Intermolecular Force

Thermal energy
Measurement of volume
Measurement of Temperature

Boyle's law [significances]

Charle's law [ application]
Gay Lussac's law
Avogadro's law

Ideal gas equation [ derivation]

Dalton's Law of partial Pressure
States Of Matter Kinetic molecular theory of gases
Compressibility factors

Cause of deviation from ideal

behaviour
Van der Waals equation
[significance ]
Liquefaction of Gases
Difference between vapour and gas
Continuity of gas
vapour pressure of a liquid
Boiling point [application]
surface tension
viscosity
States of matter

Intermolecular force: The forces of attraction existing among the molecules of

substances are called Intermolecular forces

The intermolecular forces arise due to any one of the following interactions:
a) Dipole-dipole interaction
b) Ion-dipole interaction
c) Ion-induced dipole interaction
d) Dipole-induced dipole interaction
e)Dispersion forces
f) Hydrogen bonding

Dipole-dipole interactions = These forces of attraction occur among the polar

molecules. eg: SO2 molecules, HCL molecules.

Dipole-induced dipole interactions = A non-polar molecule may be polarized by

the presence of a polar molecule near it, thereby making it an induced dipole.
The interactions between them are called dipole-induced dipole interactions
eg: HU & I2
Dispersion force or London forces: These forces of attraction occur among
nonpolar molecules like Ne, Ar, N₂, T₂, etc. It is believed that at any instant of
time, the electron cloud of the molecule" may be distorted so that an
instantaneous dipole or momentary dipole is produced in which one part of the
molecule is slightly more negative than the rest. The momentary dipoles
induce dipoles in the heigh- Lousing molecule. "Then, there is an attraction
between the induced momentary dipole forces is called dispersion forces.

It is the weakest intermolecular force. Their magnitude depends upon the

following two factors.
1.)size of molecules - Larger the molecule greater the magnitude of London
forces.
2)Geometry of the molecules: In straight chain compounds due to large
surface area, greater is the magnitude of London force.

Increasing order of intermolecular force. →

Gas < Liquid< Solid

Thermal energy The energy possessed by the molecule due to temp. is called
thermal energy. It results in the movement of the molecules and hence tries to
keep them apart

. The increasing order of thermal energy-

Solid < Liquid < Gas

Gaseous state

Measurement of mass: The mass of a gas can be determined by weighing the

container containing the gas, and then weighing the empty container again.
The difference between the two masses gives the mass of the gas. It is
expressed in terms of moles;
moles- no of moles (n) = Mars in grams W) /Molar mass (M)

Measurement of volume (V) = The volume of gas is equal to the volume of its
container. Units are:
Im³ = 1000 litre
litre = 1 dm³ = 1000 ml or cc or Cm³

Measurement of Pressure (p): The instrument. used for the measurement of the
atmospheric press. is called a barometer
The instrument used for the measurement of the pressure of a gas is called a
5 2
manometer.
5

Pressure (P) = hg

1 atm = 76cm = 760 mm or 760 torr

1 atm = 1.01325 bar = 1.01325 x10 Pa or Nm
1 bar = 10 Pa 0.987 atm

Measurement of temp: It is a measure of the extent of hotness or the

coldness of a body.
K = °C + 273.15
°F =9/5 (°C) +32

Gas Law's

Boyle's Law

Boyle's Law: Temperature remaining constant, the volume of a given mass of a

gas is inversely proportional to its pressure

ie, V 1/p [At constant Temp.]

or V= K × 1/p or [PV=k]

where k = constant whose value depends upon the mass of the Gas and temp.
This constant is called the Boyle constant.

Boyle's Law may also be stated as follows:

"Temp. remaining constant, the product of pressure and volume of a given mass
of a gas is constant"
Isotherm; A P-V curve at constant temp. is called an isotherm.

Significance of Boyle'sLow = if m is the mass of the gar and V is its volume,

then density (d) = m/v

Acc. to Boyle's Law - PV =k v=k/p

or d=m×p/(k) = m×p/k
At constant temp., for a fixed mass of the gas,
d p

At constant temp, for a fixed mass of the gas, demit is directly proportional
to pressure.

At altitude, as the atmospheric pressure is low, the air is less dense. As a

result, less oxygen is available for breathing. The person feels" weakness.
This is called altitude sickness or anoxia. That is why mountaineers have to
carry oxygen cylinders with them.

