Green spaces are also largely preserved in
the district, with more than 100 hectares of land set aside for parks and green spaces. Even when building
new buildings, they are poised to achieve 100% landscape replacement, where greenery lost through
development will be fully replaced by vertical greenery, sky terraces and landscaping.
4.2 Limitations
[Lack of incentive] Many companies might not have an incentive to build net-zero buildings, because it is not
their primary business to be net-zero or focus on energy. Whilst it is within our means to construct or modify
buildings to become “net-zero”, the additional costs in installation and maintenance might pose a great
deterrence to those considering such an approach.
Most builders have been extremely modest in setting their sustainability goals. Currently less than half of
industry respondents expect to make the majority of their projects green, according to a 2021 World Green
Building Council report. Furthermore, only 0.4% to 1.2% of homes in the European Union are upgraded each
year to meet decarbonization goals, according to Buildings Performance Institute Europe, a think tank focused
on improving buildings’ energy efficiency.
Building a net-zero building typically requires a significant investment in energy-efficient materials and
technologies, such as solar panels, energy-efficient windows, and insulation. The upfront costs of these
technologies can be prohibitively high for developing countries that may have limited financial resources.
Developing countries may also struggle to access the latest energy-efficient technologies that are required to
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build net-zero buildings. These technologies are often developed and manufactured in developed countries
and may not be readily available or affordable for developing countries.
For instance, Bangladesh is a densely populated country that is highly vulnerable to climate change. However,
it also faces significant economic challenges, which can make it difficult to invest in net-zero buildings. The
country's limited resources are often focused on providing basic needs like food, water, and healthcare to its
population. Haiti is one of the poorest countries in the Western Hemisphere, and it faces a range of economic,
social, and environmental challenges. The country has a limited infrastructure and often struggles to meet the
basic needs of its population, such as access to clean water and electricity. Building net-zero buildings may
not be a priority for the country's government or private investors.
[Structural Limitations] A report by CNA found that greening old buildings is exceptionally challenging,
especially when comparing it with newly-built architecture. In an interview with CNA, Mr Wong Heang Fine,
the Group CEO of Surbana Jurong, said it is more complex to reduce the carbon footprint of older buildings
because one has to work within many existing parameters. “It depends on things like how the building is
oriented – if it’s (west-facing), it absorbs a lot of heat during the day and then your cooling load for the building
goes up, and of course, the carbon emissions will also go up.” The materials used also matter – brick is more
insulating, while glass facades allow more heat in, said Mr Wong. Not much can be done to reduce the
embodied carbon in the existing structure either, he added.
4.3 Problems
[Architectural Challenges] Trees are far more challenging for an architect to embody into a plan than other
vegetation because of their extra size and weight. Taking into account the additional force that it takes to shore
up a balcony to support the weight of a tree, whether “treescrapers” are truly beneficial to the environment is
questionable at best. Increasing the steel reinforcement or concrete slab of a balcony increases the embodied
carbon emissions for the project. A problem shrub can be treated or extracted in a few minutes; a problem
tree, especially one with penetrating roots, could damage the building. Experts have warned that the net result
of carbon emissions could be way more than the carbon sequestered in smaller diameter trees, resulting in
the amount of work undertaken to be less sustainable.
5. Reuse/Recycle: Recycling, upcycling, circular economy
5.1 Potential
Recycling is often touted as a plausible solution for climate change. Indeed, it is able to conserve energy,
reduce air and water pollution, reduce greenhouse gases, and conserve natural resources. For example, it
takes 95 percent less energy to make an aluminium can from recycled aluminium than from processing bauxite
ore, and glass furnaces can run at lower temperatures when using recycled glass, thereby saving energy and
extending equipment life.
In Japan, the culture of recycling is highly embedded within society. It is not uncommon to have at least four
or even five different bins that must be collected in specific bags: the garbage can for combustible waste, the
bin for plastic waste, the bin for cardboard waste, the bin for glass, and the bin for cans and jars. At a minimum,
combustible waste is separated from non-combustible waste, and at least one product category is sorted.
Such collection bins are highly accessible, and are often located at the entrances of supermarkets, some
drugstores, and shopping centres. The residents of Kamikatsu town in Japan, have also been paving the way
in waste elimination. The town is the first region in Japan to successfully carry out a Zero Waste campaign.
They aim to recycle 100% of their waste by 2020. In 2016, they were able to recycle 81% of its refuse in 2016.
The circular economy is a model of production and consumption, which involves sharing, leasing, reusing,
repairing, refurbishing and recycling existing materials and products as long as possible. It entails reducing
the consumption of raw materials, designing products in such a way that they can easily be taken apart after
use and reused, called eco-design, prolonging the lifespan of products through maintenance and repair, using
recyclables in products and recovering raw materials from waste flow. In this way, the life cycle of products is
extended. In practice, it implies reducing waste to a minimum. When a product reaches the end of its life, its
materials are kept within the economy wherever possible thanks to recycling. These can be productively used
again and again, thereby creating further value. This is a departure from the traditional, linear economic model,
