Educational Communication And Technology 1

TOPIC 1
EDCI 223 & PGDE 703: EDUCATIONAL COMMUNICATION AND
TECHNOLOGY I
LEAD: James Kibor Singoei
Welcome to Kisii University E-learning platform. You are logged on to SEDHURED,
Department of Curriculum, Instruction and Media (CIM), EDCI 223 & PGDE 703:
Instructional Communication and Technology I course is offered. In this course we shall
learn how to communicate effectively in the classroom by applying various educational
communication technologies; identify the means of communication; their effectiveness
and weaknesses, and propose means of strengthening the weaknesses; identify models of
communication; and their application in the classroom; and the application of the
Learning Resource Centre to educational communication and technology.
LESSON ONE
INTRODUCTION TO THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION;
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY; AND ITS ROLE IN INSTRUCTION
This lesson is an introduction to the course. We shall begin by familiarising ourselves
with the key words: - communication process; instruction; and educational technology.
At the end of the lesson we ought to be able to analyse the role of educational technology
in communication in teaching.
The Communication Processes
COMMUNICATION is the sharing and exchange of information by sending and
receiving messages between the Sender and Receiver, using channels/mediums. The
Sender has a Message to deliver to the Receiver; and will use a Medium/Channel, e.g.
telephone, oral/open air, memo, to deliver the message. Once received, the Receiver will
analyse the message and send feedback to the Sender. From the feedback, the Sender
will be able to tell whether the message was received as intended or not.
In the classroom situation, the Teacher is the Sender, and the Message is the
Topic/Subject being taught. The medium in use will vary depending on the situation, e.g.
picture/chart/oral/video/demonstration; and the Student is the Receiver of the message.
Once analysed, the student will send Feedback to the Teacher who will analyse the
message and gauge whether it was received as intended.
A Teacher prepares to teach a Topic/Subject long before s/he comes to the classroom.
Among the preparations are setting the objectives intended to be achieved at the end of
teaching. So the method of teaching, the notes prepared, and other activities will be
guided by the objectives. After teaching, the Teacher is required to establish whether
what was taught was received as intended hence, objectives being met. This is conducted
by evaluating teaching during classroom delivery, at the end of the lesson, or at the end of
the term. The questions asked in the classroom, assignments, and examinations serve to
obtain feedback. From the answers received, the Teacher will be able to analyse whether
the message was received as intended, or not.
From the above, we can identify the role of the Communication Process in the classroom.
Activity: Identify the roles played by the following in the Communication Process in the
classroom: Teacher; Message; Medium; Receiver; and Feedback.
Instruction
Instruction is basically teaching, where exchange of information is performed. The
teacher shares information with the learners in order to offer new and additional
information based on the set objectives. The instruction is usually interactive and
focused. The teacher provides new information for the learners to acquire and apply. At
the end of instruction, an evaluation is conducted to establish whether learning has taken
place.
Educational Technology
Technology is a means of communication, which when applied in the classroom, is
referred to as educational/instructional technology. Simply put, it is a way of facilitating
communication. The most common means of instruction is verbal and non-verbal, at
times referred to as “talk and chalk”. Beyond this, other means include electronic,
display, written, observation, and performance, among others. They appeal to various
senses, hence recommended for use to supplement verbal and non-verbal communication.
In this course, learners are encouraged to apply a variety of instructional/teaching
technologies in order appeal to all learners. Learners have their individual differences
which may be brought at par by applying a variety of means of communication. For
example, some learn more by hearing and observing; hearing and performing; or hearing
and touching. All this helps to make teaching interactive, and with interaction learning
and evaluation is enhanced.
Note: Not all technologies need to be used in one lesson. Choice is based on the lesson
objectives and the learners.
Activity: Explain the need to apply various educational technologies during
instruction.

 TOPIC 2
LESSON TWO
TECHNOLOGY’S USE IN EDUCATIONAL COMMUNICATION, AND ITS
EFFECTIVENESS IN INSTRUCTION
In this lesson we shall learn how to communicate effectively in the classroom by
applying various means/technologies. To start off, we shall identify the various
educational communication tools; and establish their functions and effectiveness in
instruction. Towards this, oral presentation is appropriate.
Identification and Functions of Educational Communication Technologies
Let us identify the common tools used in teaching and analyse their functions and
effectiveness. There are several forms of communication, including verbal, non-verbal,
visual, audio, audio-visual, interpersonal, oral, written, and mass communication. This
unit will focus on verbal and non-verbal aspects, and their applications in the classroom.
These two forms can be manipulated using communication technologies in order to share
messages effectively. There are media used to facilitate this, e.g. recorded video, radio,
television, power point slides, charts, diagrams, demonstrations, among many others.
You are expected to identify and select the most appropriate types of communication for
use in teaching, and analyse their effectiveness in instruction.
Item Functions Effectiveness Comments
Radio
Books
CD
Video/DVD
Posters
Banners
Charts
Tables
Email
Telephone

Activity: Explain how application of any one of the above communication tools will
enhance achievement of teaching objectives in a lesson.