Problem
1. A vessel of 120ml capacity contains a certain mass of a gas at 20°C and
750 mm press. The gas was transferred to a vessel whose volume is 180 ml.
Calculate the press. of the gas at 20°C.

2. A balloon is filled with h2 gas at room temp. It will burst if pressure

exceeds 0.2 bar. If at 1 bar pressure, the gas occupies a 2.27-litre volume,
up to "What volume can the balloon be expanded?

1. ans= 500mm 2. ans= 11.35 liter [beyond]

Charle's Law

Charle's Law: Pressure remaining constant, the volume of a given mass of a

gas increases or decreases by 1/273 of its volume at O°C for every 1°C rise or
fall in temp.
if we extrapolate this straight line, it will meet the temp. axis at -273°C. Thus,
at -273°C, a gas occupies zero volume.
Isobar: At constant pressure, each line in the V-t plots is called an isobar.

Acc. do Charle's laws Vt = Vo (273+t/273)

Putting 273+4= T The corresponding temp in the Kelvin scale, we get
Vt = Vo (T/273)

As Vo & 273 are constant, Hence Vt T or V T or V=KT

V/T = K (constant)
where k = constant depends upon the amount of the gas and pressure.
Charles Law may also be stated as follows: "Pressure remaining constant,
the volume of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional to its
temperature in Kelvin."
For numerical = V1/T1 = V2/T2

Application of Charles's law: Air expands on heating and hence its density
decrease. Thus, hot air is lighter than atmospheric air. This fact is made use of
in filling hot air in the balloons which rise up for meteorological observation

Absolute zero - The Lowest possible hypothetical - temp. of -273°C at which

gas is supposed to have zero volume is called absolute zero.

Gay-Lussac's Law or Amonton's Law:- Volume remaining constant, pressure of

a given mass of a gas increases or decreases by 1/273 of its pressure at 0℃
for every 1°C rise or fall in temp.

ie Pt=Po(1+t/273) = Po(273+t/273) = Po(t/273)

where Pt= press.of gas at t°C
Po=Press.of a gas at 0°C

As Po and 273 are constant Hence Pt T or p T or P=kt or P/T = k

[constant] depends on mass volume

"Volume remaining constant, and the pressure of a given mass of a gas is

directly proportional to its temp. in degrees Kelvin"

for numerical P1/T1 = P2/ T2

Avogadro's Law - Equal volumes of all gases under the same conditions of
temp and pressure contain equal no of molecules
ie V N at same temp and pressure

STP (Standard temp. & press) !== T=273K, P=1bar Vn = 22.7 litres.
NTP (Normal temp. & Press) T=273k P=1atm Vm = 22.4 litres
SATP (Stemdard ambient temp. and press.) = T=298 P=1bar Vm = 24.789 litres

Problem
1) 20 ml of Hydrogen measured at 15°C are heated to 35°C. What is the new
volume at same pressure? Ans = 21.3
2) On a ship sailing in pacific ocean where the temp is 23.4°C) a balloon is
filled with 2 litres air. What will be the volume of the balloon when the ship
reaches indian ocean where temp. is 26.1 °C ?" (Ans 2.01ttres)

Ideal gas equation: The equation which gives the simultaneous effect of
pressure and temp. on the volume of a gas is known as ideal gas equation. or
equation of state for an ideal gas
Derivation of ideal gas :
Acc to Boyle's law V 1/p at constant T---(i)
Acc to Charle's Law V T at constant P----(ii)
Acc to Avogadro's law V n at constant T & P
Combining (i) (ii) (iii)
V nT/p
V = RnT/ p
PV = nRt
where R = universal Gas constant For 1 mole of gas constant
for 1 mole of gas PV = RT

Ideal gas equation in terms of density :

We know that PV = nRT
if W is the mass of the gas in grams and M is the molecular mass of the gas
then n=W/m
pv = w/m RT
or PM = dRT W/V = d [ density ]
P d or d p
Thus at constant temp, density of a gas is proportional to the pressure of the
gas
-1 -1
value of R = 0.0821 Latm k mol
-1 -1
0.083 Lbar K mol
-1 -1
8.314 JK mol
-1
-3 -1
8.314 x 10 KJ k mol
Problems
1) At 25°C and 760mm of Hg pressure, a gas occupies 600ml volume. what will
be its pressure at a height where the temp is 10°C and the volume of the gas is
640ml? (Ans = 676.6 mm)

2) 35 ml of oxygen was collected at 6°C and 758 mm pressure. Calculate its

volume at NTP. (Ans =34.16ml)

3) 8 g of methane is placed in 5 litre container at - 27°C Find Boyle constant.

