Product Design and Concurrent

Engineering

Product design involves the creative and systematic

prescription of the shape and characteristics of an artifact
to achieve specified objectives, while simultaneously
satisfying several constraints.

Design is a critical activity, because it has been estimated

that as much as 80% of the cost of product development
and manufacture is determined by the decisions made in
the initial stages of design. The product design process has
been studied extensively; it is briefly introduced here
because of the strong interactions among manufacturing
and design activities. Innovative approaches are essential
in successful product design, as are clearly specified
functions and a clear statement of the performance
expected of the product. The market for the product, which
may be new or a modified version of an existing product,
and its anticipated use or uses also must be defined at this
stage. This aspect also involves the assistance of market
analysts and sales personnel who will bring valuable and
timely input to the manufacturer, especially regarding
market needs and trends.
The Design Process. Traditionally, design and
manufacturing activities have taken place sequentially, as
shown in Fig. I.2a. This methodology may, at first, appear
to be straightforward and logical; in practice, however, it is
wasteful of resources. Consider the case of a
manufacturing engineer who, for example, determines that,
for a variety of reasons, it would be more desirable to (a)
use a different material, such as a polymer or a ceramic
instead of a metal, (b) use the same material but in a
different condition, such as a softer instead of a harder
material or a material with a smoother surface finish, or (c)
modify the design of a component in order to make it
easier, faster, and less costly to manufacture. Note that
these decisions must take place at the sixth box from the
top in Fig. I.2a. Each of the modifications just described
will necessitate a repeat of the design analysis stage (the
third box from the top in Fig. I.2a) and the subsequent
stages. This approach is to ensure that the product will still
meet all specified requirements and will function
satisfactorily. A later change from, say, a forged, cast, or
machined component will, likewise, necessitate a repeat
analysis. Such iterations obviously waste both time and the
resources of a company.
Concurrent Engineering. Driven primarily by
the consumer electronics industry, a continuing trend has
been to bring products to the marketplace as rapidly as
possible, so as to gain a higher percentage share of the
market and thus higher profits. An important methodology
aimed at achieving this end is concurrent engineering,
which involves the product-development approach shown
in Fig. I.2b. Although this concept, also called
simultaneous engineering, still has the same general
product-flow sequence as in the traditional approach
shown in Fig. I.2a, it now contains several deliberate
modifications. From the earliest stages of product design
and engineering, all relevant disciplines are now
simultaneously considered. As a result, any iterations that
may have to be made will require a smaller effort, thus
resulting in much less wasted time than occurs in the
traditional approach to design. It should be apparent that a
critical feature of this approach is the recognition of the
importance of communication among and within all
relevant disciplines.
Concurrent engineering can be implemented in companies
large or small; this is particularly significant because 98%
of all U.S. manufacturing companies, for example, have
fewer than 500 employees. Such companies are generally
referred to as small businesses. As an example of the
benefits of concurrent engineering, one automotive
company reduced the number of components in one of its
engines by 30%, decreased the engine weight by 25% , and
reduced its manufacturing time by 50%.

Life Cycle. In concurrent engineering, the design and

manufacture of products are integrated with a view toward
optimizing all elements involved in the life cycle of the
product (see Section I.4).

