TEACHER DEVELOPMENT

Positive feedback in the

English language classroom
Clare Fielder looks at the effects of different types of feedback.

T
eaching large groups of often (Sprague, 1971); personal, holistic and develop their own strategies, presumably
overstretched undergraduates, I atomistic categories of feedback (Sprague in line with their personalities, teaching
like to think my classroom manner 1971, Young 1974); gender differences in styles and relationships to learners.
is necessarily positive and aimed at frequency and perceptions of feedback My project assumed that experienced
maintaining motivation and focus. received (Pearson 1976); categorising teachers should be regarded as experts in
After reading a BBC news article on the operation levels of feedback (Hattie & their field, and that they have most likely
various effects of ‘praise’ on children’s Timperly, 2007); and influences of facial developed their own strategies based
school performance, I began considering expressions on perceptions of verbal on experiences of what is effective and
the effects of positive feedback on EFL feedback, particularly with computerised ‘useful’, not only for improving learners’
learners, for correct answers as well as tutors (Link et al, 2001). Some researchers accuracy, but also for encouraging
simply for contributing in class. The go so far as to claim that the absence contributions and positive learning
literature includes a high number of of correction itself provides feedback to environments. In a reversal of the earlier
publications on feedback and correction, learners of English (Seedhouse, 2004). theory-based investigations, researchers
though an imbalance in the research The various directions of research may go are now starting to observe teachers’
attention paid to positive feedback some way to explaining the divergence of behaviour and employment of feedback
in comparison with correction is also opinion found in theoretical approaches in classrooms, and then attempting to
apparent (Gass & Mackey 2006). This is and methods, as well as teaching guides discover the reasons why these feedback
why I decided to undertake a small-scale and relevant journals, on what constitutes strategies tend to be the most effective.
action research project to investigate effective feedback from teachers. Teachers, too, are now engaging in action
the frequency with which teachers give Indeed, the relative lack of research into research projects regarding these issues.
positive and negative feedback in class. the effects of various types of positive I believe that this bottom-up educational
feedback may also provide a good research can lead to more valuable
Background literature explanation for these issues being largely communication and cooperation
ignored in teaching guides. between theoretical researchers and
Bostrom (1961) was the first modern
those who actually interact with learners
researcher to systematically investigate Theory and practice in classrooms. This has the advantage of
the effects of verbal feedback on students.
Since instructors in his study provided all Many suggestions about giving feedback leading to more realistic, generalisable
positive or all negative pre-formulated found in teaching guides seem to have research findings, and also fewer
feedback statements (adapted to the been developed through rather top- divergent abstract ideas about what
content of students’ presentations), his down processes, with researchers testing characterises good teaching practice.
research was criticised as unrealistic theory-based hypotheses in (mock-)
and ungeneralisable (Preston & Todd- classroom settings, rarely involving My project
Mancillas, 1985). Although Bostrom’s teachers behaving naturally. Indeed, To contribute to this bottom-up research,
students were not learning languages, Bower highlighted a drifting apart of my project observed teachers and the
his attempts to identify how feedback theoretical investigations of language feedback they employ in their natural
affects students’ subject-specific teaching and teaching practice itself as teaching approaches (i.e. not manipulated
improvement, willingness to speak, and long ago as 1986; a comment that has by empirical investigation). As previous
self-rated speech-giving abilities have been oft-repeated since then (Gordon, research shows, teachers most often give
clear connections to language classrooms. 2007). A further comment Gordon makes feedback containing both positive and
Nonetheless, Bostrom’s attempt to is that many teachers dismiss education negative elements. It consists not only
research as impractical and abstract.
link feedback to self-rating, and this of spoken language, but also non-verbal
to performance and participation, It becomes clear, then, that the giving communication – gestures and facial
is commonly ignored in subsequent of feedback is a rather complicated and expressions. Both of these aspects were
research. Other studies have examined involved task. Hence, it is unsurprising explored in my study. To conduct this
aspects such as realistic feedback that teachers accept the importance of observation research objectively and
including positive and negative comments feedback but nonetheless feel forced to systematically, I developed a frequency