which is based on a take-make-consume-throw away pattern. This model relies on large quantities of cheap,
easily accessible materials and energy.
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NEWater can also be categorised as a form of recycling. It is high-grade recycled water produced from treated
used water that is further purified using advanced membrane technologies and ultra-violet disinfection, making
it ultra-clean and safe to drink. NEWater was first introduced in 2003 following a two-year comprehensive
study. Besides improving the country’s water security, it also reduces our need to tap on other more
environmentally destructive methods to obtain water, such as desalination. This shows how through constant
innovation and research into ways to better our current processes, we can achieve a more sustainable
outcome
Epson PaperLab is a revolutionary paper recycling machine developed by Epson, a Japanese technology
company. The machine is designed to help conserve the environment by reducing the amount of waste
generated by paper production and consumption. PaperLab works by breaking down used paper into its
individual fibers and then reforming them into new paper sheets. This process eliminates the need for
transportation and disposal of paper waste, which can have a significant impact on greenhouse gas emissions
and landfill space. As such, companies like Epson PaperLab seek to attain environmental preservation through
innovative technologies.
In Singapore, the government has put a changing emphasis on environmental conservation - more specifically
recycling. Residents will get six cents for every 1kg of paper deposited at a recycling machine. That is the
carrot dangled at 78 machines in Housing Board estates islandwide, under a new initiative that aims to bring
green living to all 15 towns managed by the People's Action Party. The Action for Green Towns drive will see
other measures being implemented by 2025, including energy-saving smart sensors in common areas. As
such, incentivising recycling has been a step in the right direction by the Singaporean government in its attempt
to conserve the environment.
Evidently, these efforts have borne fruit as the recycling rates have increased in Singapore, as per the statistics
released by the National Environment Agency (NEA). The recycling rate of plastic waste increased from four
percent in 2020 to six percent in 2021. Additionally, the recycling rate of Horticultural and Wood waste
increased from eighty percent and sixty-four percent in 2020 to eighty-three percent and seventy-six percent
in 2021. The recycling rate of Paper/Cardboard has also increased marginally from thirty-eight percent in 2020
to thirty-nine percent in 2021.
Developing countries have also ramped up their recycling efforts. These recycling efforts, albeit not always
astoundingly successful, have resulted in modest increase in recycling rates. For example, in China, the
recycling rate for paper and cardboard has increased from 42.9 percent in 2009 to 49 percent in 2019. Another
unique example where the recycling rates in a city, which is part of a developing country, resulted in great
success is in San Fernando, the capital city of Pampanga, in the Philippines. The recycling efforts included
the provision of financial support to barangays to build their own Material Recovery Facilities (facilities where
discards are sorted before being sent to recyclers), boosting the supply of push bikes to barangays to facilitate
the collection of waste and creation of the City Environment and Natural Resources Office (CENRO) whose
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primary responsibility is to implement Solid Waste Management program. These efforts caused the city to
increase its recycling rate from twelve percent to seventy-six percent in six years, from 2012 to 2017.
5.2 Limitations
[Difficulty in recycling] Recycling rates for e-waste globally are low. Even in the EU, which leads the world
in e-waste recycling, just 35% of e-waste is officially reported as properly collected and recycled. Globally, the
average is 20%; the remaining 80% is undocumented, with much ending up buried under the ground for
centuries as landfill. Even worse, the process of recycling e-waste can be highly complex, as metals in e-waste
are difficult to extract; for example, total recovery rates for cobalt are only 30%. The metal is, however, in great
demand for laptop, smartphone and electric car batteries. As our devices become more numerous, smaller
and more complex, the issue escalates. Currently, recycling some types of e-waste and recovering materials
and metals still remains an expensive process, which could explain the dismal recycling rates.
Even the recycling of plastic has been questioned as to whether or not it is ultimately useful. In a report
published by Greenpeace, it stated that corporations like Coca-Cola, PepsiCo, Nestlé, and Unilever have
worked with industry front groups to promote plastic recycling as the solution to plastic waste for decades.
However, data collected by Greenpeace has shown that mechanical and chemical recycling of plastic waste
fails because plastic waste is extremely difficult to collect, virtually impossible to sort for recycling,
environmentally harmful to reprocess, often made of and contaminated by toxic materials, and not economical
to recycle.
Recycling plastic remains cumbersome because plastics are composed of several different polymer types and
thus, it is impossible to recycle different plastics together as they melt at different temperatures. Also, most
plastics worsen in quality when recycled with certain plastics such as low-density polyethylene (LDPE) needing
to be chemically recycled. Moreover, if the recycled plastics are to be used as food packaging, they need to
be further processed such that they are in accordance with the regulations in various countries.
[Lacking infrastructure] In Japan, despite the strong recycling culture, storage and recycling capacities
remain saturated: treatment plants are lacking, and Japan runs out of space. The Japanese Ministry of the
Environment has asked municipalities to do their part by incinerating plastic waste from companies. However,
the incineration of waste generates carbon dioxide and greenhouse gases, and even their burial generates