 TOPIC 3
LESSON THREE
Effectiveness of Educational Communication Tools in Instruction
This lesson is a continuation of the previous one. Here we shall consider both the
advantages and disadvantages of using the tools identified in the previous lesson; and
propose means of improvement. For example, use of pictures enables the learner to see
the reality. The disadvantage is that the size projected may not apply to the reality, hence
the need to use a picture that replicates the size of the item. If you intend to display a
bear, do not display a cub instead.
Item Advantage Disadvantage Proposed action Comments
Radio
Books
CD
Video/DVD
Posters
Banners
Charts
Tables
Email
Telephone
 TOPIC 4
LESSON FOUR
COMMUNICATION IN INSTRUCTION USING VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL
TECHNIQUES
This unit aims at introducing the verbal and non-verbal aspects of classroom
communication. As you may be aware, both verbal and non-verbal aspects of
communication play a very important role in classroom communication. We shall
consider the effects these have on instruction and discuss how to achieve the best way
forward.
At the end of this unit, you will be expected to identify, and to apply the most important
communication techniques in the classroom. Additionally, you will be expected to
practice communication techniques and strategies that can be used to enhance learning
and to improve teaching.
As observed in the Lesson One, communication is the process of conveying information
between the sender and the receiver. The process involves the sender, the message, the
medium, the receiver and feedback. The process is complete once the receiver has
understood the message and sent feedback to the sender. Communication among people
is a natural function conducted to achieve the following, among others:-
o as a social process
o to express themselves
o to obtain information
o to transmit/convey information
o to interact
o to create good relationship
o to impart values
o to elicit response and,
o to influence change in behaviour.

Verbal communication is communication where the message is spoken to the receiver,

for example the teacher to students; while in Non-verbal communication action and not
words are used to relay the message. The actions include obvious behaviours such as
facial expression and eye behaviour, body movement, touching behaviour, voice
characteristics, and dressing. From this we may conclude that verbal communication
uses only language as a means of sending messages while non-verbal communication
uses everything else! (Campbell: 2002)
Verbal Aspects of Communication Let us now consider the verbal aspects of
communication and their application in the classroom. During teaching and learning, the
teacher needs to use communication that is interactive. Some aspects of verbal
communication that meets this requirement include the following:
Use of humour
This helps to release stress and tension for both the teacher and the student; fosters a
friendly classroom environment
Language
The language used in the classroom ought to encourage participation of the learner in
class. Therefore, the teacher ought to use encouraging words/praise, acknowledge
learners’ contribution in order to encourage them to interact.
Two-way communication
The teacher needs to apply two-way communication since it brings out immediate
responses to the message sent. It also enables the teacher to listen to the learner’s point
of view and places him/her in a position to correct any misunderstanding
Asking questions and soliciting for answers
In order to enhance two-way communication, the teacher ought to ask open-ended
questions to initiate discussion; encourage interaction in the classroom’ and enhance
learning.

Note: the teacher ought to be aware of verbal communication that discourage learning,
and try to avoid them. This includes: -
Ø Use of abusive words (silly, stupid, fool);
Ø Blame words (it is your fault, that is your problem, you are wasting our time);
Ø Order words (you must do this now, shut up you idiot
Ø Criticism (that is a stupid answer; liar; careless work)
Ø Rejection (that is your problem not mine, who taught you to speak like that?)
Ø Offensive words that put off a learner from participation (rubbish, think before you
open your mouth, don’t display your ignorance, you will never make it in life)
Ø Threatening words, (if you don’t submit assignment by the set deadline)
Ø Demanding words, (I expect better results from you and not this filth you have
presented!, are you really fit to be in this class?, or think before you utter such a stupid
answer)
Ø Insulting, biased words, (such a question from a big woman like you, don’t act like a
boy, or is that how you will be talking to your children?)

Note: This kind of verbal communication obstructs the learner from learning. It may
affect the learner in any one of the following ways: -
· Lose desire to learn
· Feel demoralized and frustrated
· Feel dejected and develop withdrawal symptoms
· Get confused and wonder where s/he went wrong
· Develop hatred towards the teacher and the subject
· Begin absconding from class
· Develop trends of fear and fail to participate in learning
· May develop fear and prefer not to ask questions in class in order to obtain clarity
· Cheat in examination and tests in order to demonstrate improvement
· Feel embarrassed, humiliated, shy and disgraced
· Develop a negative attitude towards himself/herself
· Lose confidence and hope in self
· Develop an interest in sitting at the back of the classroom in order to avoid the
teacher’s attention
· Rebel and drop out of school

Activity: Propose verbal communication in the classroom that is friendly to learning;

communication that will offer guidance and encourage learner participation. (E.g. try
again, you are on the right track)

 TOPIC 5
LESSON FIVE
Non-Verbal Aspects of Communication
This is a continuation of the previous lesson, where we shall consider the non-verbal
aspects of communication. Welcome.
As mentioned earlier in this topic, non-verbal communication is where action and not
words are used to relay the message. These actions include obvious behaviours such as
facial expression and eye behaviour, body movement and gestures, touching behaviour,
voice characteristics, and dressing, among others. Under non-verbal communication,
everything communicates, including material objects, physical space and time systems.
Whereas verbal output can be turned off, non-verbal cannot; even silence speaks!
As a student teacher, you need to be aware of non-verbal communication in the
classroom for the following reasons: -
Words have limitations that require the use of non-verbal communication. This is more
so when we explain the shape, direction, and personalities among others.
Ø Non-verbal signals are powerful, and primarily express inner feelings, while verbal
messages basically deal with the outer feelings
Ø Following this, non-verbal messages cannot be controlled as easily as spoken words
Ø Non-verbal cues are practiced naturally without prior thought
Ø Awareness of non-verbal behaviour enables the teacher become a better receiver of
learners’ messages
Ø A teacher using non-verbal cues will become a better sender of the signals that
reinforce learning
Ø This form of communication increases the degree of the perceived psychological
closeness between teacher and learner
Ø Non-verbal communication is a critical aspect of interpersonal communication in the
classroom. The most credible messages teachers generate, as communication sources, are
non-verbal
Forms of Non-Verbal Behaviours
Let us now establish the major forms of non-verbal behaviours and consider them one by
one. These include eye movement/contact; facial expressions; gestures; posture and body
orientation; proximity and distance; paralinguistic/tonal variation; and dressing.

