ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

(Assignment No: 01)

Submitted by: Aleena Bashir

Submitted to: Kiran Shehzadi
Student ID: 0000329047
Course: General methods of teaching (8601)

SEMESTER AUTUMN - 22

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Q. 1;
A teacher's personality traits are important to create and maintain a
classroom/learning environment. Why?

Personality refers to the enduring characteristics and behaviour that comprise a person's
unique adjustment to life, including major traits, interests, drives, values, self-concept,
abilities, and emotional patterns.

Teacher’s personality directly or indirectly related to learning and teaching domain as to

that in cognitive and psychomotor domains. A teacher has a high ability to develop
effective classroom environment. Pupils always copy their teachers , the way he/she talks,
walks , behaves, teacher is a dominant personality in his pupil’s life. They are very much
inspired by the personal and professional characteristics of their teacher. Every person
has some personal qualities which have highly influence on his profession.

Personal qualities;

 Fairness
Fairness is a most important characteristic of a teacher. A unbiased teacher is always be
a favorite of his class. This ability provides students to participate in the classroom
activities without hesitation.
Any expression of favoritism , or lack of fairness leaves negative impact on the life of
students for forever.
 Positive attitude
Another characteristic that students like the most is the positive attitude of a teacher.
Scholars have mentioned that effective teachers are those who have ability to use good
verbal praise in the classroom which results in the form of students actively participation
in the class.
This ability creates a productive classroom environment and gives students confidence
which can be seen in the form of results.
 Preparedness

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An inspiring teacher is always be prepared for his class. He knows what to teach and
how to teach, in this way he can be able to save his time during lecture and focus on the
student’s behavioral matters.
If the teacher has spent of his time for planning and preparation, he would easily handle
the students’ behavior.
 Personal touch
To teach is a universal behavior of all the teachers but the way a teacher teaches with
his rise and fall of voice, tone, smile, ask about student’s feelings and opinions , this thing
create a long lasting impact on the mind of a student.
 Creativity
This is one of the most important traits that a teacher possesses. This ability of a teacher
teaches students “how to study smart not hard”. Students always admire the unusual
activity of their teacher which he/she does to enhance students’ interest and make
learning more effective.
 High expectations
The best teachers always have high expectations and encourage their students to fulfill
these expectations. Teachers’ level of expectations affect the ways in which teachers
teach and interact with students.
 Compassion
School is a place where children can learn and be nurtured in an emotionally safe
environment. Sometimes in youngsters classroom there may happens a significant
amount of cruelty and hurt feelings. In these situations a caring teacher tries to reduce
the impact of hurt feelings on learning.

Furthermore, there are some other personal qualities which have high influence on
teaching like respect, sense of humor, communicational skills, sense of belongings.

Professional qualities
The teacher’s professional qualities are following;

 Commitment to learning

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The teacher knows the value of learning for his\herself and for students .
 He/she plans and delivers instructions to make classroom a possible place for
better learning.
 Makes materials that can help in the learning of students.
 Observes carefully and seek to improve skills.
 An Effective teacher not only assesses his students but also evaluate his own self as
a teacher.
 Emotional maturity
The teacher demonstrate situation appropriate behavior;
 Display enthusiasm for teaching and the subject matter
 Demonstrate self- confidence through body language, voice tone, eye contact,
preparedness
 Punctual, conscientious, devoted.
 Makes mutual and caring bonding with students.
 Leadership and Responsibility
A teacher leads things with great responsibility
 Aware of and acts according to school policies and practices
 Teaches his students how to fulfill their duties and follow the rules
 Dresses professionally that has great influence on his pupils.
 He observes his students objectively and evaluates things for betterment and offers
ideas at faculty meetings
 Collaboration
 The teacher collaborates with other teachers and students for common goals.
 Shares ideas and material
 Communicates effectively both verbally and non-verbally.
 Respects others points of view.
 Demonstrate his/her democratic behavior
 Understanding of curriculum
 A good curriculum also connects teachers from across grade levels and subject
areas to look at the big picture of student learning.
 Teachers can work together to plan a progression of topics that build off of ones
that came before and connect across disciplines.
 The role of teachers in the curriculum process is to help students develop an
engaged relationship with the content. Active learning will increase the focus and
retention of the curriculum, resulting in an exciting learning environment.
 Classroom management
 Creates an environment for students that allows them to learn without
distractions.
 Reduces poor behaviour and distractions so students are focused on learning.
 Facilitates social and emotional development.
 Promotes positive interactions between peers and decreases bullying.
 Honesty and integrity
The teacher demonstrates truthfulness, professional behaviour, and trust worthiness.
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 Maintain confidentiality
 Elicits trust and respect from both supervisors and peers.
 In completing course and field experience and field experience assignment.
 Conclusion;
To conclude, we can say that a teacher’s personal and professional traits and
abilities play an important role to make classroom a effective place for learning.

