Michigan Department of Transportation

Field Manual for

Structural Welding

2nd Edition – May 2022

Cover photo courtesy of Windsor-Detroit Bridge Authority and Bridging North America.
Table of Contents......................................................................................1

Glossary.....................................................................................................6

Acknowledgement..................................................................................10

Introduction and Purpose......................................................................11

Governing Specifications.......................................................................11

Arc Welding Processes..........................................................................13

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)...........................................13
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)..................................................14
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)..................................................14
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)...................................................15
Process Selection.........................................................................16

Welded Structural Connections............................................................16

Joint Types....................................................................................17

Weld Types..............................................................................................17
Groove Welds...............................................................................17
Terminology for Groove Welds..........................................18
Complete Joint Penetration (CJP) Groove Weld................19
Partial Joint Penetration (PJP) Groove Welds...................21
PJP Effective Weld Size....................................................21
Fillet Welds...................................................................................22
Minimum Fillet Weld Size.................................................23
Maximum Fillet Weld Size................................................23
End Returns (Boxing).......................................................23
Fillet Weld Termination.....................................................24
Fillet Weld Considerations...............................................24
Plug and Slot Welds.....................................................................24
Plug and Slot Weld Considerations..................................25

Field Manual for Structural Welding 1

General Weld Considerations and Terminology..................................25
Weld Tabs.....................................................................................25
Weld Access Holes.......................................................................26
Filler Metal Strength......................................................................26
Filler Metal Considerations................................................27
Welds and Bolts in Same Connection............................................27
Filler Plates...................................................................................27
Prohibited Joint Types and Welds................................................28
Hydrogen Embrittlement...............................................................28
MDOT Requirements for Electrodes.................................29
Discontinuities...........................................................................29
Planar Discontinuities.......................................................30
Volumetric Discontinuities.................................................31
Special Considerations for Lap Joints..........................................33
Special Considerations for Butt Joints.........................................34
Special Considerations for T-Joints..............................................34
Special Considerations for Corner Joints....................................35

Weld Cracking.........................................................................................35
Types of Weld Cracking................................................................35
Shrinkage and Restraint................................................................36
Practices to Reduce Shrinkage Stresses..........................36
Practices to Reduce Restraint...........................................37
Centerline Cracking......................................................................37
Segregation-Induced Cracking.........................................37
Bead Shape-Induced Cracking.........................................38
Surface Profile-Induced Cracking.....................................38
Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ) Cracking.................................38
Transverse Cracking.....................................................................39
Limiting Transverse Cracking............................................39
Lamellar Tearing...........................................................................40

Field Manual for Structural Welding 2

Distortion.................................................................................................40
Angular Distortion.........................................................................41
Transverse Shrinkage ..................................................................41
Longitudinal Shortening................................................................42
Twisting....................................................................................42
Longitudinal Sweep or Camber....................................................42
Buckling and Warping ..................................................................43
Rotational Distortion.....................................................................43
General Distortion Control Measures ..........................................43
Specialized Distortion Control Measures......................................44
AWS Distortion and Shrinkage Requirements..............................44
Allowable Dimensional Tolerances...............................................45

Fatigue.....................................................................................................45
Special Fabrication Requirements for Fatigue Resistance............46

Galvanized Steel.....................................................................................47
Hot-Dipped Galvanized (HDG) Structural Elements.....................47

General Welding Requirements.............................................................48

Base Metal Preparation................................................................48
Assembly.................................................................................49
Fillet Welds.......................................................................49
Plug, Slot and Butt Joints.................................................49
Groove Welds...................................................................49
Peening...................................................................................50

Field Manual for Structural Welding 3

Shop Welding..........................................................................................51
Requirements for Shop Welding..................................................51
Welding Procedure Specification (WPS)......................................52
Procedure Qualification Test Record (PQR)................................54
Shop Welded Plate Girders and Rolled Beams...........................54
Shop Splices.................................................................................55
Weld Conditions...........................................................................55
Shop Weld Nondestructive Testing..............................................56
Nondestructive Testing – Groove Welds...........................56
Nondestructive Testing – Fillet Welds...............................57
Defective Welds............................................................................57

Field Welding..........................................................................................58
Requirements for Field Welding...................................................58
Field Welding Surface Requirements ...........................................58
Field Weld Nondestructive Testing................................................59
Defective Field Welds...................................................................60
Special Field Welding Cases........................................................60

Weld Positions........................................................................................61

Welder Certification and Endorsement................................................62

AWS Welder Endorsements........................................................62
AWS Welder Certification (AWS QC7-93)........................62
AWS Performance Test....................................................63
MDOT Welder Endorsements ....................................................63
MDOT Welder Certification Program (WCP)...................63
MDOT WCP Guidelines....................................................64
MDOT Welder Qualification Program (WQP)...................64

Field Manual for Structural Welding 4

Economic Welding Practices................................................................65
Considerations Based on Weld Types..........................................65
CJP Groove Welds...........................................................65
PJP versus Fillet Welds...................................................66
Mixed PJP Fillet Welds....................................................66
Other Welding Considerations.....................................................66
CJP Groove Welds...........................................................66
PJP Groove Welds...........................................................67
Flare Groove Welds.........................................................67
Fillet Welds.......................................................................67

Welding Inspection................................................................................68
Visual Testing (VT).......................................................................68
Penetrant Testing (PT).................................................................69
Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)....................................................70
Radiographic Testing (RT)............................................................70
Ultrasonic Testing (UT)................................................................71

Weld Repair.............................................................................................72

Weld Symbols.........................................................................................72

MDOT Structural Fabrication Unit Contact Information......Back Cover

Field Manual for Structural Welding 5

Glossary
arc welding – A welding process that produces a coalescence of metals
by heating them with an electric arc.
arc welding electrode – A part of the welding system that conducts
current and ends at the arc.
back gouging – The removal of weld and base metal from the other side
of a partially welded joint. The objective is to assure complete penetration
upon subsequent welding from that side.
backing – A piece of material placed at the root of a weld joint for the
purpose of supporting molten weld metal.
base metal – The metal to be welded.
bevel – An angled edge preparation.
butt joint – A joint between two members lying in the same plane.
complete fusion – Fusion over the entire fusion faces and between all
adjoining weld beads.
CJP (complete joint penetration) – A groove weld condition in which
weld metal extends through the joint thickness.
defect – A discontinuity that, by nature or accumulated effect (for example,
total crack length or amount of porosity), renders a part or product unable
to meet minimum applicable acceptance standards or specifications.
depth of fusion – The distance that fusion extends into the base metal or
previous bead from the surface melted during welding.
facing surface – The surfaces of materials in contact with each other and
joined or about to be joined together.
filler material – The material to be added in making a welded, brazed, or
soldered joint.
fillet weld – A weld of approximately triangular cross section that joins
two surfaces approximately at right angles to each other in a lap joint,
T-joint, or corner joint.
flat welding position – A welding position where the weld axis is
approximately horizontal, and the weld face lies in an approximately
horizontal plane.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 6

flux – Material used to prevent, dissolve, or facilitate removal of oxides
and other undesirable surface substances.
FCAW (flux cored arc welding) – An arc welding process that produces
coalescence of metals by means of a tubular electrode. Shielding gas
may or may not be used.
FCAW-S (self-shielded flux cored arc welding) – A flux-cored arc
welding process variation in which shielding gas is obtained exclusively
from the flux within the electrode.
fusion – The melting together of filler metal and base metal, or of base
metal only, to produce a weld.
GMAW (gas metal arc welding) – An arc welding process where the arc
is between a continuous filler metal electrode and the weld pool. Shielding
from an externally supplied gas source is required.
GTAW (gas tungsten arc welding) – An arc welding process where the
arc is between a tungsten electrode (non-consumable) and the weld pool.
The process is used with an externally supplied shielding gas.
groove weld – A weld made in a groove between two members.
HAZ (heat-affected zone) – That section of the base metal, generally
adjacent to the weld zone, whose mechanical properties or microstructure
have been altered by the heat of welding.
hot crack – A crack formed at temperatures near the completion of weld
solidification.
incomplete fusion – A weld discontinuity where fusion did not occur
between weld metal and the joint or adjoining weld beads.
incomplete joint penetration – A condition in a groove weld where weld
metal does not extend through the joint thickness.
interpass temperature – In a multi-pass weld, the temperature of the
weld area between passes.
joint – The junction of the edges of members that are to be joined or have
been joined.
lap joint – A joint type in which the non butting ends of one or more
workpieces overlap approximately parallel to one another.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 7

leg of fillet weld – The distance from the root of the joint to the toe of the
fillet weld.
MCAW (metal cored arc welding) – An arc welding process with a
tubular electrode where the hollow electrode contains alloying materials.
metal cored electrode – A composite tubular electrode consisting of a
metal sheath and a core of various powdered materials, producing no
more than slag islands on the face of the weld bead. External shielding is
required.
peening – The mechanical working of metals using impact blows.
PJP (partial joint penetration) – A groove weld condition in which weld
metal extends partially through the joint thickness.
plug weld – A circular weld made through a hole in one member of a lap
or T-joint.
porosity – A hole-like discontinuity formed by gas entrapment during
solidification.
PWHT (post weld heat treatment) – Any heat treatment subsequent to
welding.
preheating – The application of heat to the base metal immediately
before welding, brazing, soldering, thermal spraying, or cutting.
preheat temperature – The temperature of the base metal immediately
before welding is started.
PQR (procedure qualification record) – The demonstration that the use
of prescribed joining processes, materials, and techniques will result in a
joint exhibiting specified soundness and mechanical properties.
reinforcement – Weld metal, at the face or root, in excess of the metal
necessary to fill the joint.
root opening – A separation at the joint root between the work pieces.
root crack – A crack at the root of a weld.
SMAW (shielded metal arc welding) – A process that welds by heat
from an electric arc between a flux-covered metal electrode and the work.
Shielding comes from the decomposition of the electrode covering.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 8

shielding gas – Protective gas used to prevent atmospheric
contamination.
SAW (submerged arc welding) – A process that welds with the heat
produced by an electric arc between a bare metal electrode and the work.
A blanket of granular fusible flux shields the arc.
tack weld – A temporary weld used to hold parts in place while more
extensive, final welds are made.
tensile strength – The maximum stress a material subjected to a
stretching load can withstand without tearing.
weld bead – The metal deposited in the joint by the process and filler
wire used.
welding leads – The work piece lead and electrode lead of an arc
welding circuit.
weld metal – The portion of a fusion weld that has been completely
melted during welding.
weld pass – A single progression of welding along a joint. The result of a
pass is a weld bead or layer.
weld pool – The localized volume of molten metal in a weld prior to its
solidification as weld metal.
weld puddle – A nonstandard term for weld pool.
welding sequence – The order in which weld beads are deposited in a
weldment.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 9