soil pollution. In reality, Japan exports the majority of its sorted waste. Until 2018, nearly three-quarters of
sorted waste was sent to China to be recycled or incinerated. Since then, China has banned these toxic and
unprofitable imports. Japan was unprepared for such a concentration of waste, directly resulting from its
consumerist model. Exports have been partly shifted to other Southeast Asian countries: Malaysia, Vietnam,
Thailand, and Indonesia. However, some countries, like Thailand, are, in their turn, considering banning these
imports. The plastic and waste treatment problems in Japan are far from being solved.
China’s National Sword policy, enacted in January 2018, banned the import of most plastics and other
materials headed for that nation’s recycling processors, which had handled nearly half of the world’s recyclable
waste for the past quarter century. The move was an effort to halt a deluge of soiled and contaminated
materials that was overwhelming Chinese processing facilities and leaving the country with an environmental
problem not of its own making. As a result of this ban, more plastics are now ending up in landfills, incinerators,
or likely littering the environment globally as rising costs to haul away recyclable materials increasingly render
the practice unprofitable. In England, more than half a million more tons of plastics and other household
garbage were burned last year. Australia’s recycling industry is facing a crisis as the country struggles to
handle the 1.3 million-ton stockpile of recyclable waste it had previously shipped to China.
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[Irresponsible recycling] Furthermore, claims about recycling do not always hold through. There have been
instances where well-intentioned recycling campaigns have been found to break promises made. One recent
example would be a campaign launched by Dow in partnership with SportSG in September 2020, which aimed
to upcycle the soles from 300,000 pairs of shoes contributed by the public for use as materials for building
jogging tracks, fitness areas and playgrounds over the next three years. Contributors contributed their used
shoes at over 30 collection points, such as ActiveSG sport centres and stadiums, Decathlon and JD Sports
stores. However, it was later revealed by Reuters, whose journalists donated 11 pairs of shoes at different
locations around Singapore and tracked them over a six-month period, that none of the shoes made it to a
Singapore recycling facility, with several pairs ending up for sale in crowded bazaars in neighbouring Batam
and Indonesian capital Jakarta.
[Contamination in recycling] Contamination of recyclables can severely hamper recycling efforts and cause
recycling rate to dwindle. Recycling contamination occurs when materials are sorted into the wrong recycling
bin (i.e. placing a glass bottle into a paper recycling bin), or when materials are not properly cleaned before
benign sent for recycling ( i.e. when food residue remains on a plastic yoghurt container that is sent for
recycling). Contamination has resulted in forty percent of the items in recycling bins in Singapore being unable
to be recycled. Common contaminants include food and liquid waste, styrofoam, tissue paper, electronic waste
and furniture, according to the ‘Clean & Green Singapore’ governmental organisation.
[Linear economy] Though the hope is for the economy to transition into a more circular economy that has
obvious benefits to the environment, the reality is that many corporations still rely on the traditional, linear
mode of operations in order to reap the most profit. In such scenarios, they are highly unlikely to switch to a
different model of operations despite the environmental benefits it brings. Perhaps the best way to exemplify
this is through the concept of planned obsolescence (covered in Causes lecture). By engineering their products
to be doomed to fail, they ensure a constant flow of consumers, as they constantly find themselves needing
to replace their items. Indeed, companies like Apple have admitted to engaging in such methods, as they
capitalise on the consumerist culture in today’s society and seek to gain more profit at the expense of the
environment.
Furthermore, we cannot forget the insidious impact of advertising and branding has had on our habits of
consumption. As brands continue to employ the marketing strategy of advertising themselves as “desirable”,
conspicuous consumption (covered in Causes lecture) is bound to be on the rise. Furthermore, ‘The Age of
Surveillance Capitalism’ we live in today, is hardly likely to be over soon, especially as big data continues to
grow. Companies are only more likely to take advantage of these existing tools to boost profit, rather than face
the risk of remaining stagnant. Hence, at the end of the day, despite awareness of the need for a systemic
shift away from an overt focus on consumption, companies still tend to focus on their profits before the
environment, making a shift towards a circular economy virtually impossible.
[Jevons Paradox] The Jevons Paradox may also apply in terms of recycling; cost effective recycling may
actually lead to an increase in the demand for the resource being recycled, as people feel less guilty when
consuming such recyclable items, leading to an increased consumption. In Singapore, though recycled waste
attributed to the non-domestic and domestic sectors likewise increased, from 2.81 million tonnes and 0.23
million tonnes respectively in 2020, to 3.58 million tonnes and 0.24 million tonnes respectively in 2021, it is
unclear whether this increase is due to greater environmental consciousness or simply because people feel
less guilty when consuming items that they can recycle. Further, when looking at the actual amounts of waste
generated in both the non-domestic and domestic sectors, we see that it has increased in 2021, from 4.12
million tonnes and 1.77 million tonnes respectively in 2020, to 5.12 million tonnes and 1.82 million tonnes
respectively in 2021. Hence, it is likely that despite the increased recycling rate, there was also an increased
amount of waste generated, consuming even more energy in order to recycle these materials.
6. Activism and Education
In bringing greater consciousness of the severity of the issue, activism and increased education achieves the
first step of helping the public bridge consensus and identify the issue. In tackling any global problem, it is