Q.2;
Describe the process of course design and planning.

Effective course design is a continuous improvement process that includes five

interconnected components. The design process generally starts with analyzing and
identifying desired, measureable learning outcomes that support program objectives. The
deliberate design of learning experiences along with assessment will help to shape the
optimal learning environment. As faculty regularly measure learning outcomes, the
instructional design can be revised in the interest of achieving the optimal experiences for
students. The course design components are presented below in Figure which illustrates
the interconnectivity of these components.

Seven Steps to Design Your Course Before you start updating your course outline or
syllabus,

make sure you have thought about the design of your course.

Here are seven basic steps to get you going – often done in the order presented.

1. Recognize who your learners are

 prior knowledge, emotional and intellectual development levels, demographics etc.

2. Write measurable and observable course learning outcomes

 skills, knowledge and attitudes to achieve deep learning of key concepts

3. Identify evaluation methods for demonstrating learning outcomes

 assignments, projects, tests, demonstrations, presentations (% and marking

schemes)

4. Consider informal assessment methods to use throughout course

 minute papers, tickets out door, surveys, peer sharing, consultations (no marks)

5. Choose appropriate teaching and learning strategies to allow students to practice

new learning

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 active learning, student-centered, authentic, engaging and experiential strategies 6.
Keep scope of

6. content around key concepts and enduring understandings

 absolutely essential and necessary content to include vs. nice to know content

7. Plan out your course content and how it will be organized

 topics, content, scaffolding of learning experiences, time for application

Define course goals. Determining the goals for the course will clarify what you want the
students to learn and accomplish. Having these course goals in mind will then help you
make decisions about which content to include, which teaching methods to use, and what
kinds of assignments and exams are appropriate.

When you define the course goals, focus on student learning. One way to formulate these
goals is to determine what students should be learning in terms of content, cognitive
development, and personal development. Be as specific as you can and make sure that
the goals define learning in ways that can be measured. Consider the following questions:

 What do you want your students to remember from your course in 5-10 years?
 How should taking your course change students?
 What skills should students gain in this course?
 How does this course relate to other courses in the discipline? How, then, might
you define the course goals accordingly (e.g., for an introductory, fundamental, or
advanced course in the discipline)?
In addition, you should learn about the students who typically take the course (their level
of preparation, their majors or academic interests, etc.) in order to think about how your
course will help this group of students build their knowledge and understanding of the
topic.

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Benjamin Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (1956) provides a helpful
framework for identifying the observable and measurable skills you would like your
students to learn. Bloom identified six types of cognitive processes and ordered these
according to the increasing level of complexity involved: knowledge, comprehension,
application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

Course Goals

 Teach chemistry topics that must be covered to help students prepare for other
courses and for standardized exams.
 Teach study skills that students need to succeed in university-level science courses;
these skills are distinct from those required to succeed in high-school science
courses. For example, teach students how to study effectively in a group.
 Teach students problem-solving and critical-thinking skills.
Demonstrate how chemistry is used in other fields and in everyday situations.
 Teach students the beauty of chemistry.
Determine course content. Select the major topics and determine the order in which you
will teach them.