Eye movement/contact: Of all the organs of the human body, the eye is the most
communicative. The eye communicates information through eye contact, staring, gazing
and blinking. Facial expressions communicate about 50% of all the non-verbal
messages. When used in conjunction with the eye, we communicate 75% of all our non-
verbal information. For example, a teacher look directly into the learner’s eye in a bid to
establish some truth; or to identify a learner who is ready to answer a question posed. A
learner who thinks s/he knows the answer will look the teacher in the eye, while the one
who does not will usually avoid making eye contact. Furthermore, eye contact indicates
whether one is open to communication and helps regulate the flow of communication. In
this way, eye contact is used to control an interpersonal interaction; open up the flow of
communication, and to convey interest, concern, warmth and credibility.

Facial expression: involves some of the smallest body movements, but its impact in
classroom communication may be greater than any other body language the teacher
displays. The teacher and learner use facial expressions to form impressions of one
another. For instance, a cold stare is used by the teacher to silence a noisy class; while a
smile is used to reinforce learner behaviour affirmatively. Smiling is a powerful cue that
transmits happiness, friendliness, warmth, liking, and attachment. Thus a teacher who
smiles frequently will be perceived as more likeable, friendly, warm, and approachable.
Additionally, smiling is contagious and learners will react favourably and learn more.
A teacher may also use facial expressions as a source of feedback to determine whether
or not to slow down, speed up, or in some way modify presentation. Hence, a teacher
should avoid covering his/her mouth while teaching, or talk while facing the chalkboard,
because this will deny learners the messages from facial expression which help reinforce
effective communication.

Gestures are used in classroom communication to clarify, contradict, or replace verbal

messages. They serve an important function with regard to regulating flow of
conversation. A head nod communicates positive reinforcement. For instance, if a
learner is making a contribution in class, a single nod from the teacher is likely to cause
the learner to continue and perhaps elaborate. Additionally, a lively animated teaching
style captures learners’ attention, makes the material more interesting, facilitates learning,
and provides entertainment.

Posture and body orientation

A teacher communicates numerous messages by the way s/he walks stands and sits. For
instance, a teacher who is standing erect, but not rigid, and leaning slightly forward,
communicates to learners that s/he is approachable, receptive, and friendly. Furthermore,
interpersonal closeness results when teacher and learner face each other. A teacher
speaking with his/her back turned to learners, or looking at the floor or ceiling, expresses
disinterest in the learners.

Proximity and distance: There are varying approximations of distance that a teacher
and learner need to take into account. We shall consider three types: intimate distance,
personal distance, and social distance. The intimate distance is the zone reserved for
those whom one is intimate. It is estimated at within 18 inches. At this distance, the
physical presence of another is overwhelming. Teachers who violate learners’ intimate
space may be perceived as intruders, and, therefore teachers need not come this close to
their learners.
Personal distance is the distance for interaction reserved for good friends. It is estimated
at between 18 inches to 4 feet. This is the most appropriate for teacher and learners to
discuss personal affairs such as grades, conduct, and private problems.
Social distance is the most appropriate distance for casual friends and acquaintances to
interact. It is measured at 12 feet and above. At this distance, the speaker is viewed as
formal. Teachers who maintain this distance between themselves and their learners are
generally formal; and some learners may feel that the teacher is cold and distant.
It is worth noting that in our situation cultural norms dictate a comfortable distance for
interaction with learners. The teacher should look for signals of discomfort caused by
invading learners’ space. In large classes, space invasion is not a problem; in fact there is
usually too much distance. In order to counter this, the teacher needs to move around the
classroom in order to increase interaction with learners. Increasing proximity enables the
teacher to make better eye contact and increases the opportunities for learners to speak.

Tonal variation is a very powerful tool that can be used to influence learner participation
in the classroom. The teacher applies an enhanced vocal pitch or tone when responding
to learners’ correct answers. It also works as positive reinforcement from the teacher and
expresses the acceptance and liking of a learner’s answer. This is often accompanied by
a smile or other forms of non-verbal approval.

CONCLUSION
Effective teaching and learning depends on successful communication, and successful
communication on successful non-verbal communication.
Effective communication is the cornerstone of good teaching and learning.
In order to achieve effective communication, different types of skills must be used to
convey messages
Interactive skills allow teachers to tell students that they are interested in them and in
what they are saying or doing.