crucial to define the causes and substance at hand. Such is the case with climate change, where society
remains divided on the topic due to the propagation of conspiracy theories and conflicting data. In reality, the
scientific community has already established universal consensus on the issue – that climate change is real
and is fuelled by anthropogenic factors.
20
6.1 Potential
The United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) regularly publishes satellite images
of the changing density of ice caps along with atmospheric data. By being publicly accessible, the statistics
reveal to us the actual extent of the problem. For concerned citizens, these statistics would act as the
motivating factor to minimise their carbon footprint. For the indifferent, such education at least serves to stem
misinformation.
Through outreach such as the Recycle Right campaign, the National Environment Agency (NEA) will continue
to encourage households to recycle more and recycle right. To cultivate good recycling practices, educational
and user-friendly content has been developed to guide the public on items that can and cannot be recycled.
In April 2022, local youth climate activists took to the news with a statement demanding more climate action
to be taken by the nation. Individuals such as Sam Shu Qing: co-founder of environmental group LepakInSGm,
Woo QiYun: Singapore environmental activist who runs the Instagram account @theweirdandwild ,marine
biologist Parvane Shantti, and youth-led organisations such as Singapore Climate Rally and FiTree
collaborated on a statement recommending actions the country should take to ensure Singapore remains
liveable for future generations. This included calling for a more ambitious timeline, where peak emissions
targets should be achieved by 2030 instead of 2025 and boosting nature conservation efforts of Singapore’s
natural environments to remain sustainable. This “unprecedented initiative” echoed the voices of local youths
who wish to play a bigger part in shaping policies and programs that will impact how their generation
experiences the consequences of worsening climate change in the future.
Greta Thunberg is one of the most prominent climate activists of today. She has spoken on international
stages in order to challenge world leaders to take immediate action for climate change mitigation. Inspired by
her, many youths are following in her footsteps to take action against climate change by making their voices
heard resulting in movements such as the Climate Action Strike. The third week of September 2019 saw
students across big cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Bengaluru, Kolkata and Chennai stage peaceful protests at
prominent city centres, heeding to Greta Thunberg’s call for mass protests to urge governments to take
definitive action on the issue of Climate Change. This was largely youth-led who made it a point to stress the
urgency of global warming through creative slogans. The point was to spread awareness about the impact a
mere 2-degrees shift could have on the planet.
Two climate protestors from the group ‘Just Stop Oil’, threw tomato soup at Vincent Van Gogh’s
‘Sunflower’ painting in London’s National Gallery. Though the stunt was controversial, it garnered a lot of media
attention, and brought an immediately spotlight on the issue of the British government’s decision to open a
new licensing round for oil and gas exploration in the North Sea (PBS 2022).
Environmental activists from Greenpeace and Extinction Rebellion cycled along the runway of Amsterdam’s
Schiphol airport as part of a more extravagant protest designed to keep private jets on the ground on Nov 6
2022, the eve of COP27. While videos of the protest went viral for more comical reasons, it drew attention to
the issue and highlighted the significant impact aviation has on climate change, accounting for 3.5% of global
emissions. (Global Citizen 2022)
Vanessa Nakate, Licypriya Kangujam and Luisa Neubauer delivered a powerful statement at the COP27
through a silent protest. Several activists raised their hands with the message “No New Gas, No, Oil” written
21
on their palms. The intention was to call out the German government’s public support for the new oil project
despite criticisms from environmental organisations ahead of the 2022 COP27 event.
Greenpeace pioneered the #BreakFreeFromPlastic Movement in 2018, rallying over one million people to
take pictures of single-use plastic bags and protest against plastic bags by businesses. This has resulted in
the European Union’s recent ratification of a new law to reduce single-use plastics. Other nations have also
jumped on the bandwagon and announced impending plastic bag bans - the UK, Taiwan, Rwanda being a few
- to support pollution control.
Greenpeace regularly organises campaigns against environmental threats such as climate change,
deforestation, and pollution. The organisation uses a variety of tactics to raise awareness about these issues,
including peaceful protests, direct actions, and lobbying governments and corporations to take action. In 2021,
Greenpeace dropped huge boulders into the sea off Brighton to stop fishing boats from trawling the sea bed
and to raise awareness on the most destructive forms of fishing in protected areas of UK waters. Bottom
Trawling is a fishing method that involves dragging a net along the ocean floor to catch fish. The heavy nets
used in bottom trawling can crush and destroy sensitive habitats like coral reefs, seagrass meadows, and
sponge fields, which are vital breeding and feeding grounds for many marine species. By shining light on the
issue of such a detrimental form of fishing, Greenpeace has exposed practices that hurts our environment
which we may have never known before.
The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is a Swiss-based international non-governmental organisation
founded in 1961 that works in the field of wilderness preservation and the reduction of human impact on the
environment. Ever since its founding, it has organised various campaigns all over the world to advocate for its
cause, with its giant panda logo becoming widely recognised globally. This is in part due to its constant effort
to increase its presence on social media, running multiple adverts on platforms such as YouTube to raise
awareness on our impending climate crisis and how humans can play a part to help.
Context – Media, Social Media, Globalised Media