Acknowledgement
The material presented herein was put together by Sherif El-Tawil and
Jason McCormick of the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineer-
ing at the University of Michigan (UM) under the auspices of the Michigan
Department of Transportation (MDOT)-funded UM Bridges and Structures
Research Center of Excellence. The UM Center is directed by Sherif
El-Tawil and managed by MDOT’s Steve Kahl and Michael Townley. Matt
Filcek, Peter Jansson, and Jeff Weiler, who were members of MDOT’s
Bridge Field Services team, provided content and reviewed the materi-
al for the first edition. Cole Christy, Rick Liptak, Bob Otremba, and Matt
Filcek, who are members of MDOT’s Bureau of Bridges and Structures
team, provided changes for the second edition.
Content was taken from several sources, including:
• AASHTO Design: AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications,
Customary U.S. Units, 7th Edition, with 2015 and 2016
Interim Revisions.
• AASHTO Construction: AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction
Specifications, 3rd Edition, with 2010, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2015 and
2016 Interim Revisions.
• MDOT BDM: Michigan Department of Transportation Bridge Design
Manual, 2016 Revisions.
• MDOT SSC: 2020 Michigan Department of Transportation Standard
Specifications for Construction, 2016 Revisions.
• AWS A2.4: AWS A2.4:2012, Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing,
Nondestructive Examination.
• AWS A3.0: AWS A3.0:2010, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions.
• AWS D1.1: AWS D1.1:2020, Structural Welding Code - Steel.
• AWS D1.5: AASHTO/AWS D1.5:2020, Bridge Welding Code.
Additional content was adapted from:
▪ American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) Steel Design
Guide 21: Welded Connections - A Primer for Engineers by
Duane Miller.
▪ AISC Bolting and Welding Primer, Part 1: Welded Connection
Design by Duane Miller (https://www.aisc.org/content.
aspx?id=2174).
▪ AISC Bolting and Welding Course (https://www.aisc.org/
WorkArea/showcontent.aspx?id=37216).

Field Manual for Structural Welding 10

Introduction and Purpose
The purpose of this Field Manual for Structural Welding is to summarize
basic definitions, concepts, and procedures for welded joints. The manual
addresses general considerations for welding, welder certification, and
inspection procedures. The intent of the manual is to assist engineers,
construction workers, and inspectors with designing, constructing, and
inspecting welded joints to meet current specifications, respectively.
Welding is the process of fusing multiple pieces of metal together by
heating the filler metal to a liquid state. Welds create a load path, known
as a joint, between two pieces of metal. A properly welded joint is stronger
than the base metal. Welding can be performed in the shop or in the field.
Welded joints are critical components of any structure. For many types
of structural systems, failure of a welded joint can lead to collapse or
extensive systemwide damage. Therefore, current design specifications
and construction procedures impose rigorous design, construction,
and inspection practices to ensure that such joints can perform their
function safely.

Governing Specifications
The design of highway bridges in Michigan is based on AASHTO Design.
The construction and fabrication of highway bridges is based on AASHTO
Construction. In some cases, the AASHTO Design specifications are
vague or leave a decision to the judgment of the engineer. Guidelines in
the MDOT BDM are provided as clarification and thus supplement the
AASHTO Design specifications. Some minimum requirements in the
AASHTO Design specifications have been found through experience to
be insufficient. In these instances, the MDOT BDM supersedes AASHTO
Design with more rigorous controls. Likewise, minimum requirements
in AASHTO Construction have been found through experience to be
insufficient. In these instances, the MDOT SSC and other contract
documents supersede AASHTO Construction with more rigorous controls.
The American Welding Society (AWS) prepares specifications and
documents related to welding. AWS has two documents that are relevant:
AWS D1.1 and AWS D1.5. These documents are similar, but the latter
is specifically focused on bridges and is also an AASHTO document.
Therefore, MDOT BDM supersedes AWS documents.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 11

The MDOT SSC is the standard for basic requirements governing
materials, equipment and methods used in construction contracts
administered by MDOT. MDOT BDM will primarily reference AASHTO
specifications. MDOT SSC is for construction and does not reference the
MDOT BDM. Any references within MDOT SSC usually pertain to ASTM
or AASHTO material specifications and other subsections within itself.
MDOT Special Provision for Structural Steel and Aluminum Construction
[20SP-707(A)] contains specifications required by MDOT that modify the
AWS requirements. It supersedes MDOT SSC.
Figure 1 shows some of the standards mentioned.

Figure 1: Standards used for preparation of this manual.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 12

Arc Welding Processes
Arc welding processes are based on fusion. Fusion requires closeness
and cleanliness at the atomic level, both of which can be achieved by
shielding the molten puddle with gas or slag. There are several types of
arc welding processes as follows:
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
An electric arc is produced between the end of a coated metal electrode
and the steel components to be welded (Figure 2). The electrode is a filler
metal covered with a coating. The electrode’s coating has two purposes:
1) It forms a gas shield to prevent impurities in the atmosphere from getting
into the weld, and 2) It contains a flux that purifies the molten metal.
SMAW is almost exclusively a manual arc welding process. Because of
its versatility and simplicity, it is particularly dominant in the maintenance
and repair industry. The most common quality problems associated with
SMAW include weld spatter, porosity, poor fusion, shallow penetration,
and cracking.

Figure 2: Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW).

Field Manual for Structural Welding 13

Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) is fast and economical. As shown in
Figure 3, a continuous wire is fed into the welding gun. The wire melts
and combines with the base metal to form the weld. The molten weld
metal is protected from the atmosphere by a gas shield that is fed
through a conduit to the tip of the welding gun. The process may be
semiautomatic or automatic. It cannot be used in a windy environment
because the loss of the shielding gas from air flow will produce porosity in
the weld. As such, MDOT does not allow GMAW in the field.

Figure 3: Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW).

Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) is similar to the GMAW process and
is usually performed by semi/fully automatic methods. The difference is
the filler wire has a center core that contains flux (see Figure 4). With
this process, it is possible to weld with or without a shielding gas, which
makes it useful for exposed conditions where a shielding gas may be
affected by the wind.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 14

Figure 4: Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW).

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) is usually performed by semi/fully
automatic or handheld methods. As shown in Figure 5, it uses a
continuously fed filler metal electrode. The weld pool is protected from the
surrounding atmosphere by a blanket of granular flux fed at the welding
gun. It results in a deeper weld penetration than the other processes.
However, only flat or horizontal positions may be used.

Figure 5: Submerged Arc Welding (SAW).

Field Manual for Structural Welding 15

Process Selection
Selection of the welding process is typically left to the contractor. The
characteristics of the various processes are:
• SAW: long, big, semi/fully automatic, or handheld methods.
• FCAW: semi/fully automatic methods.
• SMAW: small, miscellaneous, repair, tack welds, and
handheld methods.
• GMAW: semi/fully automatic methods in shop.
Field welding is not permitted by MDOT unless otherwise shown on
the plans or approved by the engineer. MDOT permits structural field
welding by the SMAW process using E7018 low hydrogen electrodes for
low carbon and high strength, low alloy steels provided the filler metal
matches the base metal strength.

Welded Structural Connections

A welded structural connection transmits loads between members.
Members are attached to the connection using welded joints, which
transmit loads between the members and the connection. Figure 6
shows a connection where multiple members are connected through
gusset plates.
Load
Lo

ad
ad

Lo

Gusset Plate

Gusset
Plate

Figure 6: Welded connection.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 16

Joint Types

T-joint
Figure 7. Various types of joints.

Weld Types
There are several types of welds. The most important are groove welds
and fillet welds.
Groove Welds
As shown in Figure 8, groove welds can be complete joint penetration
(CJP), also called full penetration or full pen welds, or partial joint
penetration (PJP), also called partial penetration or partial pen welds.
Each groove weld type can have many possible configurations.
Preparation is needed because the welding process typically cannot
penetrate the necessary depth of fusion. As shown in Figure 8, a variety
of preparations are possible. Sections with thickness up to 3/8 inches
can be square edge prepared using prequalified welding procedure
specification (WPS) as permitted by AWS.
In general:
• V- and bevel groove preparations are easiest.
• U- and J groove preparations are more costly because they require
machining or air arc gouging.
All preparations yield equal strength (because they have the same
effective throat).