 Select the main topics to be covered. To obtain an initial list of course topics, look in
current textbooks or the current literature (for a special-topics course). Determine
whether there is a consensus concerning the necessary topics by obtaining previous
course syllabi and discussing potential topics with colleagues. Refine your list by
considering your course goals and the characteristics of your students. At the same
time, use the desired content to refine the course goals.
 Pare down and refine your initial list of topics. Instructors often plan initially to
teach more material than they can cover in the allotted time.
 Determine the structure of the course; arrange the topics in a logical
order. Developing a rationale that guides the structure of the course can help you
explain the material more clearly to the students. In other words, you can discuss
how and why you have organized the material in a particular way, helping them to
see, for example, how one topic builds on, illustrates, or offers a different
perspective on another. Articulating the rationale behind the course structure also
increases and maintains the students’ interest in the course content. Determining
the course structure can help you decide which texts are most appropriate.
You can choose to organize the topics in a variety of ways, whether chronological, topical,
conceptual, survey-oriented, or process-oriented. Think about how the structure of the
course will contribute to student learning. Ask questions such as the following:

 Can I organize the topics according to a theme or storyline?

 Do I need to teach certain skills initially and then discuss applications?
 Do I want to introduce a particular theory before illustrating it with specific
examples or problems?

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Develop teaching methods and tools. Once you have determined the course goals and
content, think about how you will present the content. Select and develop teaching
methods and tools that are 1) appropriate for the size of the class and 2) consistent with
the course goals. Consider the following questions and suggestions:

 What is your teaching style? How will you apply or adapt your style to suit the
course goals, the size of the class, and the types of students who are likely to
enroll?
 Which types of teaching methods will best fulfill your course goals?
 When deciding whether or not you will use technology in your teaching, identify
specific goals that technology will help you reach. Plan carefully to determine how
you will integrate technology with more traditional teaching tools, such as the
chalkboard.
 Whenever possible, use a variety of approaches, taking into account that students
use a diverse range of learning preferences.
 Plan to use teaching methods that will require and measure active student learning.
Determine how you will evaluate student learning: Plan assignments and exams. The
evaluation must go hand-in-hand with course goals. For example, if one course goal is to
improve problem-solving skills, the exam should not contain only questions that ask
students to recall facts; it should contain questions that ask students to solve specific and
well-chosen problems. By the same token, homework and class activities leading up to
the exam must include some questions that require problem-solving skills. Consider the
following questions:

 Do assignments reflect and help achieve course goals? For example, are the papers
required for the course an appropriate genre and length? How much time will you
give students to complete these papers?
 Do exams and quizzes reflect course goals? Do they measure the extent to which
students are achieving the learning objectives you have set out for the course?
 Will the students have an opportunity to acquire and practice the skills that are
required for exams and major assignments?
Select text(s) and other materials. If you are using texts, decide whether the course goals
will be best met by using a published text or a course reader that compiles material
published elsewhere (and unpublished material, if applicable). Take into account the cost
of all materials. Consider placing some of the material on reserve at the library so that
students can borrow, photocopy, or download the material themselves. Order texts early
and call the bookstore about a month before

Define course policies. Determine how you will grade all required work, including all
assignments, papers, exams, and, if applicable, class participation. Decide ahead of time
how you will deal with such issues as tardiness, attendance problems, work turned in late,
and requests for extensions or the rescheduling of exams.

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Develop the course schedule. The tendency is nearly always to try to accomplish too
much during each class period. Allow time for active learning to occur during class and for
students to complete major assignments and prepare for exams. When preparing the
schedule, consult the relevant academic calendars, and keep in mind major religious
holidays and significant campus events (for example, Homecoming and Thurtene
Carnival).

Write the course syllabus. At a minimum, the syllabus should contain the following:
course title, time, and location; prerequisites; required texts and other materials; course
topics; major assignments and exams; course policies on grading, academic integrity,
attendance, and late work; and contact information for instructor and assistants to
instruction (if applicable).

