Block 8

UNIT 30 SOCIAL CONTROL

Structure
30.0 Objectives
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Meaning and Nature
30.2.1 Definitions

30.2.2 Related Concepts

30.3 Goals of Social Control

30.4 Methods of Social Control
30.4.1 Informal Social Control
30.4.2 Formal Social Control
30.5 Mechanisms, Means and Consequences of Social Control

30.5.1 Types of Mechanisms
30.5.2 Means of Social Control
30.5.3 Consequences of Social Control
30.6 Limits on Social Control

30.7 Let Us Sum Up
30.8 Key Words
30.9 Further Readings
30.10 Model Answers to Check Your Progress
30.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to :
• define social control and describe its nature along with some concepts related
to it;
• list the goals of social control;
• identify and illustrate the consequences of social control as it affects the
individuals as well as the society; and
• describe the important factors that set a limit to the effectiveness of social
control.
30.1 INTRODUCTION
In sociology, the study of social control occupies a place of central importance. The
existence and persistence of organised social life is not possible without some minimum
degree of control over its members. Social control is needed for maintaining social
order. What do we mean by “social order”? A social order refers to a system of
people, relationships and customs, all these together operating smoothly to accomplish
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Social Control, Change the work of a society (Horton and Hunt 1981). No society can function effectively
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unless behaviour can be predicted. Orderliness depends on a network of roles.
The network of reciprocal rights and duties is kept in force through social control.
In this unit we shall first focus on the meaning and nature of social control with the
help of some definitions, including an examination of a few concepts which are closely
related to social control. The discussion will be followed by a look at the goals and
methods of social control. Then, we will describe the various types of mechanisms,
means and consequences of social control. Finally, we will also discuss the factors
which limit the effectiveness of social control.
30.2 MEANING AND NATURE

The terms ‘social control’ is broadly concerned with the maintenance of order and
stability in society. It may be used in the limited sense of denoting the various
specialised means employed to maintain order such as codes, courts, and constables.
It is also used to categorise social institutions and their inter-relations insofar as they
contribute specifically to social stability e.g. legal, religious, political institutions etc.
Social control is one of the most fundamental subjects of sociological discussion. It
arises in all discussions about the nature and causes of both stability and change.
30.2.1 Definitions
Let us look at certain definitions of social control in order to know what is contained
in the concept.
Some definitions focus on the “order” aspect of social control. For instance Maclver
and Page (1985) define social control as the way in which the whole social order
becomes consistently interlinked and maintains itself. Some others look at social
control as the means by which society establishes and maintains order.
Another set of definition emphasises the aspect of conformity to norms and
expectations of the group as the most important element in social control. The
emphasis is on all those means and processes whereby a group or a society secures
conformity of its member to its expectations. In other words, social control refers to
those ways used by a society to bring its way ward members back into line. When
we use the term social control we are essentially referring to the processes and
means which limit deviations from social norms (Horton and Hunt 1981; Berger
1963; Ogburn and Nimcoff 1978).
The main points that emerge from all these definitions about the meaning of social
controls are :
i) The term refers essentially to means and processes whereby certain goals are
to be achieved.
ii) The two most important goals sought to be achieved by social control are :
a) Conformity to norms and expectations of the group;
b) Maintenance of order in society.
iii) There is an element of influence, persuasion or compulsion in control. The
individual or a group is directed to act in a particular way. Conformity is
expected or imposed irrespective of whether one likes it or not.
iv) The scope of social control is vast. It may operate at different levels. One
group may seek to control another group; a group may control its own members
or an individual may seek to control another individual. The scope of control
6 ranges from the management of deviants to social planning.
30.2.2 Related Concepts Social Control
Here we discuss some concepts which are closely related to social control.
i) The concept of self-control
Self-control implies that imposition of external control, is not required to compel the
individual to do the right thing in a given situation. In this sense, self-control supplements
the mechanisms of social control in producing conformity. But, it should also be
remembered that self-control itself, originates in social control. For it is the processes
of social control which instil a sense of inner control in the individual. The relation
between self-control and social control can be understood in the following manner:
the group applies some sanctions (punishment etc.) on an individual for indulging in
deviant behaviour. But many persons are capable of visualising the consequences of
their action in advance, and restrain themselves. In this sense, self-control is also a
form of social control. From this point of view we can also maintain that both self-
control and social control are closely related to yet another process−socialisation, to
which we now turn.
ii) Socialisation
Socialisation is the process by which an individual, from childhood, learns and acquires
the cultural characteristics of one’s group. He is thus able to participate as a member
of the group of society. In childhood, one’s parents, for instance, enforce their
expectations on the child by a system of reward, punishment and discipline. One
also acquires many traits by observing the behaviour of others, and by anticipating
the consequences of and reaction to, one’s own conduct in different situations. In
this way, one develops self-control, a sense of right and wrong. Through the learning
process we begin largely to conform to group expectation, very often without any
conscious attempt being made on our part to do so. You can cite several examples
from your daily life in which you perform many minor and major activities which you
are ‘supposed’ to do, without even being aware of why you are doing so. Thus,
socialisation contributes significantly to bringing about effective social control in
society. It is only when the process of socialisation fails that the individual may begin
to act against the expectations of the group. In that case, imposition of sanctions
become necessary.
Social control also helps in the process of socialisation. Insofar as socialisation
involves learning process, a system of reward and punishment is required in
accomplishing it. Thus, social control and socialisation are mutually related,
supplementing each other towards the ultimate objective of ensuring conformity to
group norms, and maintenance of social order.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: a) Use the space given below for your answer.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1) What are the important goals sought to be achieved by social control? Use
about three lines for your answer.
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Social Control, Change 2) What are the major elements of social control? Use about two lines.
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30.3 GOALS OF SOCIAL CONTROL

From many of the definitions of social control, which we have reviewed earlier, it
becomes clear that social control is supposed to achieve several important goals.
Some of these goals are:
i) Conformity
One of the aims of social control is to bring about conformity in society. Social
control mechanisms are employed to control, check or prevent deviant behaviour.
As we shall see in Unit 31, deviant behaviour is dysfunctional to society in several
ways. The objective of social control, is to safeguard the group against such
dysfunctional consequences of deviant behaviour.
ii) Uniformity
A related objective of social control is to produce uniformity of behaviour. This
does not mean that all the members have to behave alike. It only implies that there
should be some co-ordinations, among the several interrelated activities performed
by different people. For example, movement of traffic on a road will be impossible
if some traffic rules (keeping to the left etc.) are not followed by all road users. A
game cannot be played if uniform rules are not followed by all teams and its members.
In every sphere of social life some uniformity of behaviour is not only expected, but
is also essential.
iii) Solidarity
This is a very important objective of social control. As Maclver and Page (1985)
have noted, social control ensures order and solidarity in society. Society is constituted
of several parts and units. These different parts have to maintain an equilibrium with
each other, and with the whole to ensure social solidarity and stability. The mechanisms
of social control are directed at maintaining this equilibrium among the parts, and
between the parts and the whole.
iv) Continuity
Social control is also necessary to maintain and preserve the accumulated culture of
the group. By compelling or inducing individuals to conform to the prevailing norms
and values, continuity of these cultural characteristics is ensured. For example,
when parents insist on their children following family customs or practices, their
continuity over generations is sought to be assured.
v) Social Change
Social control is employed not only to conserve the existing patterns, but also
sometimes to induce desired social changes. In our country, many methods of
persuasion, inducement, and compulsion are used to bring about desired changes in
some social customs, attitudes and behaviour. Prescribing the age of marriage.
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‘Two child’ family norm, removal of untouchability, dowry etc. are some of the Social Control
examples of attempts to bring about social change through various means of social
control.
30.4 METHODS OF SOCIAL CONTROL

Methods of social control can be broken into two types: (i) informal, and (ii) formal.
The informal type of control is casual, unwritten. It lacks regulation, scheduling and
organisation. The informal types consists of casual praise, ridicule, gossip and
ostracism. The formal type is codified, scheduled organised, or regulated in some
way, as in promotion, demotion, satire, monetary payment, mass-media etc. (see
Horton and Hunt 1981). We now discuss each method in detail.
30.4.1 Informal Social Control
This is also known as primary social control, as it is more effective in what sociologists
call primary groups. The primary groups are relatively more homogeneous, small,
compact and intimate groups. Members are tied to each other, and to the group by
feelings of personal loyalty. A family, playgroups, neighbourhood, rural community,
and a simple primitive society are some examples of such compact social groupings.
In such societies every individual, is constantly surrounded by very potent and subtle
mechanisms of social control. Within a family the individual is under the control of his
or her parents and other family members. Family, in turn, is under the control of
neighbourhood or kinship groups, and these, in turn, are under the watchful control
of the whole society. Thus, no individual or group can be free from social control.
We may say that in such social settings, social control exists like a set of concentric
circles surrounding individuals and groups. The important characteristics of this type
of control are that it is informal, spontaneous, and unplanned. Usually the group
shows its disapproval to the deviating member by ridicule gossip, opprobrium, criticism,
ostracism and sometimes application of physical force and coercion. Since the group
is compact, ties are strong, members are personally known and the individual has
little choice of an alternative groups membership. He cannot afford to ignore the
disapproval of his groups and so he has to conform to his group’s expectations.
Such methods of control are effective not only in primitive societies in which primary
groups and relations abound, but are also effective in modern complex societies such
as ours, particularly within secondary groups (such as voluntary associations, clubs
and trade unions etc.) where such informal controls are effective to achieve the goals
of the organisation.
Activity 1
Have you ever experienced social ostracism in your own or in the life of someone
whom you know. Write an essay on the event(s) and relate in to the notion of
“social control in my society” in about two pages. Share your essay with those
of other students at your study centre.
30.4.2 Formal Social Control

This is also known as secondary social control as it is usually found in larger, secondary
social groups. Modern complex societies such as ours, are good examples of such
social groupings. In such societies we find a large number of groups, which are
characterised by impersonal relations, and are oriented to certain specific objectives.
A political party, trade union, factory, office, students association, may be some
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examples. In these secondary groupings, relations among members are more formal
Social Control, Change and less intimate. Their relationships mean that informal controls such as ridicule,
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criticism or ‘gossip’ do not operate here. It is a well known fact in sociology, that
informal groups do develop within such formal organisations. In a university or a
college, certain cliques informal controls are more effective. The point is that such
informal groups which develop within formal organisations, may either inhibit or
facilitate formal secondary controls and affect the performance of the organisation.
Generally speaking, in secondary groupings informal controls take their place. Both
positive sanctions in the form of reward, honour, and negative sanctions by way of
punishments, expulsion etc. are used in this form of control. In the larger society,
such controls are exemplified by law, police, courts, prisons and other agencies of
law enforcement. Apart from these more visible forms, formal control mechanisms
also include well organised propaganda through mass media, to ‘engineer’ social
control in society. In large secondary groupings informal controls are weakened
due to growing anonymity, mobility, and conflicting norms and values. Intimacy
declines and members do not have personal or emotional feelings towards each
other. They frequently move from one place to another, or from one group to
another. Thus, they can easily escape from the controls of some particular group.
Moreover, in a complex society, there is always a conflict of norms and values of
different groups. One group may approve a conduct which may be disapproved by
some other group. Under such circumstances, recourse is ultimately taken to the
formal agencies of social control.
1) List the five major objectives of social control. Use one line for your answer.
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2) Describe the informal objectives of social control. Use one line for your
answer.
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3) Promotion and demotion in the bureaucracy are the example of informal social
control. Tick the correct box. Yes No
30.5 MECHANISMS, MEANS AND

CONSEQUENCES OF SOCIAL CONTROL
Every society has devised various mechanisms to exercise control. Social control
mechanisms are viewed by sociologists as all those social arrangements that (i) prevent
such strains as may develop from the individual’s place in the social structure and (ii)
prevent the strains from leading to deviance (see Brearley 1947:65). Every society
has certain means to exercise social control, and there are clear consequences of
exercising social control for promoting stability and conformity in societies.
30.5.1 Types of Mechanisms
Mechanisms of social control can be classified into the following four categories:
i) Preventive mechanisms : These mechanisms are designed to prevent such
situations from developing, that might lead to deviance Socialisation, social
10 pressures, establishment of role priorities, force are some of the mechanisms
through which conformity is promoted or the occurrence of deviance is Social Control
prevented.
ii) Mechanisms to manage tensions : Institutionalised safety valves like humour,
games and sports, leisure, religious rituals are regarded as outlets for the tensions
generated by social restraints, and cultural inconsistencies within a society.
iii) Mechanisms to check or change deviant behaviour : Sanctions are used
by every society to bring about conformity, and check or change deviant
behaviour. Sanctions have been classified into :
a) Psychological sanctions : Negative sanctions are reproof, ridicule non-
acceptance, ostracism etc. Positive sanctions include acceptance in the
group, praise, invitation to inner circle events, verbal or physical pat on
the back gifts etc.
b) Physical sanctions : These are mostly negative. The most important
forms of physical sanctions are expulsion, physical punishment and
extermination.
Village Ex-Communicates one of their member
EX-COMMUNICATION : A MECHANISM OF
SOCIAL CONTROL
c) Economic sanctions : These include positive rewards like promotion