Activity: Explain why a teacher needs to be aware of Non-Verbal messages during

teaching and learning
 TOPIC 6
LESSON SIX
MODELS OF COMMUNICATION IN THE CLASSROOM:
EDGAR DALE’S CONE OF EXPERIENCE is a visual model composed of several
stages, based on the number of senses involved. At each stage, the experiences are
interrelated and fosters more meaningful learning. When selecting and using teaching
strategies, the more senses that are considered and involved, the better. This is effective
when used in transforming knowledge to the learner (since they are mixed and inter-
related). Hence the experiences can address all the learner needs in all the domains of
development, and helps the learners in their holistic development.
In teaching, the Educational Technology revolves around the Cone of Experience: going
one by one, starting from known to abstract. This helps in understanding the real meaning
of educational technology.
Let us consider each of the components:
1st Level is the first hand experiences which serve as the foundation of learning. At this
level, more senses are used in order to build up the knowledge. Also at this level, the
learner learns by doing thing by himself/herself. Learning takes place through hands-on
experiences. Hence, the more senses that are involved in learning, the more and the better
learning will be. This also proves that educational technology is not limited to the modern
gadgets and software; a child can learn at any simple opportunity.
2nd Level is the Contrived Experiences, where representative models and mock reality are
used in order to provide an experience that is close to reality. This is a practical level and
makes learning experience more accessible to the learner. This allows the visualization
that foster better understanding of the concept.
3rd Level involves Dramatized experiences. At this level, learners participate in
reconstructed experiences that provides better understanding of the concept. Through
dramatized experiences, learners become more familiar with the concept.
4th Level involves the Demonstrations. This is a visual explanation of important facts,
ideas, or process through the use of pictures, drawings, video, and other types of media,
in order to facilitate clear and effective learning. At this level, activities are shown based
on how they are performed.
5th Level involves Study Trips. This enables extending of the learning experience through
excursions and visits to different places that are not available inside the classroom. This
level enables learning to be extended in a more complex environment.
6th Level involves exhibits which come in closely after study trips. It is a combination of
the 1st level in the Cone. Exhibits are experiences to be seen, sensed, and directly related
to purposeful experiences. Meaningful ideas are presented to the learners in a more
abstract manner. This experience enables the learner to SEE the meaning and relevance
of things based on the different pictures and representations presented.
7th Level is the level of television and motion pictures, recordings, and radio. They are all
related to one another, and used in teaching to transmit values and messages that could
enhance and extend learning experience.
8th and 9th Levels are combined because they are used hand in hand; these are the Verbal
and Visual symbolic. These two levels are the most complex and abstract among all the
components of the Cone of Experience. In the visual symbolic level, maps, charts,
graphs, and diagrams are used for abstract representations. On the other hand, the verbal
symbolic level does not involve visual representation or clues to their meanings. What is
involved here are words, ideas, principles, formula, etc.
Conclusion from the above different components of the Cone of Experience, we can
use a variety of materials and media to facilitate and maximize the learning experience.
The teacher can use one or combine several medium to benefit learners. The Cone of
Experience also communicates that Educational Technology is not limited to the modern
gadgets, but it is a broad concept that includes all the media that can be used to facilitate
effective and meaningful learning.
From the foregoing, Edgar Dale justifies the importance of using resources in teaching.
He classified the resources according to their effectiveness in communication at different
levels, from the lowest to the highest:
ONE: people remember 10% of what they READ
TWO: people remember 20 of what they HEAR
THREE: people remember 30% of what they SEE
FOUR: people remember 50% of what they HEAR AND SEE
FIVE: people remember 70% of what they SAY AND WRITE
SIX: people remember 90% of what they SAY AND DO
Hence, use of instructional resources is necessary and must be available in the schools to
be utilised in teaching and learning

Activity: Identify the contribution made by Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experience towards
preparation for instruction.

Further reading:
Corpuz, B., and Lucido, P (2008) Educational Technology I, Quezon City: Lorimar
Publishing, Inc.
Corpuz, B., and Salandanan, G. (2011) Principles of Teaching I, Quezon City: Lorimar
Publishing, Inc.

