PHONETICS: THE SOUNDS OF LANGUAGE

Speech sounds
 Phonetics: the study of the speech sounds that are utilized by all human languages to
represent meaning. In phonetics, we analyze the sound stream into segments in various
ways.
 Phonetics is the systematic study of the speech sounds which is physical and directly
observable.
 Speech is produced by the controlled movement of air through the throat, mouth and
nose (vocal tract).

 The speech sounds can be studied in 3 different ways:

1) Acoustic phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are transmitted (the physical
properties of speech as sound waves in the air. Frequencies of speech are recorded
by spectrograph to produce spectrograms.
2) Auditory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are heard (the way the
listeners perceive these sounds). Focus: the listener.
3) Articulatory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are produced by the
human speech apparatus (how the vocal tract produces the sounds of language).
INTRODUCTION TO SOUNDS AND LETTERS

 In writing, words are made of letters. In speech, words are made of sounds.
 Letters are not always the same as sounds.
Examples:
The words key, keep, cat, and cook begin with same sound but the letters
are different.
key /ki:/ => 3 letters, 2 sounds
keep /ki:p/ => 4 letters, 3 sounds
cat /kæt/ => 3 letters, 3 sounds
cook /kƱk/ => 4 letters, 3 sounds
ARTICULATORY PHONETICS

A. ORGANS OF SPEECH
- Articulators:
The organ of speech
that can move, located
in the lower part of the
mouth (lip & tongue)

- Points/Places of
articulation:
The organ of speech
that cannot move,
located in the upper
part of the mouth
B. PHONETIC FEATURES
1) Voiced and Voiceless (Breathed) Sounds
- Voiced sounds: when the vocal cords are brought close together, the
airstream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate. (E.g.: b, d,
g, z, etc.)
- Voiceless (breathed) sounds: when the vocal cords are wide apart, the
airstream is not obstructed at the glottis. (E.g.: p, t, k, s, etc.)
2) Nasal and Oral Sounds
- Nasal sounds: when the air escapes not only through
the mouth (when we open the lips) but also through the
nose or nasal cavity. The soft palate or velum is lowered,
allowing air from entering the nasal cavity. (E.g.: m, n)
- Oral sounds: when the air escapes through the mouth
or oral cavity. The soft palate or velum is raised,
preventing air from entering the nasal cavity. (E.g.: p, t, k,
s, g, etc.)
SEGMENTS OF SPEECH

 The stream of speech sound is cut up into segments according to the way the
sound is produced. One basic classification is the distinction between vowels and
consonants.
a) Vowels: segments of speech produced without any obstruction of the
airstream. Passage of air is continuous and frictionless. All vowels are
voiced.
b) Consonants: segments of speech marked by obstruction of the airstream.
Consonants include:
(i) all breathed or voiced sounds
(ii) all voiced sounds formed by means of an obstruction in the mouth
(iii) all those in which there is a narrowing of the airstream giving rise to a
frictional noise
(iv) certain sounds which are “gliding”
VOWELS
 Viewed from mouth space:
SEGMENTS without obstruction => no narrowing nor
OF closing
 Viewed from vocal cords: all voiced sounds
SPEECH
CONSONANTS
 Viewed from mouth space:
with obstruction => narrowing or closing
 Viewed from vocal cords: some are voiced and
some are breathed or voiceless sounds
CLASSIFICATION OF ENGLISH VOWELS
 The qualities of vowels depend upon the following positions:
a) The highest point of the tongue:
The tongue body moves for the high vowels [i u, etc], down for the low
vowels [a, etc], and stays in the middle for mid vowels [e, o, etc]. See (p. 18-
20, LT) & (p. 23 LKB).
b) The part of the tongue which is raised:
The tongue moves forward in the mouth for the front vowels [i, e, etc] and
backward for the back vowels [u, o, a, etc], and in the middle position for the
central vowels […]. See (p. 18-20, LT) & (p. 23 LKB).
c) Lip rounding
The back vowels [u, o, a, etc] are rounded, while front vowels are unrounded
or spread. See (p. 18-20, LT) & (p. 23 LKB).
d) The state of the muscles (tense, lax)
 In between high and low, there are sounds grouped under the category mid as found
in the words bait and bet. Some phoneticians prefer to use the terms close, mid, and
open for high, mid, and low respectively.
 The second parameter, the position of the tongue, refers to the placement of the
tongue in front (front vowels), at the center (mid vowels), or at the back of the
mouth (back vowels).
 The third parameter, the lip protrusion or lip rounding, refers to the shape of the
lips (spread or rounded).
 The fourth parameter, tense and lax, is used to indicate that when we produce
certain vowels such [i] in beat, the muscles are pulled more strongly thus producing
tension (tense). On the other hand, certain vowels such as [I] in bit are produced
with no tension (lax).
ENGLISH VOWELS
Examples:
/i/ - beat /bi:t/
/I/ - busy /’bI zI/
/e/ - head /hed/
/ε/ - pet /pεt/
/æ/ - bag /bæg/
/ / - fun /fn/
/ә/ - above /ә’bv/
/u/ - blue /blu:/
/Ʊ/ - book /bƱk/
/o/ - coat /koUt/
/)/ - door /d ):(r)/
/a/ - tidy /taIdI/
Cardinal Vowels
Cardinal vowels are specially selected-vowels which can conveniently be used as points of reference from which other
vowels can be measured. For example:
- /i/ = front close spread vowel, articulated when the front tongue is raised to the close position and the lips are
spread.
- /o/ = back half-close rounded vowel, articulated when the back tongue is raised to the half-close position and the
lips are rounded.
Examples:
/i/ - beat /bi:t/
/e/ - head /hed/
/ε/ - pet /pεt/
/a/ - tidy /taIdI/
/u/ - blue /blu:/
/o/ - coat /koUt/
/)/ - door /d ):(r)/
/α/ - tie /tαI/
Pure Vowels (Monophthongs)