Refine the Course Design. Course planning is a continual process. Each of the steps is
necessarily undertaken with the others in mind, and each will necessarily undergo
revision each time you teach a particular course.

As you plan and revise courses, remember the importance of teaching core concepts and
critical-thinking skills. Focusing only on content can quickly lead you to over-emphasize
knowledge-based skills and to ignore the teaching of the higher-level thinking skills in
Bloom’s Taxonomy.

Q.3 What strategies a teacher can use in the classroom to motivate students?

Student motivation is particularly important in learner-centered pedagogy, because

the active, engaged learning envisioned in learner-centered pedagogy is hard work;
indeed, Terry Doyle expresses the fundamental rule of learning as “Whoever does the
work does the learning.” This is one of the reasons for the well documented student
resistance to learner-centered pedagogy; it takes more effort and engagement on the part
of the students than traditional instructor-centered pedagogy (except for the night before
the exam), and students have only limited time and effort to give.

Besides the conative and volitional components, motivation also has a cognitive
component; students’ willingness to work to achieve a learning goal is based upon certain
beliefs they have. In particular, motivation is dependent on students’ beliefs about:

1. The subjective value of the goal.8 Is the goal perceived as worth attaining? As we might
expect, in general, the higher subjective value a student gives to the goal, the higher the
student’s motivation to achieve that goal.

2. Their ‘expectancies’—i.e., the expectation of successful attainment of the goal. An

expectancy is positive if the student believes they will achieve the goal and negative if the
student believes they will not achieve the goal. In general, the belief that maximizes
positive expectancy is: “With work I can achieve the goal.”

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3. Their learning environment—in particular, the degree to which the environment is
supportive of achieving the goal. In general, a person tends to be more highly motivated in
an environment that is perceived as promoting the other two beliefs—that is, an
environment that supports a high subjective value for the learning goal and the student’s
positive 50 Practices in Pedagogy expectancy about achieving the learning goal.
Environments believed to be unsupportive make a student doubt the value of the goal or
their ability to achieve it, and thus undermine their motivation.

To summarize: Highly motivated students believe that [1] the course learning goals are
worth achieving; [2] with effort they can achieve the course learning goals; and [3] their
classroom and school environments support their achievement of the course learning
goals.

According to Carl Ames (1990) there are six area that can influence students’ motivation
to learn:

According to Carol Ames (1990, 1992), there are six areas that can influence students'
motivation to learn:

Task students are asked to do.

The strength of our motivation in a particular situation is determined by our expectation

that we can get success and the value of that success. To understand how an academic task
can affect student's motivation, we need to analyze them. Tasks can be interesting or
boring for students. And tasks have different value for students.

The autonomy students are allowed in working.

Give students a range of options that set valuable tasks for them, but also allow them to
follow personal interest. The balance must be just right. Too much autonomy is bewildering
and too little is boring.

How students are recognized for their accomplishments.

Students should be recognized for improving on their own personal best, for tackling
difficult tasks, for persistence, and for creativity.

Grouping Practices.

Motivation can greatly influenced by the ways we relate to the other people who are also
involved in accomplishing a particular goal. When the task involves complex learning and
problem skills, cooperation leads to higher achievement than competition, especially for
students with low abilities. The interaction with peers that the students enjoy so much
becomes a part of learning process. The need for belonging described by Maslow is more
likely to be met and motivation is increased.

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Evaluation Procedures.

The greater the emphasis on competitive evaluation and grading, the more students will
focus on performance goals rather than mastery. Low-achieving students who have little
hope of either performing well or mastery the task may simply want to get it over with.
How can teachers prevent students from simply focusing on the grade or doing the work
"just to get finished"? The answer is to de-emphasize grades and emphasize learning in the
class. Students need to understand the value of the work or how the information will be
useful in solving problems they want to solve. One way to emphasize learning rather than
grades is to use self-evaluation.

Scheduling of time in the classroom.