of a loyal sincere worker, grant of tenders to civic minded businessmen
etc., or negative sanctions like threat of loss or reduction in one’s income 11
Social Control, Change (e.g. threat of discharge by employer may prevent the employee from
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continuing his strike), economic boycott etc.
iv) Propaganda Mechanisms : Another important mechanism that can bring
about change in the desired direction, is propaganda or moulding public
opinion. Propaganda is a deliberate attempt to control the behaviour and
interrelationships of members in order to change the feelings, attitudes and
values. For example, the efforts of the government to control population
growth through family planning propaganda (see Horton and Hunt 1981).
30.5.2 Means of Social Control
As mentioned earlier in this unit (sub-section 30.2.1), social control may denote the
various specialised means employed by a society, to maintain order. It may also be
used to categorise institutions insofar as they contribute specifically to order and
stability. Let us examine some of these in detail.
i) Custom
Social codes found in every society provide standardised ways of doing things.
These ways, known as customs, have come to be accepted in the group or society.
Some degree of pressure is always exerted on the individual to make one conform
to customs. In case, they are violated the group applies some sanctions or penalties
of varying degrees of severity. The severity would depend on the importance attached
to the particular customary regulation.
Custom is sustained by common acceptance. Informal social pressures are brought
to bear, in the case of violation of customs. Violation of mores, on the other hand,
inspire intense reaction and the punishment may involve expulsion from the group,
harsh ridicule, imprisonment or in some cases even death. To function effectively in
a culture it is imperative that one learns the appropriate folkways (customs and
conventions) and mores of that culture. Let us now see the role of law as a means
of social control.
ii) Law
Certain norms become laws when a society feels strongly, about them, Laws are
formal standardised expressions of norms, enacted by legislative bodies to regulate
certain types of behaviour. Laws not merely state what behaviours are permitted
and not permitted, but they also state the punishment for violating the law.
As we shift from simple societies to the modern ones, the role of law as a mechanism
of social control assumes greater significance. In modern, complex societies the
more informal types of social control are weakened. Though law may itself be based
on custom, it has three distinct characteristics which separate it from custom: first, it
has politicality as it is upheld by the political authority of the state. Second, it has
uniformity, as it is applicable throughout the jurisdiction of the state on all groups or
parts of society. Third, it has penal sanction, as each law is enforced on the
strength of penalty imposed by the State (Courts) in case of violation. There are
distinct agencies such as police, courts, prisons etc. to enforce the law. However,
when a law does not reflect folkways and mores, its enforcement is likely to be
ignored or given low priority. For example, even though the minimum age at marriage
for girls and boys in India is fixed by law, many communities ignore these prescriptions.
When there is a conflict between custom and law, it becomes difficult to impose the
law. We will now turn to the role of religion.
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Social Control
Activity 2
Scan the newspapers of a week for any news item which describes how the
customs of a community clash with the legal edict such as, practice of dowry, or
sati. Write a page on the event and its sociological implications. Compare your
note with those of other students at your study centre.
iii) Religion
Sociologists are interested in studying how religion is organised, and what impact it
has on the members of a society in terms of controlling their behaviour. They are
also interested in the kinds of belief system developed by people, in different situations
and circumstances, and how religious beliefs change over time as external situations
and circumstances change. All religions are seen to have the following elements: (a)
things considered sacred (b) a set of believers (c) a set of rituals and ceremonies (d)
a system of beliefs such as a creed, doctrine or a holy book (e) a certain form of
organisation.
Religion contributes to stability and order in society in that it reinforces social norms.
providing sanctions for violation of norms and reinforcing basic values. Today, with
the explosion of scientific knowledge, some customs, religious and moral
interpretations of behaviour are no longer considered binding or accepted. The
sacred books of most of religions include rules for ordering social relationships. It is
especially explicit about matters pertaining to the family, marriage, divorce and
inheritance. Though laws are challenging some of the practices upheld by religious
teachings, beliefs and experiences associated with religion are still seen to be essential
for both personal identity, and social cohesion. Education too is an important means
of social control. Let us see how this is so.
iv) Education
The institution of education helps to control human behaviour through socialisation
of the young and adult members of society. The different levels of formal education
transmit the culture of society, to individuals within the society. In discharging their
socialisation function, schools and colleges transmit many of the society’s values.
The individuals learn to conform to rules, be honest, be diligent and to co-operate
with others etc. Another value of education is that it prepares students for their adult
occupational roles. Education is further valued for the understanding it imparts, about
the social and physical environment. However, the fact that education tries to impart
such values, is no indication that everyone who goes to school and college learns
and accepts these values. Were the educational system and educators and other
socialisers always successful, there would be no deviance and no social conflict.
This brings us to the topic of family.
v) Family
Across the world, the institution of family performs certain important functions. These
include socialisation, imparting of affection and emotional support, regulation of sex
and reproduction. Family is not only an important agency of socialisation but of
social control as well. It is in the family that an individual normally has his most
intimate, and important social relation. Some of human beings’ most basic needs,
both physical and psychological are fulfilled within the family. Though the more
formal and more coercive measures of social control are generally absent in the
family, other informal means such as ridicule, criticism, disapproval, loss of prestige,
withdrawal of rewards etc. are very potent means of control. In fact, an individual
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Social Control, Change always seeks emotional support of his or her near and dear ones in the family in
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timers of stress and tension. The mere threat of withdrawal of this support, is sufficient
to bring the recalcitrant member back into line. Every family has its own set of moral
values and customs. These are enforced upon its members, particularly the younger
ones through disciplinary measures and a system if rewards and punishments. We
now turn to leadership.
vi) Leadership
It can play a very important role in social control. It develops out of the process of
interaction itself. Leaders have guided the destinies of groups, communities, and
nations. If the leader enjoys group support, his or her suggestions and directions
lead the members towards some common values and goals, and may help to promote
order and stability in society. In this process mass media can play a very important
role.
vii) Mass Media
In traditional smaller societies face to face contact was the only means of
communication. In modern technological societies the media of mass communication,
such as newspapers, radio and television, are a means of not only communication
but also of social control. Much of the public opinion and propaganda, for example,
(and other social and cultural groups) make use of these means to mould public
opinion, and to change or control attitudes and behaviour of the vast mass of
population. New values and life styles, fashions, wants, ideas etc. are thrust upon
the public with a view to redirect and control their behaviour in a particular way. We
will now consider the role of force in social control.
viii) Force
Though some sociologists have neglected or under emphasised the element of force
or physical coercion in social relationships, the role of force in social control cannot
be underestimated. In some types of societies, such as the totalitarian states and
colonial regimes, physical force and violence are used as significant instruments of
control. In fact, it can be asserted that physical violence is the oldest and ultimate
means of social control. Even modern, liberal democratic societies maintain police
and armed forces. This signifies the fact that the resort to force and violence is the
ultimate answer to many issues, when other means have failed. On the other hand,
communal and caste violence, are examples of how force is used by interested
groups to control and coerce each other though it is not legally sanctioned.
30.5.3 Consequences of Social Control
Though social control is seen as necessary for promoting continuing stability and
conformity in societies, it can become dysfunctional at times. The following are
some of the dysfunctional aspects of social control.
i) Exploitation
Social control may sometimes become a subtle means of exploitation. Some of the
dominant groups or individuals may simply use it to fulfil their own vested interests.
These interests may be political, economic or social. In such cases, the real
motivations are hidden under the cover of some laudable objectives. A ruling party
may try to perpetuate its rule, or a business firm may try to sell its substandard
goods by means of utilising the techniques of social control.
ii) Inhibiting Reform and Change
Social control may have limiting consequences in that it may sometimes inhibit creativity,
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and obstruct attempts at constructive reforms and social changes.
iii) Psychological Pressures Social Control
Social control may also exert enormous amount of emotional and psychological
pressures on some individuals. The best example is that of the institutions such as the
prisons and mental hospitals. The strict regime and oppressive atmosphere sometimes
create mental tensions and even illnesses among them. Similarly, where parents have
very strict standards of discipline, their children’s personalities do not develop in a
normal way. In repressive police-states, many individuals, likewise, suffer from stress
and tension. Thus, the individual has to pay a price for social control in psychological
terms.
iv) Social Tensions
Social control may also lead to social tensions, particularly in a large, complex
society. Here, there may be different groups with their distinctive interests, norms,
and values which may conflict with each other. When attempts are made by one or
more groups to impose their own standards on others, conflict and struggle become
inevitable.
30.6 LIMITS ON SOCIAL CONTROL

Effectiveness of social control is limited due to the following factors :
i) Each group is organised around norms and values. Social control is intended
to check deviation from these standards. Yet, it is not possible to contain
deviation completely. some deviation from prescribed norms will always be
there. Each group or society has to determine the limit of tolerance of deviant
conduct and thus set a realistic limit on social control.
ii) The effectiveness of social control is also limited by the degree of consistency
in the cultural directives. If the cultural prescriptions are uncertain and
inconsistent, then social control cannot operate successfully. This is why in a
rapidly changing society, in which normative standards become inconsistent,
mechanisms of social control are generally weak. Individuals may not know
what is expected of them in a particular situation.
iii) In a complex society, it is not generally possible to impose social control

uniformly on all groups which are divided on the basis of class, caste, religion,
race etc. Sometimes the uniform application of law also encounters numerous
difficulties. In our country, despite the constitutional directive to have a uniform
civil code, it has not been possible to evolve one so far.
iv) Social control implies huge economic costs to the society. The control of
deviance requires a disproportionate share of societal attention and resources.
Huge expenditure has to be incurred on the establishment of social control
agencies such as the police, prisons, mental hospitals, etc. There is a limit
beyond which a poor country such as ours cannot afford to deploy such
resources at the cost of other development programmes.

b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit. 15
Social Control, Change 1) What are the four major mechanisms to check deviant behaviour? Use two
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lines for your answer.
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2) Name five major means of social control. Use one line for your answer.
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3) In traditional society, mass media is the only source of social control. Tick the
correct box.
Yes No
4) Mention three dysfunctional aspects of social control. Use three lines for
your answer.
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30.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have focused on the nature, approaches, mechanisms and
consequences of social control. We discussed that social control is a pervasive
feature of social life. Social control means that every society has some rules which
have to be obeyed, and some standards of conduct which have to be followed.
This is so because no society can exist without social control. The twin goals of
social control are:
i) to establish and maintain order in society; and
ii) to check deviant tendencies and behaviour.
You also learnt that different societies have different methods to exercise control.
The two types discussed here are the formal and informal. Some of the important
mechanisms discussed in this unit are custom, law, religion, education, family,
leadership, mass media, force etc. Then, we also looked at some of the consequences
of social control from the point of view of both the society and the individual. Finally,
we pointed out some of the factors that limit the effectiveness of social control.
30.8 KEY WORDS

Dysfunctional consequences : Certain results which are not recognised by the
social norms.
Social category : Analytical tool used to categorise people having
some characteristics in common viz., occupation
class, middle class etc.
Social restraints : Collective opposition against non-conformity to
social norms and institutions.
Social sanction : Punishment given for the non-conformity to social
16 norms.
Social Control
30.9 FURTHER READINGS
Brearely, H.C. 1965. “The Nature of S`ocial Control”, In Joesph S. Roucek et.
al. (Ed) Social Control, Affiliated East West Press: New Delhi.
Ogburn, William F. and M. Nimcoff, 1979. A Handbook of Sociology, Eurasia
Publishing House: New Delhi (Chapter VIII).
30.10 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
Check Your Progress I
1) There are two important goals sought to be achieved by social control. These
are (i) conformity to norms and expectations of the group; (ii) maintenance of
order in society.
2) The major elements of social control are influence, persuasion and compulsion.
1) a) conformity,
b) uniformity.
c) solidarity,
d) continuity, and
e) social change.
2) The informal type of social control is casual, unwritten and it lacks regulation,
scheduling and organisation. The informal type consists of casual praise,
ridicule, gossip and ostracism.
3) No.
1) a) psychological sanctions,
c) physical sanctions,
d) economic sanctions, and
e) propaganda or moulding public opinion.
2) a) customs,
b) law,
c) religion,
d) education, and
e) family
3) No.
4) a) It may lead to exploitation of the weaker section by the dominant one.
b) It may cause psychological pressure.
c) It may cause social tension. 17
UNIT 31 SOCIAL DEVIANCE
Structure
31.0 Objectives
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Meaning and Nature of Deviance
31.2.1 Difficulty in Defining Deviance
31.2.2 Variations in the Deviants
31.3 Basic Types of Deviance and Deviants

31.3.1 Three Types of Deviance
31.3.2 Five Types of Deviants
31.4 Explanations of Deviation

31.4.1 Biological Explanations
31.4.2 Psychological Explanations
31.4.3 Sociological Explanations
31.5 Let Us Sum Up

31.6 Key Words
31.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
• define deviance and describe its nature;
• classify and distinguish the types of social deviance;
• critically examine the biological, psychological and sociological explanations
of deviance.
31.1 INTRODUCTION
Deviance and control are the key concepts linked to the central conceptual framework
of sociology. In the earlier unit of this block, we discussed the concept of social
control. In this unit we shall discuss nature and meaning of deviance, and introduce
you to its types. This unit then focuses on the biological, psychological and sociological
explanations of deviance.
31.2 MEANING AND NATURE OF DEVIANCE

The study of deviance cannot be undertaken without reference to norms. Norms
are prescribed standards which guide and regulate behaviour. They are accepted
by the group and shared by group members. For this reason, it is only with reference
18 to norms that we can speak of, or define deviance. Human society permits certain
variations in the behaviour demanded by the norms. Essentially these variations are Social Deviance
well defined by the cultural norms of the society concerned. When we speak of
deviance we are essentially referring to norms violations, or to that behaviour which
departs from some norms or standard of behaviour.
31.2.1 Difficulty in Defining Deviance
Norms are not the same everywhere. They vary from group to group, within a
group, and over a period of time. It is not easy to identify those behaviours that are
universally defined as departures from some norm or norms. For example, prostitution
may be viewed as well as defined by law as deviant behaviour in India and USA.
Yet in certain European countries prostitutes can operate openly in specific areas.
Here we are taking a “relativistic view” of deviation. Behaviours, notions and products
of human interaction can be understood or evaluated only within the context of the
culture and society of which they are a part. A relativistic view of deviance, implies
that deviance can be interpreted only in the socio-cultural context in which it occurs.
Deviance is not absolute but relative to the social expectations, norms and rules of a
particular society.
Also, if an act is defined as deviant in one situation does not mean it is deviant in
every other situation. One of the most commonly accepted norms in many societies
of the world is “Thou shall not kill”. It is a crime or legal offence to take another
person’s life because that norm is a law. But in a situation like war, a soldier is
permitted to kill an enemy soldier. This kind of behaviour is normative for soldiers in
the war. Therefore, we can expect definitions of deviance to vary with circumstances
or situations.
31.2.2 Variations in the Definition of Deviance
Let us now consider some other important variations, that affect the definitions of
deviance, and contribute to the problem of defining deviance in terms of some universal
factors.
i) Variation by Time
An act considered deviant in one time period may be considered non-deviant in
another time period in a society. For example, in India women pursuing collegiate
education were defined as “deviants” in the 19th century. But today, women pursuing
higher education are not considered deviants.
ii) Variation by Culture
Behaviour viewed as deviant in one location, or culture may be considered non-
deviant in another. In some cultures having more than one wife is permitted. It may
signify the high financial and social status of man. In some other societies monogamy
is strictly prescribed, and being married to more than one woman is a socially and
legally punishable offence.
There are also variations in the definition of deviance within a culture, or between
sub-cultures of particular society. Free interaction between the sexes may not be
considered deviant in a big cosmopolitan city. But it may be so in a village or a small
town. Similarly, teenage smoking may invite different kinds of reactions from different
sections of the population. One sub-culture may often have norms, that are viewed
as deviant by other sub-cultures in the same society.
iii) Variation by Social Position
Deviance can also vary with social status (the position in society that one occupies).
19
Certain behaviours are given greater approval for men than women. It is acceptable
Social Control, Change for men to go topless in an informal occasion, but if women do so, they are considered
and Development
deviants. There is much diversity in behaviour, convictions and sanctions in different
societies. There are also variations in the meanings and definitions attributed to
behaviour and sanctions.
1) What do you mean by deviance? Use about three lines for your answer.
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2) Point out at least three main difficulties that arise in defining deviance. Use
about four lines
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............................................................................................................... .
31.3 BASIC TYPES OF DEVIANCE AND DEVIANTS

Both deviance and deviants need to be discussed in terms of their types. This
exercise will clarify the nature of deviance.
31.3.1 Three Types of Deviance
Sociologists have classified deviance in a variety of ways. Whatever be the basis of
judging or defining deviance, we may say that it is behaviour that is considered to be
different from the central behaviour expectations in a certain group. It is possible to
list the following three types of deviance (see Horton and Hunt 1981).
i) Cultural and Psychological Deviation
In cultural deviation one departs from the norms of a culture, while the psychological
deviant deviates from the norms in personality organisation, for example, the psychotic
and neurotic. Both categories may be found in the same person.
ii) Individual and Group Deviation
In individual deviation, the person deviates from the norms of a sub-culture. For
example, a boy belonging to an educated and respected family takes to drugs and
becomes a school dropout. In group deviation, the deviant sub-culture has norms
which are condemned by the conventional morality of the society, for example, a
street-corner gang of unemployed youth indulging in all sorts of unlawful activities.
The gang will be a well-knit group having a private language (known as argot) and a
set of stereotyped behaviours, i.e., they develop a distinctive sub-culture. The
behaviour of the group members and their activities are condemned by others in
20 society.
iii) Primary and Secondary Deviation Social Deviance
Primary deviance refers to the violation of social norms committed by a person who
is not labelled as a deviant, and who is basically a conformist in his or her life. The
deviant act is trivial or tolerated or concealed so that one is not identified as a deviant.
For instance, travelling ticket less once in a while, slipping an extra apple into the
shopping bag without paying for it etc. Secondary deviation is that which follows
from one’s public identification as a deviant. One is labelled as a deviant. The
labelling process is often the point of no return in the development of deviance. It
leads to isolations, possible dismissal, ostracism and sometimes even imprisonment.
The deviant may join the association of other deviants. Even if he or she had the
choice to discontinue his behaviour, he or she cannot help but continue.
Primary Secondary
Ha!
I never bought a
ticket for entrance
Ticket-Ticket
Oh!
how did I forget to
buy a Ticket, I am
really sorry please
excuse me
S
Social Deviance i lD i
31.3.2 Five Types of Deviants
Let us now took at the five types of deviants and thus explain the nature of deviance.
i) Freak
The definition of deviants as ‘freak’ focuses not so much on behavioural patterns, as
on physical attributes. Here, deviance merely means variation from the average
norms, in a statistical sense. The ‘freaks’ are those who stand at the extreme ends of
the normal curve. The inadequacy of this definition is, that attitudinal and behavioural
attributes are not distributed in the population in the same way as physical attributes.
Secondly, even those who are placed at the extremes are not necessarily viewed as
‘undesirables’. That is, the mentally retarded may not be equated with a genius
(though both stand at extreme ends).
ii) Sinful
The deviant as ‘sinful’ is adjudged as such on the basis of religious ideological codes,
commandments, texts and doctrines. The terminology applied to such deviants include
sinner, heretic, and apostate. The sinner violates certain norms and doctrines which 21
Social Control, Change he/she accepts. The heretic rejects the doctrines or prescriptions; and the apostate
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not only rejects the faith or dogma, but accepts some other alternative norms and
traditions. This amounts to ‘ideological treason’ from the group’s view point.
iii) Criminal
The ‘criminal’ deviant is defined according to the legal codes, particularly the criminal
law. Laws are ostensibly enacted to prevent acts, injurious to society and group
welfare. Those who violate these laws are labelled as deviants and invite punishment.
But not all laws are so detrimental to society. There are four types of legal enactment’s
designating four types of deviant action, not all equally injurious to society. First,
laws prohibit acts which are definitely a threat to the society and cannot be tolerated.
For example, murder, theft, treason, incest etc. There is generally a social consensus
about the necessity of such laws.
Activity 1
During wars soldiers kill many human beings of the enemy side, but during peaceful
situation if the same soldier kills even a single person, he will be declared a
murderer and a criminal. How will you explain this? Write an essay of one
pages on “Social Aspects of Crime” keeping in mined the above situation. Discuss
your essay with other learners at your study centre, as well as your Academic
Counsellor.
Second, some acts which are not necessarily immoral or abnormal, but they interfere
with public order or public good, and so are made illegal, violation of traffic rules are
examples. Third, some criminal laws define certain acts as crimes, but without any
victims; these acts do not cause harm or injury to others, and are not malicious as
other criminal offences are. The drug addict, the homosexual, and the drunk are
examples of such deviants whose behaviour is stigmatised as crime, mainly to enforce
certain moral conceptions. Fourth, there are laws which prohibit acts which are
‘crimes with willing victims’. Illegal gambling and prostitution are some examples, in
which the ‘victim’ actively seeks criminal services. What all this implies is that some
laws prohibiting certain acts, may be based on a general consensus and receive
ready acceptance in the larger society. But many laws which proscribe certain acts,
particularly those on the border-line of vice and morality, raise critical questions and
issues about their justification. The legal definition of deviance (crime) may not
always be based on consensual norms of morality. In many situations, it may just be
the result of arbitrary processes of legislation, and specific pressures of various
interest groups in society.
iv) Sick
The conception of deviant as ‘sick’ is based on a disease model and defined in the
pathological framework. Seen from this view-point, the elements of wilfulness and
responsibility on the part of the deviant are removed. When defined as ‘sick’ or
abnormal, the reaction of the society towards the deviants changes from punitive to
a treatment orientation. There is now a growing tendency to think of such behaviour
which was earlier regarded as vicious, criminal or depraved, as manifestation or
symptom of an illness. The drug addict, heavy drinker, and homosexual, for example,
are now regarded more as ‘victims’ of some illness rather than criminals. Yet they
are more likely to be seen as deviants insofar as such behaviour is perceived as
socially (undesirable). The identification of deviance is based on certain internal or
intrapsychic symptoms. These may include, apart from intrinsically psychotic
22 conditions, such persistent psychic state as hostility, guilt, shame, escapism,
withdrawal etc. It is obvious that the definition of these conditions as ‘normal’ and Social Deviance
‘abnormal’ varies cross-culturally. It also depends on the socio-economic status of