Field Manual for Structural Welding 17

Figure 8: Types of groove welds.

Terminology for Groove Welds

Figure 9 shows commonly used terminology for groove welds.

Figure 9: Terminology used for groove welds.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 18

Complete Joint Penetration (CJP) Groove Weld
Single- versus Double-Sided
Single-sided CJP welds require backing. Without backing, WPS
qualification is needed to ensure the full throat is developed.
Double-sided CJP welds require back gouging. Without back gouging,
WPS qualification is needed to ensure the full throat is developed.
Selection is based on:
• Access.
• Distortion control.
• Economy.

Back Gouging
Back gouging is the removal of weld and base metal by arc gouging or
grinding from the other side of a partially welded joint to ensure complete
fusion and penetration upon subsequent welding from that side (Figure 10).

Figure 10: Back gouging.

Heat-Affected Zone
As shown in Figure 11, the heat-affected zone (HAZ) is the area of base
material that has not melted and has had its microstructure and properties
altered by welding.
Heat-affected zone (HAZ)

Figure 11: Heat-affected zone.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 19

Backing
Backing is defined as material placed at the root of a weld joint for the
purpose of supporting molten weld metal [Figure 12 (a)]. Its function is to
facilitate complete joint penetration. Weld backing can be steel, copper,
or ceramic.
Steel backing on welds transverse to the stress direction should be
removed and the joint ground flat. Otherwise, the weld could be prone to
cracking as shown in Figure 12 (b).
Backing has a recommended minimum thickness to prevent melt-through.
For example, it is 3/16 inches for SMAW. Table 1 shows the minimum
thicknesses for other processes.
The maximum gap between backing and base metal is 1/16 inch. If
there is a gap, it will affect weld quality, ultrasonic testing (UT) inspection
results, and could increase repair and testing costs.
Approval of the engineer is needed if non base metal backing is used.

Figure 12: Weld backing.

Table 1: Minimum thickness for steel backing.

Steel Backing Minimum Thickness

Process Minimum Nominal Thickness (inches)
SMAW 3/16
GMAW 1/4
FCAW-S 1/4
FCAW-G 3/8
SAW 3/8

Field Manual for Structural Welding 20

Partial Joint Penetration (PJP) Groove Welds
PJP groove welds may be used in butt, T- and corner joints. They also
can be used for column splices (butt joint in compression) or corner
joints of built-up box columns. The throat dimension is less than the
thickness of the material and the weld may or may not develop the full
capacity of attached material. AWS D1.5 provides prequalified details and
prohibitions for this type of weld.
PJP Effective Weld Size
Figure 13 below shows the effective weld size for PJP groove welds.

Figure 13: Effective weld size for PJP groove weld.

Weld Size
The minimum effective weld size is a function of the thickness of the
thicker connected member. It is based on weld related concerns (not
strength), specifically fusion and cracking. A minimum amount of energy
also needs to be introduced into the joint (i.e., the weld size correlates
with heat input). Table 2 shows the PJP minimum weld size with respect
to part thickness.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 21

Table 2. PJP minimum weld size from Table 707-3 of the MDOT SSC.

Thickness of Thicker Part, T Minimum Effective Weld Size, E

(inches) (inches)
T ≤ 3/4 1/4
T > 3/4 – 1 1/2 5/16
T > 1 1/2 – 2 1/4 3/8
T > 2 1/4 – 6 1/2
T>6 5/8

PJP Considerations
The cross-section of the joint is not fully fused, which can create stress risers.
Single-sided PJP: Check to ensure that no rotation occurs about the root
of the joint. Diaphragms, stiffeners, and proper joint configurations can
prevent rotation.
Double sided PJP: Requires less weld metal. Typically, more advantageous for
controlling distortion. The sealed joint also prevents ingress of water and other
corrosion causing substances in the gap between welded components.
Flare groove joints must not be used to join structural steel in bridges.

Fillet Welds
Figure 14 shows commonly used terminology for fillet welds.

Figure 14: Fillet weld terminology.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 22

Minimum Fillet Weld Size
The minimum size is a function of the thickness of the thicker connected
part. The minimum fillet weld size need not exceed the thickness of the
thinner connected part (Table 3).

Table 3. Minimum fillet weld size for single pass welds from
Table 707-2 of the MDOT SSC.

Thickness of Thicker Part, T Minimum Weld Size

(inches) (inches)
T ≤ 3/4 1/4
T > 3/4 – 1 1/2 5/16
T > 1 1/2 – 2 1/4 3/8
T > 2 1/4 – 6 1/2
T>6 5/8

Maximum Fillet Weld Size

A maximum size is imposed to avoid melting the top edge of the member
(reduced weld throat). It only applies to welds made along edges (lap
joints and some corner joints). Table 4 shows this limit.
Table 4. Maximum fillet weld size from AWS.

Thickness of Base Metal, T Max Weld Size, E

(inches) (inches)
T < 1/4 T
T > 3/4 T – 1/16

End Returns (Boxing)

Boxing is the continuation of a fillet weld around the corner of a member
(Figure 15). It ensures quality terminations to welds, provides some prying
resistance, and seals the weld.
It must be used when supporting a tensile force that is not parallel to
the axis of the weld. The return length is indicated on design and
detail drawings.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 23

Figure 15: End returns in fillet welding.

Fillet Weld Termination

It is good practice to stop fillet welds short of the ends of the joint. It
prevents undercut, improves weld quality, and creates no reduction in
weld length for start or end crater. Welds on opposite sides of a common
plane must be continuous and corners ground to eliminate notches
greater than 0.01 inch. These welds provide smooth transition to weld
metal after grinding.
Fillet Weld Considerations
Connected elements in a T joint should be brought in as close to contact
as possible before joined with fillet welds. The increase in gap leads to a
decrease in throat and is not apparent visually. If the gap is greater than
1/16 inch, increase the fillet weld size by the size of the gap and limit it to
a 3/16 inches gap for connection elements less than 3 inches thick and a
5/16 inches gap for connection elements greater than 3 inches thick.

Plug and Slot Welds

Figure 16 shows plug and slot welds. They are applied to lap joints
(center area of doubler plates). They transfer load by shear or prevent
buckling of lapped parts. These types of welds require uniform fusion to
the root of the joint. The depth of filling is the thickness of the plate if the
plate is less than 5/8 inches and half the thickness of the plate if the plate
is greater than 5/8 inches.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 24

Figure 16: Plug and slot welds.

Plug and Slot Weld Considerations

Use SMAW, GMAW, or FCAW weld processes. The minimum hole diameter
(or slot width) is at least 5/16 inches greater than the part thickness.
The maximum hole diameter (or slot width) is the greater of the minimum
diameter plus 1/8 inch or 2.25 times the part thickness.
The slot length should not exceed 10 times the part thickness and the end
of the slot must be semicircular.
Center-to-center spacing (plug welds):
• Minimum: Four times the diameter of hole.
• Maximum: Minimum spacing plus 1/2 inches.
Center-to-center spacing (slot welds):
• Transverse minimum: Four times the slot width.
• Longitudinal minimum: Two times the slot length.

General Weld Considerations and Terminology

Weld Tabs
Weld tabs (extension bars and run-off plates) ensure that welds are
started and terminated in a sound manner (Figure 17). They are auxiliary
pieces of material that extend beyond the end of the joint and are aligned
as a continuation of the basic joint geometry (parallel to weld axis).

Field Manual for Structural Welding 25

All approved base metal [including AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709)
Grade 36 structural steel, AASHTO M 270 Grade 50 high-strength
structural steel, or steel grades approved by the engineer] can be used
for weld tabs, excluding 100 ksi steel with lower strength base metal.
They should be at least as long as the thickness (throat) of the groove
weld and must be removed after completion of the weld. The end of the
welds must be smooth and flush with the edge of the abutting part after
the tabs are removed.

Weld Tab

Backing Plate

Figure 17: Weld tabs prior to welding.

(http://awssection.org/syracuse/photo_large/january_19_2011)

Weld Access Holes

Weld access holes permit access for welding or insertion of backing. They
must be large enough to permit the welder to see the weld pool and allow
the weld to be cleaned and visually inspected between weld passes.
Access holes must be properly sized with smooth surfaces (free of
notches or gouges). Improper holes can lead to fatigue cracking.

Filler Metal Strength

The filler metal may be undermatched, matched or overmatched with the
base metal.
The matching is determined as a function of tensile strength, not yield
strength. Filler metal yield strength is typically larger than base metal and
therefore encourages yielding in base metal (desirable).
When connecting different strength steels, consider lower strength base
metal. Almost all filler metals have a specified tensile strength of 70 ksi.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 26

Filler Metal Considerations
Never require overmatched filler metal.
For matched filler metal, select electrode or electrode/flux combination
from AWS D1.5.
For undermatched filler metal, under match by up to 10 ksi.

Welds and Bolts in Same Connection

Welds in combination with bolts do not share load. Welds are stiffer and
carry the load first. Therefore, design connection so welds can carry
the entire load. Bolts used for assembly may be left in place (unless
otherwise specified). The engineer will specify if holes are to be filled if
assembly bolts are to be removed.

Filler Plates
Filler plates (also known as fillers, joint fillers, or fill plates) are permitted
when splicing parts of different thicknesses and in connections that
accommodate offsets to allow for simple framing.
They should be avoided when joining tension members and members
subject to reversal of stress, specifically Fatigue Category E.
For filler plates less than 1/4-inch thick (Figure 18):
• Must not transfer stress.
• Keep flush with welded edges of stress carrying part.
• Increase required weld size along edge by the thickness of the
filler plate.
For filler plates greater than or equal to 1/4-inch thick (Figure 18):
• Extend beyond edge of splice plate or connected material.
• Weld to part on which fitted.
• Joint has enough strength to transmit load as an eccentric load.
• Welds must be sufficient to transmit stresses.
• Weld must be long enough not to overstress filler plate at the toe of
the weld.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 27

Figure 18: Filler plates.