 TOPIC 7
LESSON SEVEN
MODELS OF COMMUNICATION IN THE CLASSROOM:
THE CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY
Jerome Bruner developed the Constructivist Theory whose major theme is that learning is an active
process where learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current and past knowledge.
The learner does this by selecting and transforming information, constructing a hypothesis, and makes
decision, relying on cognitive structure. The Cognitive structure (i.e. schema, mental models) provides
meaning and organization to experiences and allows the individual to “go beyond the information
given”.
Bruner argued that during instruction, the teacher should try and encourage learners to discover
principles themselves. To achieve this, the instructor and the learner ought to engage in a dialogue
where the instructor translates information to be learned in an appropriate and simple format,
appropriate to the learner’s level of understanding.
Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should be based on the following principles:
1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make learners willing
and able to learn. This prepares the learners to learn,
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily understood by the learner. This is
referred to as spiral organization.
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and/or fill in the gaps, i.e. going
beyond the information provided.
From the fore-going, good methods for structuring knowledge should result in simplifying, generating
new propositions, and increasing the manipulation of information. Since then, Bruner (1986, 1990, and
1996) has expanded his theoretical framework to include the social and cultural aspects of learning.
The Constructivist Theory is based on the idea that knowledge is constructed by the knower based on
mental activity. Learning is an active contextualized process of constructing knowledge, rather than
acquiring it. The theory is founded on the premise that by reflecting on our experiences, we construct
our own understanding of the world we live in. Each one of us generates our own rule and mental
models which we use to make sense of our experiences.
Therefore, learning is the process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate new experiences;
and knowledge is created based on personal experiences and hypothesis of the environment. Each
individual has a different interpretation and construction of the knowledge process. The learner brings
past experiences and socio-cultural factors to a new situation.
Since the theory is based on observation about how learning takes place, it is believed that when
learners encounter new information, they have to reconcile it with previous ideas and experience. This
leads to either changing what they believe, or discarding the new information as irrelevant, or creating
their own knowledge. In the process, they ask questions, explore, and assess what they know.
Brunner in his theory argued that learning is an active and social process where learners construct new
ideas or concept based on their current knowledge. This implies that instruction must be concerned with
the experiences and contents that make the learners willing and able to learn. Besides, instruction must
be structured so that it can be easily grasped by learners and has to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in
the gaps.
Since application of constructivism transforms the learners from a passive recipient of information to an
active participant in the learning process, the content taught need to enable them construct their own
knowledge and understanding of the world through the learning environment organized by teachers. In
the classrooms, teachers need to guide learners in constructing their knowledge actively rather than just
mechanically getting knowledge from the teacher or the textbooks. Thus teachers need to understand
that students learn best when they gain knowledge through exploration and active learning.
They should provide the learners with hands-on materials besides textbooks and, encourage them to
think and explain their reasoning instead of memorizing and reacting to facts. Teachers need to
encourage learners to analyze, interpret and predict information; to respond to open-ended questions;
and to promote extensive dialogue during instruction. This will enable learners to develop strong
abilities to integrate new information, and eventually become expert learners. Therefore, a well-planned
classroom environment should guide learners how to learn.
Activity: Explain how applicable Bruner’s Constructivist Theory is to teaching and
learning in Kenya.
Further reading: Brunner, J.S. (1960) “The Process of Education”. Cambridge, M.A.: Harvard
University Press
 TOPIC 8
LESSONS EIGHT AND NINE
CLASSIFICATION OF MEDIA; FORMATS; ADVANTAGES; DISADVANTAGES
INTRODUCTION
In this lesson we shall define educational media resources, and identify the purposes that they serve in
the teaching and learning process. We shall examine the various types of media resources that a teacher
can apply to facilitate and support the instructional process. They will be divided into three categories:
visual, audio, and audio-visual. At the end of the topic, learners shall be able to discuss their
characteristics, contributions, and limitations faced in their use. This is closely related to Lessons Two
and Three where we considered the media technologies.
ROLES OF MEDIA IN THE TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS:
When we use media resources in our lessons in order to perform the following roles:
(i) Facilitate student learning
(ii) Motivate students to learn
(iii) Attracts and retains attention
(iv) Provide real – life or close to real life situation
(v) Simplify learning
(vi) Promote permanence of what is learnt
(vii) Facilitate individualised and variety of other ways of learning/ addresses students individual
differences
(viii) Encourage active participation
(ix) Make the inaccessible accessible
(x) Improve communication of information between the teacher and the students
(xi) Reduces cost and time
(xii) Facilitate evaluation processes, and much more.

TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

The careful selection and skillful handling is important. Proper selection of the most appropriate media
requires teacher’s awareness of the following:
a) Knowledge on the nature/ attributes of media, senses involved in their use
b) Environmental constraints they face, and
c) Kinds of learning experiences and objectives they promote.

The table below shows three different ways of classifying media.

Senses applied in their Physical properties Type of objective they
use support
Visual Non- Projected Cognitive
Audio Projected Psychomotor
Audio-Visual Affective

One media resource may be visual, be used as it is or be projected and be applied to help learners
achieve an objective in the cognitive domain.
VISUAL MEDIA
Here is a list of some common visual media formats that lend themselves to instructional purposes: -
Still pictures; Three Dimensional materials; chalk/white boards; bulletin boards; graphics; printed
materials, ETC
The visual media listed above can be used as they are. However in some situations a teacher may be
required to project. Some tools used to project instructional material include:
1. Overhead projector
2. Slide projector
3. Film projector
4. Computer overhead projector.

Let us now describe some of the media mentioned here by identifying their advantages, limitations and
applications in a lesson.

5. STILL PICTURES
These are photographic or photograph-like representations of people, places and things
Advantages
Still pictures:
ü Translate abstract ideas into more realistic format
ü Moves instruction from verbal symbols to a more concrete level
ü Are readily available
ü Are easy to use as they may not need equipment in their use
ü Are relatively inexpensive

Application:
Still pictures may be used to:
· Illustrate a specific lesson’s topic such as in building, an architectural style
· Facilitation of discussion and follow-up activities as in the case of photographs taken during a
field trip.
· Show a process
· Show relationship between phenomena as in Geography, between people and environment.
· Test and evaluate
· Facilitate activities in a lesson whose objectives require identification
· Stimulation of creative expression
Limitations:
v Some still pictures are too small to use before a group
v They are two dimensional
v They do not show motion
v Objects: Real things e.g., a table, pencil.

6. THREE DIMENSIONAL MATERIALS

These are visual media resources that can be viewed in three dimensions; the height, width and breadth.
They are composed of the following:
7. Real objects such as rocks, table, bottle, etc.;
8. Specimen that represent group or class of similar objects such as flowers, leaves, fish;
9. Models which are a recognizable representation of a real object made out of other material,
such as the skeletal system, the human tooth, heart etc.

Application:
In using three dimensional materials it is important to:
· Ensure it can be seen by all. The size matters.
· Relate it to its natural setting for broader understanding of its nature.
· Help learners realize its actual size especially if the material is a miniature or enlarged form of
the real object.
· Use them in combination with other materials.
· Plan for learner interaction, handling and manipulation using the material.

