Psychoanalytic theory
is the theory of personality organization and the dynamics of personality
development relating to the practice of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for
treating psychopathology. First laid out by Sigmund Freud in the late 19th century, psychoanalytic
theory has undergone many refinements since his work. The psychoanalytic theory came to full
prominence in the last third of the twentieth century as part of the flow of critical discourse regarding
psychological treatments after the 1960s, long after Freud's death in 1939.[1] Freud had ceased his
analysis of the brain and his physiological studies and shifted his focus to the study of the psyche,
and on treatment using free association and the phenomena of transference. His study emphasized
the recognition of childhood events that could influence the mental functioning of adults. His
examination of the genetic and then the developmental aspects gave the psychoanalytic theory its
characteristics.[2] Starting with his publication of The Interpretation of Dreams in 1899, his theories
began to gain prominence.
Definition[edit]
Psychoanalytic and psychoanalytical are used in English. The latter is the older term, and at first,
simply meant 'relating to the analysis of the human psyche.' But with the emergence of
psychoanalysis as a distinct clinical practice, both terms came to describe that. Although both are
still used, today, the normal adjective is psychoanalytic.[3]
Psychoanalysis is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as
A therapeutic method, originated by Sigmund Freud, for treating mental disorders by investigating
the interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in the patient's mind and bringing repressed
fears and conflicts into the conscious mind, using techniques such as dream interpretation and free
association. Also: a system of psychological theory is associated with this method.[4]
The beginnings[edit]
Freud began his studies on psychoanalysis in collaboration with Dr. Josef Breuer, most notably in
relation to the case study of Anna O.[5] Anna O. was subject to a number of psychosomatic
disturbances, such as not being able to drink out of fear.[6] Breuer and Freud found that hypnosis was
a great help in discovering more about Anna O. and her treatment. Freud frequently referred to the
study on Anna O. in his lectures on the origin and development of psychoanalysis.
Observations in the Anna O. case led Freud to theorize that the problems faced by hysterical
patients could be associated with painful childhood experiences that could not be recalled. The
influence of these lost memories shaped the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of patients. These
studies contributed to the development of the psychoanalytic theory.[7]
The unconscious[edit]
In psychoanalytic theory, the unconscious mind consists of ideas and drives that have been subject
to the mechanism of Repression: anxiety-producing impulses in childhood are barred from
consciousness, but do not cease to exist, and exert a constant pressure in the direction of
consciousness. However, the content of the unconscious is only knowable to consciousness through
its representation in a disguised or distorted form, by way of dreams and neurotic symptoms, as well
as in slips of the tongue and jokes. The psychoanalyst seeks to interpret these conscious
manifestations in order to understand the nature of the repressed. In psychoanalytic terms, the
unconscious does not include all that is not conscious, but rather that which is actively repressed
from conscious thought. Freud viewed the unconscious as a repository for socially unacceptable
ideas, anxiety-producing wishes or desires, traumatic memories, and painful emotions put out of
consciousness by the mechanism of repression. Such unconscious mental processes can only be
recognized through analysis of their effects in consciousness. Unconscious thoughts are not directly
accessible to ordinary introspection, but they are capable of partially evading the censorship
mechanism of repression in a disguised form, manifesting, for example, as dream elements or
neurotic symptoms. Dreams and symptoms are supposed to be capable of being "interpreted" during
psychoanalysis, with the help of methods such as free association, dream analysis, and analysis of
verbal slips.[8]
Personality structure[edit]
In Freud's model the psyche consists of three different elements, the id, ego, and the superego. The
id is the aspect of personality that is driven by internal and basic drives and needs, such as hunger,
thirst, and the drive for sex, or libido. The id acts in accordance with the pleasure principle. Due to
the instinctual quality of the id, it is impulsive and unaware of the implications of actions. The
superego is driven by the morality principle. It enforces the morality of social thought and action on
an intrapsychic level. It employs morality, judging wrong and right and using guilt to discourage
socially unacceptable behavior.[9][10] The ego is driven by the reality principle. The ego seeks to
balance the conflicting aims of the id and superego, by trying to satisfy the id's drives in ways that
are compatible with reality. The Ego is how we view ourselves: it is what we refer to as 'I' (Freud's
word is the German ich, which simply means 'I').
Defense mechanisms[edit]
The ego balances demands of the id, the superego, and of reality to maintain a healthy state of
consciousness, where there is only minimal intrapsychic conflict. It thus reacts to protect the
individual from stressors and from anxiety by distorting internal or external reality to a lesser or
greater extent. This prevents threatening unconscious thoughts and material from entering the
consciousness. The ten different defence mechanisms initially enumerated by Anna
Freud[11] are: repression, regression, reaction formation, isolation of
affect, undoing, projection, introjection, turning against the self, reversal into the opposite,
and sublimation. In the same work, however, she details other manoeuvres such as identification
with the aggressor and intellectualisation that would later come to be considered defence
mechanisms in their own right. Furthermore, this list has been greatly expanded upon by other
psychoanalysts, with some authors[12] claiming to enumerate in excess of one hundred defence
mechanisms.
Psychology theories[edit]
Psychosexual development[edit]
Freud's take on the development of the personality (psyche). It is a stage theory that believes
progress occurs through stages as the libido is directed to different body parts. The different stages,
listed in order of progression, are Oral, Anal, Phallic (Oedipus complex), Latency, Genital. The
Genital stage is achieved if people meet all their needs throughout the other stages with enough
available sexual energy. Individuals who do not have their needs met in a given stage become
fixated, or "stuck" in that stage.