Volume 20 No. 4 www.onlineMET.com 63

TEACHER DEVELOPMENT

table observation instrument to monitor explained that it was the teacher who FEEDBACK GESTURES TOTALS all
the frequency with which various forms of was being observed (but not evaluated), teachers
feedback are given by the teacher in oral- so they should behave as usual.
based or integrated skills classes (i.e. not Smiling (grinning) 78
The instrument developed for this Nodding 105
those focussing on written formulation).
research records all forms of positive
This instrument contained a table where Clapping 4
and negative/corrective feedback during
tally marks record each time a certain
observation using a tally chart – with one Thumbs up (positive 11
feedback is employed by the teacher.
tally mark for each time the behaviour hand gesture)
Assuming that teachers are conscious
of how they give feedback, and make occurs. This category system resembles TOTAL 198
decisions based on the effectiveness Flanders’ Interaction Analysis Categories
and usefulness to learners of feedback (FIAC) (1970), and also ignores what he COMBINATIONS TOTALS all
strategies, I compared how frequently calls ‘merely verbal habits’, particularly teachers
forms were used in an attempt to get “OK”: This was a conscious decision,
Smiling “Good” 39
to the bottom of what really constitutes since previous experience shows that
(grinning) “Yes” 39
‘good’ feedback. teachers use ‘OK’ for various different
meanings, which would be difficult “Well done” 5
Procedure to categorise. The main difference to “Right” / 13
the FIAC is that my categories were “correct”
The observation study was conducted
labelled, not number-coded. This made
at Trier University, Germany, in English “mm hmm” 16
recording behaviours easier as I did not
language classes at the lower levels, Nodding “Good” 50
need to memorise the number keys
where students’ levels of English are
for categories. The simplicity of the “Yes” 43
around B2 on the CEFR. These classes
were appropriate as the students are instrument developed here means that “Well done” 7
still focused on general language data-collection does not involve writing
“Right” / 25
competence; whereas higher-level classes lengthy notes requiring the observer to
“correct”
often focus on exam preparation or look away from the teacher for longer
periods of time, so it was deemed “mm hmm” 27
subject-specific discussions of linguistics
or literature. All students in these classes unnecessary to record the observed TOTAL 264
are in their first or second year of BA/ lessons for more detailed data-collection
Total Correction / Negative Feedback
BEd degrees in English/American Studies. or analysis. This also avoided introducing
Although external constraints (e.g. another factor that could have affected ORAL FEEDBACK TOTALS
clashes with my classes, or inappropriate the classroom dynamics. all
activities for these observations) affected teachers
Once observations were complete, a
the courses chosen for observation, follow-up email informed all observed “No” / “Not exactly” 40
those selected are considered to teachers of the focus of the research “Wrong” / “Incorrect” 5
be representative of teachers and and the data-collection method used. “Hmm” 15
courses we offer at this level. In all, The teachers were invited to pose
fourteen lessons of forty-five minutes “Are you sure?” 10
questions about the research or to
were observed, totalling 630 minutes request a discussion of the observations “Can anyone help?” 15
observation time. “Try again” 14
and data.
To avoid increased self-consciousness “errr” 14
Total Positive Feedback
altering natural teaching habits, the
ORAL FEEDBACK TOTALS TOTAL 113
teachers observed were not informed of
the focus of the observations. An email all
requesting their assistance explained teachers FEEDBACK GESTURES TOTALS
only the general outline of the research, all
“Good” / “Good work/idea” 55
and highlighted that the observations teachers
“Excellent” 12
were in no way evaluative of their Shaking head 32
teaching or students. Pre-observation “Nice/thoughtful answer” 9
Raising eyebrows 30
collaboration with teachers also ensured “Much better” 5
Thumbs down (negative 3
that the planned lesson included “Thank you” 27 gesture)
some interaction between teacher and
“Yes” 50 Wagging finger 18
students. Wherever these activities
used worksheets or other materials, “Well done” 8 Sad face (mouth turned 13
I was provided with a copy of these. “Right” / “correct” 59 down)
Most students in the classes observed “mmm” / “mm hmm” 19 Frowning (puzzled look) 22
are familiar with observers from
other courses, and before the lesson I TOTAL 244 TOTAL 118