Prohibited Joint Types and Welds

The following joint types are prohibited:
• PJP welds in butt joints, except connections or splices in
compression that are bearing and full-milled.
• CJP welds made from one side without backing (or with unqualified
backing) under tension and load reversal.
• Intermittent groove welds.
• Intermittent fillet welds not approved by the engineer.
• Flat position bevel- and J-groove welds in butt joints.
• Plug or slot welds in members subject to tension and load reversal.

Hydrogen Embrittlement
Hydrogen embrittlement is the process by which metals (such as steel)
become brittle and fracture due to the introduction and subsequent
diffusion of hydrogen into the metal. This is often a result of accidental
introduction of hydrogen during forming and finishing operations. In arc
welding, hydrogen is released from moisture, such as in the coating of
welding electrodes. To minimize this, special low-hydrogen electrodes are
used for welding.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 28

MDOT Requirements for Electrodes
• Dry electrodes in an oven at a temperature of at least 500 F for at
least two hours before use unless they come from a hermetically
sealed container.
• Store the electrodes at a temperature of at least 250 F after
drying. Use E70XX electrodes within two hours of exposure to the
atmosphere, or re-dry.
• Do not re-dry electrodes more than once. Do not use electrodes that
have been wet.
Why all these restrictions? Because welding can strip hydrogen from
water, which causes hydrogen embrittlement.
Also note that field welding is not permitted if the ambient air
temperature falls below 40 F or during periods of precipitation,
unless heating and housing the weld area as approved by the engineer
(MDOT SSC).

Discontinuities
All welds contain discontinuities and irregularities in the material due
to a lack of homogeneity in mechanical, metallurgical, or physical
characteristics. These discontinuities may or may not be acceptable,
except for cracks, which are considered defects and are not acceptable.
Figure 19 lists the types of discontinuities that can be present provided
the acceptance criteria of AWS are met.
Planar (2-D) Volumetric (3-D)
• Cracks • Undercut
(Not Acceptable – AWS D1.1.) • Porosity
• Tears • Slag Inclusions
• Incomplete Fusion • Excessive Concavity
• Inadequate Joint Penetration • Excessive Convexity
• Overlap • Inadequate Weld Size
• Fins, Scabs, Seams and Laps • Underfilled Weld Craters
• Lamination and Delamination

Figure 19. Types of weld discontinuities.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 29

Planar Discontinuities
Planar discontinuities are two dimensional imperfections that can provide
initiation points for fracture. They result from the following (see Figure 20):
1. Incomplete fusion
A. Molten weld metal does not fuse with base metal or
previous passes.
B. Can result from:
i. Excessive mill scale.
ii. Improper electrode position.
iii. Incorrect welding parameters.
2. Inadequate joint penetration:
A. Weld metal does not fully reach prescribed depth.
B. Can result from:
i. Improper back gouging.
ii. Incorrect electrode position or weld procedures.
iii. Poorly prepared joints.
3. Overlap:
A. Occurs on the surface of the base metal.
B. Excess weld metal that is not fused.
C. Can result from:
i. Thick mill scale.
ii. Slow travel speeds.
4. Fins, scabs, seams, and laps:
A. Discontinuities on surface of base metal.
B. Typically mill induced.
C. May open due to thermal cutting, preheating, or welding.
5. Lamination and delamination:
A. Base metal discontinuities parallel to surface.
B. Often occur mid-thickness.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 30

Figure 20: Types of planar discontinuities.

Volumetric Discontinuities
Volumetric discontinuities are three-dimensional imperfections in and
around the weld. They result from the following (see Figure 21):
1. Undercut:
A. Small cavity melted into the base metal.
B. Can result from:
i. Improper electrode position.
ii. High arc voltage.
iii. Incorrect welding consumables.
2. Porosity:
A. Spherical or cylindrical cavities in the weld metal.
B. Due to gasses dissolved in the liquid weld metal.
C. Can result from:
i. Inadequate shielding.
ii. Excessive contamination of joint.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 31

3. Slag inclusion:
A. Non-metallic materials.
B. Within weld metal or between base metal and weld metal.
C. Can result from:
i. Slag from previous weld pass not being
removed completely.
4. Excessive concavity:
A. Weld surface is concave.
B. Reduced throat.
C. Can result from:
i. Low currents or voltages.
ii. Improper weld procedures.
5. Excessive convexity:
A. Weld surface exceeds acceptable limits.
B. Typically associated with weld procedure problems.
6. Inadequate weld size:
A. Weld too short or small.
B. Also known as an undersized weld.
C. Can result from:
i. Procedural problems.
ii. Too high travel speed.
7. Underfilled weld crater:
A. Concave depressions at the end of weld.
B. Localized reduction in weld throat.
C. Typically associated with welder technique.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 32

Figure 21: Types of volumetric discontinuities.

Special Considerations for Lap Joints

Avoid Fatigue Category E in members subject to tension and stress reversal.
Longitudinal fillet welds can only be used. The length must be at least the
perpendicular distance between the welds, and transverse spacing must
not exceed 16 times the thickness of the thinner connected part. The welds
can be applied either at the edge of the members or in slots.
The minimum overlap of parts must be at least five times the thickness of
the thinner connected part. At least two transverse lines or two or more
longitudinal welds must be used to prevent unacceptable rotation.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 33

Special Considerations for Butt Joints
Special requirements are needed for transition of different plate widths
or thicknesses.
1. If subjected to tension or compression (unequal thickness):
A. Smooth transition between offset surfaces.
B. Slope of no more than one transverse to two-and-a-half
longitudinal with the surface of either part:
i. Slope weld surfaces.
ii. Chamfer thicker part.
iii. Combination of both.
2. If subjected to shear (unequal thickness):
A. Same as tension or compression requirement when offset is
greater than the thickness of the thinner part.
B. Offset less than or equal to the thickness of the thinner part:
i. Sloped no more than one transverse to two-and-a-half
longitudinal from surface of thinner part.
ii. Or sloped to the surface of thicker part if less of a slope.
3. If subjected to tension (unequal width):
A. Smooth transition between offset surfaces.
B. Slope of no more than one transverse to two-and-a-half
longitudinal with the surface of either part.
C. Or transitioned with 24 inches minimum radius tangent to the
narrower part at the center of the butt joint.

Special Considerations for T-Joints

Special consideration needed for joints where T joint does not intersect at
90 degrees.
For the acute side of the joint (Figure 22) where there is a small
dihedral angle, there is a possibility for incomplete fusion to the weld
root (reduced throat).

Field Manual for Structural Welding 34

For the obtuse side of the joint (Figure 22) where there is a large dihedral
angle, the fillet weld throat is disproportionately small compared to the
weld size.

Figure 22: Special considerations for T-joint.

Special Considerations for Corner Joints

Access for welding corners of box sections must be considered. This
may eliminate two sided welds. The environmental conditions for the
welder must also be considered. Laminar tearing requirements must be
considered when welds are large.

Weld Cracking
Types of Weld Cracking
Hot cracking occurs when the weld is hot. It is associated with
solidification. It is usually manifested as centerline cracking (Figure 23).
Cold cracking occurs when the weld has cooled. It is typically hydrogen-
related. Cold cracking usually occurs in the heat affected zone or is
transverse (Figure 23).
All cracks are driven by shrinkage and restraint of this shrinkage.

Figure 23: Types of weld cracking.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 35

Shrinkage and Restraint
Weld metal and surrounding base metal expand during welding due
to heating. These hot materials contract upon cooling. If materials are
restrained from shrinking, then stresses will develop.
Colder base material resists contraction of the cooling hotter material.
Resistance depends on the volume and strength of the colder material.
Stiffness of the colder material is associated with its geometric
configuration. Temperature also affects the elastic modulus of the
material, which directly affects the stiffness.
Base metal thickness greater than 1.5 inches with yield strengths greater
than 50 ksi lead to higher shrinkage stresses.
Members intersecting from all three geometric directions lead to
higher constraint.
Practices to Reduce Shrinkage Stresses
1. Minimize weld material needed:
A. Specify smallest weld possible.
B. Use weld details that require least amount of weld metal.
C. Control fit-up and minimize gaps.
D. Do not over weld.
E. Limit weld reinforcement.
F. Limit back gouging to only what is necessary.
2. Weld in fewest number of passes (larger weld beads).
3. Use lowest strength filler metal possible.
4. Limit weld penetration.
5. Complete highly restrained weldments without interruption:
A. Around-the-clock welding.
B. Or maintain assembly at welding temperatures.
6. Only weld assembly once (requires proper planning).

Field Manual for Structural Welding 36

Practices to Reduce Restraint
1. Fabricate small assemblies when possible.
2. Weld components with expected greatest shrinkage first.
3. Weld most rigid components first.
4. Sequence welding so shrinkage movement in parts is all toward
a relatively fixed location.
5. Balance shrinkage on opposite sides.
6. Provide small gaps to help accommodate shrinkage.
7. Increase preheat and volume of preheated materials.
8. Preset members before welding and allow to move
during welding.