The life cycle of a new product generally consists of four

stages: 1. Product start-up 2. Rapid growth of the product
in the marketplace 3. Product maturity 4. Decline
Consequently, life-cycle engineering requires that the
entire life of a product be considered, beginning with the
design stage and on through production, distribution,
product use, and, finally, recycling or disposal of the
product. Role of Computers in Product Design. Typically,
product design first requires the preparation of analytical
and physical models of the product, for the purposes of
visualization and engineering analysis. Although the need
for such models depends on product complexity,
constructing and studying these models are now highly
simplified through the use of computer-aided design
(CAD) and computer-aided engineering (CAE) techniques.
CAD systems are capable of rapid and thorough analyses
of designs, whether it is a simple shelf bracket or a gear in
large and complex structures. The Boeing 777 passenger
airplane, for example, was designed completely by
computers, in a process known as paperless design, with
2000 workstations linked to eight design servers. Unlike
previous mock-ups of aircraft, no prototypes or mock-ups
were built and the 777 was constructed and assembled
directly from the CAD/CAM software that had been
developed. Through computer-aided engineering, the
performance of structures subjected, for example, to static
or fluctuating loads or to temperature gradients also can be
simulated, analyzed, and tested, rapidly and accurately.
The information developed is stored and can be retrieved,
displayed, printed, and transferred anytime and any where
within a company’s organization. Design modifications
can be made and optimized (as is often the practice in
engineering, especially in the production of large structures
such as aircraft) directly, easily, and at any time.
Computer-aided manufacturing involves all phases of
manufacturing, by utilizing and processing the large
amount of information on materials and processes gathered
and stored in the organization’s database. Computers
greatly assist in organizing the information developed and
performing such tasks as (a) programming for numerical-
control machines and for robots for material-handling and
assembly operations, (b) designing tools, dies, molds,
fixtures, and work-holding devices, and (c) maintaining
quality control throughout the total operation.

On the basis of the models developed and analyzed in

detail, product designers then finalize the geometric
features of each of the product’s components, including
specifying their dimensional tolerances and surface-finish
characteristics. Because all components, regardless of their
size, eventually have to be assembled into the final product,
dimensional tolerances are a major consideration in
manufacturing. Indeed, dimensional tolerances are equally
important for small products as well as for car bodies or
aircraft. The models developed also allow the specification
of the mechanical and physical properties required, which
in turn affect the selection of materials.

Prototypes. A prototype is a physical model of an

individual component or product. The prototypes are
carefully reviewed for possible modifications to the
original design, materials, or production methods. An
important and continuously evolving technology is rapid
prototyping. Using CAD/CAM and various specialized
technologies, designers can now make prototypes rapidly
and at low cost, from metallic or nonmetallic materials
such as plastics and ceramics. Rapid prototyping can
significantly reduce costs and the associated
productdevelopment times. Rapid-prototyping techniques
are now advanced to such a level that they also can be used
for low-volume (in batches typically of fewer than 100
parts) economical production of a variety of actual and
functional parts, later to be assembled into products

Virtual Prototyping. Virtual prototyping is a

software-based method that uses advanced graphics and
virtual-reality environments to allow designers to view and
examine a part in detail. This technology, also known as
simulation-based design, uses CAD packages to render a
part such that, in a 3-D interactive virtual environment,
designers can observe and evaluate the part as it is being
developed. Virtual prototyping has been gaining
importance, especially because of the availability of low-
cost computers and simulation and analysis tools. I.3
Design for Manufacture, Assembly, Disassembly, and
Service Design for manufacture (DFM) is a comprehensive
approach to integrating the design process with production
methods, materials, process planning, assembly, testing,
and quality assurance. DFM requires a fundamental
understanding of (a) the characteristics and capabilities of
materials, manufacturing processes, machinery,
equipment, and tooling and (b) variability in machine
performance, dimensional accuracy and surface finish of
the workpiece, processing time, and the effect of
processing methods employed on product quality.
Establishing quantitative relationships is essential in order
to be able to analyze and optimize a design for ease of
manufacturing and assembly at the lowest cost.