(ans = 12.315)

4) calculate the volume occupied by 8.8 g of CO2 at 31.1°C and I bar.

(ans = 5.05 litre)

5) 2.9 g of a gas at 95°C occupied the same volume as 0.184 g of Hydrogen at

17°C at the same pressure. what is the molar mass of the gas? (Ans = 40 gmol")
-
-3
(6) Calculate the temp. of 4 moles of a gas occupying 5dm at 3.32 bar.
(ans = 50k)
(7) A student forgot to add the reaction mixture to the round bottemed flask
at 27°C but instead, He/she placed the flank on the flame. After a lapse of
time, he realized his mistake, and using a pyrometer, he found the temp. of
the fast was 477°C. What fractions of air would have been expelled out?
(Ans 3/5}

8)Density of a gas is found to be 5.46 g/dm³ at 27 °C and at 2 bar pressure,

what will be its density at STP? (An=3)

9) 34.05 ml of phosphorous vapor weighs 0.0625 g at 546°C and I ban

pressure what in the molar mass of Phosphorous? (Ans-125)

10) At 0°C, the density of a gaseous oxide at 2 bar is the same as that of
nitrogen at 5 bar. what is the molecular mass of the oxide? (Ans=70gmol)

11) Pressure of 1 g of an ideal gas A at 27°C is found to be 2 bar when 2 g of

another ideal gas. B is introduced in the same flask at the same temp., the
pressure. becomes 3 bar. Find the relationship between their molecular
masses. [Ans:- Mb = 4MA].

(12) The density of gas is found to be 3.43.g/l at 300k and 1 atm pressure.
Calculate the molar mass of the gas. (Ans=84.54)

Dalton's Law of partial pressures:

Dalton's Law of partial pressures: If two or more non-reacting gases are

enclosed in a vessel, the total pressure of the gaseous mixture is equal to the
sum of the partial pressures of each gas at the same temp. Let PA-PB and Pc
are the partial pressures of the gases A, B, and C respectively. • The total
pressure of the gaseous mixture (P) is given as.

P = Pa + Pb + Pc
Aqueous tension: The pressure due to water vapours is called aqueous
tension.

Pdrygas = Pmoistgas - Aqueos tension

Problems

1) 38 ml of moist N₂ gas were collected at 27°C and 746.5mm pressure,

calculate the volume of the gas at 0°C and 760mm pressure. (Aqueous tension
at 22°C is 26.5 mm) (Ans: 32.76 ml)

2) Calculate the total pressure in a mixture of 8 g of oxygen and 4g of hydrogen

confined in a vessel of 1 dm³ at 27°C [ans = 56.025]

3) what will be the pressure of the gas mixture when 0.5L of the at 0.8 bar and 2
litres of oxygen at 0.7 bar are introduced in a 1 litre vessel at 27°C?
(Ans 1.8 bar)

The partial pressure of gases interns of mole fraction :

Suppose at the temp T three gases, enclosed in the volume Vg exent partial
pressure p1 p₂ and p3 respectively. then,

p1 = n1RT/V ----(i)
p2 = n2RT/V---(ii)
p3 = n3RT/V---(iii)

where n1, n2 and n3 are no of moles of these gases. Thus the Total pressure
will be
Ptotal = p1+p2+p3
Ptotal = n1 RT/V + n2 RT/V + n3RT/V
Ptotal = (n1 + n2 + n3 ) RT/V ---- (iv)
Kinetic mokalar theory of gases?

This Theory has been put forward by Clausius in 1857. The main points of
this theory are as follows

Every gas is made up of a large so of small particles called molecules. All

the molecules are identical in mass and size for particular gas and differ in
these from gas to gas.

The molecules of a gas are separated each other, by large distances to

read the actual Volume of the molecules is negligible as compared to the
total volume of the gas.

The distance of separation between the molecules are so large that the
forces of attraction or repulsion between them are negligible

The force of gravitation on the molecules is negligible.

The molecules are moving continuously in different directions with

different velocities. Hence They keep on colliding with one another, as
well as on the walls of the container.

The pressure exerted on the walls of the Container is due to the

bombardment of the molecule on the walls of the container

The collisions between molecules are perfectly elastic.