the ‘sick’ persons. Thus this definition of deviant as ‘sick’ involves several difficulties.
v) Alienated
The definition of deviant as ‘alienated’ persons, focuses on certain categories of
social dropouts such as hippies. In the modern industrial society, many people feel
estranged and isolated from the values and norms of the society. They are confronted
with a sense of powerlessness and meaninglessness. They feel impotent either to
control their environment or to determine their own fate. They rarely find an opportunity
to express themselves as real or ‘whole’ persons. There is a complete loss of individual
meaning in the face of a vast, segmented impersonal, and uncontrollable social order.
They are estranged from the normative order of the larger society in a way that, ‘they
are in the society but not of the society’. As alienation increases in the modern
industrial societies, the number of such alienated deviants also increases, ranging
from suicides to addicts.
Such is the variety and complexity of social deviance, that there cannot be any
universally applicable classificatory system of this phenomenon. Let us conclude this
section, by saying that in defining deviance we should specify the group whose
viewpoint we are taking, as also the nature of the normative order (religious, legal) as
reference point.
1) What are the three types of deviance? Use three lines for your answer.
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2) List out five types of deviants. Use two lines for your answer.
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31.4 EXPLANATIONS OF DEVIATION

Given the wide variations in deviance how can this phenomenon be explained?
Scientists have offered a variety of theories to explain deviance. Biological theories
tend to focus on hereditary, anatomical or physiological factors. Psychological
explanations tend to discuss personality, movies, aggression, frustration, and other
subjective factors. Sociologists usually emphasise socio-cultural factors. Some of
these explanations have more empirical support than others. But it goes without
23
saying that all the explanations can increase our understanding of the complexities of
Social Control, Change human behaviour, whether deviant or non-deviant. Given below are the three types
and Development
of explanations of social deviance-biological, psychological and sociological.
31.4.1 Biological Explanations
Biological theories of deviance are generally traced back to the Italian physician-
psychiatrist Lombroso (1835-1909). Lombroso was interested in the scientific
study of crime. He said that attention should be shifted from the criminal act to the
criminal specifically to the physical characteristics of the criminal. He was convinced
that there was a “born criminal type”. His conclusions were based on a comparison
of 400 prison inmates, with a group of Italian soldiers. Lombroso found that the
inmates displayed certain physical abnormalities such as deviations in head size and
shape, eye defects, receding chins, and excessively long arms. This led him to the
belief that criminal tendencies are inherited, and that the potential criminals could be
identified by certain physical characteristic or body types. However, his findings
were disproved by later researchers who concluded that there is no such thing as a
physical type.
Lombroso was not the only scientist to hold the view that physical traits and deviant
behaviour are inter-linked. In the 1940s the American psychologist-physician
Sheldon attempted to link body type to behaviour. He classified people in terms of
three types of physique. The endomorph who is soft, round and usually fat; the
mesomorph who is muscular, stocky and athletic and the ectomorh who is skinny
and fragile. He associated these body types with certain temperamental and
behavioural tendencies. A disproportionately high percentage of criminals were
found to be of one body type i.e., mesomorphs−the stocky, muscular body type.
Like other biological explanations, this theory was also found to be inadequate. For
instance, physically fit boys maybe recruited to delinquency more often than skinny
boys, Judges may see muscular boys as more of a threat than skinny or obese boys.
More recently it has been proposed that a specific genetic condition may be associated
with crimes of physical violence. Some violent criminals have been found to have an
extra chromosome, they have XYY chromosomes rather than the usual XY. Other
findings, however, indicate that XYY factor is not a cause of deviation (Eshleman
and Cashion 1983:159-160).
Biological explanations of deviance have been rejected, mainly because they fail to
explain why others having similar biological make up, do not exhibit the same forms
of behaviour. Biological explanation also do not explain the variation; in deviance as
well as its relative nature.
31.4.2 Psychological Explanations
These explanations focus on the person who engages in deviant behaviour.

Psychological explanations lay emphasis on the mind of the individual, rather than
on body types. These explanations focus on such subjective factors as personality
structure, learning, goals, interests, motivations, will power, frustration, ego strength,
anxiety, guilt, etc. Social psychologists often consider the social context of behaviour,
in addition to these subjective factors.
One group of psychological explanations associates deviance with sickness, arguing

that deviance results from a psychological abnormality or a mental illness. For
instance, it argues that mentally ill people take to drugs or excessive drinking. Mentally
ill people may commit deviant acts. Yet this theory does not account for deviance
among people who are not mentally ill nor does it explain why some mentally ill
24
people are not deviant.
Some other psychological explanations suggest that deviance results from frustration. Social Deviance
When needs are not fulfilled frustration results which inturn leads to aggression.
Frustration over lack of money can lead to aggressive actions−child abuse, robbery,
even murder. One difficulty with this explanation is that frustration is defined in such
a very broad manner, that it includes almost any behaviour. It does not tell us why
there are some people who are frustrated but do not act deviantly.
The psycho-anlaytic theories of deviation are based on the works of Freud (1856-
1939). Freudian theorists linked deviance with defects in the super-ego or
conscience. People with weak egos were said to be unable to control their impulse,
or follow planned rational courses of action. The greatest difficulty with these
explanations based on instinct unconscious needs and conscience is that it is difficult
if not impossible to test them empirically. Like the biological theories explaining
deviance, the psychological theories too cannot account adequately for the relative
nature of deviance. The influence of the social context, variations in rates of deviance,
and social responses to deviance are also not given consideration.
31.4.3 Sociological Explanations
Sociological theories attempt to explain deviance by looking at the socio-cultural

context of deviance. The explanations include both the deviant acts and actors.
The theories we shall consider here are:
i) Anomie Theory: It focuses on value conflicts between culturally prescribed

goals and socially approved ways of achieving them. ii) Socio-cultural Learning
Theories are concerned with the way people interact and learn deviance. iii) Labelling
Theory focuses on the meanings, definitions, and interpretations applied to action.
iv) Conflict Theory contends that groups in power define the acts of the weaker
groups as deviant in order to exploit them.
i) Anomie
The concept of anomie has been very important for developing a general theory of
deviant behaviour. Anomie literally means normlessness. But this is not its meaning
as used in sociology. It does not mean either the absence of norms, or the lack of
clarity of norms. In both cases we would be faced with the problem of defining
deviant behaviour. Anomie refers to a social and cultural condition in which there is
either conflict of norms or ambivalent orientation towards norms. The credit for
bringing out the implications of anomie for a general theory of deviant behaviour
goes to the American sociologist, Robert K. Merton (1968). He aimed at showing
how some social structures exert a definite pressure upon certain persons in the
society, to engage in non-conforming rather than conforming conduct. Merton
attempted to specify the social and cultural situations which generate varying rates
and types of deviant behaviours in different social structures.
To develop his theory of anomie and deviant behaviour, Merton identified two
important elements of social and cultural structures. First, let us take the cultural
goals, purposes, and interests. These culturally prescribed goals are held out as
legitimate objectives, for all the members of the society. The members are supposed
to strive for these objectives. Second, actual structures also provide the accepted
modes or ways of reaching these goals. That is, there are normatively controlled
means to pursue these ends. Then, there is also what Merton calls the opportunity
structure in society. That is, the actual distribution of facilities and opportunities to
25
Social Control, Change achieve these goals through socially approved means. As these opportunities are
and Development
inequitably distributed among various strata of population, there is unequal access
to legitimate means to achieve goals.
Activity 2
Visit a slum near your residence. Find out about the children between 5-18
years and their daily like in the slums. Write a report of one page on “Life in the
Slums”. Discuss your answer with other students and your Academic Counsellor
at your study centre.
The foregoing propositions imply that the cultural goals are held out equally for all,
whereas the institutional means to achieve them are not equally available. This
differential access to legitimate means and opportunities to achieve goals results in
strain, namely, a sense of frustration and injustice. Deviant behaviour can be seen as
a symptom of this strain. When people are unable to realise the culturally prescribed
aspirations, through socially structured avenues which are not equally available to
them, they may adopt alternative, illegitimate means to achieve them. The theory of
anomie seeks to explain the rates and pattern of deviant behaviour in different societies.
As Merton has himself noted, many countries much poorer than the United States
such as India, have lower rates of crime. The low rate of crime in India, despite its
poverty can be attributed to the fact that poverty alone, does not operate in the
same manner in each society. It is interdependent on other social and cultural variables.
When there is traditionally little possibility of getting ahead, as in a caste society,
poverty does not account for high crime rate. Once the constitutional values in our
country, such as equal opportunity for all, are held out before citizens, the levels of
aspiration rise, and the existing inequitable social structure resentment and frustration-
the “socially structured strain” - are likely to occur and lead to a higher rate of crime,
vandalism and violence.
Merton’s theory has been subject to criticism. (i) Critics argue that it wrongly assumes
that a single system of cultural goals is shared by the entire society. The goals are
different for different people. Everyone does not aim for the same goals. (ii) The
critics point out that it has also failed to explain why some people choose one
response, while others choose a different one. (iii) Some have been pointed out that
certain types of deviance-rape, the behaviour of hippies in the 1960s-have not been
accommodated in his analysis. (iv) Other critics argue that Merton’s theory ignores
the influence of society’s reactions in the development of deviance (Eshleman &
Cashion 1983: 1630).
In spite of these criticisms the anomie theory provides a framework for examining a
wide range of social behaviour.
ii) Socio-cultural Learning Theories
These theories focus on those processes through which deviant acts are learnt, and
the conditions under which learning takes place. These theories emphasise presence
of groups that people belong to, and how they learn the norms prescribed by those
groups. Two of the theories that specifically focus on deviance are:
a) Sub-Culture or Culture Transmission Theory: The emphasis in sub-cultural
explanations is on the existence and transmission of deviant traditions, attitudes, and
behaviour among certain groups or sectors of society. Culture consists of certain
values, beliefs, knowledge, attitudes, and ideas shared by members of a society.
But within a society there are many variants of the common culture among certain
groups, which are normatively distinguishable from the larger society. They simply
26 mean “a culture within a culture”. Thus there are some sub-cultures which perpetuate,
and give support to, deviant beliefs and values. The supposition is that particular Social Deviance
individuals commit deviant acts because they have identified themselves with, and
are exposed to the normative systems that are centrally in conflict with that of the
larger society. In other words, individuals in this case receive group support to their
activities, which are stigmatised and penalised by the larger society. The sub-cultures
of these groups are directly in opposition with the larger society.
For example, some of the criminals, delinquents, homosexuals, or drug addicts may
constitute specific groups of deviants, each of which have some attitudes, beliefs,
values and behaviour patterns shared by their respective members.
Box 31.01
Even thieves have a code of conduct. Some of the tribes in India, such as, the
Sansis, the Pardis, the Nats, etc. were considered to be the criminal tribes since
they practised crimes like theft, robbery, murder as part of their customary
traditions. It was committed in a ritualistic manner as part of worship of their
gods and goddesses. Thus, you may have heard of murders and dacoities in
certain areas in Delhi where the wooden leg of cots were used to kill their victims
before robbing them.
Several sociologists have paid attention to the notion of sub-culture in the analysis of
a wide range of deviant behaviour, particularly crime, delinquency, drug addiction,
homosexuality, etc. This notion was already evident in the urban studies of a group
of sociologists known as the “Chicago Sociologists’. They pointed out around the
1920s that in several sectors of the city, particularly in the slum areas, there existed
well-developed and persistent patterns of values and norms, which were at variance
with those of the ‘respectable’ society. They were reflected in such behaviour as
organised forms of crime, delinquency, prostitution, etc. Such patterns were easily
transmitted to the younger generations as part of their socialisation process.
b) The Differential Association Theory: The differential association theory was
devised by Sutherland. He tried to answer the question “Why are some people
attracted to deviant behaviours while others are not?” More specifically, he attempted
to find out why crime rates vary among different groups of people.
Sutherland (1939) proposed that deviance is learned by association with those who
hold these values. Learning a deviant behaviour involves acquiring a set of motives,
drives, rationalisations and attitudes and specific techniques for committing the deviant
act itself. People are regarded deviant when they acquire more definitions that favour
violating norms and laws than oppose such violation. He pointed out that deviant
behaviour of individuals in the group may vary in frequency, duration, priority and
intensity, depending on the amount of time they have spent with groups possessing
different norms. The variations in group involvement’s are known as “differential
association”.
He did not believe that contact with criminals is a necessary condition for a person to
become deviant. Exposure to conditions favouring deviance was enough. The
influence and frequency of these exposures vary from person to person. Sutherland’s
theory was later revised as a social learning theory, around the late 70s in terms of
the behavioural theory in psychology. Critics argue that socio-cultural learning
theories, do not explain how deviance originated or how certain behaviours came to
be defined as deviant. It has also been argued that they do not deal adequately with
those who commit deviant acts in isolation rather than as part of a group (Eshleman
and Cashion: 1983 : 165). 27
Social Control, Change iii) Labelling Theory
and Development
The theories mentioned so far have focused on deviance in terms of people and
acts, the process of learning deviance. Labelling theory looks specifically at the
consequences of labelling a person “deviant”. How does a society construct
definitions of deviance? How and by whom are these labels applied to certain
people? How does labelling affect a person’s behaviour? Attention is focused on
the nature of origin of social norms and on the social reaction to labels aimed
at those whose behaviour departs from these norms. The main premise of the
approach is two-fold. First, it directs attention to the fact that social deviance, as
defined by social norms, is relative. What is deviant at one time and in one context
may not be deviant at another time or context. Secondly, the role of those involved
in labelling a person as deviant, is itself an independent variable in creating or leading
to deviance.
The labelling orientation recognises three levels of analysis. First, the society at
large, consisting of various interest groups. These define and judge various forms of
behaviour as deviant. Second, there are various individuals with whom the person
concerned interacts daily and who label him in one way or the other. Thirdly there
are the official and organisational agents of control who implement societal reaction,
and label or stigmatise the individual, leading him or her to deviant commitment and
career. You may understand this perspective by an example. It is common experience
that a child who is constantly labelled by his parents or teachers as a ‘bad’, ‘dull’ or
‘unintelligent’ child, gradually begins to accept his negative self-evaluation, and then
begins to ‘actually’ act or behave in similar manner.
The implications of the labelling perspective is that it redirects our attention,

to processes of rule making in society, and the interests and activities of those
who label the individual as deviant. Labelling analysis is indebted also to the
social conflict school. The social definition of deviance and labelling of an
individual as deviant, involve aspects of social conflict among several interest groups
in society.
The labelling theory too has its critics. They say that it does not explain the causes
of deviance. It cannot be used to predict who will be labelled deviant and in what
context. Labelling theory is difficult to test empirically. It has also been pointed out
by some criminologists that the labelling theory is inadequate. In that it makes all
deviance depend on labels, as if, without labels, there would be no deviance (Eshleman
and Cashion: 1983 : 169)
iv) The Conflict Theory
Conflict theory argues that most societies have many groups which have different,
often conflicting values. The strongest groups in a society have the power and
authority to define the values of weaker and subordinate groups as deviant. Quinney
(1979) for instance, describes crime as that human conduct which is desired by
authorised agents in a politically organised society. These agents often define as
criminal any behaviour that conflicts with their interests. By publicising these definitions
of crime through the media, powerful people impose their own interest on others.
Thus laws about theft, robbery, have been intended to help to protect the interests
of powerful capitalists rather than the powerless workers. Many conflict theorists
perceive that their findings will stimulate political action. They believe it will help to
raise a revolutionary consciousness, and the oppression of the powerless by the
28 powerful.
Like other theories, conflict theory has its own critics. Some of the criticisms have Social Deviance
been :
a) it does not search for causes
b) it does not explain the crimes and deviance’s that are basically non-political
c) it assumes that in the Utopian Communist Society (which will materialise after
the overthrow of the capitalist regime) murder, robbery, rape and other crimes
will disappear after the “power” to criminalise them is abolished (Eshleman &
Cashion 1983 : 164).
1) What are the major types of explanations generally given for deviance? Use
about two lines.
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2) What is the major focus of biological theorists? Use only one line.
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3) Sociological theories attempt to explain deviance by looking at the
psychological context. Tick the correct box.
Yes No
4) List out the major sociological explanations of deviance.
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31.5 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you have been exposed to the meaning and nature of deviance.
Deviance is a relative concept inasmuch as its definition varies from group to
group and from time to time. It is difficult to define deviance universally as different
societies differ in their norms and values. A departure from this is called deviant
behaviour.
We also talked about the various ways in which deviance has been classified, and
then raised the question about what causes deviance. We have outlined the various
explanations of deviance from the various explanations of deviance from the
perspective of biology, psychology and sociology. In sociology deviant behaviour is
seen as a consequence of certain features in the cultural and social structures of
society.
29
Social Control, Change
and Development 31.6 KEY WORDS
Alienation : A psychological condition where an individual feels that he/she is
isolated from the rest of the world.
Anomie : A social situation in which values are conflicting, weak and absent.
Instinct : A complex behaviour pattern that is biologically inherited and
common to all members of a given species.
Social Status : Positions individuals occupy in the society, e.g. father, mother,
occupational positions like Teacher, Student, etc.