The concepts of design for assembly (DFA), design for

manufacture and assembly (DFMA), and design for
disassembly (DFD) are all important considerations in
manufacturing. Methodologies and computer software are
available for design for assembly, utilizing 3-D conceptual
designs and solid models. Subassembly, assembly, and
disassembly times and costs can now be minimized, while
product integrity and performance are maintained.
Experience has indicated that a product which is easy to
assemble is, usually, also easy to disassemble. Assembly is
an important phase of manufacturing, requiring
considerations of the ease, speed, and cost of putting
together the numerous individual components of a product
(Fig. I.3). Depending on the type of product, assembly
costs in manufacturing can be substantial, typically ranging
from 10 to 60% of the total product cost. Disassembly of a
product is an equally important consideration, for such
activities as maintenance, servicing, and recycling of
individual components. There are several methods of
assembly of components, including the use of a wide
variety of fasteners, adhesives, or joining techniques such
as welding, brazing, or soldering. As is the case in all types
of manufacturing, each of these assembly operations has its
own specific characteristics, times, advantages and
limitations, associated costs, and special design
considerations. Individual parts may be assembled by hand
or by a variety of automatic equipment and industrial
robots. The choice depends on several factors, such as
product complexity, the number of com ponents to be
assembled, the care and protection required to prevent
damage to the individual parts, and the relative cost of labor
compared with the cost of machinery required for
automated assembly. Design for Service. In addition to
design for assembly and for disassembly, design for service
is an important aspect of product design. Products often
have to be disassembled to varying degrees in order to
service them and, if necessary, repair them. The design
should take into account the concept that, for ease of
access, components that are most likely to be in need of
servicing be placed, as much as possible, at the outer layers
of the product. This methodology can be appreciated by
anyone who has had the experience of servicing machinery
I.4 Green Design and
Manufacturing
In the United States alone, 9 million passenger cars, 300
million tires, 670 million compact fluorescent lamps, and
more than 5 billion kg of plastic products are discarded
each year. Every 3 months, industries and consumers
discard enough aluminum to rebuild the U.S. commercial
air fleet. Note that, as indicated below, the term discarding
suggests that the product has reached the end of its useful
life; it does not necessarily mean that it has to be dumped
into landfills. The particular manufacturing process and the
operation of machinery can each have a significant
environmental impact. Manufacturing operations generally
produce some waste, such as: 1. Chips from machining and
trimmed materials from sheet forming, casting, and
molding operations 2 . Slag from foundries and welding
operations 3. Additives in sand used in sand-casting
operations 4. Hazardous waste and toxic materials used in
various products 5. Lubricants and coolants in
metalworking and machining operations 6. Liquids from
processes such as heat treating and plating 7. Solvents from
cleaning operations 8. Smoke and pollutants from furnaces
and gases from burning fossil fuels The adverse effects of
these activities, their damage to our environment and to the
Earth’s ecosystem, and, ultimately, their effect on the
quality of human life are now widely recognized and
appreciated. Major concerns involve global warming,
greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous
oxide), acid rain, ozone depletion, hazardous wastes, water
and air pollution, and contaminant seepage into water
sources. One measure of the adverse impact of human
activities is called the carbon footprint, which quantifies
the amount of greenhouse gases produced in our daily
activities. In 2011, the amount of carbon dioxide released
worldwide into the air was estimated to be 2.4 million
pounds per second; China being the most polluter. The
term green design and manufacturing has become common
in all industrial activities, with a major emphasis on design
for the environment (DFE)
Also called environmentally conscious design and
manufacturing, this approach considers all possible
adverse environmental impacts of materials, processes,
operations, and products, so that they can all be taken into
account at the earliest stages of design and production.
These goals, which now have become global, also have led
to the concept of design for recycling (DFR). Recycling
may involve one of two basic activities:

• Biological cycle: Organic materials degrade

naturally, and in the simplest version of a biological cycle,
they lead to new soil that can sustain life; thus, product
design involves the use of (usually) organic materials. The
products function well for their intended life and can then
be safely discarded.

