UNIT 3.3.
PHYSICAL MODELLING
Essential Idea:
A physical model is a three-dimensional, tangible representation of a design or system.
Nature of design:
Designers use physical models to visualize information about the context that the model
represents. It is very common for physical models of large objects to be scaled down and
smaller objects scaled up for ease of visualization. The primary goal of physical modelling is
to test aspects of a product against user requirements. Thorough testing at the design
development stage ensures that an appropriate product is developed.
Aim of design:
Physical modelling not only allows designers to explore and test their ideas, but to also
present them to others. Engaging clients, focus groups and experts to interact with
physical models of products allows designers to gain valuable feedback that enable them
to improve the design and product-user interface.
Guidance:
1. To understand the various applications of physical models and how and why a
designer might use these models to gain a better understanding if the design context.
2. To be able to use instrumented models to measure the level of a product's
performance and facilitate ongoing formative evaluation and testing. This testing and
evaluation should be used to further develop and refine your design.
3. Identify the advantages and disadvantages of physical models
In your Criterion B of your IA, physical modeling plays an important role in testing and
verifying your idea.
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Figure 1: Design Cycle
CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES:
Designers use physical models to obtain information about various aspects of a design
context. They are particularly useful in understanding how an object will be physically
manipulated or used by a user. They can provide important information about:
Ergonomics and fit: The model can show how the design will fit to the user's body or
held in the user's hand.
Relationships between the internal structure and external structure: For example,
how the electronic components of device might influence the external structure of a
design, and vice versa. This could include the placement of ports, switches, buttons,
grips, etc.
Aesthetic considerations: Form, scale, shape, texture, and color can all be explored
through creating a physical model.
Once a design has been fully realized in sketch form, designers may move to virtual or
physical models for further review. Depending on the context, the style, tools and media
used for conceptual models vary considerably. Application of one particular rigid model can
never be suitable in all contexts. Depending on the desired outcome, various components of
the process require more attention, time or repeated cycling to provide a suitable solution.
Physical models of consumer products may be constructed from arrange of materials,
including, but not limited to, cardboard, balsa wood, acrylic, high density polyurethane,
moulding silicone and urethane.
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Figure2: Examples of prototype handles that were used by the designers and users to refine the handle
design.
Scale models:
As a design tool, architectural conceptual models are a quick and inexpensive way for
architects to visualise space, consider the relationship between buildings and
landscape/environment and assist when discussing revisions with clients. Landscape models
of large developments may use a scale of about 1:100 while, for individual buildings
(requiring greater detail), a scale of 1:20 would be more appropriate. Models such as the
one shown in Figure 3 may use a variety of materials including illustration board, foam
core, medium density fibreboard, corrugated cardboard, balsa wood and acrylic.
In the auto industry, clay modelling is a very traditional technique used by car designers to
produce physical models. Some design studios have transferred their modelling activities to
the CAD department while others maintain the clay is still the best way to visualize the
development of 3-D designs. Clay scale models such as the one shown in fig may be
produced to examine aesthetics, while full-size models allow for wind tunnel testing, fitting
of hardware and components such as door handles, glass, etc. Physical models can also be
digitized using 3-D scanners. The process of 3-D scanning allows engineers to virtually
manufacture panels, add power plants and drive trains towards the development of a
simulated working prototype.
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Figure 3: Architectural model, image by Wasily at nl.wikipedia [public domain], from Wikimedia commons
Figure 4: Car clay model [Image by Dinesh Adv, CC-BY-SA-3.0]
A scale model a model that is either a smaller or larger physical copy of an object.
Scale models are often used in architecture, where smaller models of a building are
presented. This smaller model helps the architect communicate to the client or team
members the aesthetic, form, proportion, and functional elements of a building.
Scale models are also used in some testing situations when it is financially or
practically impossible to test a full-scale model. An example of this would be a wind
tunnel testing a scale model of an aircraft.
Scale models are advantageous for communicating the form, thinking, aesthetics or
ideas behind a design.
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Aesthetic models:
Aesthetic models may be physical or digital and are used to assess the appearance or visual
appeal of a design. How individuals view aesthetics can be a matter of perspective based on
emotional responses, cultural influences, previous experiences and so on. The characteristic
principles of aesthetic design include line, form, color, patterns and proportion. Elements of
style, fashion trends, personal taste and originality all contribute to the aesthetic.
An aesthetic model is a model developed to look and feel like the real product. They
are used to evaluate user appeal or in ergonomic testing. These models do not
actually work and are typically not intended to be handled greatly.
The primary function is to communicate and test the aesthetic elements of a design.
In addition to being used to communicate and evaluate how a design looks and
appeals to a user, aesthetic models might also be used to evaluate the properties of
a material
Weight and balance: Using materials similar in weight and density to the final production
material, the model could be used to evaluate how heavy a design is, or how it balances. A
good example of this might be a hand tool, portable device, or sports equipment.
Texture and surface qualities: Finishes, paint, or textures might be applied to the surface to
communicate how the surface looks, feels, or reflects light.
Mock-ups and prototypes:
The term mock-up and prototype are often used interchangeably but can be distinguished in
the ways outlined below:
A mock-up generally refers to three dimensional, full-size or scale product models. These
are often made from materials other than those which will make up the final product and
are designed to save the money and time involved in developing more accurate prototypes.
Mock-ups are produced to catch design flaws at the earliest stage. They do not replicate
functionality but may be used for aesthetic and ergonomic assessments. Multiple iterations
of mockups may be required before proceeding to the next stage.