Since the molecules are moving with different velocities, they possess
different Kinetic energy. However, the average Kinetic energy of the
molecules of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temp, of the
gas

Justification for the above postulates! -

1) Postulate (1) is in accordance with the particle nature of matter
2) Postulate (2) is justified that gases. highly are compressible
3) Postulate (3) is justified that gases expand and occupy the whole space
available to them
4) Postulate (4) a true because Gases will not be settled down in the
container
5) Postulate (5) is true because Gases will not be settled down in the
container
6) Postulate (7) is true because if there were force of friction among coll iding
molecules, they would have slowed down during every collision and
ultimately the molecules should have settled down which never happens
Extra
Kinetic gas equation PV = 1/3mnu²
where m = mass of each molecule of the gas
n=Totalno. of molecules present in volume V.
U= Root mean square speed of the gas

Ideal gases and Real gases: A gas that Obeys the ideal gas equation Pv = nrt
Under all conditions of temp and pressure is Called an ideal gas equation,
However, there is no which obeys I conditions of temp.. gas equation
under all c and press.
The gases are found to obey the gas laws fairly well if the pressure is low or
temp. is high. such gases. are known as real gases all gases are real gases

Compressibility factor (Z) its depends as Z = Pv/nrt

For a real gas Z is not equally to 1 [pv = nrt ]
For a real gas Z is not equal Hence two cases arrives

A]when Z<1 ( eg for Ch4 co2, etc) the gas is said to show negative deviation.
The gas compressible than expected from ideal behavior." It is due to
attractive force among the molecules. of gases.

when Z<1 (eg. for He, th) the gas is said to show positive deviation. The than
expected from ideal behaviour. gas S less compressible It is due to strong
repulsive forces among the ! molecules.

Greater the value of Z from unity, the greater the deviations from ideal
behaviour.
Significance of compressibility factor [z]
Z = PVreal / nRT
For ideal gas PVideal = nRT Videal = nRT /p
Z = Vreal/ Videal

Boyle temp. The temp at which a real gas like an ideal gas over a press range is
called boyle temp or boyle point

Q) why is mercury used in thermometers?

ans) 1) Mercury is a liquid that can flow but does not stick to glass.
2) It has a high coefficient of expansion so that even a small rise in temp.
brings about sufficient. expansion.

Q)Why is mercury used as a barometric liquid?.

1)Mercury is non-volatile at room temp. Hence, the vapour pressure due to
Mercury is negligible
(2) The height of the column in a barometer is inversely proportional to the
density of the liquid. as mercury has a very high density, the height of the
column setup is very convenient for study.

Cause of Deviation from the ideal behavior:

The real gases obey the ideal gas equation (PV=nRT) only if pressure is low or
temp is high. However, if the pressure is high or the temp is low, the "real"
geses show deviations due to the following reasons

The force of attraction on repulsion between the molecules may not be

negligible.
The volume occupied by the gas may be so small that the volume occupied
by the molecules may not be negligible.

Van der Waals equation or Equation of state for the real gases

To explain the behaviour of real geses, J.D. Van der Waals put forward the
modified equation, known after him as Vander wadly equation. The equation is

(P+a/v2 ) (v-b) = RT For 1 mole of the gas

2 2
(P+an /v (v-nb) = nRT For n mole of the gas

where a and b are called van der Waals constant their values depend upon the
nature of the gas.
Correction for volume: suppose the volume occupied by the gas molecules is v.
when the molecules are moving, thein effective volume is four times the actual
volume i.e. b = uv. Let us call it b. i.e. b=uve called excluded valume on co-
Volume). Thus, the free volume is available to the gas. molecules for movement,

Connected volume = (V-b) for one mole

corrected volume (v-nb) for n moles

Correction for pressure: A molecule (A) Lying Within the vessel is attracted
equally by other molecules on all sides but a molecule near the wall (B) is
attracted by the molecules inside. Hence it exerts less pressure. In other words,
the observed pressure is less than the ideal pressure.