Horton. P.B. and Hunt, C.L., 1981. Sociology, McGraw-Hill: London.
Johnson, H. 1966. Sociology: A Systematic Introduction, Allied Publishers: New
Delhi.

PROGRESS
1) Deviance refers to norm violations or to that behaviour which departs from
some norms or standard behaviour.
2) The three main difficulties in defining deviance are:
a) Variation by time.
b) Variation by culture.
c) Variation by social position.
1) a) Cultural and psychological deviance,
b) individual and group deviance, and
c) primary and secondary deviance.
2) Freak, Sinful, Criminal, Sick and Alienated.
1) There are three types of explanations:
Biological, Psychological and Sociological
2) Biological theorists tend to focus on heredity or anatomical or physiological
factors.
3) No
4) Anomie Theory
Socio-cultural Learning Theories
Labelling Theory
30 Conflict Theory
UNIT 32 SOCIAL CONFLICT
Structure
32.0 Objectives
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Sociological Concept of Social Conflict
32.2.1 Perspective of Economic Determinism
32.2.2 Perspective of Max Weber
32.3 Elements of Social Conflict

32.4 Functions of Social Conflict
32.4.1 Positive Consequences of Conflict
32.4.2 Dysfunctions of Conflict
32.5 Types of Social Conflict

32.5.1 Class Conflicts
32.5.2 Political Conflict
32.5.3 Communal/Ethnic Conflicts
32.5.4 Factional Conflicts
32.6 Conflict as a Condition of Social Change

32.7 Let Us Sum Up
32.8 Key words
32.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit you must be able to:
• define social conflict and describe its nature;
• explain the integrative and disintegrative aspects of social conflicts;
• list and describe the four types of social conflict, commonly seen to occur in
human societies; and
• describe conflict as a condition of social change.
32.1 INTRODUCTION
Social conflict is an important area of sociological study. In this unit, we discuss the
basic concept of social conflict, and describe the contributions of Karl Marx and
Max Weber on the nature of social conflict. Then, the unit deals with the various
functions of conflict in society. Finally, we discuss the types of conflicts found in
almost all societies, and conflict in relation to change.
31
and Development 32.2 SOCIOLOGICAL CONCEPT OF SOCIAL
CONFLICT
If one were to look at the major concerns in sociology, we find primarily two: The
first one tends to focus on the nature of social order, social stability, and consensus.
The second one deals with change, disorder, instability and social conflict. Sociological
perspectives fall broadly in the categories of function i.e., consensus-based, and
conflict which is primarily oriented, to explaining the elements of instability and change.
Under the influence of the evolutionary perspective in the natural sciences, many
early sociologists have also dealt with the phenomenon of social conflict. However,
the discussions centred on the unintended (more or less autonomous) interaction, in
the tradition of the Darwinian concept of “struggle for survival”. This phase was
followed by an examination of the problems of order or the problems of social
solidarity. These gave rise to the functionalist school in sociology and social
anthropology. Karl Marx was an important social thinker who systematically analysed
the phenomenon of social conflicts. Yet the major discussions in academic sociology
centred on the explanations of social structure and social organisation. This phase
continued almost until the first half of the present century. It was after the 1950s,
that a focused and systematic examination of the phenomenon of social conflict was
undertaken. Let us look at some of the perspectives on social conflict in order to
understand its nature.
Today conflict theorists insist that conflict is a perennial feature of social life, and that
as a result societies are in a state of constant change. They see conflicts involving a
broad range of interests and groups. The interests are economic, political, legal,
religious, social and moral. The groups involved are young against old, male against
female, one ethnic group against another, one caste against another, one religious
group against another, workers against employers and so on. Why do conflicts
emerge and continue to persist in social life? The broad answer appears to be that
things like power, prestige, wealth and other resources are not equally available to
everyone−they are scarce commodities. Those who have them or who have control
over these scarce commodities, will always try to defend and protect their interests
at the expense of others. As a result, conflict emerges between the groups of opposing
interests.
32.2.1 Perspective of Economic Determinism
Karl Marx’s (1818-1883) contribution to the area of social conflict is of immense

importance. Social conflict, he believed, was the source of all social change. He
saw conflict as a social relationship between two classes having opposing
economic interests. These two classes in capitalist society are the bourgeoisie, (or
owners or the “haves” who own the means of production). The economic power of
the “haves”, gives them power in other spheres too like political and social. The
acquisition of power by one class is according to Marx, always at the cost of the
other class. The unequal distribution of power is sought to be resisted by the class
of the have-nots. These organise themselves to overthrow the rule of the “haves”
through revolutionary action. The resulting new social order (where there would be
no classes) is an improvement on the old one. In this sense, social conflict can be
seen as a vehicle of social progress. Thus, Marx looked at social conflicts essentially
within the sphere of economic life. His analysis concentrated primarily on the analysis
32 of class conflicts in the capitalist society.
Social Conflict
Opposing Economic Interest of the Bourgeoisie & the Proletariat;

Marxist View of Social Conflict
32.2.2 Perspective of Max Weber

Max Weber (1864-1920) too insisted that social conflict cannot be excluded from
social life. He pointed out that conflict is a social relationship which has its own
characteristics. The important characteristics are:
i) The action within the relationship is oriented intentionally, to carry out the will
of the actors or groups against another actor or group.
ii) the effort to carry out one’s will against the other, stimulates a resistance from
the other against this imposition. So Weber insists that for a relationship to be
called a “conflict relationship”, there must be the following elements:
a) Power, and exercise of the power intentionally.
b) Resistance from the group or individual facing this imposition.
Weber did not see conflict as being confined to the economic sphere alone. He held
that conflict arises over the scarcity of such resources, like prestige and power, as
well as property and other forms of material wealth. He observed that conflict can
emerge in organisations and bureaucracies too. He pointed out that leaders who
manage the resources of large scale industrial, government, religious organisations
have a great deal of power. They can assert and have asserted their will, against the
will of other groups in society and even outside the society (e.g. multinational
corporations).
From what has been said so far about the nature of social conflict, the following
aspects of conflict relationship emerge:
i) conflict is a struggle over values. It may occur as a struggle over claims to
status, power and other scarce resources.
33
Social Control, Change ii) at least two parties are involved in the conflict relationships, to gain these
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desired values or things.
iii) the conflicting parties often aim to neutralise, injure or eliminate their rivals.
iv) conflicts can occur within a groups or between groups.
v) conflicts have persisted through time, and they are a perennial feature of social
life.
Activity 1
You must have read the story of “Mahabharata” or seen the television, serial
based on it. Recall the main elements of conflict between the “Pandavas” and
the “Kauravas”. Write an essay on the analysis of this conflict in about two
pages. Discuss your essay with the students and your Academic Counsellor at
your study centre.

1) According to Marx the basic cause of conflict is unequal distribution of political
power and authority. Tick the correct box Yes No
2) To Weber, the basic cause of conflict is confined to the economic sphere
alone. Tick the correct box Yes No
3) The two conflicting classes of the capitalist society, according to Marx, are:
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
32.3 ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL CONFLICT

From all these accounts of social conflict, we can gather something about the essential
elements of social conflict as given below:
i) In social conflict, the focus is essentially on the opposition between two or
more social categories. It may be a social group such as a trade union,
political party, professional organisation, family etc. It could also be a class
such as the working class, capitalist class, lower class, upper class, and middle
class. What is implied in all these examples is that there is a socially defined
expectation, of what that category is supposed to do in relation to another.
For social conflict to emerge, there must be at least two social categories
which are not only related to one another, but also opposing one another.
ii) All situations of conflict involve the element of power. We cannot have a
social conflict relationship, where there is no effort at the imposition of one’s
will on the other. A conflict relationship is based on the distribution of power
34
in a group.
The imposition of will by one actor or group on another, creates a condition Social Conflict
whereby the other actor or the group negates this claim.

iii) Conflict may involve hostile sentiments and attitudes.
iv) It is important to differentiate between objective bases of conflict, and its
subjective bases. As we have said before, conflicts can break out over
distribution of a variety of scarce material and non-material things such as
wealth, income, power, prestige, domination over territory, etc. Such occasions
for conflict need to be separated from subjective elements like hostile aggressive
attitudes, feelings of resentment, hatred, etc. which may also figure in the
conflict relationship.
v) The interests that we focus upon in conflict could be of several kinds. they
may be economic i.e., involving control over the resources and benefits
available in society. They can be social involving prestige or polities i.e., who
will lay a claim to legitimate authority. They may be religious i.e., whose
interpretation regarding the supraempirical world is to be accepted as valid.
Whichever be the interest or interests, conflict is present when two or more
parties have opposing interests.
vi) The conflict relationship often involves two positions − for and against the
powerful and the powerless; the exploiter and the exploited; the one who
(which) has authority to control and the one who (which) has not. Of course
there may also be a number of groups competing for power, and that power
need not be concentrated in the hands of a particular social group.
vii) Conflicts may be confined to small groups, or it can encompass the whole
world (as exemplified by the World Wars. Conflicts may vary in intensity
according to the importance of the issue involved. The scope of the issues
involved in a conflict may range from minor positional differences, to radical
transformation of the whole society.
viii) Conflicts may occur between societies (e.g. wars between nations) or it may
occur within a society between groups. Even within a group, there may be
factions, conflicting over an issue or several issues. for example, within the
Congress party there may be division of interests and ideologies.
ix) The conflict interaction might take myriad courses. It is possible that it may
be nipped in the bud by the powerful group, or that it may extend over a long
period of time. It may involve varying degrees of violence. Violent conflicts
between groups often involve the use of force.
Activity 2
Visit your local library or your Study Centre library. Open an Encyclopaedia of
Social Sciences or Britannica and read carefully about “Cold War” between the
different nations of the world before the break up of Russia. Write a note of one
page on “Cold War and its Implications” and compare your note with those of
others at your study centre. You may also discuss this topic with your Academic
Counsellor.
32.4 FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL CONFLICT

From the above discussion of elements of social conflict one is prompted to ask
“Are conflicts dysfunctional to society?” Conflict need not be regarded as only a 35
Social Control, Change destructive process, that leads to disorder and breakdown of social order. Theorists
and Development
like Dahrendorf and Coser have focused on the integrative nature of social conflicts.
32.4.1 Positive Consequences of Conflict
Based on Simmel’s pioneering and insightful work, Coser (1956) has shown that
conflict may have some positive consequences. First, by conflicting with another
group, the social solidarity of a given group is increased within. There is a better co-
ordination, and a better structural arrangement inside the group. We are all quite
conversant with this situation. Whenever our country has faced external aggression,
the whole nation has stood together as one, after eliminating all internal dissension.
The example of conflict between India and Pakistan is known to all of us which
leads to internal cohesion within the country. Sometimes wily politicians in power
may deliberately raise the bogey of external dangers, to divert attention from their
internal problems. Secondly, conflict may bring together two hitherto unrelated
groups in coalition, thereby increasing the scope of co-operative interaction. Thirdly,
conflict may give rise to some unchartered areas of co-operation between parties,
for example the emergence of the Red Cross during World War-I. Fourthly, conflict
interaction might clarify the issues which might have been clouded earlier, thereby
improving the understanding of the opponent, and creating new avenues of interaction.
32.4.2 Dysfunctions of conflict
There are, of course, numerous dysfunction’s of social conflict such as increasing

differences in a group resulting, in extreme cases, in the break-up of the group. Civil
war may result in the emergence of one of the parts as an independent state. Apart
from this, the cost of conflict, in terms of loss of human life and property are well-
known. It is also possible that the conflicting groups may develop deep-seated
suspicions and animosities within the respective groups, which may prolong over
time, resulting in continued instability of the group. It is only in extreme cases of
complete annihilation of one group by the other that the seeds of conflict once sown
may not sprout again.
1) Which of the following is not an element of social conflict:
a) Opposite Economic interest.
b) Presence of two or more groups.
c) Like-mindedness between the two group members.
2) Does conflict with another group increase the social solidarity of that group?
Tick the correct box. Yes No
3) Give an example of dysfunction of social conflict. Use two lines for your
answer.
...............................................................................................................
36 ...............................................................................................................
Social Conflict
32.5 TYPES OF SOCIAL CONFLICT
Although a number or criteria can be used for generating a typology of conflicts,
such as, conflicts based on interests, based on whether gradual change or immediate
radical change is desired, or conflict in terms of time span, or in terms of the scope
of conflicts. Here we shall talk of four major kinds of conflicts. These are conflicts
which are seen to occur in almost all societies. We shall discuss briefly the following:
i) Class conflicts which are based on the system of stratification existing in a
society.
ii) Political conflicts which are based on the acquisition of, and competition for
political power.
iii) Communal/ethnic conflicts, which are mainly based on considerations of
maintenance of the group.
iv) Factional conflicts−which occur among small group, claming position of power
within small communities.
Before proceeding to look at these types of conflict individually, it should be mentioned
here, that there is yet another type of conflict, which has been assigned historical
importance over the ages. Only a few modern sociologists have undertaken a
systematic study of this type of conflict, referred to as “War”. Early sociologists like
Comte and Spencer had recognised the importance of wars, and conquests in
bringing about social change. Recently there is a growing realisation, that sociologists
cannot afford to ignore the problem of war in the nuclear age. The recent studies on
war and peace have focused on the conditions and factors that may provoke a war
and on the issue of avoiding a war. These studies have helped in clarifying ideas
about the complex phenomenon of violent conflicts, specially conflicts that involve
the use of force. Violent conflicts like wars, conquests, revolutions, have contributed
to the emergence of large social units. New forms of stratification, and new kind of
relationships between groups within a society and between societies, may also result
from conflicts.
32.5.1 Class Conflicts
All complex societies are characterised by the phenomenon of social stratification,
which arranges all the members of the society into categories in a hierarchical manner,
with differing amounts of prestige, power and rewards. It is this unequal distribution
of benefits, that a society makes available to the various strata, that in turn becomes
the basis of a struggle between various classes. Marx insisted that conflict between
classes was the only source of radical change.
Class conflict according to him, was based on economic interests. He visualised
human societies as passing through various stages of development, depending on
the manner in which economic activities are carried out. He distinguished between
the class of the haves and the class of the have-nots. He pointed out that in every
kind of society these two groups have persisted. In the slave society there were the
masters and the slaves. In the feudal society, there were the lords and the serfs. In
the capitalist society, there are the capitalists and the workers.
The strength of Marx’s class concept lies in the fact that he sees the two classes, as
being linked with each other in terms of an exploitative relationship. The haves
have power over the have-nots by virtue of its ownership of the means of production.
When the have-nots become aware of their exploited condition, they form a class- 37
Social Control, Change for-itself. Otherwise, earlier they were a class-in-itself. They begin to fight for
and Development
their interests in a revolutionary struggle. Their victory transforms the very basis of
society namely, the ownership of production. The resulting mode of production is
more progressive than the preceding one.
In Marx’s analysis of class conflict the major factor of class conflict is the institution
of private ownership of the means of production. The recognition by the working
class in a capitalist society, that it is the private ownership that is the major cause of
exploitation in all societies, inspires them to a revolutionary struggle aimed at the
abolition of private property itself.
32.5.2 Political Conflicts
As mentioned earlier, power is an important element. Social relationships can be
organised around the acquisition, and distribution of political power. These spheres
of human activity which constitute the political domain of a society. The major
function of a political institution is the authoritative allocation of resources, and benefits
that are available in the society as a whole. It is for this reason, that power may be
sought after, but since the resources and benefits are scarce, there can be competition
for acquiring the monopoly over these resources and benefits. The group which at
the moment has control over the resources and benefits, will try to use them for its
partisan interests, thereby denying it to the others. Political conflicts then can be
seen as a demand made by diverse groups in a society to control the resources and
benefits.
The struggle for political power takes place among social groupings, which have
specific interests in a society. Political sociologists point out that the way one votes,
depends upon the interests that are furthered by a political party. There are diverse
interests in a society which, together make a claim on the political system for their
furtherance. These interests are mainly economic, but can also be of other kinds
such as religious, professional, etc. The political struggle then is a struggle between
diverse interests.
In political conflict, the sociologists have identified three main grouping−the political
party, the interest groups and pressure groups. The political party is an organisation
whose aim is to acquire power in order to govern. Interest groups articulate the
interests of a particular section of a society. The pressure groups are interest groups
which not only articulate the interests of its members, but also tend to pressurise the
government to act in such a manner as to further their specific interests. The trade
unions, professional associations of teachers, doctors, lawyers, are examples of
pressure groups. Interest groups and pressure groups act in the political arena, but
they themselves do not want to govern. The major actors in the political domain
who want to govern are the political parties. The political parties may be organised
on different ideologies with different styles of functioning. They are usually organised
around the furtherance of specific interests. In India, we have the Communist Party
which champions the interests of the working class. The Lok Dal, is primarily
concerned with peasantry, while the Muslim League tries to safeguard the interests
of the Muslims. Political parties try to broaden their basis by incorporating as many
interest groups as possible. For example the Congress Party although talks of
establishing a socialist society, accommodates the interests of the capitalists, the rich
trading class along with other sections of society. When a party comes to power in
order to govern, it must acquire legitimacy, and the more the groups whose interests
it furthers, the greater is the legitimacy that the ruling party is able to acquire. Political
conflicts can also take place within systems of parties, especially in those societies
38 where two or more parties have as much strength as the ruling party.
32.5.3 Communal/Ethnic Conflicts Social Conflict
These days, whenever, we open a newspaper, we find references to violent clashes