The globalised media context has opened up new avenues for environmental activism to raise awareness and
bring about change. With the widespread use of the internet, social media, and other digital platforms,
environmental activists now have access to a global audience that can be reached with a single message.
This has allowed environmental issues to be highlighted and discussed on a global scale, bringing greater
awareness to the public, policy-makers, and the media.
Social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram have become powerful tools for environmental
activism. Activists can use these platforms to share information, organize campaigns, and mobilize support for
environmental causes. For example, environmental campaigns like #FridaysForFuture, initiated by Swedish
climate activist Greta Thunberg, have gained global attention and inspired young people to take action on
climate change.
In addition to social media, the globalized media context has also allowed environmental activists to reach a
wider audience through mainstream media outlets. Environmental documentaries like "An Inconvenient Truth"
and "The True Cost" have highlighted the environmental impact of climate change and consumerism,
respectively. These documentaries have been widely watched and discussed, raising awareness of
environmental issues among the general public.
22
Overall, the globalized media context has played a significant role in highlighting the potential of environmental
activism in raising awareness and mobilizing support for environmental causes. By leveraging social media
and other digital platforms, environmental activists can reach a global audience and bring greater attention to
environmental issues, leading to greater public engagement and policy change.
6.2 Limitations
[Lack of real impact – Indifference and Impracticality]
While it is called a ‘strike’, Thunberg’s protest resulted in no real disruption of the daily lives of others due to
the participants being students. Strikers have leverage when their absence from work disrupts activities that
are valuable to policymakers. Student strikes do not disrupt the government or any significant systems the
country requires to run smoothly (e.g. transport). As such, leaders who actually have the power to enact
change in the system are still not stimulated to take action to combat climate change
While environmental activism has gained momentum in recent years, there are instances where certain strikes
or actions may be impractical and may even create indifference among the public. For example, some
environmental strikes or protests that disrupt public life or cause damage to property may create more
animosity towards the cause than support for it. This is because these actions may be seen as an
inconvenience or a nuisance by members of the public who may not understand or appreciate the severity of
the environmental issue at hand.
Furthermore, some environmental strikes may be impractical or misguided in their approach. For example,
some environmental groups may advocate for the complete elimination of certain industries or practices,
without fully considering the potential impact on jobs or the economy. This may result in opposition from those
who are reliant on these industries for their livelihoods or from those who do not fully understand the underlying
issues.
One example of impracticality and indifference in environmental strikes is the "Extinction Rebellion" protests
in London in 2019. These protests caused significant disruption to public transport and local businesses,
leading to frustration and anger among some members of the public. This led to criticism of the group's
approach and may have resulted in less support for their cause. Another example is the "Leave it in the
Ground" movement, which advocates for the cessation of all fossil fuel use. While the movement's intentions
are good, this approach fails to consider the broader context of global energy systems and the availability of
alternative energy sources. Such a drastic change in energy production would require significant infrastructure
changes, which may not be practical or economically feasible for some countries.
6.3 Problems
[Diverting attention away from the main issue]
Early this year, climate activist Wynn Bruce set himself ablaze in an act of self-immolation in the plaza of the
United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, DC, which resulted in his death. Despite the lengths at
which he went to in hopes of sparking a conversation and eliciting systemic change, it seems like it was hardly
effective. Aside from the fact that it did not garner much attention in the media, headlines also largely reflected
negative sentiments on his act. It seems that only outrageous acts can garner attention, which many criticise
as it only gives climate activists a bad reputation and diverts the conversation away from the urgent climate
crisis we face today.
Similarly, the controversial act of splashing tomato soup on the Van Gogh painting garnered a lot of negative
press. Granted, it generated worldwide attention, but at the end of the day, most people were focused on the
improper delivery of the message. Any discussion generated about the environment was drowned in the flood
of criticisms and ridicule the act produced. Critics also pointed out the irony in splashing soup to advocate for