A mock-up is a scale or full-size representation of a product used to gain feedback from
users. They have some functionality, meaning that they can also be used as a prototype.
Mockups are essentially used to test ideas, and are often used to show how something
works or feels.
Successful IA’s use prototyping to develop ideas, gather user feedback and test materials,
processes, and function. Use the Criterion B stage of your IA inquiry to troubleshoot and
confirm your design specifications.
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Figure 5: Range of models from mock-ups to prototype made from card board, foam.
Prototypes are models that also include the functionality aspects of a design. Prototypes
look and feel like the real production. Prototypes look and feel like the real production item
bur are produced as a one off to provide a final full evaluation before mass production. At
this point, changes are still able to be affected but because prototypes look and feel like the
real product they allow marketing departments start advertising campaigns and
demonstrate the product to distributors before manufacturing starts.
A prototype is a sample or model built to test a concept or process, or to act as an object
to be replicated or learned from. Prototypes can be developed at a range of fidelity and
for different contexts.
Prototypes can be used to test and refine specifications.
They can also be used to help learn more about the design or manufacturing context.
For instance, through building a prototype, the design might discover issues and
challenges related to manufacturing the product.
Mock-ups are and prototypes apply equally to digital design as much as product design.
Wire frame mockups of web pages have all the lay out features and visual appeal of the
further developed fully interactive prototype.
Fidelity of prototypes:
The fidelity of the prototype is the degree to which the prototype is exactly like the final
product. Prototypes can be made at different levels of fidelity, depending on the application
and context.
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Prototypes are often put in the hands of users so that designers can observe how they are
used. In this way, designers can gain feedback from the users, and learn more about the
design context.
Examples of different prototypes for a Dyson vacuum (Figure 5)
Low-fidelity models are a conceptual representation analogous to an idea. They are not
tangible or durable, but they do communicate basic information about form, shape,
function, etc. Paper prototypes are a good example of low-fidelity prototypes
Mid-fidelity prototypes communicate more about an idea or concept. They may
communicate some but not all of the functions of the design.
High-fidelity prototypes attempt to represent as close as possible the functionality of the
final product. They are typically durable enough to be testable and used by the user group
to gather usability data.
Instrumented models:
Fully instrumented models are produced to extract performance data across a range of
criteria for the purposes of verification and validation.
Validation is “the process of determining the degree to which model is an accurate
representation of the real-world from the perspective of the intended uses of the model”
(AIAA, 1998).
Instrumented models may be used in a wide variety of situations. Some specific examples
include:
Feedback from prosthetic devices to provide data on both loading and ground
reaction forces.
Architectural models to study critical design decisions and alternatives
Instrumented wheelsets for the continuous assessment of multi-planar forces
Product development and reverse engineering
Prototypes that is equipped with the ability to take measurements to provide accurate
quantitative feedback for analysis.
Essential, they are models that equipped with sensors or other types of measuring systems
that can record data. This data is then used to evaluate the performance of the product,
mechanism, or material, as well as to understand better how the user might use the
product.
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Physical Models
Advantages:
Explore and test ideas: Some ideas are more easily explorable in physical form compared to
other modeling forms (e.g. a flat pack container that is folded out of a single sheet of
material)
Easily understandable: A physical representation of an idea, concept or design.
Communication: Allow for clear communication with clients and team members about the
design. This is especially important when communicating with a non-technical audience
Tangible: It can be put in someone's hands or tested
User testing: Can be easily used in user trials to generate data; particularly useful when
gathering ergonomic data
Disadvantages
Accuracy: Designers could mistakenly assume that the model accurately represents the
reality of the design context. For example, a scale model might not accurate communicate
ergonomic information. However, careful analysis and inquiry can avoid or lessen this.
Time consuming; creating models, and iteration of the models, can be time consuming
Cost: The manufacturing of prototypes can add to the overall cost of the manufacturing the
design.
Materials: In many cases, the material used in the model is not the same as the material
used in the final product. As such, accurate data about the performance or aesthetic
qualities of the product may not be gathered
Environmental cost: Materials and processes used may produce waste or use raw materials
that impact the environment.
Skill: Requires a level of skill, depending on the application. The model maker would need to
be familiar with the materials or technology used to manufacture the model.
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Type of Advantages Uses
Physical
Model
Aesthetic - Look like the final model - Use to consider color
Model - Evaluate aesthetic appeal combinations, textures, form,
etc.
- Get client feedback on
aesthetic aspects of a design
Mock-up - Scaled or full-size replica - Used to gather client feedback
- Communicate form and
proportion of a design
- Low-fidelity models can be
made relatively quickly
Prototypes - Validate that a design can work - User testing of functionality
as intended - Develop and improve the
functionality of a design
Instrumented - Provide accurate quantifiable - Evaluate how a design
Models data about a design as it is performs under various
being used or tested conditions and forces
- Can provide data in real-time - Test performance of materials
- Understand how physical forces (i.e. impact testing, heat
act on a design resistance, etc.)
- Allow for very precise
measurement
Scale Models - Can be larger than the actual - Used to gather client feedback
design and thus communicate about a design
fine details - If it is a small design like a
- Can be smaller than the actual watch, a large scale model can
design and thus save materials, help communicate details that
time, etc., as elements of the would otherwise not be easy
design are developed to see
- If it is a large design, like a car
door, a small scale model can
allow the designer to work
out details of mechanism
without having to invest time
and money in producing a life-
size model