between religious groups, between castes, between races, or between linguistic
communities. We hear of conflicts between Muslims and the Hindus. Between high
castes and the scheduled castes. There are conflicts between blacks and whites in
South Africa, Great Britain and USA. Conflict exists between Sinhala speaking and
Tamil speaking people in Sri Lanka and between Hindi speaking and non-Hindi
speaking people in India.
Before we describe the main aspects of this type of conflict we must clarify the
meaning of the terms “communal” and “ethnic”. A communal relationship is one in
which the interests of the interacting members are identical. The concept draws our
attention to, the binding force of a commonality of interests beliefs and sentiment.
Ethnic is now commonly defined as relating to racially or culturally distinct categories
of people. Ethnic groups refer to certain types of group membership which are
based on national origin, religion, language or region, i.e., people who perceive
themselves or are perceived by others, as sharing common origins or significant
parts of a common culture. An ethnic group that faces prejudice and discrimination
at the hands of the dominant group is often called a minority. For instance, the
blacks are a minority in North America, and whites in South Africa.
Generally when we speak of communal or ethnic conflicts, we talk about the conflicts
between two or more groups, where the membership depends upon some
characteristic based on birth. This could be religion, colour, language or region. It
must be pointed out here that in India when we refer to the communal dimensions,
we refer generally to the religious identity of a community. In India we have had not
only a long history of conflicts based on religion, but also on language or territorial
origins.
While analysing communal or ethnic conflicts, social scientists have identified a variety
of subjective as well as objective factors that are seen to affect the emergence,
course and resolution of conflicts. Some believe that psychological factors like
needs, satisfaction of needs, ethnocentric feelings, prejudicial attitudes feelings of
frustration, hostility, aggression are very important in explaining this type of conflict.
Sociologists believe that communal conflicts are one instance of the general
phenomenon of a conflict relationship, and as such one has to look into the opposing
interests of the two communities. In a society where resources are scarce, and
where the democratic polity finds itself torn between the diversity of demands put
on it by various sections of the society, conflicts are likely to emerge. In those
societies where the distribution of resources is on the basis of individual activities,
the opposition of interests usually takes the form of class conflict. In a society where
the distribution of resources takes place in terms of groups based on ascribed status,
the opposition of interests is likely to take a communal form. We often observe
conflicts between landless labour, who belong to the category of the Scheduled
Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other Backward Castes, and the land owners who
more often than not, belong to the category of non-scheduled castes etc. In America
and in South Africa, skin colour has been largely the basis upon which blacks have
been assigned inferior status. Blacks in South Africa had been dispossessed of their
resources and were victims of unfavourable discrimination, unequal treatment, violence
and segregation. Both objective interests and subjective elements are strongly
involved in communal and ethnic conflicts.
32.5.4 Factional Conflicts
Sociologists generally talk of factional conflicts in terms of the struggles that take 39
place, in small communities like the village communities. A faction is an informal but
Social Control, Change a clearly differentiated group of persons in a village, which encompasses members
and Development
from different sections within it. It may be engaged in a conflict relationship with
another such organised group. In the Indian context, the village communities are
differentiated not only horizontally in terms of castes, but also fragmented vertically
across caste in the struggle for domination. In India, we can find, that the faction has
usually one person as a leader around whom the other members are mobilised. He
usually belongs to one of the wealthy families of the village, owning a large amount
of land. The other members of the faction are usually his kinsmen and those belonging
to his own caste. However, members of other and lower castes are also associated
with him in factional conflicts and they are, in many cases, persons who are
economically dependent on him, such as the landless workers.
Desire for power, domination (economic and political) and prestige may be the
goals of a faction. The emergence of factional conflict, is usually traceable to a
specific episode in which one of the powerful persons of the community, feels slighted
by another powerful member, and the feud continues over generations. Conflict is
not centred on one issue; it may be found operating in many areas, Factional conflicts
often take the form of violent physical conflicts. The feuds between eminent and
powerful castes or families in Indian village continue over generations. With the
coming up of the village self-government institutions in India, the factional conflicts
are now usually channelised through these institutions. But it cannot be said that
with the establishment of “Panchayat Raj” (self-government institutions) factional
conflicts have been greatly reduced in Indian villages than before.
32.6 CONFLICT AS A CONDITION OF SOCIAL

CHANGE
From the foregoing discussions, it is clear that conflict is an important element of
social life, and can be seen as a condition in social change. In a society social order
is necessary and order is the outcome of a complex interaction between force of
inter-dependence, cooperation, conflict alliance, and cleavages between people.
Some people and groups have more power than other people and groups in acquiring
control over resources. Sources of power are not available to everyone equally.
Social conflict can be seen as the outcome of this uneven distribution of power.
People with the greatest power are able to realise their will and interests at the cost
of those who have less power. Also in modern societies, people often have interests
that are irreconcilable. This often leads to social conflict.
This does not mean that conflict can be looked only as a dividing factor in social life.
Sociologists point out that conflict can be integrative. On the other hand cooperation
and harmony may increase within a group which faces external threat. Issues get
clarified, and settlement of disputes may satisfy everyone involved in the conflict, so
that they may come together as friends.
Conflict as a condition in social change can be looked at from so many angles.

Conflicts may lead to consolidation of units. They may also lead to new forms of
social stratification or reinforce existing patterns of stratification in new ways.
Inventories may be introduced as a result of conflict. For instance conflict between
workers and owners/controllers of production, led to the social invention of trade
union. Wars between societies led to the development of new techniques of warfare.
It was the same phenomenon of war that led to the social invention regarding peace
keeping institutions, namely United Nations.
40
The phenomenon of social conflict is closely interlinked with the phenomenon of Social Conflict
social change, social order and social control. The conflict theorists insist that society
can be best understood and analysed in terms of struggles and strife that occur over
the control and acquisition of power, authority, wealth, prestige and other scarce
and desirable resources in society.
1) According to Marx, the two classes of the haves and the have-nots are linked
in terms of an exploitative relationship. Tick the correct box. Yes No
2) What do you mean by factional conflict? Use about three lines for your
answer.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
3) What are the three major grouping involved in political conflicts? Use about
three lines for your answers.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
4) What is a communal relationship? Use four lines for your answer.
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
32.7 LET US SUM UP

Let us outline the important points we have discussed in this unit. We defined social
conflict−at the simplest level it means opposition between two social categories.
We outlined the nature of conflict from some important sociological contributions.
We then examined in detail what Marx had to say about social conflict. He stressed
on conflict in the economic sphere. We also outlined Weber’s views on conflict.
We pointed out the functional and dysfunctional aspects of conflict. In the typology
of conflicts we talked about class conflicts, political conflicts, communal/ethnic
conflicts and factional conflicts. Lastly, we discussed the process of conflict as a
condition of social change.
41
and Development 32.8 KEY WORDS
Ethnic : It relates to racially or culturally distinct categories of people.
Social conflict : A social relationship based on opposing interests.
Social stratification : A system of hierarchical relationships. It refers to the inequality

in society as a result of unequal possession of material goods,
wealth, power etc., by different groups of people.

Bottomore, T.B., 1987. Sociology : A Guide to Problems and Literature, Allen
and Unwin: London.
Johnson, H. 1986. Sociology : Systematic Introduction, Allied Publishers: Bombay.
(11th reprint).

PROGRESS
1) No
2) Yes
3) The capitalist and the proletariat.
1) Like-mindedness between two group members.
2) Yes
3) Conflicting groups develop the feelings of animosity and suspicion towards
each other. For example, the communal groups in India harbour such feelings.
1) Yes
2) Factional conflicts are the conflicts which take place within the village between
small groups of persons. Basis of these conflicts may be social, economic or
political.
3) The three major groupings are political parties, interest groups and pressure
groups.
4) A communal relationship is based on the identity and interests of a community,
whether based on religion, region, language or ethnic identity.
42
UNIT 33 SOCIAL CHANGE
Structure
33.0 Objectives
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Meaning and Nature of Social Change
33.2.1 Three Aspects of Social Change
33.2.2 Some Allied Concepts
33.3 Theories on Social Change

33.3.1 The Evolutionary Perspective
33.3.2 Cyclical Theories
33.3.3 Structural Functionalist Perspective
33.3.4 Conflict Perspective
33.4 Factors in Social Change

33.4.1 Three Basic Sources of Social Change
33.4.2 Exogenous and Endogenous Origin of Change
33.4.3 Acceptance of and Resistance to Social Change
33.4.4 Some Factors that Affect Direction and Rate of Change
33.5 Relevance of Analysing Social Change

33.6 Let Us Sum Up
33.7 Key words
33.0 OBJECTIVES
On going through this unit, you should be able to:
• Define and describe the nature of social change;
• Differentiate the important theoretical approaches to social change;
• Discuss the factors that play an important role in bringing about social change;
and
• State the importance of analysing social change.
33.1 INTRODUCTION
So far, in this block you have studied the concepts of social control, deviance and
conflict. All these concepts help us to understand the universal process of change in
society. From its inception, sociology has been closely linked with the study of the
rapid changes in societies. This unit is basically concerned with nature, direction
and rate of changes in societies.
In this unit we will discuss the meaning and nature of social change; and how terms
43
like ‘evolution’ and ‘progress’ are different from the concept of ‘social change’.
Social Control, Change Then we will describe some theoretical approaches to social change, and the
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important factors in social change. Finally, we will see how the theory of social
change is used in sociological inquiry.
33.2 MEANING AND NATURE OF SOCIAL

CHANGE
Change is a very broad concept. Though change is all around us, we do not refer to
all of it as social change. Thus, physical growth from year to year, or change of
seasons do not fall under the concept of social change. In sociology, we look at
social change as alterations that occur in the social structure and social relationship.
The International Encyclopaedia of the Social Science (IESS 1972) looks at change
as the important alterations that occur in the social structure, or in the pattern of
action and interaction in societies. Alterations may occur in norms, values, cultural
products and symbols in a society. Other definitions of change also point out that
change implies, above all other things, alteration in the structure and function of a
social system. Institutions, patterns of interaction, work, leisure activities, roles,
norms and other aspects of society can be altered over time as a result of the process
of social change.
33.2.1 Three Aspects of Social Change
From these and other definitions of social change, we can see that:
i) Social change is essentially a process of alteration with no reference to the

quality of change.
ii) Changes is society are related/linked to changes in culture, so that it would be

sometimes useful to talk about ‘socio-cultural change.
Some sociologists, however, differentiate between social change and cultural

change. Social change is defined as alterations in the social structure, (including
the changes in the size of society) or in particular social institutions, or in the
relationship between institutions. They feel that social change refers mainly to
actual human behaviour. Cultural change, on the other hand, refers to variation
in cultural phenomena such as knowledge and ideas, art, religion moral
doctrines, values, beliefs, symbol systems and so on. This distinction is abstract,
because in many situations it is difficult, or nearly impossible to decide which
type of change is occurring. For instance, growth of modern technology as
part of the culture, has been closely associated with alterations in the economic
structures, on important part of the society.
iii) Social change can vary in its scope and in speed. We can talk of small scale
or large scale changes. Changes can take a cyclical pattern, e.g. when there
is the recurrence of centralisation and decentralisation in administrative
organisations. It can also be revolutionary. Revolutionary change can be
seen when there is an overthrow of government in a particular nation. Change
can also include short term changes (e.g. in migration rates) as well as long
term changes in economic structures. We can include in social change, both
growth and decline in membership and size of social institutions. Change may
include continuous processes like specialisation, and also include discontinuous
processes such as a particular technical or social invention which appears at
44 some point of time.
Change also varies in scope, in that it may influence many aspects of a society and Social Change
disrupt the whole social system. The process of industrialisation which affected
many aspects of society. In contrast, the substitution of matches for rubbing sticks
to start a fire had a relatively limited scope.
Some changes occur rapidly but others take a long time. Many of the Western
nations took many decades to become industrialised, but developing nations are
trying to do it more quickly. They do this by borrowing or adapting from those
nations which have already achieved it.
Today most sociologists assume that change is a natural, inevitable, ever present
part of life in every society. When we are looking at social change, we are focusing
not on changes in the experiences of an individual, but on variations in social structures,
institutions and social relationship.
33.2.2 Some Allied Concepts
Social change is seen to be a neutral concept. The two other terms that have often
been allied with this concept are ‘evolution’ and ‘progress’.
i) Evolution expresses continuity and direction of change. It means more than
growth. ‘Growth’ implies a direction of change but essentially in size or quality.
Evolution involves something more intrinsic, a change not only in size but also
of structure.
ii) Progress implies change in direction towards some final desired goal. It involves
a values judgement.
All changes are not evolutionary and all changes are not progressive. Discussion of
the direction of change need not involve any value judgements. The diminishing size
of the family, and the increasing size of economic units, are matters of historical fact.
‘Social change’ is a value-neutral term, in the sense that the sociologists do not study
social change in terms of “good or bad”, desirable or undesirable. One must admit,
however, that it is a difficult task indeed to make a value-free critical analysis of
changes, taking place in the structure of a society.
Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
1) Define social change in two lines.
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2) What are the main characteristics of social change? Use four lines for your
answer.
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Social Control, Change 3) Differentiate between the following terms:
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Change, Evolution and Progress. Use six lines for your answer.
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33.3 THEORIES ON SOCIAL CHANGE