10. CHALK/WHITE BOARD

The chalk/white board is the most common and readily available media in schools and classrooms.
They come in variety of colours such as black, green, blue and white. The chalk/white board is also a
very versatile devise; adaptable to any subject and many uses. It can be used as a display medium for
notes, summaries, diagrams and illustrations, work space, and much more. It takes a skilled user to
communicate effectively through this medium.

Activity: identify some challenges that the teacher and learners may face in the use of the chalk board.
Suggest possible solutions to the challenges

11. BULLETIN BOARD

A bulletin board is a display or exhibit medium, also referred to as notice board, and used
for the following functions:
· To facilitate and enrich instruction
· Supplement text books
· Arouse student interest to specific issues
· Initiate a new topic
· Summarise display
· Display students’ work

12. PRINTED MATERIALS

These include Text books, Maps, Atlases, Posters, Globes, Reference books, Magazines, Journals, and
many more. In this lesson, we shall focus on the text book. In our schooling system there are text books
that are used as main course books, supplementary or workbooks.
Text books
Advantages:
ü They save valuable time in terms of syllabus coverage since they are centrally selected and provide
necessary basic knowledge of a subject.
ü Provide a common experience for the whole class, and by extension to the schools nationwide.
ü They are readily available and ensure continuity of learning outside of the classroom.
ü Individual ownership of books promotes individuality in
ü They are also economical if durable.
Limitations:
v Over dependence on textbooks denies learners the opportunity to think, organize information and
draw independent conclusions on content read.
v They ignore the dynamic nature of knowledge and don’t encourage further pursuit of information.
v Books do not adequately cater for instructional innovations
v Influence teaching more than they should do through the suggested strategies, activities and tasks
provided within them.
Most school learning relies quite heavily on printed materials. It is therefore important for the teacher to
choose wisely and skillfully from among the range of printed material available for instructional
purposes.
ACTIVITY: Examine each item (1-5) in the criteria above and give reasons for its
importance in teaching and learning
 TOPIC 9
LESSONS EIGHT AND NINE
CONTINUED

AUDIO MEDIA FORMATS

These are the various means of recording and transmitting the human voice and other sounds for
instructional purposes. Examples of such media are
· Open Reel tape recorders
· Cassette tape recorders and players
· Compact disc players
· Radio
Note that these media resources are originally developed for other uses such as mass communication
and entertainment but are be adopted and used for instructional purposes

ACTIVITY: What other audio media format do you know of and have not been listed?

Positive Attributes of Audio Media Formats:

ü Inexpensive forms of instruction. This is because of its ability to reach many at the same time, can be
re-used, and the hardware involved is affordable.
ü Readily available and easy to use since most individuals will have used them at home or elsewhere
for other purposes
ü Used for group or individual instruction hence offering greater flexibility of use
ü Can be adapted to any vocabulary level. You can edit existing audio content or develop your own
that is best suited to your learners’ level and needs as well as your environment.
ü Presents stimulating information more dramatically than print.
ü Portable, easily duplicated in any quantities and re-usable

Limitations of Audio Media Formats

The audio media formats tend to fix the sequence of presentation.
v Students may lose attention due to lack of face-to-face communication.
v The instructional message may be heard but not listened to and therefore, not comprehended by the
students.
v A visual reference is always required. Audio media formats have a high initial expense of playback
and recording.
v Development of audio material by teacher is time consuming.
v While you are at the development stage it is usually challenging determining the appropriate pace of
presentation.
v Note that the presentation pace of an audio lesson is different from that of a face –to-face- lesson.

AUDIO - VISUAL MEDIA FORMATS

This is media that requires the use of both audio and visual senses in their use.
Here are unique contributions of audio visual media (motion pictures) to learning.
· Provide a common basis for exchange of ideas
· Have capacity to show, explain, report, communicate facts, actions, attitudes, and abstractions
that can influence human behaviour

Advantages of Audio- Visual Media

ü Portray procedures in which motion is essential to mastery
ü Useful where sequential movement is critical
ü Allow learners to observe phenomena that may be dangerous to view directly
ü Research indicates that mastery of physical skills requires repeated observation and practice-recorded
motion media allows performance to be viewed repeatedly for emulation
ü Have unique capacity to communicate, to influence and to inform
ü They communicate through the most direct channels to the mind & the emotions: sight and hearing.
ü Combination of motion, colour and sound stimulate the beholder naturally & supernaturally
ü They bypass intellectual barriers to learning
ü They break through barriers of time and space
ü Show happenings in real time, & in time modified

Types of AV Media formats include: Sound and slide programs; Video; DVD; CD; Film; TV
Uses a combination of 2 by 2 in slides with audiotape during presentation.
Advantages:
ü Easy and economical to produce locally
ü Lend themselves to student production
ü Involvement of two senses has dramatic impact on learners
ü Can be used for group and individual study
ü Combined with a printed study guide, they actively involve learners

Limitations:
v slides may get out of synchronization
v Difficult to go back and re-examine a portion while keeping slides in synchronization with sounds

Application:
1. For instructional outcomes involving presentation of visual images
2. To evoke an emotional response
3. For foreign language instruction