Centerline Cracking
Segregation-Induced Cracking
Occurs when low-melting point constituents separate during weld
solidification (Figure 24). The enriched liquid material at the middle of
the weld solidifies last. This is of concern when steel has higher levels of
sulfur, phosphorus, lead, or copper. To reduce the chance for this type of
cracking, limit amount of contaminant pickup by:
• Controlling base metal composition.
• Limiting weld penetration (lower weld currents or change polarity).
• Providing buttering layer.

Figure 24: Centerline cracking.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 37

Bead Shape-Induced Cracking
Bead shape-induced cracking is associated with deep penetrating weld
processes such as SAW and Gas Shielded FCAW. It occurs when
the depth of the weld bead is greater than the width. Therefore, it is
recommended the width-to-depth ratio of the bead be between 1:1 and
1.4:1. Joint design is important to prevent this type of cracking and the
following must be observed:
• AWS prequalified joints have proper root openings and
included angles.
• For PJP welds made by SAW, 60 degree included angles
are preferred.
• Fillet welds typically not a problem unless they have a skewed joint.

Surface Profile-Induced Cracking

Surface profile-induced cracking is associated with the surface profile of
the weld bead (Figure 25). Convex profile induces compression internal
shrinkage forces, while concave induces tension internal shrinkage
forces. Concave weld surfaces occur with high arc voltages and vertical
down welding. Avoid a concave surface profile with a slight decrease in
arc voltage. Use vertical up welding instead of vertical down and change
shielding gas for GMAW and FCAW-G.

Figure 25: Weld surface profile.

Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ) Cracking

Heat-affected zone cracking is cracking in the base metal adjacent to the
weld bead. It cannot form when the steel is hot (above 300 F). It typically
occurs 16 to 72 hours after cooling. Hydrogen diffuses in the steel during
this period and excessive quantities of hydrogen can accumulate leading
to cracking. See Hydrogen Embrittlement section for additional details.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 38

To reduce the chance for this type of cracking, do not introduce hydrogen-
bearing compounds. Ensure the following:
• Dry electrodes in an oven at a temperature of at least 500 F for at
least two hours before use.
• Store the electrodes at a temperature of at least 250 F after drying.
Use electrodes within two hours (or less as required per the project
specifications) of exposure to the atmosphere or redry.
• Do not redry electrodes more than once. Do not use electrodes that
have been wet.
• Heat weld area to between 400 and 450 F for an hour for
each inch of weld thickness (post-heat); must not have reached
room temperature.
• Use approved base metal (AASHTO M 270 Gr. 36; AASHTO M 270
Gr. 50; other steels approved by the engineer).
• Follow proper preheat and interpass temperature guidelines.
• Reduce residual stresses.

Transverse Cracking
The controlling factors are the same as HAZ cracking:
• Excessive hydrogen, where multi-pass welds inhibit hydrogen
release. In this case, thinner weld beads may help hydrogen
diffuse faster.
• Susceptible microstructure. In overmatched welds, the weld metal
becomes the susceptible material.
• Stress due to longitudinal shrinkage of the weld.
Limiting Transverse Cracking
1. Use undermatched welds:
A. Ensure weld strength is adequate for anticipated loads.
B. Alloy pick-up may cause higher weld metal strength even for
lower-strength electrodes.
C. Often used for PJP groove welds and fillet welds.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 39

2. Increase preheat:
A. Assists in diffusing hydrogen.
B. Weld metal and joint also can contract simultaneously.
3. Post-heat treatment.
Lamellar Tearing
Lamellar tearing is caused by weld shrinkage strains perpendicular to the
planes of the base metal outside the HAZ (Figure 26). It is associated
with flattened discontinuities and inclusions in the base metal. It typically
occurs well after the weld has solidified and cooled. Steels with lower
sulfur levels and proper joint design can limit lamellar tearing. Figure 26
shows a weld detail that reduces the chance for this type of cracking.

Figure 26. Lamellar tearing (orange arrows represent stress direction).

Distortion
Distortion is geometric deviation in the steel after welding (Figure 27). It
causes problems for assembly, a reduction in buckling strength, and does
not look good.
Distortion is caused by a number of factors:
1. Non-uniform heating:
A. Inherent in the arc welding process.
B. Localized heating of the steel.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 40

2. Have same constrained expansion and contraction that
causes cracking:
A. Rigid surrounding material leads to cracking.
B. Flexible surrounding material leads to distortion.
C. More flexible systems are susceptible to distortion.
3. Distortion can be controlled by using more rigid parts. However, control
measures do increase the tendency for cracking:
A. Thicker members.
B. External restraints.

Figure 27: Distortion in welded components.

Angular Distortion
Angular distortion (Figure 28) occurs due to transverse shrinkage of the weld.
It can be caused by any type of weld and can occur in any type of joint. Its
effects can be offset with two sided welding (may require uneven welds).

Figure 28: Angular distortion.

Transverse Shrinkage
Transverse shrinkage occurs due to transverse shrinkage of the weld
(Figure 29). Its effects are directly related to volume of shrinking weld
metal, and it occurs when the ends are free to move. This type of
distortion is typically negligible.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 41

Figure 29: Transverse shrinkage.

Longitudinal Shortening
Longitudinal shortening occurs due to longitudinal shrinkage of the weld
(Figure 30). The assembly generally shortens. It may also result in twisting,
longitudinal sweep or camber, or buckling and warping. It is typically
negligible, except with very long members such as long plate girders. In
such cases, fabricate the girder longer than needed and cut to length.

Figure 30: Longitudinal shrinkage.

Twisting
Twisting occurs due to longitudinal shrinkage of the weld. It results when
the weld region shrinks but the outside steel does not. It is often seen
with open sections with little torsional rigidity and may occur in deep plate
girders with thin webs. It can be countered by increasing the torsional
rigidity of the member (i.e., use closed sections).

Longitudinal Sweep or Camber

Longitudinal sweep or camber occur due to longitudinal shrinkage of the
weld. Curvature occurs over the length of the part along the longitudinal
axis. The center of gravity of the weld group in relationship with the
neutral axis of the section dictates the direction of curvature.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 42

Buckling and Warping
Buckling and warping occur due to longitudinal shrinkage of the weld
when the base metal surrounding the weld is thin. Buckling can occur in
the web of plate girders between stiffeners, while warping is common if
there is a free edge.
These issues are often seen in open sections with little torsional rigidity.
Their extent depends on the critical buckling stress of the section and can
be countered by increasing the thickness and/or decreasing the length of
the welded components.

Rotational Distortion
Rotational distortion occurs due to the transverse shrinkage of the weld
(Figure 31). It is prominent in thin members (sheet metal) and members
that are narrow compared to their length. The joint either opens or closes
depending on the speed of welding and heat input. Its effects can be
mitigated by clamping or back stepping.

Figure 31: Rotational distortion.

General Distortion Control Measures

Many of the following measures also lead to economical joints and
maximize productivity.
1. Minimize the volume of localized metal that expands during welding:
A. Minimize volume of weld metal.
B. Minimize volume of heated base metal around the weld.
C. Increase volume of base metal heated away from the weld.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 43

2. Reduction measures:
A. Specify smallest weld size possible.
B. Use intermittent welds.
C. Select details that minimize weld material.
D. Make multi-pass welds with the fewest possible passes.
E. Control fit-up.
F. Limit weld reinforcement.
G. Do not over weld.
H. Limit back gouging to only required material.
I. Limit weld penetration.

Specialized Distortion Control Measures

1. Add restraint:
A. Keep part from moving when hot:
i. Tack welds.
ii. Welding fixtures.
B. Will always have some elastic spring back.
2. Weld placement:
A. Place welds on or near the neutral axis.
B. Balance welds around the neutral axis.
3. Welding sequence:
A. Minimize longitudinal weld sweep and camber with a properly
planned weld pattern.
B. Use subassemblies to weld closer to the neutral axis of
each assembly.

AWS Distortion and Shrinkage Requirements

1. Balance applied heating as welding progresses.
2. Welding sequence and distortion control program must be submitted to
the engineer prior to the start of welding.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 44

3. Progress from points that are relatively fixed toward those that have
greater freedom for movement.
4. Weld joints with greater expected shrinkage first with as little restraint
as possible.
5. All shop splices in each component part of a cover plated beam or built
up member must be made prior to the component part being welded to
other component parts.
6. For cases of severe external shrinkage restraint, welding must be
carried out continuously.
7. Distorted members must be straightened through:
A. Mechanical means, or
B. Through application of a limited amount of localized heat.

Allowable Dimensional Tolerances

Dimensions of welded structural members must comply with the
tolerances set by the general specification governing the work.
AWS D1.5, Clause 5.5 provides special dimensional tolerances that must
also be met in the presence of distortion.

Fatigue
Fatigue is cumulative damage caused by repeatedly applied cyclic loads.
Fatigue is influenced by the following:
1. Stress range:
A. Fatigue design is based on live load stress range.
B. Difference between the minimum and maximum live load stress
applied cyclically over time.
C. Reduce loads or increase material available to resist loads.
2. Number of load cycles:
A. Live load cycles between maximum and minimum stress.
B. Typically, not addressed by the engineer.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 45

3. Connection geometry:
A. Dictates the nature and extent of stress raisers.
B. Consider:
i. Type of weld.
ii. Weld orientation.
iii. Weld profile.
iv. Length of weld.
v. Weld reinforcement.
vi. Quality of weld.
C. All welded connections fall into a “Detail Category”:
i. Potential crack initiation point.
ii. Threshold fatigue stress range for infinite design life.
iii. From best to worst: A, B, B′, C, C′, D, E, E′.