the environment, when such an act indirectly sends the message that wasting food is acceptable.
It seems that only outrageous acts can garner attention, which many criticise as it only gives climate activists
a bad reputation and diverts the conversation away from the urgent climate crisis we face today.
[Eco-terrorism]
Eco-terrorism is an act of violence which is committed in support of environmental causes, against people or
property. Terrorist acts have included the spiking of trees to present hazards to loggers who would cut the
trees, the dismantling of an electrical transmission tower, and the sinking of ships involved in whaling and drift
net fishing.
23
Tree spiking is a common tactic that was first used by members of Earth First! in 1984. Tree spiking involves
hammering small spikes into the trunk of a tree that may be logged with the intention of damaging the chainsaw
or mill blades. This may also seriously injure the logger. Arson is a tactic most associated with recent activity
in the Earth Liberation Front (ELF). The ELF has been attributed with arsons of sites such as housing
developments, SUV dealerships, and chain stores. Bombing, while rare, has been used by eco-terrorists. For
example, the Superphénix construction site in France was attacked with anti-tank rockets (RPG-7).
Rather than further the environmental cause, such acts instead give environmentalists increasingly negative
reputations, discouraging potential supporters from supporting the cause. It is imperative to note that such
cases are, in the end, unable to effect large-scale systematic change and instead, shines a negative light on
the cause, alienating the potential supporters in the process.
7. Sustainability in terms of Consumption
7.1 Potential
On an individual level, we can see how individuals acting in lieu of the sustainability movement can contribute
towards the fight against climate change. One such example would be the residents of Kamikatsu town in
Japan, who have been paving the way in waste elimination. The town is the first region in Japan to successfully
carry out a Zero Waste campaign. They aim to recycle 100% of their waste by 2020. In 2016, they were able
to recycle 81% of its refuse in 2016.
A 2022 global survey by UK-based professional services firm Deloitte found that millennials (defined as those
born between 1983 and 1994) and Gen Zs (born between 1995 and 2003) view climate change as one of their
top personal concerns, just below the cost of living.
The trend is the same in Singapore. The latest UOB Asean Consumer Sentiment study conducted in June
2022 shows that 34 per cent of millennials and Gen Zs in Singapore are willing to pay more for sustainable
products. Among older consumers, it is 24 per cent. The older generation of consumers are also catching up.
In the UOB study, 64 per cent of baby boomers (aged 56 and above) cited a greater availability of sustainable
products as the core reason for buying sustainable products – a 21 per cent rise from a year ago. This increase
in awareness is the largest among all age groups.
On a larger level, consumer demands can help to bring about systemic change when it comes to companies
adopting more environmentally friendly practices. Not only can such changes bring about a larger scale impact
than an individual can, companies are also able to use their profits to generate more environmentally friendly
and sustainable products.
The rising demand for sustainable solutions and products has helped to create a virtuous cycle as companies
deliver on what consumers want. This in turn drives greater exposure for greener alternatives.
With increasing consumer awareness, there can come about change on a greater scale, with consumer
demands inspiring change in the corporate sector. With the increasing awareness of the need to fight climate
change, Percentage (%) Arabica, a famous Kyoto cafe, for instance has started using sugarcane-based
straws, opting for them over paper-based ones because they do not affect the taste of their coffee.
24
Hundreds of workers from Google, Amazon and other tech firms criticised their own industry for being slow to
tackle climate change and joined protests in several cities. More than 1,500 Amazon employees joined the
marches, and 900 Google workers also walked out, alongside hundreds from Facebook, Microsoft and Twitter.
As Google business analyst Marie Collins put it, “tech is having an awakening”. While Google said it had
increased its wind and solar energy deals by more than 40%, Amazon’s CEO Jeff Bezos promised to make
the online retail giant, which delivers 10 billion items a year, carbon neutral by 2040.
In 2018, a campaign to reduce the use of plastic straws went viral globally; Singapore was also part of this
phenomenon. Suddenly, there was an increased hyperfocus on our reliance on single-use plastic straws, and
growing awareness of the need to reduce our consumption of these single-use plastics. This eventually led to
change on a greater, systemic level - In a major step to cut plastic waste in the local food and beverage (F&B)
sector, some 270 F&B outlets stopped providing plastic straws from July 2019. The outlets, owned by 31
companies, will provide straws to customers only on request or for specific medical reasons, according to the