Pure vowels are those produced with the organs of speech remaining stationary.
Diphthongs:
- Diphthongs are produced with the organs of speech making a change in
position. It happens when a sound is made by gliding from one vowel
position to another.
- Diphthongs are represented phonetically by sequences of two letters, the 1st
showing the starting point, drawn by dots; the 2nd indicating the direction of
movement called by the directing point, drawn by lines.
For example:
- /ei/ = /e/ is starting point and /i/ is directing point.
- /au/ = /a/ is starting point and /u/ is directing point.
Diphthongs are classified into 4 classes, namely: closing diphthongs, centring diphthongs,
falling diphthongs and rising diphthongs.
[i] Closing Diphthongs:
When the end part of the diphthongs apply to the close position of the tongue.
[ii] Centring Diphthongs:
When the end part of the diphthongs apply to the centring position
of the tongue.
[iii] Falling Diphthongs:
When the end part of the diphthongs is less “sonorous” than the
beginning.
[iv] Rising Diphthongs:
When the end part of the diphthongs is more sonorous than the
beginning.
Diphthongs
A. Closing Diphthongs
Examples:
/ei/ - day /dei/
/ou/ - go /gou/
/αi/ - time /tαim/
/αu/ - house /hαus/
/)i/ - boy /b)i/
Diphthongs
B. Centring Diphthongs
Examples:
/iә/ - here /hiә/
/εә/ - stairs /stεәz/
/uә/ - plural /pluәrәl/
/)ә/ - floor /fl)ә/
Triphthongs
- The most complex English sounds of the vowel type are triphthongs.
- A triphthong is a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly
and without interruption.
CLASSIFICATION OF ENGLISH CONSONANTS:
According to the organs which articulate them,
called by points/place of articulation:

Bilabial: two lips come together

Examples:
/p/ - pen /pen/
/b/ - ball /b):l/
/m/ - meal /mi:l/
/w/ - week /wi:k/
Labiodental: lower lip and upper teeth come together

Examples:
/f/ - fan /fæn/
/v/ - van /væn/
Interdental/Dental: tip/blade of the tongue touches the upper teeth

Examples:
/θ/ - thin /θIn/
/ð/ - that /ðæt/
Alveolar: tip/blade of the tongue touches the alveolar/teeth ridge

Examples:
/t/ - table /’teIbl/
/d/ - desk /desk/
/n/ - new /nju:/
/l/ - library /’laIbrәrI/
/r/ - room /ru:m/
(r) - flower /’flaƱә(r)/
/s/ - school /sku:l/
/z/ - zoo /zu:/
Palato-alveolar/Post-alveolar:
tip of the tongue is close to the alveolar or teeth-ridge, while the front of the
tongue is concave to the roof of the mouth.

Examples:
/ʧ/ - chair /ʧeә(r)/
/ʤ/ - June /ʤu:n/
/∫/ - she /∫i:/
/Ʒ/ - measure /’meƷә(r)/
Palatal: the front of the tongue approximates to the hard palate.

Examples:
/j/ - yellow /’jelәƱ/
Velar: the back of the tongue approximates to the soft palate.

Examples:
/k/ - key /ki:/
/g/ - green /gri:n/
/ ŋ/ - sing /sIŋ/
Glottal: sounds articulated in the glottis

Examples:
/h/ - high /haI/

/?/ - bitten /bIt?n/

CLASSIFICATION OF ENGLISH CONSONANTS:
According to the manner in which the organs articulate them,
called by manner of articulation:

1. Plosive/Stop: completely closing the air passage and suddenly removing the obstacle (or one of the
obstacle), so that the air escapes making an explosive sound. [p, d, etc]
2. Fricative: narrowing of the air passage at some point so that the air in escaping makes a kind of hissing
sound. [f, z, etc]
3. Rolled/Trill: tapping the tongue repeatedly against a point of contact. [rolled r]
4. Flapped: a rolled consonant but consisting of a single tap only. [flapped r]
5. Lateral: an obstacle placed in the middle of the mouth, the air being free to escape at one/both sides. [l]
6. Nasal: completely closing the mouth at some point, the velum or soft-palate remaining lowered so that the
air is free to pass out through the nose. [m, n]
7. Affricate: resembling a plosive but with separation of the articulating organs performed less quickly, with
a fricative sound is perceived during the process of separation. […….]
8. Semi-vowel/Approximant: without closure in the mouth. To this extent, they are vowel-like. [j, w]
English Consonants
 In simple grammar, determining the indefinite articles (a, an) of the word

should be based on the sounds that we hear, not from the letters that we see.
Examples:
- When the word is initialized by vowel, it should be added by the article an.
umbrella /Ʌm’brelә/ => an umbrella
unit /’ju:nIt/ => a unit (* an unit)
- When the word is initialized by consonant, it should be added by the article a.
homepage /hәƱmpeIʤ/ => a homepage
hour /aƱә(r)/ => an hour (* a hour)
 In pronouncing the definite article (the) of the word also should be based on

the sounds that we hear.

Examples:
- When the word is initialized by vowel, article the should be pronounced /ði:/
the umbrella /ði: Ʌm’brelә/

the hour /ði: aƱә(r)/

- When the word is initialized by consonant, article the should be pronounced /ðә/

the unit /ðә ’ju:nIt/

the homepage /ðә hәƱmpeIʤ/