Most teachers know that there is too much work and not enough time in the school day.
Even if they become engrossed in a project, students must stop and turn their attention to
another subject when the bell rings or the schedules demands. Furthermore, students must
progress as a group. So, scheduling often interferes with motivation by making students
move faster or slower and interrupting their involvement. Therefore, teacher should be
able to give extended period when everyone, even the teachers engage in activity or to
have some sort of block scheduling in which teachers work in teams to plan larger blocks of
time.

Strategize with Struggling Students

When students are struggling with poor academic performance, low self-efficiency or low
motivation, one strategy that may help is to teach them how to learn. That is, to outline
specific strategies for completing an assignment, note-taking or reviewing for an exam.

Here are some other strategies that can be used in the classroom to help motivate
students:

Offer a choice of assignments

Allow students to take charge of planning their work and to select topics of the greatest
interest. If you would like students to write two papers during the term, provide 3-4
assignments and ask them to choose two. Similarly, give a choice of topics for each
assignment.

Teach by discovery ;

Use an inductive approach where students reason through the problem to discover the
underlying principle. Socratic discussions or case analysis where solutions emerge from the
discussion.

Help students construct new mental models;

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Identify studentsʼ preconceptions and plan to challenge these assumptions. Explicitly raise
the questions “How do we know...?” “Why do we believe...?” “What is the evidence for...?”
“What are the underlying assumptions...?”

Be supportive Supportive;

Teacher behaviors include listening, hints, encouragement, empathy and responsiveness to

concerns or questions. Listening: attend to student questions with verbal (e.g. re-state their
point) and non-verbal ([Link]) signals of active listening Hints: suggest how to make
progress : “Itʼs helpful to start...” “ Have you tried...” or “It might be easier if you look at ...”
Encouragement: “You are almost there.” “You are so close.” “ You can do this.” Empathy:
“Yes, this one is difficult” or “I know you had to wrestle with this one.” Responsiveness:
“You have a good point.” “That is a good question.”

Be free with praise and constructive in criticism;

Offer non judgemental feedback about particular performance. Give specific feedback - say
what works, what doesnʼt and why.

Examples of learning strategies

Specific Learning Strategies:

Pre-action phase (preparing for task)- take a reasonable risk, work toward goals that are
challenging but attainable, work in manageable, bite-size pieces, take responsibility for
your actions, believe In your own effort and capability, set a plan and work from it.

Action phase- search the environment, ask questions, visualize it (?)

Reaction phase (after one task, preparing for the next one) - use feedback from prior
tasks; monitor your own actions, giving yourself instructions.

Q.4;
What is meant by inductive reasoning, provide examples regarding application of
this method in classroom setting?
“Inductive reasoning is a method of logical thinking that combines observations with
experiential information to reach a conclusion.”
When you use a specific set of data or existing knowledge from past experiences to make
decisions, you're using inductive [Link] example, if you review the population
information of a city for the past 15 years, you may observe a consistent rate of population
increase. If you want to predict what the population might be in five years, you can use the
evidence or information you have to make an estimate. This is inductive reasoning.

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Types of inductive reasoning
There are various ways to use inductive reasoning depending on the situation. Here are
the three most commonly used types of inductive reasoning:

Inductive generalization
This type of inductive reasoning involves considering evidence from past similar situations
to create a conclusion. You could use evidence like the following to support an inductive
generalization:
 Large samples
 Random sampling
 Statistical induction
This type of inductive reasoning utilizes statistical data to draw conclusions. Statistical
induction, or statistical generalization, is a type of inductive generalization. While this type
of reasoning provides context an assumption, it's important to remain open to new
evidence that might alter your theory.
Casual reasoningThis type of thinking involves making a logical connection between a
cause and a likely effect. For the casual reasoning to be effective, it's helpful for it to
involve a strong relationship between the starting situation and the resulting inference.
Observable evidence is also crucial for this type of reasoning.