• Industrial cycle: The materials in the product are

recycled and reused continuously; for example, aluminum
beverage cans are recycled and the metal is reused. To
demonstrate the economic benefits of this approach, it has
been estimated that producing aluminum from scrap,
instead of from bauxite ore, reduces production costs by as
much as 66% and reduces energy consumption and
pollution by more than 90%. One of the basic principles of
design for recycling is the use of materials and product-
design features that facilitate biological or industrial
recycling. In the U.S. automotive industry, for example,
about 75% of automotive parts (mostly metal) are now
recycled, and there are continuing plans to recycle the rest
as well, including plastics, glass, rubber, and foam. About
80% of the discarded automobile tires are reused in various
ways. Cradle-to-cradle Production. Also called C2C,
cradle-to-cradle production considers the impact of each
stage of a product’s life cycle, from the time natural
resources are mined and processed into raw materials,
through each stage of manufacturing products, their use
and, finally, recycling. Cradle-to-grave production, also
called womb-to-tomb production, has a similar approach,
but it does not necessarily consider or take on the
responsibility of recycling. Cradle-to-cradle production
especially emphasizes: 1. Sustainable and efficient
manufacturing activities, using clean technologies 2.
Waste-free production 3. Using recyclable and
nonhazardous materials 4. Reducing energy consumption
5. Using renewable energy, such as wind and solar 6 .
Maintaining ecosystems by minimizing the environmental
impact of all manufacturing activities 7. Using materials
and energy sources that are available locally, so as to
reduce energy use associated with their transport which, by
and large, has an inherently high carbon footprint 8.
Continuously exploring the reuse and recycling of
materials, thus perpetually trying to recirculate materials;
also included is investigating the composting of materials,
whenever appropriate or necessary, instead of dumping
them into landfills Guidelines for Green Design and
Manufacturing. In reviewing the various activities
described thus far, it can be noted that there are overarching
relationships among the basic concepts of DFMA, DFD,
DFE, and DFR. These relationships can be summarized as
guidelines, now rapidly accepted worldwide: 1. Reduce
waste of materials, by refining product design, reducing the
amount of materials used in products, and selecting
manufacturing processes that minimize scrap (such as
forming instead of machining). 2. Reduce the use of
hazardous materials in products and processes. 3.
Investigate manufacturing technologies that produce
environmentally friendly and safe products and by-
products. 4. Make improvements in methods of recycling,
waste treatment, and reuse of materials. 5. Minimize
energy use and, whenever possible, encourage the use of
renewable sources of energy; selection of materials can
have a major impact on the latent energy in products. 6.
Encourage recycling by using materials that are a part of
either industrial or biological cycling, but not both in the
same product assembly. Ensure proper handling and
disposal of all waste of materials that are used in products,
but are not appropriate for industrial or biological cycling.