Neo-analytic theory[edit]
Freud's theory and work with psychosexual development led to Neo-Analytic/ Neo-Freudians who
also believed in the importance of the unconscious, dream interpretations, defense mechanisms,
and the integral influence of childhood experiences but had objections to the theory as well. They do
not support the idea that development of the personality stops at age 6, instead, they believed
development spreads across the lifespan. They extended Freud's work and encompassed more
influence from the environment and the importance of conscious thought along with the
unconscious. The most important theorists are Erik Erikson (Psychosocial Development), Anna
Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler and Karen Horney, and including the school of object relations.
Erikson's Psychosocial Development theory is based on eight stages of development. The stages
are trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs.
confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generatively vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair. These are
important to the psychoanalytic theory because it describes the different stages that people go
through life. Each stage has a major impact on their life outcomes since they are going through
conflicts at each stage and whichever route they decide to take, will have certain outcomes.[13]
Criticisms[edit]
Some claim that the theory is lacking in empirical data and too focused on pathology.[14] Other
criticisms are that the theory lacks consideration of culture and its influence on personality.[15][16]
Psychoanalytic theory comes from Freud and is focused on childhood. This might be an issue since
most believe studying children can be inconclusive. One major concern lies in if observed
personality will be a lifelong occurrence or if the child will shed it later in life[17]
Application to the arts and humanities[edit]
Psychoanalytic theory is a major influence in Continental philosophy and in aesthetics in particular.
Freud is sometimes considered a philosopher. The psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan, and the
philosophers Michel Foucault, and Jacques Derrida, have written extensively on how psychoanalysis
informs philosophical analysis.[18][19][20][21]
When analyzing literary texts, the psychoanalytic theory could be utilized to decipher or interpret the
concealed meaning within a text, or to better understand the author's intentions. Through the
analysis of motives, Freud's theory can be used to help clarify the meaning of the writing as well as
the actions of the characters within the text.[22]
References[edit]
1. ^ Tere sa de Lauretis, Freud's Drive (Basingstoke 2008) p. 3
2. ^ Tyson, Phyllis. (2002). The challenges of psychoanalytic developmental theory. Journal of the
American Psychoanalytic Association, 50, 19–52.
3. ^ "psychoanalytical, adj. (and n.)." and "psychoanalytic, adj." OED Online. Oxford University Press,
June 2015. Web. 7 September 2015.
4. ^ "psychoanalysis, n." OED Online. Oxford University Press, June 2015. Web. 7 September 2015.
5. ^ [1], Sigmund Freud: The Origin and Development of Psychoanalysis.
6. ^ [2], FreudFild: Anna O. Case.
7. ^ Schacter, Gilbert, Wegner. ""Psychology"". Second Edition. New York. Worth Publishers. 2009,
2011. p.12.
8. ^ Freud, S (1915). The Unconscious. XIV (2nd ed.). Hogarth Press, 1955.
9. ^ Friedman, H. W., & Schustack, M. W. (2011). Personality: Classics theories and modern research.
(5th Edition). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
10. ^ Silberman, Edward. "Review of Psycho-dynamic Therapy: A Guide to Evidence-Based Practice."
Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes 75.3 (2012): 298–301. PsycINFO. Web.
11. ^ Freud, A. (1937). The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense, London: Hogarth Press and Institute of
Psycho-Analysis. (Revised edition: 1966 (US), 1968 (UK))
12. ^ Blackman, J. S. (2004). 101 Defenses: How the Mind Shields Itself, New York: Routledge.
13. ^ Young, Kimball; Blum, Gerald S. (December 1953). "Psychoanalytic Theories of
Personality". American Sociological Review. 18 (6): 714. doi:10.2307/2088147. ISSN 0003-
1224. JSTOR 2088147.
14. ^ Mahmood, Omar M., and Sawssan R. Ahmed. Psychological Testing and Assessment. New York,
NY, US: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, New York, NY, 2012. PsycINFO. Web.
15. ^ Hoggard, Lori S., Christy M. Byrd, and Robert M. Sellers. "Comparison of African American College
Students' Coping with Racially and Nonracially Stressful Events." Cultural Diversity and Ethnic
Minority Psychology 18.4 (2012): 329–39. PsycINFO. Web.
16. ^ Giamo, Lisa S., Michael T. Schmitt, and H. R. Outten. "Perceived Discrimination, Group
Identification, and Life Satisfaction among Multiracial People: A Test of the Rejection-Identification
Model." Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology 18.4 (2012): 319–28. PsycINFO. Web.
17. ^ Behrendt, Ralf-Peter (17 April 2018). The Evolved Structure of Human Social Behaviour and
Personality. doi:10.4324/9780429481703. ISBN 9780429481703.
18. ^ Felman, Shoshana. Jacques Lacan and the adventure of insight: Psychoanalysis in contemporary
culture. Harvard University Press, 1987.
19. ^ Spector, Jack J. The aesthetics of Freud: A study in psychoanalysis and art. Lane, Allen, 1973.
20. ^ Segal, Hanna. "A psychoanalytic approach to aesthetics." Reading Melanie Klein (1998): 203.
21. ^ Glover, Nicky. Psychoanalytic aesthetics: An introduction to the British School. Karnac Books, 2009.
22. ^ Lye, J. "Psychoanalysis and Literature". Retrieved 17 March 2013.