Special Fabrication Requirements for Fatigue Resistance

Steel backing must be removed from the joint and the weld ground smooth.
Reinforcing or contouring fillet welds are required on top of PJP or CJP
groove welds in T joint and corner joints:
• Minimum size greater than or equal to T1/4.
• T1 is the thickness of the member in which the groove weld is
placed (need not exceed 3/8 inches).
• Minimum fillet weld size is 3/16 inches.
Weld tabs must be removed after completion of welding and cooling.
Tack welds and temporary welds:
• Subject to same quality requirements as final welds.
• If incorporated into final weld, then use electrode that meets final
weld requirements.
• Tack welds not included in final weld must be removed in an
appropriate manner.
• MDOT must approve tack welds that are not consumed by the
root pass.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 46

Miscellaneous attachments can cause unintended load paths.
Use notch tough weld metal (allows larger crack sizes prior to fracture).

Galvanized Steel
Galvanized steel pertains to electroplated sheet metal or hot dipped
structural elements (Figure 32). Electroplated sheets typically do not pose
a problem for welding, but proper ventilation is required.

Figure 32: Galvanized steel components.

Hot-Dipped Galvanized (HDG) Structural Elements

HDG structural elements have the potential for segregation cracking
because zinc may enter the liquid metal. It may be difficult to detect these
cracks. Factors affecting cracking of galvanized members include:
• Silicon content of weld metal.
• Degree of penetration of the weld beyond the root.
• Thickness of the base metal (affects restraint).
• Coating weight of zinc (coating thickness).
• Microstructure of zinc coating.
For fillet welds, the procedure qualification record (PQR) tests should be
conducted considering the thickest zinc coating expected.
Groove welds are typically not a problem because of profiling of the joint
(coating free).
All HDG must be removed since it is considered a contamination. Welding
generally takes place prior to HDG. If not, it is recommended to remove
the HDG coating at least 2 to 3 inches in all directions of the weld. Copper
sulfate should be used to verify all zinc has been removed.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 47

General Welding Requirements
MDOT requires welding to be conducted at an ambient temperature of
40 F and above. The size and length of welds must be no less than those
specified. The location of welds and weld type must not be changed
without approval of the engineer.

Base Metal Preparation

Base metal preparation ensures proper weld quality (no cracking or
distortion) and minimizes objectionable fumes.
Surfaces and edges to be welded must be:
• Smooth.
• Uniform.
• Free from fins, tears, cracks, mill scale, pitting, irregularities, and
other discontinuities.
Weld surfaces and adjacent surfaces must be free from loose or thick mill
scale, slag, rust, moisture, grease, and other foreign materials. All edges
must be conditioned by very shallow grinding to remove the hardened
layer (martensite) left by re-solidification.
Edges of base metal must be inspected and repaired as early as feasible.
MDOT requires all weld repairs to be submitted in writing to the engineer
and be approved prior to repairs taking place.
Re entrant corners of base metal cut edges must provide a smooth
transition with a radius of not less than 1 inch unless the contract plans
specify a larger radius due to fatigue.
Radii of beam copes and weld access holes also must provide a smooth
transition between adjacent surfaces.
Joint and edge preparation can be done by:
• Machining.
• Thermal cutting.
• Air carbon arc cutting and gouging.
• Plasma arc gouging.
• Chipping and grinding.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 48

Assembly
Fillet Welds
The assembly process is as follows:
1. Bring parts to be welded into as close contact as possible.
2. The maximum root opening is 3/16 inches (except for members 3
inches thick or greater).
3. If 3 inches thick or greater and cannot close root opening:
A. The maximum root opening is 5/16 inches.
B. Employ suitable backing.
4. Root openings greater than 1/16 inch require an increase in the leg
of the fillet weld by the amount of the root opening (or demonstrate
appropriate weld size).

Plug, Slot and Butt Joints

Faying surface separation must not exceed 1/16 inch.

Groove Welds
The assembly process is as follows:
1. Maintain zero (or as small as practical) root opening for PJP welds
parallel to the member length (except for bearing joints). Otherwise, PJP
welds have same requirements as fillet welds.
2. Carefully align parts joined by groove welds:
A. Offset from theoretical alignment must not exceed 10 percent of
the thickness of the thinner part joined.
B. Maximum of 1/8 inch.
3. Correction of misalignment must not cause a slope greater than 1/2
inch over 12 inches measured at the part centerline.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 49

The allowable groove weld root openings are shown in Table 5.
Table 5: Allowable groove weld root openings.

Root Not Gouged Root Gouged

Location
(inches) (inches)

Root Face of Joint ±1/16 No Limit

Root Opening of Joints +1/16

±1/16
Without Steel Backing -1/8
Root Opening of Joints +1/4
Not Applicable
With Steel Backing -1/16
+10° +10°
Groove Angle of Joint
-5° -5°

Peening
Peening improves the material properties of the metal’s surface by
inducing compressive stresses or relieving tensile stresses.
It must be approved by the engineer.
It is applied by mechanically striking the convex surface of intermediate
weld beads using a specialized instrument, known as a ball peen hammer
(see Figure 33).
The root and final passes should not be peened. However, the final
passes can be peened with excess weld metal with approval by the
engineer and peening marks must be removed by grinding.
Peening must be conducted when the weld is at 150 to 500 F. MDOT
does not permit peening.

Figure 33: Ball-peen hammer.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 50

Shop Welding
Highway structures are shop welded according to AWS D1.1, whereas
bridges are shop welded according to AWS D1.5. Figure 34 shows a
structure being prepared for shop welding. Shop welded main
members include:
• Rolled beams.
• Cover plates.
• Flange and web plates.
• Link bars.
• End diaphragms.
• End diaphragm connection plates and stiffeners.
• Intermediate cross frames, connection plates and stiffeners
(horizontally curved girders only).
For fabrication, design drawings are not to be used in lieu of
shop drawings.

Figure 34: Structure being prepared for shop welding.

Requirements for Shop Welding

Qualification requirements:
• AWS welder, welding operator and tack welder qualification.
• MDOT Welder Qualification Program (WQP).
• Welding equipment.
• WPS.
• WPS qualification.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 51

Welder must qualify for the welding process, welding position, material
grade, and material thickness. Note that some positions, grades, and
thicknesses qualify others.
MDOT WQP testing will be made under supervision of an
MDOT representative.

Welding Procedure Specification (WPS)

A WPS is a document that describes weld procedures and is supported
by a PQR. It provides direction to the welder or weld operator to ensure
soundness and quality of the weld. It ensures repeatable and trusted
welding techniques. It must be qualified unless using a prequalified
weld detail (AWS D1.5, Clause 4). Essential variable changes or owner
toughness requirements may result in a prequalified WPS requiring
qualification testing.
A WPS shows that a weld prepared under the specified variables will
have adequate properties and quality. It proves that standards regarding
mechanical properties (strength, ductility, and toughness) can be met and
ensures soundness.
The WPS qualification test uses a standard groove weld test (Figure 35)
to determine mechanical properties and soundness of the weld through
nondestructive and destructive testing.
MDOT requires all WPS to be qualified, except SMAW. MDOT
recognizes prequalified WPS for AWS D1.1 welding. All WPS to be
approved by MDOT’s Structural Fabrication Unit.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 52

Figure 35: WPS qualification test plate.

Welding variables considered during WPS qualification are:

• Welding process.
• Base material.
• Welding consumables.
• Welding parameters and techniques:
- Position.
- Polarity.
- Preheat.
- Interpass temperature.
- Back gouging.
- Post-weld heat treatment.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 53

Tests conducted during WPS qualification include:
• Mechanical:
- Reduced section tension tests.
- All weld metal tension tests.
- Side bend tests.
• Soundness:
- Radiographic testing (RT) for welds to fracture critical
members (FCM).
- Macroetch tests.
• Toughness:
- Charpy V-notch tests.
MDOT does recognize AWS D1.1 and AWS D1.5 prequalified joints and
procedures. Essential variable changes or owner toughness requirements
may result in a prequalified WPS requiring qualification testing.

Procedure Qualification Test Record (PQR)

A production WPS’s qualification is based on a PQR that is produced
by the contractor in conformance with AWS D1.1 or AWS D1.5, based
on the project specifications. MDOT reviews the PQR as supporting
documentation during WPS approval but does not approve the PQR.

Shop Welded Plate Girders and Rolled Beams

MDOT requires SAW for:
• Flange to web groove welds using one of the following weld positions:
- Flat (1F).
- Flat (1G).
• Cover plate to beam flange welds using one of the following
weld positions:
- Flat (1F).
- Horizontal (2F).
- Stiffeners and connection plates to web.
- Flange-to-web connection in box girders.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 54

Use SMAW for stiffener and connection plates to rolled beams and
girders when automatic or hand held SAW cannot be used. Employ
E7018 electrodes unless a higher tensile strength is required to match the
base metal (i.e., AASHTO M270 Gr HPS70W).
Note that MDOT does not allow electroslag or electrogas welding.
For fillet welds:
• Size by thicker of two joining parts
(unless larger is required based on calculated stress).
• Not required to exceed thickness of thinner part.
• Preheat if smaller than minimum required.
• Minimum for beam flange is 5/16 inches.

Shop Splices
As shown in Figure 36, separate girder flange plate and web plate
butt welds by at least 1 foot. Separate stiffener and connection plate
attachment welds by at least 1 foot.

Figure 36: Restrictions on shop splices.