The major sociological theories of change can be classified in various ways. One
can, for instance make a distinction between evolutionary, (linear) and cyclical theories
of social change. Among the former, the most significant are those of Comte,
Spencer, Hobhouse and Marx. Among the latter, the most prominent ones are
those of Spengler, Pareto, and Sorokin. In this unit, we shall briefly examine the
following perspectives on change:
i) the evolutionary perspective,
ii) the cyclical perspective,
iii) the structural-functional perspective, and
iv) the conflict perspective.
33.3.1 The Evolutionary Perspective
The notion of social evolution was taken from the theories of biological evolution.
Spencer propounded an analogy between social and organic growth and between
society and an organisation. The theories of social evolution are composed of one
or more of the following principles−change, order, direction, progress and
perfectibility. The principle of change states that the present system is the outcome,
of more or less continuous modification from its original state. Some evolutionists
add to the principles of change the notion that change must have an order.
Other evolutionists combine the principles of change and order with the principle of
direction, thereby suggesting that there is a natural linear order of change in a social
system. The evolutionary process of change implies, that every society goes through
distinctive and successive states of existence and orientation. Comte, for instance,
proposed a directional theory of society. He suggested that a society evolves from
a theological orientation, to a metaphysical orientation to a positivistic orientation.
Durkheim classified societies into simple societies united by similarity of their members,
(what he called mechanical solidarity) and complex societies based on specialisation
and functional interdependence of members (what he called organic solidarity). This
also suggests a directional evolutionary pattern.
It has been pointed out that it is sometimes difficult in evolutionary theory, to
differentiate simple direction from progress. The common theme in much of the
evolutionary literature is that societies progress over time, to a point where they
industrialise and develop in the path and manner of western nations. Extreme
46 expressions of this position are contained in the notion of perfectibility. Societies
continue to move toward some ideal advanced state of industrialisation. However, Social Change
the neo-evolutionary theories that have emerged in recent years, are more tentative
than the evolutionary theories of the 19th century and early 20th century. These neo-
evolutionary theorists do not assert that change proceeds along the same path. They
suggest that there is a general trend towards a more elaborate division of labour.
They take on a relativistic view, in that they recognise that different cultures have
different ideas of what constitutes progress. One of the greatest problems of older
theories of evolution was that they too often contained untestable, sometimes
ethnocentric propositions.
33.3.2 Cyclical Theories
The basic premise of the cyclical theories is: cultures and civilisations pass through
stages of change, starting and often ending with the same stage. This passing through
stages is called a cycle. The cycle when completed, repeats itself over and over
again. The ancient civilisations in Greece, China and India for instance, can be
explained by the principle of cycles.
Some cyclical theorists are pessimistic in that they think that decay is inevitable.
Oswald Spengler (1945) believed that every society is born, matures, decays and
eventually dies. The Roman Empire rose to power and then gradually collapsed.
The British empire grew strong, and then deteriorated. Spengler believed that social
change may take the form of progress or of decay, but that no society lives for ever.
Pareto (1916) presented in his theory of the circulation of elites, an interpretation of
history according to which social change is brought about, by the struggle between
groups for political power. His theory was inadequate in that it was based on a
limited instance of the circulation of elites in ancient Rome. His conception of political
change ignored the growth of democratic government in modern times.
More recently Sorokin (1975) has presented theories which have some features of
the cyclical perspective. Sorokin’s theory is based on the principle of immanent
socio-cultural change. This implies that any socio-cultural system (i.e. society and
civilisation) alters by virtue of its own forces and properties. This principle is interlinked
to another principle, namely, the principle of limited possibilities of change. There is
a limit to the number of alterations that can develop in a system. For example, there
is a limit to the new forms of change, and to new patterns of behaviour, that can
emerge in a society. The system simply runs out of combinations in due time. If it
does not die, it eventually starts running through the changes again. Thus, there is
“recurrence” or “rhythm” in the histories of socio-cultural systems.]
Sorokin also makes a distinction between three broad types of culture-ideational,
idealist and sensate-which he conceives as succeeding each other in cycles, in the
history of societies. Ideational culture is spiritualistic, mystical and indeterminate.
Sensate culture is the realm of science and of direct sensory experiences. Idealistic
culture has certain characteristic of both the ideational and sensate cultures. These
three types of cultures are looked upon as three views of reality that change according
to the two principles mentioned above.
Activity 1
Keeping in mind Sorokin’s distinction between three kinds of cultures, ideational,
idealist and sensate; where will you place society in India? Write an essay on
“Indian Society and Culture in the Context of Social Change” in about two
pages share your essay with other students and Academic Counsellor at the
study centre.
47
Social Control, Change Sorokin’s work is specially noteworthy not only because it contains a mass of
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historical analogies and comments on particular social transformations, but also
because it saw societies as ‘changing’ rather than necessarily progressing or decaying.
33.3.3 Structural Functionalist Perspective
Structural functional, as you have read in Unit 25 and 28 has its roots in the work of
the early sociologists especially Durkheim and Weber. Among contemporary scholars
it is most closely associated with the work of Parsons and Merton.
Structural functionalists believe that society, like the human body, is a balanced
system. Each institution serves a function in maintaining society. When events outside
or inside the society, disrupt the social order, social institutions make adjustments to
restore stability.
They also argue that change generally occurs in a gradual, adjustive fashion and not
in a sudden violent, radical fashion. Even changes which appear to be drastic, have
not been able to make a great or lasting impact on the core elements, of the social
and cultural systems. Change according to them comes from basically three sources:
i) Adjustment of the system to exogenous change (e.g. war, conquests),
ii) Growth through structural and functional differentiation (e.g. changes in the
size of population through births and deaths),
iii) Innovations by members of groups within society (e.g. inventions and discovery
in a society).
The most important and basic factor making for social integration and stability,
according to this school of thought, is value consensus.
The term ‘cultural lag’ is often used to describe the state of disequilibrium between
material and non-material aspects of a culture. Ogburn (1886-1959) who coined
this word, explained that ‘cultural lag’ occurs when parts of a culture that were once
in adjustment with each other change at different rates, and become incompatible
with each other. Ogburn (1922) pointed out how the non-material culture (values,
beliefs, norms, family, religion) often lags behind material culture (technology, means
of production output of the economic system). For example, family planning
technologies (i.e. material culture) have advanced, but people take their time to
accept them. Some sections of the population may reject the very idea of ‘family
planning’ and believe in having a large family. Again, when an event such as increase
in population or a depletion in natural resources cause a strain in society, it takes
some time for the society to understand and absorb the strain and alter its values
and institutions to adapt to the change. But in order to function smoothly, societies
adjust to maintain and restore themselves.
Critics have pointed out that the amount and kind of changes that can be explained,
with the help of the structural functionalist perspective is limited. This view neglects
revolutionary changes which are profound and sudden. It also overlooks the
possibility of a society going through long periods of malintegration, as during times
of economic recession (Eshleman and Cashion: 1983 : 533)
33.3.4 Conflict Perspective
The conflict theory takes the principle of dialectic (opposites) as central to social
life. Conflict theory also has its origins in early sociology, especially in the works of
Marx. Conflict theorists do not assume that societies smoothly evolve to higher or
48 complex levels. According to this school every pattern of action, belief and interaction
tends to generate an opposing reaction. Modern life is full of examples. The Social Change
legalisation of abortion has provoked the anti-abortion movement. The feminist

movement has stimulated a reaction from men and women. The liberalisation of
sexual mores has led to open denunciation. The basic premise is that one of the
outcomes of conflict among groups is social change. The greatest limitation of this
approach is that it lays too much emphasis on conflict, as the most important factor
of change.
In more recent sociological writing, there is yet another perspective of social change
called the ‘development perspective’. The development perspective grew from
three main sources:
i) From the study of economic growth. Economists and to a great extent other
social scientists, view quantitative growth in the economic sphere of life, as an
important indicator of a country’s progress. For example, they point out that
a country’s prosperity can be measured in terms of GNP (Gross National
Product) or per capita income.
ii) From the categorisation of all societies into technologically advanced, and
less technologically advanced. Sometimes, the emphasis is on industrialisation
and consequently societies that are highly industrialised, are seen to be more
developed than societies which are basically agricultural.
iii) From the comparison of the capitalist countries with the socialist or communist
countries.
Many social scientists have compared the socialist economy and social organisation
with Western capitalist economy and organisation. At this juncture we will not
elaborate on this perspective, as you are going to look at it in the next unit.
The development approach to social change, brought into sharp focus, the need
for formulating a broad comparative perspective, which would take into
account the complex and diverse relationships between developing countries,
between technologically advanced countries, and between technologically advanced
countries and developing nations. It can be said from the above discussion of the
various perspective, that no single theory can account for the complexity of social
change.

1) Name, in two lines, the five principles on which theories of social evolution
are based.
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2) How does the structural-functional theory look at social change? Use three
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Social Control, Change 3) What is the main argument of the conflict perspective? Use two lines for your
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answer.
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33.4 FACTORS IN SOCIAL CHANGE

The problems of why change occurs and why it has been made possible, and what
affects the rate of change, is closely linked with the general problem of the factors in
social change. It is more common to speak of the factors that affect social change,
rather than the causes of change. Why? A cause implies that a phenomenon or
event, is both necessary and sufficient to produce a predictable effect. The word
‘necessary’ suggests that we can never have the effect without the preceding cause.
The word ‘sufficient’ implies that the cause alone produces the effect. It is very
difficult to establish ‘necessity and sufficiency’ in the social sciences. We prefer to
speak of “factors of change” rather than “causes” of social change (Horton and
Hunt: 1981).
33.4.1 Three Basic Sources of Social Change
Some sociologists propose that social change takes place basically in one or more
of the following three ways:
i) Discovery
A shared human perception of an aspect of reality which already exists e.g. discovery
of blood circulation in biology. It is an addition to the world’s store of verified
knowledge. However, it becomes a factor in social change only when it is put to
use, not when it is merely known.
ii) Inventions
A new combination or a new use of existing knowledge e.g. the assembling of the
automobile from an already existing idea. The idea of combining them was new.
Inventions can be material (technology) and social (alphabet, trade union). Each
invention may be new in form (i.e. in shape or action) in function (what it does) or in
meaning (its long range consequences) or in principle (the theory or law on which it
is based).
iii) Diffusion
Diffusion refers to the spread of cultural traits from one group to another. It operates
both within and between societies. It takes place whenever societies come into
contact with each other. Diffusion is a two way process. The British gave us their
language and made tea an important ritual for us Indians; but they adopted several
terms in English from us, for example, Pacca Sahib, Chchota haziri, Jaggernaut, etc.
Diffusion is also a selective process. Majority of the Indians may adopt the English
language, but not their beef-eating habits. Diffusion generally involves some
modification of the borrowed elements of culture either in form, function or meaning
33.4.2 Exogenous and Endogenous Origin of Change
It is very difficult to determine where and how change originates. Some sociologists
have offered a distinction between endogenous change (change originating from
within) and exogenous change (change entering from outside). In practice, the origin
50
of change, can only rarely be assigned wholly to one or the other category. It can be Social Change
argued that wars and conquest (exogenous origin) have played an active part in
bringing about major social changes in societies across the world. Again it could be
said that in the modern world, the changes taking place in the developing countries
have been stimulated to a large extent, by Western technology which was introduced
in most cases following colonial rule. But in all societies, including those in which the
initial impetus has come from outside, social change has depended to a great extent
upon the activities of various social groups within the society. A major part of
sociological analysis consists in identifying the spheres and groups, that are principally
affected, and the ways in which innovations are diffused from one sphere to another
(Bottomore: 1987: 288)
33.4.3 Acceptance of and Resistance to Social Change
This leads us on to another in social change, namely acceptance of and resistance to
social change. Innovations (inventions and discovery are together termed as
innovations) are rarely accepted totally. The specific attitudes and values of the
society in question, the manifest usefulness of the innovations, the compatibility of
the innovations with the existing culture, vested interests, and the role of change
agents are some of the important factors that affect the degree of acceptance of and
resistance to social change.
33.4.4 Some Factors that Affect Direction and Rate of Change
Social change has two important aspects: direction and rate. Here, we shall discuss
the factors that affect the direction and rate of changes in society.
i) Geography, Population and Ecology
These factors are seen to bring about sudden changes or set a limit on social change.
Climatic conditions, natural resources, physical location of a country, natural disasters
can be important sources of change. A natural disaster like floods may destroy
entire population, force people to migrate to another place, or make them rebuild
their community all over again. Similarly, increase and decrease in the size of human
population through birth, death or migration can pose a serious challenge to economic,
and political institutions. Today, many geographic alterations and natural disasters
are induced by the activities of the inhabitants or a region. Soil erosion, water and
air pollution may become severe enough to trigger off new norms and laws regarding
how to use resources and dispose waste products.
ii) Technology
Technology is recognised as one of the most crucial factors in social change. You
may read Ogburn’s concept of ‘culture lag’ in detail, to understand how technology
has been an important factor in social change. The modern factory, means of
transportation, medicine, surgery, mass media of communications, space and
computers technology etc. have affected the attitudes, values and behaviour of people
across societies. To take a simple example, automobiles and other means of modern
transportation have spread culture, by increasing interaction among people who live
far away from each other. The technological feats in the area of transport and
communication have altered leisure activities, helped in maintaining social networks,
and stimulated the formation of new social relationships.
iii) Values and Beliefs
The role of values in social change has been clearly brought out in Max Weber’s
book, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Weber proposed that 51
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Technology as an Import Factor in Social Change
some historical situations, doctrines or ideas may independently affect the direction
of social change. He tried to show that the rise of modern capitalism was mainly
rooted in religious values as contained in ascetic Protestantism.
Conflict over incompatible values and beliefs can be an important source of change.
For instance values regarding racial or caste superiority, may clash with the values
of equality of opportunity and status. New laws have emerged to ensure that people
do not face discrimination on the basis of caste or race. Conflicts between group
within a society, have been and are a major source of innovation and change. For
instance, the establishment of political democracy in Western Europe can be said to
be largely the outcome of class struggles.
iv) The Great Men and Women : The role of individuals in social change
It has been pointed out that the contribution by men of genius and leaders to social
change is important. The “great men” (which includes several women leaders as
well) faced a set of circumstance, and their influence arose in part from their ability
52
to drawout persuasively the latent aspirations, anxieties and fears of large numbers Social Change
of people. They were also charismatic leaders. These leaders owed their positions
to personal qualities, and left upon events the mark of their own convictions
(Bottomore 1987: 283).
There are many more factors that can be discussed while dealing with the questions
why, how and at what rate change occurs.
33.5 RELEVANCE OF ANALYSING SOCIAL

CHANGE
No single theory or factor can explain the origin, direction, manner or consequences
of social change. Change is such a complex process, that it is difficult to explain its
causes, limits and consequences in a definitive specific manner. Sociological research
studies in recent years have concentrated on specific process of social change, and
its effects on society.
Though, sociologists say that they are trying to look at change in an objective manner,
the idea of progress is still very much present in modern social thought. According
to Bottomore (1987), it is evident in the serious commitment to economic growth in
the industrial countries, and subsequently in the countries of the Third World. More
recently, he feels, it has provided the impetus for critical evaluation of unlimited and
uncontrolled economic growth. The effects of technology on the environment has
animated powerful ecology movements, in most of the industrial and industrialising
countries. There are debates about the nature of a “good society” in relation to the
rapid advance of science and technology and to unrestrained consumerism. According
to Bottomore (1987: 290-1), it is not the business of the sociologist as such to
define, a “good” society “or a desirable quality of life” but it is his/her responsibility
indeed to:
i) be aware of those issues relating to human welfare.
ii) Outline as precisely as possible the alternative courses of change and their
implications, and
iii) Indicate what social forces are at work in producing one outcome rather than
another.
Activity 2
Discuss about the type of changes in material and non-material culture
(such as, values, beliefs, customs etc.) that has taken place in your family,
community/society with three persons, one of your Grandfathers generation,
one of your father’s and one of your own generation. List out the type of
changes observed by these three persons and write a note of one page on
“Social Change in My Family”. Compare your note with these of other students
at your study centre.

1) List out the three basic ways in which change takes place. Use three lines to
53
Social Control, Change answer.
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2) What are the two sources from which change can originate? Use one line for
your answer.
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3) What are the five important factors that are seen to affect the acceptance of,
and resistance to social change? Use eight lines for your answer.
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4) List out the four factors that affect the rate and direction of change. Use five
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33.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we looked at different dimensions of the complex phenomena of social
change. We began our examination by defining social change and outlining its nature.
We pointed out, how vast the scope of social change could be. We then proceeded
to differentiate between social change, and two other allied concepts like ‘evolution’
and ‘progress’. In our discussion on theoretical perspectives regarding change, we
focused on the evolutionary, cyclical, functionalist and the conflict perspectives. We
were able to gather that no single theory can account for social change. Social
change is occasioned by a constellation of factors like geography, technology, values,
leaders etc. We said that discovery, inventions and diffusion are the three basic
ways in which change can occur, and the origin of change can be endogenous,
exogenous or both. The acceptance or resistance to change varies due to the
operation of some factors, that were discussed.
54
Social Change
33.7 KEY WORDS
Culture lag : The time gap that occurs when changes in material culture come
more rapidly than changes in the non-material culture.
Cyclical Change: It refers to a course or series of events, that recur regularly and
lead back to the starting point.
Diffusion : The process by which cultural traits spread from one culture to
another.
Evolution : A particular process of change, (intrinsic in nature) which
expresses continuity and direction of change, involving alterations
in size and structure of a system.
Innovation : Discovery and inventions are together considered as innovation.
Linear Change : It refers to the direction of change from point A to B to C in a
line.
Progress : Alterations which proceed in the direction of some desired goal.
Social Change : Alterations that occur in the social structure and function of a
social system.