Induction by confirmation
Induction by confirmation allows you to reach a conclusion by accepting specific
assumptions. Police officers and detectives might use this type of reasoning to develop a
theory for investigations. They may then work to collect evidence to support their theory.
Examples of inductive reasoning in the workplace
Inductive reasoning can be highly beneficial in the workplace because identify patterns in
positive business outcomes can help you can inform future efforts and recreate your
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success. Here are a few examples of how you might apply the inductive reasoning process
in a professional environment:
Inductive vs. deductive reasoning
Both inductive and deductive reasoning bring valuable benefits to the workplace. Here are
how the definitions differ from each other:
Inductive vs. abductive reasoning
Like inductive reasoning, abductive reasoning involves analyzing information or
observations to predict outcomes. Unlike inductive reasoning, abductive reasoning
involves using information that may be incomplete. While abductive reasoning allows for
more freedom than inductive or deductive reasoning, it can also result in several incorrect
conclusions before you uncover the true answer.
The medical field often uses abductive reasoning when making diagnoses in the absence of
information such as test results. For example, when a patient presents symptoms, medical
professionals work to develop a logical answer or a diagnosis based on the minimal
information they have to develop a conclusion.
Inductive reasoning pros and cons
Here are the pros and cons of using this decision-making method:

Pros of inductive reasoning

Here are some benefits of inductive reasoning:
 It allows you to work with a wide range of probabilities.
 It presents you with a starting point so you can narrow down your assumptions and
reach an informed conclusion.
 It helps you to develop multiple solutions to one issue and utilize your research to
evaluate another hypothesis.
 It allows you to leverage knowledge gathered from past experiences to form
judgments and make decisions in new situations.
Cons of inductive reasoning
Here are some limitations of inductive reasoning:
 It may lead you to create a theory with limitations based on the evidence or
knowledge you have. This can sometimes lead you to an incorrect conclusion.
 It requires data and evidence to back up your claim or judgment, but there's still a
chance that new facts or evidence may emerge and prove your theory wrong.
These limitations make it important to learn to use inductive reasoning skills along with
other types of reasoning.
How to demonstrate your inductive reasoning skills
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Reasoning skills are important soft skills that employers may seek in potential candidates.
Some employers specifically like to see inductive reasoning on applications because it
highlights the candidate's aptitude for critical thinking, decision-making and problem-
solving. For this reason, it may be helpful to focus on this skill throughout the job search
and hiring process. Here are some steps you may follow to do so:
Learn the STAR method
The STAR (Situation, Task, Action and Result) technique is an effective method for
communicating. Once you learn it, you can use it to explain your inductive reasoning skills
to potential employers clearly and concisely. Here are the steps for using
 Describe the situation.
 Describe the task.
 Explain in detail the action you took.
 Share the result.
Understanding inductive reasoning and how to apply this in your work environment is
essential to success in any position. Using the STAR method to explain situations in which
this method was useful to you or your team can help you highlight them during your job
search and make a positive impression on potential employers.

2. Include inductive reasoning skills on your resume and cover letter

You can list inductive reasoning along with other in the skill section of your resume. This
may be especially important if an employer specifically mentions inductive reasoning or in
the job listing or description. Consider providing a specific example of a time when you
used inductive reasoning skills in the workplace in your cover letter. This can give context
to your claim and help impress the hiring manager.
3. Mention inductive reasoning in an interview
During a job interview, you might mention inductive reasoning when an employer asks
about your decision-making process. Take time to think about specific instances when you
used inductive reasoning, especially when it resulted in a positive outcome. Providing a
clear example can help prove to employers you're able to make insightful observations,
retain information and apply your knowledge to make well-informed decisions on the job.
Q.5;
Summarize the main points bearing on teacher role of research project.
Teacher research refers to a form in which the teacher conducts research on or inquires
into his/her own practices. Self-study is the same process used by teacher educators. This
trend is a part of the action research movement that suggests that practitioners are in the
best position to inquire into their own practices for purposes of solving problems in the
contexts in which they reside and understand. The purpose of teacher research and self-

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study is primarily the improvement of the teacher/teacher educator's teaching practice.
However, there is some debate about this, as a number of scholars suggest that research
conducted by teachers is not only useful for the teacher-researcher but of interest to
others. There are also questions about the nature of the research that is conducted, e.g.,
do teacher research and self-study warrant different methods and procedures to research
that leads to formal knowledge?