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). They include all 53 restaurants and bars in hotels under the Accor Group,
such as Raffles, Fairmont and Swissotel The Stamford, as well as the 24 F&B outlets in the Singapore Zoo,
Night Safari, River Safari and Jurong Bird Park.
Increased consumer awareness has also led multinational corporations to show visible attempts in terms of
tackling the growing concerns of climate change. Outdoor gear company Patagonia's founder Yvon Chouinard
recently gave away his company in efforts to combat climate change. Chouinard commented that “Earth is
now our only shareholder” as all of the company shares were dedicated to environmental commitments.
Unilever, the parent company to consumer goods brands such as Dove and Lipton adopted a sustainable
agriculture code in 2018 which drove the sourcing of raw materials from global eco-friendly partners. By opting
for alternative resources devoid of fossil fuels, Unilever has taken crucial steps in raising awareness through
investing in the plant-based product sector and aims to achieve its interim goal of reducing emissions by 70
percent by 2025.
United Overseas Bank (UOB) Singapore has rolled out a suite of sustainable solutions to help customers
create positive impact in a simple and easy manner. Unlike the traditional use of plastics as credit cards, the
UOB EVOL credit card is the first bio-sourced (made with organic resources) card launched in South-east
Asia. Those who need a car can consider using the UOB Go Green Car Loan to finance their purchase of an
electric vehicle at competitive rates. In 2022, UOB also collaborated with SP Group to offer customers who
take up the UOB Go Green Car Loan three months of free charging at SP Mobility’s public charging points.
SpaceX on sustainability - A recent development, the Falcon Heavy rocket, is fully reusable, which cuts down
the resources required for the metal body of the rocket. While vehicles such as the Space Shuttle have been
reusable, their launch vehicles have not; many rocket boosters and main fuel tanks either burnt up in the
atmosphere or ended up on the bottom of the ocean, resulting in heavy wastage of resources and pollution.
The Falcon Heavy massively reduces the launch cost for both exploration and scientific discovery. SpaceX
was able to reduce the cost of launch to high orbit by over $6,000 per kilogram while reducing environmental
impact potential averages by more than 40% over the Falcon 9 system. The reusable capsule decreases the
amount of waste both in space and on earth created by space flight.
United Airlines and five corporate partners are launching a venture capital fund to invest in start-up firms and
technology developing and expanding the availability of sustainable aviation fuel, commonly referred to as
SAF. It aims to create a system that drives investment to build a new industry around sustainable aviation fuel,
pushing to cut greenhouse gas emissions. SAF, which is made using feedstocks that include used cooking oil
and agricultural waste, is widely viewed as the aviation industry’s best option for cutting greenhouse gas
emissions. The United Airlines Ventures Sustainable Flight Fund will allow United and the other inaugural
investors the chance to play a larger role in startups developing and expanding access to SAF. This investment
in future technologies and sustainability was made even as United faced substantial losses due to plunging
passenger levels when the Covid pandemic devastated demand for travel, and is rooted in the belief that the
path to lower emissions requires developing new ideas and technology.
7.2 Limitations
[Insufficient in inspiring mass concrete action]
Simply put, it is too difficult to change consumer behaviour and habits through education alone. Awareness
itself does not translate into action, and more often than not, people prioritise their own convenience over the
collective good. Worse still, today’s capitalist architecture means we often prioritise the individual over the
whole. When evaluating our choices, it is easy for us to make decisions that benefit us the most, not necessarily
25
considering the impact it could have on the world. That is, single-use plastics are still used ubiquitously
throughout the world today, despite best efforts of activists in raising awareness of the harms of such products.
A recent study by Anthony Leiserowitz at Yale University showed that although 92% of Americans know about
the issue, it remains a low priority relative to other issues and lacks urgency.
In August 2021, an inaugural Climate Index research found that while Singapore residents had a high
awareness of environmental issues across the four lifestyle themes of transport, home, food and goods, this
was not reflected in terms of their adoption of green practices. Most of the respondents cited cost and
inconvenience as the top two reasons that stopped them from adopting green practices. Food delivery
platforms such as Grabfood and FoodPanda have become ubiquitous in today, showing how Singaporeans
tend to prioritise convenience despite being aware of the impacts of using single-use takeaway boxes.
[Insufficient especially given the prevailing throwaway culture, mass consumption, advertisement in
our capitalistic world] Whilst sustainable practices help to alleviate the issue of environmental degradation,