Bottomore, T., 1987. Sociology. A guide to Problems and Literature, (III Edition),
Allen and Unwin: London.
Davis, K., 1981. Human Society, Subject Pulitcations: New Delhi.
Ogburn W.F. and M. Nimcoff, 1979. A Handbook of Sociology, Emasca Publishing
House: New Delhi.

PROGRESS
1) Social change refers to the alterations that occur in the social structure, and
social relationships in a society.
2) Social Change is essentially a process of alteration, with no reference to the
quality of change. Changes in culture are related to changes in society. Changes
also vary in scope and speed.
3) Evolution expresses continuity and direction of change, implying change not
only in size but also of structure. Progress implies change in a desirable
direction. Change on the other hand is considered to be a value neutral concept
which refers to alterations in both structure and social relationships in a society.
1) The four principles on which the theories of social evolution are based are
change, order, direction, progress and perfectibility.
2) According to this school, change disrupts the social order but the social
institutions makes adjustments to restore stability. Change generally occurs in
a gradual, adjustive fashion and does not affect the core elements in the socio-
55
cultural system.
Social Control, Change 3) The basic argument is that every pattern of action, belief, interaction tends to
and Development
generate an opposing reaction. The outcome of conflict among groups is
social change.
1) Discovery, inventions and diffusion are the three basic ways in which changes
takes place.
2) Change can originate from endogenous and exogenous sources.
3) The five important factors are:
a) Specific attitudes and values of a society in which change has been
introduced,
b) The manifest usefulness of the innovations,
c) The compatibility of the innovations with the existing culture,
d) Vested interests, and
e) Role of change agents.
4) The four factors that affect the rate and direction of change are:
a) Geography, population, ecology,
b) Technology,
c) Values and beliefs, and
d) Role of Great men and women.
56
UNIT 34 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Structure
34.0 Objectives
34.1 Introduction
34.2 The Nature and Meaning of Social Development
34.3 The Prevailing Notions of Social Development
34.3.1 The Three Worlds of Development
34.3.2 Socio-cultural Dimensions of Development
34.3.3 Approaches to Social Development
34.4 Indian Experience of Development after Independence

34.4.1 Socialist Path and Mixed Economy
34.4.2 Sectoral Development
34.4.3 Community Development and Cooperative Movement
34.4.4 Target Group Planning
34.5 Let Us Sum Up

34.6 Key words
34.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
• define the concept of social development, and describe its nature;
• describe the prevailing ideas about social development; and
• give an account of the Indian experience of development.
34.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 33, we examined the complex nature of social change. The dynamics
of social change has stimulated the formulation of a host of concepts, of which the
term ‘development’ has gained much currency. Today, we use this term to describe
the complex modes of social change, especially those which have been desired,
planned, directed and stimulated in a society. We now have a ‘sociology of
development’.
In order to understand the concept of social development, which has been defined
and redefined over the year. This unit deals first with the broad nature and meaning
of the concept of development. We describe the current views on social development,
including a discussion on the ‘three worlds of development’ and some recent
approaches to social development. Finally, we look at the ‘mixed’ path of
development, including that of India. 57
and Development 34.2 THE NATURE AND MEANING OF
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Development is a broad concept and, though interrelated, it differs from social
change. Change is a value-neutral concept whereas development is a value-laden
concept. The notion of development is, in other words, the process of desired
change. All cases of change do not indicate development. Only planned and desired
changes can be described as development. Thus, it is important to keep in mind the
distinct character of the concept of development.
Secondly, we also need to distinguish between economic and sociological notions

of development. This point becomes clearer as you read this unit. While speaking
of social development, we emphasise the sociological understanding of the process
of development. As a broad concept, social development refers to the overall
transformation of individuals and society, which may enable every person to achieve
moral, social physical and material well-being. Egalitarian development is a desired
goal, but it remains only an ‘ideal’. In spite of development efforts, disparities in
various dimensions of development continue to widen between societies, regions
and groups. Variations are observed when we compare various regions or countries.
Out of such comparisons have emerged the concepts of underdevelopment mainly

in economic terms, such as per capita income, gross national product, level of the
standard of living and degree of technological advancement. There are many criteria
of ‘over’ and ‘under’ development. The simplest one of them is the ratio of industrial
capacity to social utility. It means that the countries which are unable to produce,
sufficient goods to meet the requirements of their population, may be considered as
underdevelopment, and those which produce more than what is required, as
overdeveloped. In the overdeveloped category may be placed the countries such
as America, and in the underdeveloped category, many Asian and African countries.
It is, however, a controversial point whether underdevelopment and over

development can be identified with any particular country. Further the term
underdevelopment is not acceptable, to some of the economically less developed
countries, such as India. These countries consider themselves quite developed from
social and cultural points of view. They prefer to be designated as ‘developing’
rather than as ‘underdeveloped’ countries.
An important idea implicit in the classification of countries, into developed and

developing, is that the former became a ‘model’ for the latter. The developing
countries may like to imitate or adopt the economic and technological systems of
developed countries.
What is more important about this classification, with regard to the conceptual meaning
of development, is the fact that the developing countries depended upon the
developed ones for technology, skills and monetary aid. The latter tried to exploit
the former. This is known as the dependency theory of development. Having
realised the exploitative tendencies of the developed countries, the developing
countries tried to be self-reliant in economic terms. Thus, substitution of economic
dependence by self-reliance, emerged as an important indicator of development.
The greater the self-reliance, the higher the levels of development. Endeavours
towards self-reliance resulted in import substitution by stopping the purchase of
goods from developed countries and producing them in their own country.
58
Check Your Progress 1 Social Development

1) Differentiate between change and development. Use four lines for your answer.
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2) What is the dependency theory of development? Use five lines for your answer.
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34.3 THE PREVAILING NOTIONS OF SOCIAL

DEVELOPMENT
For a discussion of the contemporary sociological concerns about development, we
can begin by outlining some of the views based on historical events, on the socio-
cultural dimensions of development. But before we examine these dominant concerns
regarding development, it would be useful to undertake a brief description of the
“three worlds of development” as it had existed prior to the break-up of the Soviet
Union. This had become an important part of the social scientists parlance since the
middle of the 20th century. Earlier the world was divided into two i.e. it was a bi-
polar world with the capitalist block of United States of America (USA), on the one
side and the socialist block of the Soviet Union, on the other. After the break-up of
Soviet Union, the ‘Cold War ‘ has ended and the world has become Unipolar, with
USA as the most powerful nation of the world.
34.3.1 The Three Worlds of Development
The First World consist of North America, Western and Southern Europe. The
countries were seen to be following mainly a capitalist model of development. The
Second World had consisted of Soviet Union and the East European group such as,
Poland, East Germany, Hungary etc. Many socio-political changes have occurred
in these countries now and they do not remain a communist bloc any more. They
were associated with the socialist model of development. The Third World was and
to certain extent still is generally used to refer to the less developed or developing
societies of Asia, Africa and Latin America. Most of these countries emerged out of
colonial rule to attain political independence only in the middle of the 20th century.
The majority of the third world countries are characterised by low per capita income,
high rates of illiteracy and infant mortality. These were generally agriculture-based
economies where people had short life expectancies, low degree of social mobility
and strong attachment to tradition (Estes, R.J., p. 92). The countries, though subject
to influence by the erstwhile First and the Second World countries, have devised
59
Social Control, Change their own national strategy and path of development. The First and the Second
and Development
World’s models of development had laid primary emphasis on economic growth.
i) The Capitalist Model of Development of the First World
The main characteristics of the capitalist model of development are:
a) provision for private ownership of property and means of production,
b) promotion of economic activities through private enterprises, and
c) minimum possible state regulation and control on private enterprises. Thus

the capitalist model is characterised by a free economy regulated by
competition.
ii) The Socialist Model of Development of the Second World
The socialist path of development adopted by the Second World, was seen to be
opposite or dichotomous to the capitalist path of development. The former, contrary
to the latter, is characterised by state ownership of property and means of production,
public enterprises and complete state regulation of economic activities. Thus, the
socialist model refers to a regulated economy.
The main allegation against the capitalist model is that, since it permits minimum
state regulation, its economic system becomes exploitative in the sense that the
working class people (proletariat) do not get their due share. The capitalists enjoy
a major share of the nation’s resources. Hence it contributes to inequalities so that
a few are very rich and the majority is very poor.
The capitalist model is, therefore, alleged to be exploitative and non-egalitarian. On

the contrary, the socialist model was ideally considered as non-exploitative and
egalitarian. Private ownership and the lack of state regulation, were considered to
be important measures of exploitation of the weaker sections and hence the causes
of income inequalities. Since, the socialist state did not allow private ownership of
property, there was a strong belief that there was no room for exploitation and
inequality in it. However, historical events proved this belief to be incorrect as the
Soviet Union could not survive for long. The period of “Glasnost” and “perestroika”
led by Gorbachev, the erstwhile Russian Prime Minister during the 1980’s, dismantled
the communist political and economic structure. The Soviet Union broke-up into
several small countries and the socialist ideology gave way to capitalist tendencies.
However, China still follows a socialistic socio-political order.
The two models had also differed in their conception of development. Whereas the
capitalist model lays greater stress on economic growth, than on equal distribution
of the fruits of economic growth. The socialist model layed equal stress on both
resource generation and equal distribution of income, and tried to change the social
system in such a way that greater social justice could be ensured. In reality, socialist
model did not give much space to individual initiative and consumeristic desires.
The foregoing discussion implies another difference between these models. The
capitalist model does not see any major conflict in the interests of the two classes-
workers and capitalists. In its eyes both the classes are complementary to each
other, they; are functionally interdependent. The rules of society, particularly about
ownership of property and distribution of income, are supposed to be based on
consensus.
60 Hence according to this model, there is no need to change the economic structure.
On the contrary, the socialist model saw inherent conflict in the interests of the workers Social Development
and the capitalists. According to it, rules are not based on consensus but are imposed
on the weaker section by the stronger one. This leads to the exploitation of the
weak by the strong, which is likely to result in conflicts, and in revolution by the
exploited people who want radical change in the system itself. Thus, the capitalist
model is sometimes designated as functionalist or consensual, and the socialist as a
conflict, radical or revolutionary model.
In practice, as observed by some researchers, these two models have entered a

process of convergence. For instance now, there is an increased state regulation on
private economic enterprises in the USA. There has been a relaxation in grants to
private enterprises in Russia. One could see income inequalities, and a tendency to
resist alterations in political and economic systems in both the Worlds.
Box 34.01
The concept of a “third world” is of European origin. It can be traced back to
France in the 1940s as a description of the political parties distinct from both de
Gaulle’s Rassemblement des Peuple Francais and the Fourth Republic (Saffire
1978). Another author, Clegem (1978) has compared the idea of the ‘third
world’ with the ‘Third Estate”, the rising but under-represented bourgeoisie
during the French Revolution of 1789. Wolf-Phillips (1979) credit the French
demographer, Alfred Sawy with coinimg the term in 1962.
However, the credit for “the worlds of development” belongs to sociologist
Louis Irwing Horowitz. In his book, Three Worlds of Development: The Theory
and Practice of International Stratification (1972), Horowitz used a variety of
criteria to distinguish between groups of countries that share more or less similar
patterns of socio-economic development.
In recent times there has developed a new concept of “fourth world” of development
as identified first by Manuel and Posluns (1974) and Hamalian and Karl (1974 :
13). They used this concept to describe “a community of the powerless, the
oppressed and the dispossed”. According to them all the other “worlds of
development” i.e. the First, the Second and the Third, share the people who belong
to the Fourth world of development. In current usage, the countries which belong to
the First world are referred to as “developed Market Economies” (DMEs); those
belonging to the Second World are referred to as the “Eastern Trading Area (ETAs);
and those belonging to the Third World are referred to as the “Developing Countries”.
The countries of the Fourth World are referred to as “least Developing Countries”
(LDCs). (Quoted in Estes, Richard J.’s” World’s of Development, www. google.com
website).
iii) Development of the Third World
It is difficult to specify the model of development, adopted by the majority of the.
Third World countries as there are variations among them, dictated mainly by their
historical and socio-cultural circumstances. What they seem to share in common is
that:
a) They are economically and technologically underdeveloped in comparison to
the countries of the so called developed world.
b) Social planning is a key element in their development process. Their plans of
development incorporate not only economic concerns, especially removal of
poverty, but also concerns regarding nation building, national culture and social
transformation. 61
Social Control, Change c) They have been seeking technological and economic aid from the developed
and Development
countries. The developed countries have given them economic assistance,
but they have also been increasingly attempting to extend their political influence
in the developing countries. It has been noted that the global military defence
strategy is, the major consideration of the developed countries, in extending
their economic and political influence to the developing countries.
In fact, the idea of the Third World is associated with the emergence of consciousness
among developing countries, of being exploited by the developed countries in the
garb of monetary help and expert advice. Some nations had become conscious of
exploitation much earlier, but others, understood this fact only after seeing the
disastrous role of big powers in the developing countries, e.g., the role of the USA
in Vietnam or the USSR in Afghanistan. The social analysts have played a very
significant role both in appreciating the help, as well as analysing the “games” of the
big powers in the developing countries.
Against this background of information about the First, the Second and the Third
Worlds we will now proceed to look at some of the prevailing conceptions about
development across the world.
Activity 1
Interview at least five people of your Grandfather’s generation and ask them
about their memories of the First & the Second World Wars. What were the
impact of these wars on Indian people. Write a one page note on the ‘‘Impact
of First and Second World War on Indian Society’’. Compare your note with
the note of other students at your Study Centre.

1) Name two countries, which follow the capitalist model of development
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2) Fill in the blanks:

a) The First World was characterised mainly by a …………….. model
of development.
b) The Second World countries had adopted a …………………………
model of development.
3) List out some countries which were generally identified as the Third World
countries. Use three lines for your answer.
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62
4) What are the three common characteristics that the Third World or the Social Development
developing countries seem to share? Use eight lines for your answer.
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34.3.2 Socio-cultural Dimensions of Development

The concept of development has encompassed many dimensions over the years.
One of the popular notions that economic growth, was a sufficient and a necessary
condition to stimulate development of all the sections of a society has been proved
incorrect. Economic advancement of a class of people has not, and does not trickle
down to the entire population. Similarly, the attainment of high levels of economic
growth by some of the developed countries has not helped to solve some of their
serious problems. In fact affluence has given rise to new and more social problems.
It is, therefore, now realised that if the ultimate aim of development is the improvement
of the quality of life of every human being in society, it cannot be achieved as a
consequence of economic growth or capital accumulation.
Sociologists now believe that it is necessary to lay stress on socio-cultural dimensions
of development. To elaborate, social development includes:
a) Proper satisfaction of basic needs, such as, food, shelter and clothing.
b) Availability of essential amenities such as electricity, transportation,
communication and water.
c) Good physical and mental health, measurable in terms of increased life chances,
abolition of environmental pollution, nutritious diet, medical care etc.
d) Economic welfare i.e. opportunities for employment in economic activities
and high level of living.
e) Development of human beings i.e. enhancement of literacy, vocational
education, moral education, creative personality etc.
f) Social integration i.e. involvement and participation of people in social, political
and economic processes and establishment and maintenance of effective social
institutions.
g) Minimisation of disparities in access to various resources and opportunities -
economic, social and political
Some sociologists have laid a special emphasis on the psychological, social and
moral dimensions while talking about the “holistic” approach to development. They
look at development as an improvement in the overall quality of life including physical,
psychological, social and cultural. They emphasise that these dimensions are very
closely interlinked. For instance, an improvement in the psychological quality of life,
entails the idea of life satisfaction including positive mental health. This requires a
proper and effective balance between material and non-material life-goals of people 63
and between instrumental and intrinsic values of society.
Social Control, Change This subjective dimension is very closely linked with the social quality of life. The
and Development
improvement in social quality, means an increase in the strength of family
stability, interpersonal bonds and social solidarity. An improvement in the cultural
quality of life signifies the upsurge of the moral dimensions. A concern for others is
the essence of social morality. They have pointed out that in many developed
societies there is more concern ‘for self than for others’, hence no true development
(Sharma 1986: 20).
Thus, the sociological approach to development looks upon the development

process as alterations that affect the whole socio-cultural matrix of society. In the
modern sense, development refers to the planned, stimulated movement of the entire
system in the direction of the overall desirable goals of a given society. Today we
have a “Sociology of Development” which is seen to be growing in two directions –
towards the analysis of internal structures and of historical linkages. A look at the
studies in this field provides us with an idea of the following approaches to social
development.
34.3.3 Approaches to Social Development
Approaches to development may be discerned on the basis of two criteria, (i)