Video and film

4. Differences Between Video and Film
5. Both videotape and video disk are more flexible than film
6. Special effects :slow motion, fast-forwarding, reverse search, pausing can be obtained during
video presentation
7. Video can be remote controlled unlike film
8. Video lends itself to individual study more readily than film
9. VCR and TV set are easier to use than film
10. Video copies are easier to get than film copies
11. With video, one does not worry about focusing as in film

Limitations of AV Media
v Presentations usually run at fixed pace hence disadvantaging the slow/fast learners
v Complexity of logistics involved in acquiring software and hardware for use in class discouraging
v Misconceptions can arise in viewer if proper guidance not given (villain/hero)

Criteria for Media Selection

We have identified and described the range of media that is available to us and can be applied for
teaching and learning purposes. We have also discussed their characteristics, and are aware of their
desirable attributes, limitations we can face in using them as well as how they can best be applied. It is
necessary for us to be familiar with criteria that we can apply whenever we select the most appropriate
media for our lessons. The criteria follow.
Lesson Objectives; Flexibility; Availability; Cost; Type of Learners; Re-usability; Senses used;
Durability; Learner involvement; Involvement with learner lives and experiences; develop learners’
critical thinking

 TOPIC 10
LESSON TEN
SYSTEMATIC PLANNING FOR USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA (ASSURE MODEL)
We have covered the instructional technology, various means of communication in the classroom, the
media and their characteristics, and now we shall consider planning for teaching using instructional
media and technology. In this process, we shall consider the ASSURE model, which is an instructional
design model with the goal of producing more effective teaching and learning. ASSURE is an acronym
that stands for the six steps in the model, whose breakdown is given below: -
A - Analyze Learners
The first step in the process is that the teacher should analyze the attributes of the learners. Focus is
made on the learner characteristics which are associated with the learning outcomes desired. The
information gathered will help the teacher in decisions made with respect to the other steps in the
process, such as choosing specific strategies and resources to aid in the learning process.
The analysis of learners should include the following:
1. The general attributes of the learners, such as age, academic abilities, gender, interests, etc.
2. Prior competencies
3. Learning styles, such as auditory, visual, and tactile

S – Standards and Objectives

After analysis of the learner attributes, the teacher must state standards and objectives of the lesson.
This statement needs to specify activities the learners will be able to perform as a result of the
instruction.
The objectives can be used to assess learning, for grading process, and accomplishments.

S –Select Strategies, Technology, Media, and Materials

The second “S” in the acronym stands for Select strategies, technology, media, and materials. Given the
learning objectives, it is necessary to pick instructional strategies, technology, and media that will bring
about the required results.
The teacher selects the teaching method that will be best for instruction. For instance, the proportion of
instruction that will be teacher centred, and what proportion will be learners centred. The teacher
centred are strategies such as lecture, demonstration, or showing a video, while the learner centred
strategies are such as group discussion or cooperative group work.
Selection of the strategy is followed by choice of technology, media, and materials that best support the
method of teaching. This ranges from simple tools such as chalk and blackboard, to more sophisticated
ones such as power-point presentations.

U – Utilize Technology, Media, and Materials

This step in the ASSURE process involves making a plan on how to utilize the technology, media, and
materials that have been selected. As with all instructional steps, the teacher ought to ensure that the
plans contribute towards producing the objectives that have been laid down. In this process, it is
important for the teacher to follow the “Five P’s” process to achieve this:
a) Preview the Technology, Media, and Materials
b) Prepare the Technology, Media, and Materials
c) Prepare the Environment
d) Prepare learners
e) Prepare the learning experience
R – Require Learner Participation
This step requires that the teacher plans on how the learners will be engaged in the teaching material.
Consideration needs to be taken at both the class level and the individual level. Learners ought to be
engaged actively, e.g. through discussions, questioning.

E – Evaluate and Revise

In the final step of the ASSURE process, the teacher must evaluate the impact of teaching on student
learning. This includes an evaluation of the teaching strategies and technology, media, and materials
used. Some of the questions for consideration include the following:-
4. Did the lesson meet the set learning objectives?
5. Is the way of assessing the students in line with the set learning objectives?
6. Can the lesson be improved? If yes, how?
7. How will the weaknesses in teacher presentation be assessed?
8. Was the choice of media and materials effective?
9. Is it possible that other technologies, media, and materials would have performed better?
10. The final step in evaluation ought to focus on feedback from the learners in order to determine
whether or not the teacher performance was effective
In conclusion, the ASSURE process is a regimented guide to improve teaching techniques. By
following the ASSURE process a teacher can improve teaching as we move forward.

Activity: discuss how a teacher may benefit from applying the ASSURE Model during preparation for
instruction

Further reading:
Kurt, S. “ASSURE: Instructional Design Model,” in Educational Technology, November 23, 2015.