64 Modern English Teacher Volume 20 No. 4

TEACHER DEVELOPMENT

COMBINATIONS TOTALS negative feedback, and between verbal Final remarks

all and gestural feedback are significant, a
statistical analysis was conducted. The conclusions drawn by this study
teachers
are largely in line with research and
Shaking “No” “Not exactly” 24 The hypotheses being tested here were: discussions on feedback mentioned in the
Head “Hmm” 14 introduction. This research enables me,
i) there is a difference in the frequency
“Are you sure?” 9 with which positive and negative feedback and other teachers who read this report,
is given in the classroom; to (re)consider the divergent theories
“Can anyone 2 regarding ‘useful’ feedback in more depth
help?” ii) the difference in the frequency with and compare them to findings from
“Try Again” 3 which verbal, gestural and combinations natural teaching settings. The results
Raising “No” “Not exactly” 2 of feedback are given in the classroom is show that teachers are more likely to
Eyebrows “Hmm” influenced by the positivity or negativity employ positive feedback to reinforce
15
of the feedback. correct utterances in the target language
“Are you sure?” 9 and further encourage students, rather
To see whether these differences in
“Can anyone 4 than negative feedback to deter incorrect
frequency existed and were actually
help?” responses. This confirms empirically my
significant, a Chi-square statistical test
“Try Again” 1 belief that positive feedback is equally
of independence was conducted on the
as important as correction, if not more
Sad Face “No” “Not exactly” 2 data in the overview table. The statistical
so. Positive feedback creates in students
“Hmm” 2 analysis for these hypotheses produced
the feeling that the classroom is a non-
the Chi-square figure of 11.07 with two
“Are you sure?” 1 threatening place with a supportive
degrees of freedom and with a p value of
“Can anyone 2 climate, thus they gain confidence, and
0.00393242. This proves both hypotheses
help?” participate and practise more, which
were correct. Firstly, the difference in
is very important for their learning. As
“Try Again” 0 frequencies with which positive and
the results of this study show, however,
TOTAL 90 negative feedback were given in the
corrective feedback is rarely entirely
lessons observed is significant to a very absent from a language classroom.
Analysis of data & strict level (p≤0.005). From studying Assuming, as this study does, that
conclusions the raw data, it is clear that, in these teachers make decisions about giving
observations, positive feedback was feedback according to their experience
Considering the raw data on positive given significantly more frequently in the and judgement of what is most helpful
feedback, it becomes clear that “good” classroom than correctional or negative for their learners’ progress, it seems logical
and “yes” were the most commonly feedback (total positive feedback = 706. to conclude that selective correction of
observed verbal feedback forms in this Total negative feedback = 321). the most serious errors, together with
study. Likewise, smiling and nodding were
the most frequently observed gestures. Likewise, looking at the raw data overview positive feedback as reinforcement, is the
In their combinations, too, these four table shows that, particularly regarding most effective combination for use in the
forms of feedback were most commonly verbal and combinations of feedback, language classroom.
observed. Looking at the total number the frequencies of their observed use for When applying this knowledge in our
of times each kind of feedback was positive reinforcement and corrections future teaching, though, it is imperative
observed, it is also apparent that gestures differ greatly. Here too, the Chi-square for teachers to bear in mind that
alone were used far less frequently than statistics prove to a strict level of employing such tangible reinforcements
verbal feedback or combinations. significance that the observed frequencies for behaviour and correct language use
Regarding the raw data on negative/ of the forms of feedback were significantly can lead to an overemphasis of extrinsic
corrective feedback, the most interesting influenced by whether the feedback is motivations, which can undermine
contrast to the positive data is that positive or negative. students’ intrinsic motivation (Deci &
the observed frequencies of verbal
and paralinguistic feedback are not Overview table: Totals of verbal and gestural, positive and negative feedback given.
very different. Although the gestures
and verbal feedback forms in the Verbal Feedback Combinations TOTAL
‘combinations’ were also the most Feedback Gestures
frequently observed individually, this Positive 244 198 264 706
study did not observe a high number Feedback
of employed combinations of verbal
and paralinguistic negative/corrective Correction 113 118 90 321
feedback. / Negative
Feedback
To determine whether the differences
between the frequencies of positive and TOTAL 357 316 354 1027