Hence, corrected pressure P + p Evidently, the correction term p is proportional

to the density of the gas near the wall and the density of the gas inside. ie
p d²
But d 1/v for 1 mole
d n/v for n moles
Hence , p 1/v 2 for one mole p = a/v2
p n/v2 2
for n moles p = an2/ v 2

Corrected pressure = ( p + a/v2 ) for 1 mole

or corrected press = ( p + an2 / v2) for n moles
where 'a' is a constant depending upon the nature of the gas

Significance of Van der Waals constants:

1)Van der Waals constant "a" = Its value is a measure of the magnitude of the
attractive forces among the gas molecules. Greater the value of a larger are
the intermolecular forces of attraction
2
6 -2
units of a = atmL or bar dm mol
2) Van der Waals constant 'b' = Its value is a measure of the effective size of the
gas molecules. its value is equal to four times the actual volume of the gas
molecules

Extra
Explanation of the behavior of real gases by Vander Waal's equation

(i) At very low Press.) V is very large Hence a / v2 is so small that it can be
neglected similarly, b can be neglected. PV = RT. Therefore at very low press
real gases behave like ideal gases
(ii) At moderate pressure = V decreases Hence a/v increases and cannot be
neglected however V is large in comparison to 'b' can be neglected thus vander
waals equation becomes

( P + a/v 2 ) V = RT or Pv + a/v + RT
or, PV = RT - a/v
or PV / RT = 1- a /VRT or Z = 1- a /VRT
Z<1

2
(iii) At high press = V is so small that 'b' cannot be neglected. The factor a/v is
2
large but as p is very high a/v can be neglected in comparison of p. Thus
Vander waals equation becomes

P ( V-b ) = RT or PV = RT + bp
or PV / RT = 1 + bp / RT or Z = 1 + bp/ RT

Z>1 at high press

(iv) At high temp = V is very large at the constant press. therefore a/v² and b can
be neglected. Thus, Vanderwaals equation becomes, [PV=RT]
real gases behave like ideal I gases

Extra
Explanation of the exceptional behavior of h₂ and He

For h₂ and He Z is always greater than and increase with increase impress!
This is because h₂ and He are very small molecules, the intermolecular forces
of attraction in them are negligible ie. a is very very small so that a/v negligible.
Thus, Vanderwaal's equation becomes

P( V-b) = RT
or Z=1+bp/RT
Z>1

Liquefaction of gases: A gas can be liquefice by cooling or by application of

press. on the combined effect of both.
Criticaltemp: Critical temp. of a gas may be defined as that temp above which
gas cannot be liquefied howsoever high pressure may be applied on the gas.
The press. required to liquefy the gas at the critical temp. is called critical
press. The volume occupied by one mole of the gas at the critical temp. and the
critical pressure is called the critical volume.
eg critical constants for CO₂ are
Tc = 304.10K , Pc = 73.9 atm Vc = 95.6cm3 mol-1
Diff. between Vapour and gas: In terms of critical temp a gas can be liquefied
below the critical temp. by applying Press, therefore, Above the critical temp.,
it is a gas but below the critical temp, it is vapor

Continuity of state: It is possible to change a gas into liquid on liquid into a

process such that there is always a single-phase gas by present. Therefore, at
no stage during the process, we pass through the two-phase region. This is
called continuity of state between the liquid state.

Diff. between Ideal gas and real gas:

No gas is ideal All gases are real

It obeys Idealgas equation, PV It obeys vanderwaals equation
=nRT (P+an / v ) (V - nb ) = nRT
It obeys gas laws under all It obeys gas lows only under low
conditions of Tempand press press and high press.

Andrews Experiments on critical phenomena: Andrews studied the effect of

press. on the volume of CO2 at different constant temp. The plots obtained are
called isotherms. some of the isotherms thus obtained are shown in Fig.
At 13.1°C, at low pressure, CO₂ exists as a gas, as shown at the point A. As the
pressure is increased, the volume of the gas decrease along the curve AB at
the point B, Liquefaction of the gas starts. Hence Volume decreases rapidly
along BC because liquid has much less volume than the gas. At the point C,
liquefaction is complete. Now, the increase in press has very little effect upon
volume because liquids are very little compressible. Hence, C is obtained.

As the temp. is increased, horizontal

portion. becomes smaller and smaller
and at 30.98°C, it is reduced to a
point P. This means that above 30.98
°C, the gas cannot be liquefied at all,
however, high pressure may be
applied. Thus, 30.98 °C is the critical
temp. The corresponding press at
critical temp. is called cortical press
(73.9 atm). The volume y 1 mole of the
gas under these conditions is called
Crtical volume (95.6ml).
Problems
1. In terms of Charles's law explain why-273°C- is the lowest temp.
Ans: at -273°C, the Volume of gas becomes equal to zero

2. What would be the SI unit of the quantity PV² T/A

2
Ans: (Nm ) (m³) (k)² = Nm R² mol
-2

mol

3. Critical temp. for co2, and CH4 are 31. 1° Card - 81.9°C respectively. which of
these has a stronger Intermolecular force and why?
Ans: Higher, the cortical temp., the greater are the intermolecular force of
attraction. Hence, Co2, has stronger intermolecular forces than CH4.