I.5 Selection of Materials An

increasingly wide variety of materials are now available,
each type having its own specific properties and
manufacturing characteristics, advantages and limitations,
and costs. The selection of materials for products
(consumer or industrial) and their components is typically
made in consultation with materials engineers, although
design engineers may also be sufficiently experienced and
qualified to do so. The general types of materials used,
either individually or in combination with other materials,
are: • Ferrous metals: Carbon, alloy, stainless, and tool and
die steels (Chapter 5) • Nonferrous metals: Aluminum,
magnesium, copper, nickel, titanium, superalloys,
refractory metals, beryllium, zirconium, low-melting-point
alloys, and precious metals (Chapter 6) • Plastics
(polymers): Thermoplastics, thermosets, and elastomers
(Chapter 7) • Ceramics, glasses, glass ceramics, graphite,
diamond, and diamondlike materials (Chapter 8) •
Composite materials: Reinforced plastics and metal-matrix
and ceramic-matrix composites (Chapter 9) •
Nanomaterials (Section 8.8) • Shape-memory alloys (smart
materials), amorphous alloys, semiconductors, and
superconductors (Chapters 6, 18 and 28) As new
developments continue, the selection of an appropriate
material for a particular application from a very large
variety of options has become even more challenging.
Furthermore, there are continuously shifting trends in the
substitution of materials, driven not only by technological
considerations but also by economics. Properties of
Materials. Mechanical properties of interest in
manufacturing generally include strength, ductility,
hardness, toughness, elasticity, fatigue, and creep
resistance (Chapter 2). Physical properties are density,
specific heat, thermal expansion and conductivity, melting
point, and electrical and magnetic properties (Chapters).
Optimum designs often require a consideration of a
combination of mechanical and physical properties. A
typical example is the strength-to-weight and stiffness-
toweight ratios of materials for minimizing the weight of
structural members; weight minimization is particularly
important for aerospace and automotive applications, in
order to improve performance and fuel economy. Chemical
properties include oxidation, corrosion, degradation,
toxicity, and flammability; these properties play a
significant role under both hostile (such as corrosive) and
normal environments. Manufacturing properties indicate
whether a particular material can be cast, formed,
machined, joined, and heat treated with relative ease. As
Table I.3 illustrates, no one material has the same
manufacturing characteristics. Another consideration is
appearance, which includes such characteristics as surface
texture, color, and feel, all of which can play a significant
role in a product’s acceptance by the public. Availability.
As emphasized throughout this book, the economic aspect
of material selection is as important as technological
considerations (Chapter 40); thus, the availability of
materials is a major concern in manufacturing.
Furthermore, if materials are not available in the desired
shapes, dimensions, surface texture, and quantities, then
materials substitution or additional processing of a
particular material may well be required, all of which can
contribute significantly to product cost. Reliability o f
supply is important in order to meet production schedules;
in automotive industries, for example, materials must
arrive at a plant at appropriate time intervals. (See also just-
in-time, Section I.7.) Reliability of supply is also
important, because most countries import numerous raw
materials. The United States, for example, imports most of
the cobalt, titanium, chromium, aluminum, nickel, natural
rubber, and diamond that it needs. Consequently, a
country’s self-reliance on resources, especially energy, is
an often-expressed political goal, but challenging to
achieve. Geopolitics (defined briefly as the study of the
influence of a nation’s physical geography on its foreign
policy) must thus be a consideration, particularly during
periods of global instability or hostility. Service Life.
Everyone has directly experienced a shortened service life
of a product, which often can be traced to one or more of
the following: (a) improper selection of materials, (b)
improper selection of production methods, (c) insufficient
control of processing variables, (d) defective raw materials
or parts, or manufacturing-induced defects, (e) poor
maintenance of machinery or equipment, and (f) improper
use of the product. Generally, a product is considered to
have failed when it • Stops functioning, due to the failure
of one or more of its components, such as a broken shaft,
gear, bolt, or turbine blade, or a burned-out electric motor
• Does not function properly or perform within required
specifications, due, for example, to worn gears or bearings
• Becomes unreliable or unsafe for further use, as in the
erratic behavior of a switch, poor connections in a printed-
circuit board, or delamination of a composite material
Material Substitution in Products. For a variety of
reasons, numerous substitutions are made in materials, as
evidenced by a routine inspection and comparison of
common products, such as home appliances, sports
equipment, or automobiles. As a measure of the challenges
faced in material substitution, consider the following
examples: (a) metal versus wooden handle for a hammer,
(b) aluminum versus castiron lawn chair, (c) copper versus
aluminum electrical wire, (d) plastic versus steel car
bumper, and (e) alloy steel versus titanium submarine hull.
The following two case studies describe some details of the
major factors involved in material substitution in common
products.

INTERPRETACION DE PLANOS DE FABRICACION

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qdAPhCEA430

Lectura de planos mecánicos

AVELLANADO, CON BROCAS

MAQUINADO CON TORNO

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZF0l-dyC88w
I.6 Selection of Manufacturing Processes There is
often more than one method that can be employed
to produce a component for a product from a given
material. The following broad categories of
manufacturing methods are all applicable to metallic
as well as nonmetallic materials:
1. Casting (Fig. 1.5a): Expendable mold and
permanent mold (Part II)
2 . Forming and shaping (Figs. I.5b–d): Rolling,
forging, extrusion, drawing, sheet forming, powder
metallurgy, and molding (Part III)
3. Machining (Fig. I.5e): Turning, boring, drilling,
milling, planing, shaping, broaching; grinding;
ultrasonic machining; chemical, electrical, and
electrochemical machining; and high-energy-beam
machining (Part IV); this broad category also includes
micromachining for producing ultraprecision parts
(Part V)
4. Joining (Fig. I.5f): Welding, brazing, soldering,
diffusion bonding, adhesive bonding, and
mechanical joining (Part VI)
5. Finishing: Honing, lapping, polishing, burnishing,
deburring, surface treating, coating, and plating
(Chapters 26 and 34)
6 . Microfabrication and nanofabrication:
Technologies that are capable of producing parts
with dimensions at the micro (one-millionth of a
meter) and nano (one-billionth of a meter) levels;
fabrication of microelectromechanical systems
(MEMS) and nanoelectromechanical systems
(NEMS), typically involving processes such as
lithography, surface and bulk micromachining,
etching, LIGA, and various other specialized
processes (Chapters 28 and 29