it might not be sufficient especially given the context of a throwaway culture, which is a major limitation that
reduces the impact that sustainable living brings about. Throwaway culture has resulted in a significant
increase in waste, which has led to pollution, resource depletion, and habitat destruction. Single-use plastics
like straws, bags, and packaging have become a ubiquitous part of our daily lives, with millions of tons of
plastic waste entering our oceans and landfills every year. Delving deeper, addressing the issue of throwaway
culture will require a shift towards more sustainable practices, such as reducing consumption, reusing items,
and recycling materials. It will also require a change in mindset, where individuals and companies prioritise
environmental sustainability over convenience and profit. This is not easy considering that many consumers
often prioritise convenience over environmental concerns.
Moreover, the proliferation of sales and advertisements in today’s capitalistic world that promote consumption
are a significant hurdle in the goal of sustainable practices in attempting to conserve our environment.
Companies often use advertising techniques to create demand for products that may not be necessary, leading
to increased consumption and waste. Advertisements also often promote a culture of materialism and
overconsumption, encouraging individuals to place value on material possessions rather than sustainability
and environmental responsibility. Addressing the major issue of the environment will also require a shift in
consumer values and behaviour, where individuals prioritize sustainability and environmental responsibility
over material possessions and convenience. This is not easy, especially given that profit-seeking companies
and advertisers will likely want to emphasise the novelty of their product to encourage consumers to purchase
new products and upgrade existing ones (e.g. mobile phones, television).
[Imbalance between the people responsible for the emissions] It should not come to a surprise that rich
people are responsible for a much larger percentage of carbon emissions than common folk. The sustainability
marketing firm Yard put together a new report using data to rank the celebrities whose private jets have flown
the most — and subsequently dumped the most carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Many celebrities were
reported to use their private jets almost unnecessarily, taking 20 minute flights to somewhere accessible by
land transport. Famed singer Taylor Swift took the top spot, creating an estimated total flight emissions of
8,293.54 tonnes of carbon, which Yard says is 1,184.8 times more than the average person’s total annual
emissions. This can lead to a sense of despair in the common folk; after all, there seems to be no point in
cutting down on individual consumption and emissions if a celebrity’s 20 minute ride can easily negate it.
7.3 Problems
[Greenwashing]
Taking note of the increasing emphasis on conserving our environment, profit-driven companies have taken
to exploiting this increased interest for their own benefit. Rather than investing more into making their products
more sustainable, they instead choose to localise their efforts into advertising and marketing their products to
seem more sustainable than they actually are, in order to raise sales and public awareness on their items.
The Innisfree scandal, as the South Korea beauty brand allegedly sold Green Tea Seed Serum products,
labelled “Hello I’m Paper Bottle”, when in fact, these were merely plastic bottles wrapped in paper.
In 2015, Volkswagen was exposed for cheating emissions tests on its diesel cars in the US for the past 7
years, falsely advertising that its ‘Clean Diesel’ vehicles were low-emission and environmentally friendly when
in reality, this was far from the truth and the company has actually been cheating on emissions tests for several
years.
26
The Starbucks adult sippy cup lid is another example. While the company has claimed that using the lid will
eliminate the need for consumers to use straws, consumers have found that the new lids are made of thicker
plastic than before, raising questions on whether the amount of plastic used has truly been reduced. In fact,
studies have found that the strawless lids actually use more plastic than the separate plastic straw and lid
currently in use at most locations.
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Environment Lecture 2 - Solutions (Revised)

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The Thought Tailor Learning Centre

JC Division – General Paper (2023)

The Environment II: Solutions

Part 1: Recap on General Trends & Reasons for Environmental Degradation

General Facts on the Environment

Reasons for Environmental Degradation (discussed in previous lectures):

1. Governmental Policies and Regulation

Less Developed countries:

Additional Notes on the relations between countries: Rich vs Poorer nations

3. Reduce: Greener Solutions using tech (Energy, food production, transport)

5. Reuse/Recycle: Recycling, upcycling, circular economy

6. Activism and Education

Context – Media, Social Media, Globalised Media

7. Sustainability in terms of Consumption

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