Weld Conditions
Remove paint, mill scale, grease, and other materials from welded edges
and surfaces. For flange welds, grind flush on aligned side and merge
smoothly on transition sides. Maintain areas (base metal) requiring
automatic or semiautomatic welding at a temperature of at least 40 F for
at least one hour prior to beginning work unless WPS requires a higher
preheat temperature.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 55

Shop Weld Nondestructive Testing for Bridges
Nondestructive testing (NDT) is required for all shop welds and is
performed by the contractor. Identification marks should be made with
paint on butt welds. Testing must be performed by an NDT technician
qualified as American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) Level II
on Recommended Practice No. SNT TC 1A.
Nondestructive Testing – Groove Welds
• Visual test 100 percent of groove welds.
• PT in accordance with ASTM E 165:
• Inspect both ends of groove welds for surface defects.
• Required because UT and RT are difficult at edges of a plate.
Use RT in accordance with AWS D1.5, Clause 8 Part B:
- Single-source X ray or gamma ray.
- Use hole type or wire image quality indicators to
judge sensitivity.
- Double shoot film for quality control and quality
assurance records.
- For thickness transitions, place radiographic film on both
sides of the joint, position the pack, and use tapered
edge blocks.
- Move film to planar side if substandard results when on
transition side.
• For CJP groove welds at corner and T joints where RT is
not possible:
- Perform UT and agree on acceptance criteria.
- Use glycerine as the coupling agent.
• UT all plug and slot welds.
• Test CJP groove welds of main members according to
the following:
- 100 percent of flexural member flange butt joint.
- 100 percent of splices subject to tension or stress reversal.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 56

- Web splices: 1/3 the length of all web splices beginning
at the point of maximum tension, but not less than
12 inches. In addition, test 25 percent of the remainder of
the web depth beginning at the point of maximum
compression, but not less than 12 inches.
- 25 percent of each axial member subject to compression.
- 25 percent of each joint subjected to shear such as web
to flange joints in flexural members.
- If unacceptable discontinuities are found in any of the
above partial examinations, test the remainder of the weld
and test 100 percent of similar welds.
Nondestructive Testing – Fillet Welds
Magnetic particle testing (MT) is required for fillet welds in accordance
with AWS D1.5 except as modified herein. Perform MT in accordance with
ASTM E709 with dry powder using the yoke method.
Test the entire length of the stiffener or connection plate to tension flange
of main members. Test at least 12 inches in every 10 feet of each fillet
weld for the joints specified in section 707 of the MDOT SCC and project
special provision.
MDOT does not require the following members to be MT inspected:
• Diaphragm assemblies.
• Sway bracing.
If a defect is detected, then increase frequency to the least of either the
full weld length or 5 feet on each side of the defect.

Defective Welds
Replace all welds that are rejected by any test method. Provide repair
procedure for engineer’s approval and repair weld in accordance with
AWS D1.5, Clause 5.7.
Retest at least 3 inches to either side of the repair. If second repair
attempt fails, then remove and replace entire weld.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 57

Field Welding
Avoid field welding unless specified on plans or approved by the engineer.
Perform it in accordance with AWS D1.1 or AWS D1.5 based on project
specifications and use SMAW (E7018 Electrode). The engineer may
approve SAW or FCAW. Do not use GMAW or other gas
shielded processes.

Requirements for Field Welding

Qualification requirements (similar to shop welding requirements):
• AWS welder, welding operator, and tack welder qualification.
• MDOT WQP or MDOT Welder Certification Program (WCP) based on
what is being welded.
• Welding equipment.
• WPS.
Welder must qualify for welding process, welding position, material grade,
and material thickness. Note that some positions, grades, and thicknesses
qualify others.
MDOT WQP testing will be made under supervision of an MDOT representative.

Field Welding Surface Requirements

• Blast clean or grind contact surfaces prior to welding:
- Remove loose mill scale, paint, galvanizing, grease, oil,
rust, moisture, or other materials.
- Grind joints to remove pitting and irregularities.
• Bring parts into close contact:
- Separation greater than 1/16 inch requires an increase
in the fillet weld leg equal to the separation distance.
- Do not exceed a separation distance of 3/16 inches.
• For heavy sections, 3 inches or greater:
- Separation distance increases to 5/16 inches.
- Unless “tight fit” or “mill to bear” are called out.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 58

• Consider environmental conditions:
- Temperature must be above 40 F.
- No precipitation (rain, snow, or heavy fog).
• Electrodes:
- Dry in oven for two hours before use at 500 F or greater.
- Store at 250 F after drying.
- Use within two hours of exposure to atmosphere or redry.
- Do not redry more than once.
- Discard if wet.
• Preheat (see Table 6):
- 3 inches in every direction from weld.
- Temperature based on base metal thickness.
• Weld Transitions:
- Grind stop start areas.
- Grind irregularities

Table 6. Base metal preheat temperatures.

Base Metal Thickness (inches) Minimum Preheat Tempature (F)

T ≤ 1 1/2 250
1 1/2 < T ≤ 2 1/2 300
T > 2 1/2 400

Field Weld Nondestructive Testing

Field weld nondestructive testing is required by MDOT in addition to
visual testing (VT). MDOT requires 100 percent NDT for fielding welding
due to the difficult nature of field welding, whereas shop welding generally
requires a reduced frequency. This is due to the shop being certified
by the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), having a robust
quality control program, favorable environmental conditions, and required
to weld in favorable positions.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 59

The required personnel are (certification must be provided):
• NDT Level II qualified per ASNT SNT TC 1A for penetrant
testing (PT), magnetic particle testing (MT), ultrasonic testing
(UT), and radiographic testing (RT).
• AWS Certified Weld Inspector (CWI) for VT.
Blast clean or grind all weld prior to NDT. The test must meet
requirements of the project specifications. Below are typical NDT
requirements for field welding:
• MT: fillet and PJP groove welds.
• UT: CJP groove welds, plug welds, and slot welds. Note base
metal and weld repairs to make the section “whole again” are
considered CJP groove welds.
• PT: ends of CJP and PJP groove welds.

Defective Field Welds

Replace all welds that are rejected by any test method and repair
in accordance with AWS D1.1 or AWS D1.5, based on the project
specifications. Inspect and retest welds prior to engineer’s acceptance.

Special Field Welding Cases

• Welding for supports and accessories:
- May be approved by engineer if no other alternative.
- Plans must be submitted to engineer.
- Only weld to compression areas of beams.
• Welding shear studs:
- Do not weld if temperature is below 32 F.
- Remove rust, mill scale, paint, and galvanizing from base metal.
- Clean stud end.
- Do not preheat top flange.
- Use automatically timed stud welding equipment.
- Test stud welding in accordance with AWS D1.5, Clause 9.
- Add a 5/16 inch fillet weld if stud does not have a full 360
degree fillet weld.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 60

Weld Positions
Welders must be qualified for different welding positions and must follow
the MDOT approved WPS. Weld positions are:
• 1G or 1F – Flat Groove or Fillet Weld.
• 2G or 2F – Horizontal Groove or Fillet Weld.
• 3G or 3F – Vertical Groove or Fillet Weld.
• 4G or 4F – Overhead Groove or Fillet Weld.
Figures 37 and 38 show the positions of the test plates for groove and
fillet welding, respectively. Tabulation of weld positions can be found in
AWS D1.5.

Figure 37. Positions of test plates for groove welds.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 61

Figure 38. Positions of test plates for fillet welds.

Welder Certification and Endorsement

AWS Welder Endorsements
AWS Welder Certification (AWS QC7-93)
An accredited test facility must be used to test the welder in accordance
with AWS for certification purposes. The applicant selects the
performance tests needed for qualification. Note that:
• AWS QC7 93 Supplement G provides a list of performance
requirements for each test.
• The applicant must provide an employer supplied WPS or use
AWS standard procedure.
• The applicant’s test assemblies must pass the exam.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 62

If one or more weld fails, then rules for retesting must be followed. The
period of effectiveness is considered indefinite, unless: 1) the welder was
not involved in welding activities for six months or with that set procedure,
or 2) there is a reason to question welder’s ability.
AWS Performance Test
The test follows the WPS or the AWS standard procedure and is
associated with a particular weld type and position. The test assemblies
must be in accordance with the WPS. Acceptance standards include:
• VT inspection.
- Fillet weld macroetch test (as applicable).
• Mechanical testing.
- Bend test (as applicable, can be replaced with RT).
- Fillet weld break test (as applicable).
• RT inspection.
MDOT Welder Endorsements
MDOT Welder Certification Program (WCP)
MDOT allows private testing agencies to perform MDOT welder
certification testing. Contractors select from a list of authorized testing
agencies located throughout the state and pay for the testing. The test
plates may be welded under the authorized testing agency’s observation.
Welder certification allows a welder to perform AWS D1.1 welding on non
main members, except an MDOT certified welder may weld contractor
add ons to main members in compression zones only. An MDOT certified
welder is not permitted to weld on highway structures in accordance with
AWS D1.1 nor perform AWS D1.5 welding. See MDOT’s WCP for
more information.
MDOT requirements are:
• Meet authorized testing agency responsibilities.
• Ensure certified welder guidelines are followed.
• Follow testing agency evaluation process.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 63

MDOT WCP Guidelines
• Field welding allowed by welders endorsed through MDOT’s
WCP includes:
- Pile welding (except main members).
- Cofferdams and steel sheet piling.
- Temporary supports (except main members).
- False work.
• MDOT welding restrictions include:
- Welders must always have certifications available
when welding.
- Certification good for specific rods and positions.
- No welding below 0 F (heating and housing can be
approved by the engineer).
- No welding with precipitation or wet low hydrogen rods.
- Preheat base metal 3 inches in each direction from weld
when ambient temperature is between 0 and 32 F.
- Welder is responsible for storage of electrodes.