 LESSON 11
LESSON ELEVEN
LEARNING RESOURCE CENTRE
In line with the Learning Resource Centre, we need to consider the six National Goals of
Education contained I the Kenyan Curriculum of education, which teachers are expected
to implement. They are National Unity; Cultural Heritage; Self Reliance; Individual
Development; International Consciousness; and National Development.
The teaching subjects contribute towards achievement of these goals; the resources
required also facilitate the achievement of the goals; and almost everything else we
perform in school is aimed at achieving one or more of these goals.
Hence for effective implementation of our curriculum, we need to go to the sources of
real-life; which are found in the community where the schools are situated. The products
of our curriculum will also be expected to function within this community upon
completion of their schooling. As a resource for learning, the community is very rich,
and has relations with the six goals of education mentioned earlier. Therefore, it is
necessary for the schools to interact with the community; such as the County
Government; the Crying Stone of Kakamega; the Steam Geysers of Lake Baringo;
Women Groups; Market places; Factories; Agricultural Farms; Courts of Justice; etc.
these are the community learning resource centres.
Besides reading, discussion, and simulated experiences, Educational Goals can also be
achieved through direct interaction of social, economic, and political existence with adult
life in its natural settings. First hand experiences with people, places, and experiences are
primary sources of learning. We, therefore, need to arrange and systematically
investigate the resources within local communities as part of the organized school
curriculum.
The classroom can extend to the community or the community may be brought into the
classroom in order to provide learners with direct experiences with the people, places,
and things that they are studying about.
Community study opportunities are three-fold: -
a) Bringing the community into the classroom itself. This is done by inviting
community leaders to interact with learners, e.g. the County Governor, the Chief of
Police, the Chief Chemist, the Chief Justice or a High Court Judge, Agricultural
Extension Officer, or a Village Elder. There are many areas in the teaching subjects
where resource persons can be made use of, besides the regular teacher.
b) Extend the classroom to the community by organising field trips. A field trip may
be organised to cover several areas in one subject area, and go to one or more places.
Special learning trips to such places as the National Assembly, Forestry Conservation
Camps, Pre-historic sites, textile factories, or the Zoo can take more days and cover
several subjects and objectives in the curriculum. Research surveys, including fact-
finding interviews with resource persons in their normal work settings will enable
learners gather information and bring back to share in school. Therefore, the local
community is rich in situations, places, and activities that learners can study.
c) Inventing of community resources is necessary. Here, the teacher needs to acquire
and compile information about accessible agencies, people, places of interest, and
services, and the people who are willing to render their services to the school. This may
be performed in the following ways:
i. By establishing a Learning Resource Centre
in the school
ii. By maintaining a well-developed school
library with inventories of Community Resources.
iii. The inventory of Community Resources can
be developed by the teacher with support from the learners, teachers. It can also be
developed through the cooperation of teacher from a number of schools on a subject
basis.
In whatever way it is developed, the Inventory of Community Resources is the result of
carefully planned and executed Resources Survey.

ORGANIZING, PLANNING, AND CONDUCTING FIELD TRIPS

Field trips, like all lessons, require careful planning. Some of the factors for consideration
include: -
o Be of genuine interest to learners
o Be suitable for age and achievement level of learners
o Be clearly relevant to the curriculum goals
o Fit naturally to the learners’ work
o Produce learning that justifies the time and effort required in its planning and
conducting
o Provide observational experiences which are not effectively and economically
available in other media forms
Having ascertained that the proposed field trip meets the stated criteria, then the teacher
can proceed to prepare for it.

When planning for the field trip, cover the following: -

o Visit and analyze the agency or field trip site in advance and procure available
descriptive materials
o Discuss the trip with the head teacher, and obtain approval
o Arrange with the agency to be visited well in advance for the date and time of the
field trip
o Arrange for transportation, time schedule, finances, chaperons, and any other
adult assistance
o Plan for food, restroom facilities and any other contingencies or emergencies
o Establish and clarify the objectives of the trip
o Prepare questions and send them to the host in advance
o Assign specific responsibilities to particular learners or groups of learners for
documenting the trip
o Plan the route to provide opportunity for learners to observe and study geographic
and social phenomena of the area as they pass through.

During the actual trip share observations made on the environment or make brief stops to
obtain details.
On arrival at the venue, ensure the following:
o Introduce the Guide and start off as soon as possible
o Try to keep to the arranged schedule
o Help the learners obtain answers to their questions
o Ensure the learners participate actively, and are courteous to the host(s)
o Keep close to the itinerary that was agreed on earlier
o Ensure each learner/group of learners undertake their responsibilities as assigned
during preparation stage
o Create opportunities for learners to ask questions which may arise in the course of
the visit, or at the end of the visit
o Regroup your learners at an agreed time, and take roll call
o Thank the Guide, and leave promptly
o If possible, use a different route back to school
o Follow normal school regulations upon arrival back to school
o Engage the learners in follow-up activities such as photo displays, slide
presentations, bulletin board displays, group discussions, etc.
Using a Resource Person
Besides making a field trip, alternatively, a Resource Person can be invited to the school
to make presentations to the learners in class. One or two learners may also arrange to
visit and interview the individual in his/her home, office, or may other work place. The
resource person is an expert in a specific area. To engage him/her, follow the procedure
below:
o Set a definite time for the event, and confirm the date
o Arrange to provide the required facilities such as projector, charts, maps, and
venue.
Clarify the purposes of the visit to the Resource Person:
o Provide class size, age level, class level
o Provide background of the class for understanding of the subject
o Clarify time limits for the visit
o If possible, send a list of questions learners have asked about the topic

Prepare the class:

o Prepare questions for the Resource Person
o Decide who will meet the guest and obtain information to be used in the
introduction
o Determine who will take notes
o Assign responsibility for vote of thanks
o Make arrangements for the return transport for the visitor if required
o Schedule and be prepared to operate and return any audio-visual equipment that
may be needed

At the end of it all, arrange Follow-up Activities in much the same way as for Field trip

Activity: Describe a Learning Resource Centre

 TOPIC 12
REVISION AND PREPARING FOR END OF SEMESTER EXAMINATIONS