Follow these clear steps to help avoid typical mistakes and productivity bottlenecks,
allowing for a more efficient through your writing process:

Skim the article in order to get a rough idea of the content covered in each section and to
understand the relative importance of content, for instance, how important different lines
of evidence are (this helps you understand which sections you should focus on more when
reading in detail). Make sure you understand the task and your professor's requirements
before reading the article. In this step, you can also decide whether to write a summary by
yourself or ask for a cheap research paper writing service instead.

Analyze and understand the topic and article. Writing a summary of a research paper
involves becoming very familiar with the topic – sometimes, it is impossible to understand
the content without learning about the current state of knowledge, as well as key
definitions, concepts, models. This is often performed while reading the literature review.
As for the paper itself, understanding it means understanding analysis questions,
hypotheses, listed evidence, how strongly this evidence supports the hypotheses, as well
as analysis implications. Keep in mind that only a deep understanding allows one to
efficiently and accurately summarize the content.

Make notes as you read. You could highlight or summarize each paragraph with a brief
sentence that would record the key idea delivered in it (obviously, some paragraphs
deserve more attention than others). However, be careful not to engage in extensive
writing while still reading. This is important because, while reading, you might realize that
some sections you initially considered important might actually be less important
compared to information that follows. As for underlining or highlighting – do these only
with the most important evidence, otherwise, there is little use in “coloring” everything
without distinction.

Assemble a draft by bringing together key evidence and notes from each paragraph/
section. Make sure that all elements characteristic of a research summary are covered (as
detailed below).

Find additional literature for forming or supporting your critical view (this is if your critical
view/position is required), for instance, judgments about limitations of the study or
contradictory evidence.

Research Summary Structure; The research summary format resembles that found in the
original paper (just a concise version of it). Content from all sections should be covered

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and reflected upon, regardless of whether corresponding headings are present or not. Key
structural elements of any research summary are as follows:

Title – it announces the exact topic/area of analysis and can even be formulated to briefly
announce key finding(s) or argument(s) delivered.

Abstract – this is a very concise and comprehensive description of the study, present
virtually in any academic article (the length varies greatly, typically within 100-500 words).
Unlike an academic article, your research summary is expected to have a much shorter
abstract.

Introduction – this is an essential part of any research summary which provides necessary
context (the literature review) that helps introduce readers to the subject by presenting
the current state of the investigation, an important concept or definition, etc. This section
might also describe the subject’s importance (or might not, for instance, when it is self-
evident). Finally, an introduction typically lists investigation questions and hypotheses
advanced by authors, which are normally mentioned in detail in any research summary
(obviously, doing this is only possible after identifying these elements in the original
paper).

Methodology – regardless of its location, this section details experimental methods or

data analysis methods used (e.g. types of experiments, surveys, sampling, or statistical
analysis). In a research summary, many of these details would have to be omitted; hence,
it is important to understand what is most important to mention.

Results section – this section lists in detail evidence obtained from all experiments with
some primary data analysis, conclusions, observations, and primary interpretations being
made. It is typically the largest section of any analysis paper, so, it has to be concisely
rewritten, which implies understanding which content is worth omitting and worth
keeping.

Discussion – this is where results are being discussed in the context of current knowledge
among experts. This section contains interpretations of results, theoretical models
explaining the observed results, study strengths and especially limitations, complementary
future exploration to be undertaken, conclusions, etc. All these are important elements
that need to be conveyed in a summary.

Conclusion – in the original article, this section could be absent or merged with
“Discussion”. Specific research summary instructions might require this to be a standalone
section. In a conclusion, hypotheses are revisited and validated or denied, based on how
convincing the evidence is (key lines of evidence could be highlighted).

References – this section is for mentioning those cited works directly in your summary –
obviously, one has to provide appropriate citations at least for the original article (this
often suffices). Mentioning other works might be relevant when your critical opinion is
also required (supported with new unrelated evidence).
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