MDOT Welder Qualification Program (WQP)

MDOT uses select third party laboratories to perform MDOT welder
qualification testing and pays for the initial weld test. The contractor is
responsible for the cost of additional testing if the welder fails the initial
weld test or if the welder’s qualification is revoked by MDOT prior to
expiration of the original test.
A welder endorsed through MDOT’s WQP can perform field or shop
welding as follows:
• Bridge welding to AWS D1.5.
• Highway structure welding to AWS D1.1.
• Main member pile welding to AWS D1.5.
• Miscellaneous structures required by contract documents to use
an MDOT qualified welder.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 64

Welders that hold a MDOT WQP endorsement also have MDOT WCP
privileges. Qualification testing must be done in accordance with AWS
D1.5 and MDOT Special Provision 20SP-707 (A), Structural Steel and
Aluminum Construction.
The qualification period is for two years for field welding and three years
for shop welding unless:
• The welder was not engaged with welding for three months.
• There is reason to question welder’s ability.
Program guidelines include:
• Similar to MDOT WCP guidelines.
• Qualify for field and shop welding separately.
• Must complete a field welding plan.
• Do not weld below 40 F (heating and housing can be approved
by engineer).
• Preheat surface in accordance with section 707 of the MDOT
SSC for AWS D1.5 and AWS D1.1 welding.

Economic Welding Practices

The majority of welding costs are associated with labor. A reduction in
weld metal volume typically leads to more economic welds. Quality welds
that are free of defects avoid the need for repairs that cost time and
money (i.e., weld once).

Considerations Based on Weld Types

CJP Groove Welds
This is the most expensive type of weld, so reserve it for when it is
the only viable option. It is generally advantageous with electroslag
or electrogas welding; however, MDOT does not permit these
welding processes.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 65

PJP Versus Fillet Welds
Can be used in T joints and inside corner joints. You can generally
assume that PJP welds require half the volume of material for a given
strength. You can also estimate the time to bevel a PJP joint as equal to
a single fillet weld pass. In general: 1) a fillet weld is more economical if it
only requires a single pass, 2) PJP welds are ideal in a flat position, and
3) fillet welds are ideal in flat or horizontal positions. The general rule of
thumb is:
• If leg size less than 1 inch, use fillet welds.
• If leg size more than 1 inch, use PJP groove weld.
Mixed PJP Fillet Welds
Figure 39 is an example of a mixed PJP fillet weld, also known as a fillet
reinforced PJP weld. It might be more economical than an individual PJP
or fillet weld. For T joints, fillet welds on top of a PJP weld provide a better
contour at the intersection. This type of weld is preferable for welds in
positions other than flat.

Figure 39. Mixed PJP fillet weld.

Other Welding Considerations

CJP Groove Welds
Single-sided welds are easier to fabricate unless distortion control is
needed. The typical 2 to 1 savings assumed for double sided welds are
not true for many prequalified joints.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 66

The choice of root opening and included angle depends on throat
dimension:
• If throat dimension is less than 1 inch, use the smallest permitted
root opening with larger included angle.
• If throat dimension is greater than or equal to 1 inch, use the
larger root opening and smaller included angle.
PJP Groove Welds
Single sided PJP groove welds typically require less than three weld
passes and are more economical than double-sided. Double sided welds
do prevent tearing of the unfused root region.

Flare Groove Welds

You do not always have to fill flush. You must specify the required throat
to obtain required capacity.

Fillet Welds
Strength increases linearly with weld length and leg size. Note:
• 1 to 1 increase in weld volume with weld length.
• 4 to 1 increase in weld volume with weld leg size.
• Continuous welds are often chosen over intermittent.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 67

Welding Inspection
Welds must be inspected to ensure that they meet specifications. There
are two categories of inspection methods.
• Destructive:
- Used for weld procedure qualification.
- Suitable for tensile tests, Charpy impact tests, and
bend tests.
• Nondestructive (NDT):
- Inspect in situ weldment without damage.
- MDOT specifies NDT requirements.
- Methods include:
› Visual Testing (VT).
› Penetrant Testing (PT).
› Magnetic Particle Testing (MT).
› Radiographic Testing (RT).
› Ultrasonic Testing (UT).
Visual Testing (VT)
This method is a powerful tool before, during, and after welding. It
requires good eyesight and lighting. The main tool is a flashlight and
weld measuring gauges. MDOT requires that all welds are VT inspected.
Figures 40 and 41 show the tools and process, respectively.

Figure 40: VT tools.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 68

– Review specifications
– Check in compliance with WPS
– Check welder’s AWS and MDOT endorsement
– Review material certification
Pre- – Inspect equipment
Welding – Check base metal for discontinuities and contaminates
– Check fit-up and alignment
– Check required preheat
– Evaluate environmental condition
– Record results
– Ensure conformance with WPS procedures
During – Verify quality of weld root bead
– Check joint root preparation prior to welding second side (two sided welds)
Welding – Check interpass temperature
– Inspect after each weld pass (multi-pass welds)
– Inspect for porosity, undercut, cracks and other discontinuities
– Check final weld size
Post- – Inspect weld length
– Ensure all welds are complete per drawings
Welding – Ensure no extra welds are present
– Check for excessive distortion
– Check for arc strikes

Figure 41: VT method

Penetrant Testing (PT)

This method uses capillary action to draw liquid into surface breaking
discontinuities. The tester applies developer to make discontinuities
visible and must provide adequate time for capillary action to draw in
liquid (approximately 15 minutes). Figure 42 shows the process.
PT can only detect surface breaking discontinuities. It is effective at
accentuating surface discontinuities that are hard to visually see. It is
messy, slow, and not often used for magnetic materials such as steel.

Figure 42: PT method.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 69

Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)
MT detects discontinuities through a change in magnetic flux (visible
through particles). It creates a different pattern and can detect surface
and slightly subsurface discontinuities (Figure 43).
There are two methods to create an electromagnetic field:
• Pass current directly through the material:
- Two prods placed in contact with the material.
- Electrical current passed through them.
• Use a coil on a yoke to induce a magnetic field:
- Current is passed through the coil.
- End of yoke is placed in contact with material to test.
Cracks perpendicular to field are most easily detected by MT.
MT is used to ensure quality of repaired welds, especially PJP groove
welds and fillet welds. It is also used for inspection of weld access holes.
MT is preferred over PT because it is quicker, simpler, and less messy.

Figure 43: MT method.

Radiographic Testing (RT)

In RT, you pass gamma rays or X rays through the material. A
radiographic film is placed on the opposite side of the joint to provide a
picture of the inside of the weld. Thin parts (discontinuities) show darker
(most exposed), and weld reinforcement shows as a lighter region
(Figure 44). RT requires a skilled technician to read.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 70

Figure 44: RT method.

RT requires access to both sides of the joint. Cracks oriented

perpendicular to the direction of the radiation source (i.e., parallel to the
film) may go undetected. This method provides a permanent record and
is ideally suited for CJP groove welds in butt joints. However, it is not
suitable for PJP groove welds or fillet welds and is difficult to interpret
results from T joints and corner joints.

Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

In UT (Figure 45), high frequency sound waves are transmitted through
the material. A receiver picks up sound waves reflected off the back
surface of the material. Discontinuities cause an interruption of the sound
waves and result in an intermediate signal. It is read on a display screen.
The magnitude of a signal from a discontinuity is proportional to the
amount of reflected sound. It provides information on the size, type, and
orientation of the discontinuity. It is sometimes too sensitive.
UT is most sensitive to planar discontinuities perpendicular to the sound
path (such as cracks, laminations, and incomplete fusion). It is ideally
suited for CJP groove welds (butt, corner, T joints). It can be used for
inspection of PJP welds but cannot be used for fillet welds.

Figure 45: UT method.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 71

Weld Repair
A welder has the option to repair or replace unacceptable welds.
Unacceptable welds represent cost to the contractor. When a weld is
unacceptable, the fabricator is allowed to perform the repair without a
nonconformance report (NCR) unless the engineer’s approval is required
(i.e., fracture critical weld repairs or other weld repairs required by the
contract). Although an NCR is not required to be submitted, MDOT does
require the weld repair plan to be submitted prior to repair of the weld.
The weld repair plan can be pre-approved for the project or blanket
approved for the fabricator.
Material removal (weld metal or base metal) can be accomplished by
machining, air carbon arc cutting and gouging, thermal cutting, chipping,
or grinding. The remaining weld metal or base metal must not be nicked
or undercut. Excess material beyond the unacceptable portion must not
be removed and the surface must be cleaned prior to welding.
The repair procedures are as follows:
1. Remove excess weld metal for overlap or excessive convexity.
2. Add additional weld metal for excessive concavity, craters,
undersized welds, and undercutting.
3. Remove unacceptable portions and reweld for excessive
porosity, slag inclusions, and incomplete fusion.
4. For crack repair, remove full length of the crack plus 2 inches
beyond each end, then reweld.

Weld Symbols
Weld symbols are a systematic means of communicating weld related
information. Figure 46, which is adapted from AWS A2.4, shows how weld
symbols are designated. Each symbol contains the following:
• Reference line (required).
• Arrow (required).
• Tail (optional).
The symbol is always read right to left no matter what side of the
reference line the arrow is on.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 72

Figure 46: Weld symbols.

Field Manual for Structural Welding 73

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Field Manual for Structural Welding

MDOT Structural Fabrication Unit’s E-mail Resource:
[email protected]

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