Volume 20 No. 4 www.onlineMET.com 65

TEACHER DEVELOPMENT

Ryan, 1985, Brophy 1998). We therefore may wish to confirm whether teachers are Preston, T.L. & Todd-Mancillas, W.R. (1985)
need to be careful that receiving positive indeed applying it. A Grounded Ethnographic Inquiry into
feedback (or avoiding correction) does not Teacher Oral Feedback, paper presented at
As a final comment, it seems a fair
become the students’ main motivation the 71st Annual Convention of the Speech
summary of my work and reading on
for completing tasks or contributing in Communication Association, Denver
this topic to say that, when it builds upon
class, but merely supports their attempts (Colorado), 10 November 1985
sound teaching and learning, positive
to self-improve and make progress in the
feedback can have an extremely powerful Seedhouse, P. (2004) The Interactional
target language. Indeed, recent voices
influence of learning. Nonetheless, Architecture of the Language Classroom: A
highlight the importance of carefully
there is still a need to further qualitative Conversation Analysis Perspective. Malden,
considering the forms of positive
and quantitative research to explore MA: Blackwell
feedback employed, arguing that ‘catch
exactly what constitutes the ‘best’
all’ phrases such as “very good” can also Sheal, P. (1989) ‘Classroom Observation:
feedback practice in the English language training the teachers’, ELT Journal, 43(2),
inhibit the learning process due to their
classroom, and it seems that now is pp. 92-104
indiscriminate employment by teachers
an important juncture for educational
(Hattie & Timperly, 2007). Yorke (2003) Sprague, J. (1971) ‘An investigation of
practitioners, those of us actually in the
also emphasises the importance of an the written critique behaviour of college
classroom, to get involved in this highly
awareness of the psychological aspects communication instructors’. Unpublished
interesting, but as yet under-researched
and impacts of feedback. To be most doctoral dissertation, Purdue University
area of teaching languages.
effective, then, it seems any positive (cited in Preston & Todd-Mancillas, 1985)
feedback given needs to be carefully REFERENCES
assessed for its authenticity and meaning Stroinska, M. & Löschmann, M. (1997)
Bostrom, R.N. (1961) ‘The effects on ‘Motivation and Feedback in Language
to the students, both psychologically and
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speaking’, Dissertation Abstracts: State Kingston: Kingston UP
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Yorke, M.(2003) ‘Formative assessment in
Further work Brophy, J.E. (1998) Motivating Students to higher education: moves towards theory
It is almost always beneficial for teachers Learn Boston: McGraw-Hill and the enhancement of pedagogic
to observe each other and to discuss Burden, P. R. (1995) Classroom practice’, Higher Education, 45, pp.
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view of one aspect of teaching, which York: Longman of Helpfulness in Classroom Speech
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Deci, E.L. & Ryan R.M. (1985) Intrinsic Criticism’, Speech Teacher, 23, pp. 222-234
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Clare Fielder
information, this quantification of the Behaviour Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley
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Gass, S. & Mackey, A. (2006) Input,
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believe that any discussion of teaching Gordon, M. (2007) ‘Introduction’, in
practice or approaches is insightful as Gordon, M. & O’Brien, T. (eds), Bridging
it helps individual teachers clarify their Theory and Practice in Teacher Education
own positions and can provide impetus Rotterdam: Sense, pp. xi-xvi
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Hattie, J., & Timperly, H. (2007) ‘The
approaches or teaching behaviours Clare Fielder has recently completed
power of feedback’, Review of Educational
which in turn often benefit students. her TESOL Diploma with Trinity
Research 77(1), pp. 81-112
For future use, this instrument could College London and works as a
Link, K.E., Kreutz, R.J. & Graesser, A.C. language lecturer at the University of
also be employed or modified for use
(2001) ‘Factors that Influence the Trier, Germany. Her key interests are
in comparing feedback employed
Perception of Feedback Delivered by a teaching methodologies and teacher
during different stages of a lesson, or in
Pedagogical Agent’, International Journal development, as well as grammar and
observing a teacher’s use of various forms
of Speech Technology, 4, pp. 145-153 translation. She is committed to her
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language schools, for example, who speeches’, Dissertation Abstracts; Indiana Email: [email protected]
prescribe a certain teaching method and University, 36, pp. 4853-6

66 Modern English Teacher Volume 20 No. 4