4. A mixture of H2 and O2 at one bar pressure contains 20% by weight of H2

Calculate the partial pressure of h2?
Ans: 0.8bar

5. Payload is defined as the difference between the mass of the displaced air
and the mass of the balloon. Calculate the Payload when a balloon of radius 10m,
mass looks is filled with He at 1.66 bar at 27°C. ( Density of air = 1.2 kg/m³)
(Ans = 38 11.1 kg)

Liquid state

Vapour pressure of a liquid

Vapour pressure of a liquid - Vapour pressure of a liquid at any temp. may be

defined as the pressure extend. by the vapour present above the liquid in
equilibrium with the liquid at that temp.

factor's affecting vapour pressure :

1. Nature of liquid: if the intermolecular forces of attraction in the liquid are
weak, the molecules can easily leave the liquid and come into the vapour
phase and hence the vapour pressure is higher.
2. Temp: with an increase in temp kinetic energy of molecules. increase, as a
result, more no. of molecules of liquid can leave the surface of liquid and
hence vapour pressure increase
Applications: when a liquid evaporates, more energy molecules leave the
liquid. As a result, the average Kinetic energy of the remaining liquid decreases
and Hence the temp. falls of the liquid.
(cooling caused by evaporation)
Extra:
Clapeyron equations The effect of temp on VP. is given by this equation-

Boiling point: The boiling point of a liquid is defined as the temp. at which the
vapor pressure of the liquid becomes equal to the external press.
when the external pressure is 1 atm, the boiling point is called the normal
boiling point.
when the external pressure is I bar, the boiling point is called the standard
boiling point.

k3b: standard boiling point of a liquid is slightly less than the normal boiling
point because 1 bar is slightly less than 1 atm pressure [1atm = 1,013bar]

Applications
1. if the external pressure is high, then the boiling point of a liquid is high. That
is why in hospitals, surgical instruments are sterilized autoclaves in which
boiling point of water is raised by using a weight to cover the event
2. if the external pressure is decreased. then the boiling point of a liquid is low.
This is the reason that a liquid boils at a lower temp on the top of a
mountain therefore on hills, the use of a pressure cooker is essential for
cooking food.

Surface tension: surface tension of a liquid is defined as the force acting at

right angles to the surface along one-centimeter length of the surface.
[ S.I Unit of surface tension = Nm-1]

Factors affecting surface tension:

1. The nature of liquid & greater are the intermolecular forces of attractions,
the higher is the surface tension of that liquid
2. Temp: with increase in temp. the surface tension of liquid decrease
Application
1. The spherical shape of liquid drops: The lowest energy state of a liquid will
be. when the surface area is minimum. surface tension tries to decrease the
surface area 1 of the liquid to the minimum. Therefore, The drops of liquid or
bubbles of gas are. • spherical because for a given. volume, a sphere has a
minimum surface area.
2. Fire polishing of glass: Sharp glass edges become smooth on heating. This is
because on heating, the glass melts and takes up rounded shape at the edges
which has a minimum surface area. It is called fire polishing of glass.
3. Rise of a liquid in a capillary tube: The liquid rises into the capillary tube to a
certain height. This is due to the inward pull of surface tension acting on the
surface which pushes the liquid into the Capillary tube.

Viscosity: The force of friction that one part of the liquid offers to another part of
the liquid is called viscosity
It has been found that the force of friction between two layers each having area
'A' cm², separated by a distance dx cm. and having a velocity difference of
dv cm/sec, is given by

F Adv/dx or F = n Adv/dx
where n = coefficient of viscosity and dv/dx = velocity gradist if dx=1cm, A = 1cm²
and dv = 1cm/sec. then f=n
coefficient of viscosity may be defined as the fonce of friction in dynes
required to mountain a velocity difference of 1cm/sec, between two paralle!
layers, 1 cm apart and each having an area of 1 cm2 Unit of n = dynes cm -2 sec.
or poise.

Factors affecting the viscosity

1. Nature of liquid: greater are the intermolecular forces of attraction in liquid,
higher is the viscosity of liquid.
2. Temp.: with increase of temp., Viscosity of liquid. decrease.