centralisation versus decentralisation of development schemes and resources, and
(ii) unit of development, i.e., the focus of development – individual, group, village
etc. The first criterion given rise to two approaches, namely, development from the
top and development from the bottom. The second criterion gives rise to the three
approaches -–sectoral development, areas development and target group
development. Let us now review briefly the five approaches.
i) Development from the top
The approach of development from the top envisages the planning and execution, of
development schemes by the central or apex bodies of administration. In other
words, the central organisations decide the nature and direction of plan, formulate
projects and impose them on the people. For instance, the ministers and high officials
sitting in the capital, make the development plans for rural people without fully realising
their problems.
Implicit in this approach is the assumption that the people who need development
are incapable of understanding their needs, of devising development schemes and
of executing them on their own. Hence the need for experts and outside agencies.
in fact, this assumption is baseless. The elite at the top have a vested interest in
making such assumptions. Their major interest is to hold control on resources and
mobilise them for their own benefits. The people accept the development schemes,
because they have neither sufficient resources of their own, nor any control on the
resources of the community. As a result, most of the schemes imposed from the top
fail to yield the desired results.
This happens in most of the cases. A large part of the funds of development schemes
is eaten up in one way or the other, by the experts and executive personnel deputed
or employed by the sponsors of the scheme, be it own government or any foreign
agency. The major drawback of this approach is that it fails to involve the
beneficiaries, in the development process. Instead, it generates a feeling of alienation
among them. For these reasons this approach has been characterised by a higher
degree of centralisation and bureaucratisation.
64
ii) Development from bottom Social Development
The exponents of second approach of development from the bottom, on the contrary,
believe the fairness of intentions and abilities of the people who need development.
They are given an opportunity to articulate their problems as well as the ways to
solve them. They are trained and made capable, and are prepared for self-help.
Utilisations of resources for development schemes is decided, by the concerned
people themselves or by their representatives at the local level. Thus, there is a
greater decentralisation of plans and higher participation of people.
While the planners realise the importance of development from the bottom, and
claim that they adopt this approach, in practice, they often adopt the approach of
development from the top. The result is ineffectiveness of the development schemes.
iii) Sectoral development
on the basis of ‘unit’ of development, as mentioned earlier, three approaches are

envisaged, viz., sectoral development, area development and target group
development. Sectoral development approach refers to formulation and execution
of schemes for development, of a particular sector of economy like agriculture or
industry. For instance, the Indian planners thought of developing industries just after
the Independence. Therefore they made plans to develop technology or borrow it
from other countries. Stress was laid on technological education. Many institutes
and colleges were established, independently or in collaboration with other countries,
such as the United States of America, Russia and England.
On the other side, funds were made available for heavy industries such as textile,
steel and cement. Later on, when the country faced a food problem in the early
sixties, the planners thought of developing the agricultural sector. As a result, many
agricultural universities were set up, which helped in evolving high yielding varieties
of crops, insecticides and pesticides, and farm implements, like threshers. Extension
services were made available to educate and persuade farmers, to adopt new
agricultural technology, and loans were advanced to farmers quite liberally. You
have seen the results of these efforts in the form of the green revolution. The country
is now almost self-reliant in food.
iv) Area development
All regions are not equally developed. Some are more affluent than others. The
underdevelopment of regions is due to the lack of infrastructural development-roads,
railways, electrification etc. or due to the problems of floods and drought. When
schemes are devised for the infrastructural development of an area or region, we
call it area development approach. The Command Area Development Scheme,
introduced in India in 1974 for the development of irrigation resources in certain
regions, illustrates this approach.
v) Target group development
Target group approach has its focus on a particular category of people, such as
small farmers, women and farm labourers. Schemes, such as Small Farmers
Development Agency (SFDA) and reservation of seats in schools and colleges, and
in employment for scheduled castes, exemplify the target group approach. There is
another approach to development, which has its focus on the overall development
of the people residing in a locality – village or town. This is known as a community
development approach. This approach lays stress on the development of education,
health facilities, economic and social activities, and other infrastructural facilities. 65
and Development Activity 2
Visit the local Block Development Officers (BDO’s) office in your area and
interview one or two officers working there regarding the development activities
going on in this area. The nature and types of programmes going on and its
impact on the different communities in your area. Write a report of one page on
“Social Development and the role of Government”. Compare your note with
other students at your Study Centre and discuss your findings with your Academic
Counsellor.

1) Economic growth is a sufficient and a necessary condition to
stimulate development of all the sections of a society. Tick the
correct box. Yes No
2) List out the socio-cultural dimensions of development. Use four lines for your
answer.
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3) What are the five approaches to social development? Use seven lines for the
answer
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34.4 INDIAN EXPERIENCE OF DEVELOPMENT

AFTER INDEPENDENCE
There have been schemes and plans of development in almost all dimensions of
socio economic life, such as health, education, population control, industry, transport,
irrigation communication and agriculture. It is neither possible to present here a list
of all the development schemes, nor are you expected to know about all of them.
Therefore our main objective is to present a synoptic view of the development
schemes in India, introduced after Independence with a view to illustrate some of
the approaches to development, discussed in the preceding section.
66
After Independence, India did not follow either the First or the Second World, it Social Development
adopted neither the capitalist (North American) nor the socialist model of
development. It adopted a path of development in-between the two models, which
is known as ‘mixed economy’. On the one hand, India encouraged private business
and industry and gave opportunity to big business houses, such as the Birla’s and
Tata’s, and other medium and small size entrepreneurs. On the other hand it has
almost full control, at least in principle, over all the entrepreneurial and business
activities.
34.4.1 Socialist Path and Mixed Economy
The state also acts as an entrepreneur in setting up heavy industries, such as the
manufacture of steel and generation of electricity. The banks have been nationalised.
The state has full control over railways and postal departments. These measures
are illustrative of a socialist path of development. On the other hand, certain industries
are reserved for private entrepreneurs – both small and large. In some industries,
such as textile and cement, both private and state enterprises have been allowed to
operate. In many other activities, too, such as education, health and transport both
private and state agencies work, either independently or in collaboration.
It is true that India adopted a ‘mixed’ path of development, but scholars differ in
their opinion about the real functioning of the economy. One view is that India’s
path of development is a capitalist one. Entry of state in heavy industries was, in
fact, meant to support private enterprise, in the sense that these industries did not
yield high profits and required a long gestation period and high capital investment.
Hence they did not attract private entrepreneurs, and at the same time industrial
development was not possible without basic industries. Similarly, it has been argued
that big enterprises still dominate over the small ones, and the industrial sector over
the agricultural one. Also there is a concentration of economic power in a few big
business houses. The other view is that our bias has been increasing towards a
socialist model, as is evident from the facts such as nationalisation of banks. These
are controversial arguments which cannot be sorted out here. The fact remains that
India pursues a ‘mixed’ path of development.
34.4.2 Sectoral Development
No doubt India has progressed a lot in industrial and agricultural sectors, but there
has been relatively less progress in the latter. Many policies and plans were adopted,
which showed results, that were far below the expectations. The major policies for
the development of agriculture after Independence were: abolition of landlordism
(zamindari), consolidation of land holding, and land ceiling. Whereas the first two
policies succeeded, the last one was made ineffective due to several factors including
the vested interests of large farmers. However, due to increase in population there
has a natural curtailment of farm size, and it has been that further ceiling on farm size,
will come in the way of raising the productivity. All these policies reflect a sectoral
development approach.
The sectoral approach got further accentuated in the ‘green’ and ‘white’ revolutions,
i.e., development of cash crops, and dairy products, respectively. Such revolutions
have not been widespread. They are confined to a few states, such as Punjab,
Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and Maharashtra. The important thing is that the
farmers, even in these states, do not get remunerative returns from farm produce,
because of an absence of check on the rise of prices of farm inputs – machines,
fertilisers, insecticides, pesticides etc., which come from industrial sector, and also
because of a strict control on the prices of farm outputs, with the rationale that high 67
Social Control, Change rise in the prices of food grains will adversely affect the masses. This indicates
and Development
discrimination against the farm sector. The majority of people depend upon agriculture
even today. Therefore non-remunerative farm return keep the agricultural sections
in poverty.
Sectoral Approach to Development
34.4.3 Community Development and Cooperative Movement

Besides this sectoral approach, a community development scheme was initiated in
1952 for overall development of villages. The philosophy of this programme was to
educate, encourage and enable the people to develop themselves, with their own
efforts and resources. But the programme was not very successful. It was realised
that a greater participation of the rural people in the preparation and execution of
development schemes was essential. In other words, it required a greater
administrative decentralisation. Hence Panchayati Raj System was introduced in
1957. It envisaged a three-tier system, viz., Village Panchayat (viilage level),
Panchayat Samities (block level) and Zila Parishad (district level). This system
involved the people at local level, in both planning and execution of development
schemes. It was an effort towards development from the bottom. But unfortunately
the unholy alliance between the rural elite (rich farmers), on the one hand, and the
administrative and political elites, on the other, at the block and district levels made
the system weak.
The same fate met the cooperative movement. India wanted cooperative cultivation
68 on the Chinese pattern, in which the land is owned by the community (village) and
the farmers have their shares. But this did not work in India due to the country’s Social Development
political system which did not permit abolition of private ownership of land, and
because the farmers did not surrender land to the community voluntarily, in spite of
the appeal of “Bhoo Dan” (land donation) movement of Vinoba Bhave. However,
credit societies which granted short term agricultural credit did become popular.
But today many of the credit societies have become defunct, or are not functioning
effectively. The member borrowers usually become defaulters. The important point
is that there is no spirit of cooperating among the local people, because most of the
affairs of these cooperatives are managed by the government or semi-government
officials, such as the Registrar, Managing Director, Administrator etc. In many cases
the nationalised banks provide funds to cooperatives for advancing loans to their
members.
The rural credit cooperative are relatively effective in Maharashtra, particularly among
the sugarcane producers, who also have cooperative sugar mills. In other fields,
too, there are exceptionally successful cases of cooperative, viz., Milk Producers
Cooperative at Anand in Gujarat. Anand Milk Producers’ Union Limited (AMUL)
emerged out of the farmers’ cooperative efforts at the village of Anand which now
has an important place among the rural cooperatives in Asia.
34.4.4 Target Group Planning
There are many other rural development programmes for certain target groups,
under the 20-point economic programmes. Integrated Rural Development
Programme (IRDP) is one of them which combines both the area development and
target group approaches, since it includes the Command Area Development
Programme. Drought Prone Area Programme and Small Farmers’ Development
Agency. As a target group programme, its focus is on the poorest of the poor, and
the unit of assistance is the ‘family’, and not a person. It proposes to cover about
3,000 families in each block over a period of five years. Under IRDP there are
special programmes for employment, like Training Rural Youth for Self-employment
(TRYSEM). Besides there are other programmes such as the National Rural
Employment Programme (NREP). Evaluation reports of these programme, however,
indicate the failure of the programme in reaching the real beneficiaries and in raising
their economic status. The blame is laid on the executive personnel, and the rural
elite who consume a large share of the resources, meant for these programmes. In
other fields also India has made a good deal of progress. We have big hospital and
primary healthcare centres. Life expectancy has increased and many diseases such
as malaria, Polio and small pox have been controlled, and infant mortality reduced.
Now we have a large network of transport and communication. . But the results of
development have reached largely the urban population. Rural people still do not
have good schools, proper electrification, clean water and hospitals. There are no
good teachers, or proper infrastructure in schools, such as furniture, including
blackboards in many schools, and no doctors, nurse or medicines in many primary
healthcare centres. Besides this we find increased unemployment, a state of
lawlessness, an increase in social and communal tension, and a lack of social and
national concern. This shows that the country has achieved more of a quantitative
than qualitative development.
However, in terms of social political and economic awareness India and its villages
are doing fairly well. Being one of the largest Democratic nations of the world, with
an extremely vibrant political and economic structure, some amount of social unrest
is inevitable. The policies of the Government are geared towards removing extreme
inequalities and bringing about social justice.
69
Social Control, Change Check Your Progress 4
and Development
h) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
1) Which path of development has been followed by India after its Independence?
Use three lines for your answer.
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2) Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) is an example of sectoral
development. Tick the correct box. Yes No
34.5 LET US SUM UP

This unit has explained that development is a much broader concept than economic
growth. It includes social, economic, moral, educational, physical and mental
development of people. We discussed the prevailing ideas about social development.
Then we reviewed the five approaches to social development. In the end, we
described the ‘mixed’ path of development, i.e. a combination of capitalism and
socialism, followed by India today.
34.6 KEY WORDS

Ethnocentric : Belief in the superiority of one’s own group.
Gross National : It is the total flow of goods and services produced by the
Product (GNP) economy over a specified time period, usually one year.
To this net income flows from abroad is added and outflow
is subtracted.
Value-laden : Attributing a value, as good or evil, desirable or undesirable,
to something.
Value-neutral : Interpreting objectively, without taking sides.

Gore, M.S., 1973. Some Aspects of Social Development, Tata Institute of Social
Sciences: Mumbai.
Pandey, R., 1985. Sociology of Development: concepts, Theories and Issues,
Mittal Publishers: New Delhi.
Sharma, S.L., (ed) 1986. Development: Socio-cultural Dimensions. Rawat
Publication: Jaipur.
34.8 MODEL ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
1) Change is a value-neutral concept while development is a value-laden concept.
All cases of change do not indicate development. Only planned-desired
70
changes can be termed development
2) The developing countries depend upon the developed countries for Social Development
technological and financial aid. In the process of providing this aid, the
developed countries try to exploit the developing countries. This view is called
the dependency theory of development.
1) The United States of America and the United Kingdom.
2) a) capitalist
b) socialist
3) India, Pakistan, Thailand, Vietnam, Venezuela, Nicaragua – these countries
are generally identified as the Third World countries or the developing countries.
4) Common characteristics shared by the Third World countries are:
a) underdeveloped economy and technology
b) a wider meaning of development which includes social transformation
c) The Third World countries were pressurised by the developed countries
to follow their dictates.
1) No
2) Socio-cultural dimensions of development are proper satisfaction of basic
needs, availability of necessary amenities, economic welfare, access to
educational development, social integration and minimisation of inequalities in
society.
3) Basing on the two criteria of the centralisation and decentralisation of
development schemes and resources, the five approaches to social development
are:
a) development from the top
b) development from the bottom
c) sectoral development
d) area development
e) target group development
1) India has followed a ‘mixed’ path of development. India encourage private
business and industry and also exercises almost full control on the
entrepreneurial and business activities. It has recently began to focus on area
development and target group development, thus taking care of socio-cultural
dimensions of development.
2) No
71
and Development REFERENCES
References cited in Block 8 (These are given here for those students who wish to
follow certain points in detail.)
Berger, Peter, 1963. Invitation to Sociology. Danble Day & Co. : New Delhi.
Bottomore, T.B.,1987. Sociology : A Guide to Problems and Literature. Allen
and Unwin : London.
Bearly, H.C. 1965. The Nature of Social Control. In Joseph S. Roucek etal
(ed.) Social Control. Affiliated East West Press : New Delhi.
Coser, Lewis, 1956. The Function of Social Conflict. Free Press : New York.
Dahrendorf, Ralph, 1959. Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society.
Stanford University Press : Stanford.
Eshleman, J.R. and Cashion, B.C. 1983. Sociology : An Introduction. Little
Brown & Co. : Boston.
Horton, P.B. and Hunt, C.L., 1981. Sociology. McGraw Hill : London.
IESS, 1972. International Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences. David I. Sills
(ed.) Macmillan : New York.
Johnson, H., 1986. Sociology : Systematic Introduction. Allied Publishers :
Bombay.
Maclver, R.M. and Page C.H.., 1985. Society. Macmillan : New Delhi.
Merton, R., 1968. Social Theory and Social Structure. Amering Publication
Company : New Delhi.
Ogburn, W.V. and Nimcoff, M., 1979. A Handbook of Sociology. Eurasia
Publishing House : New Delhi.
Pareto, V., 1935. The Mind and Society. Jonathan Cape : London.
Quinney, Richard, 1970. The Social Reality of Crime. Little Brown : Boston.
Sharma, S.L. (ed.), 1986. Development : Socio-Cultural Dimensions. Rawat
Publication : Jaipur.
Sorokin, P.A., 1937. Social and Cultural Dynamics. Free Press : New York.
Spengler, Oswald, 1945. The Decline of West. (2 volumes). Knopf : New York.
Sutherland, E.H., 1937. The Professional Thief. University of Chicago Press :
Chicago.
Estes, Richard J. 1992. At The Gossroads : Dilemmas in Development
Toward Praeger. New York. (Also see www google.com - Three Worlds of
Development).
72

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UNIT 30 SOCIAL CONTROL

30.2.2 Related Concepts

30.3 Goals of Social Control

30.4.2 Formal Social Control

30.5 Mechanisms, Means and Consequences of Social Control

30.6 Limits on Social Control

30.2 MEANING AND NATURE

30.3 GOALS OF SOCIAL CONTROL

30.4 METHODS OF SOCIAL CONTROL

30.4.2 Formal Social Control

30.5 MECHANISMS, MEANS AND

Village Ex-Communicates one of their member

c) Economic sanctions : These include positive rewards like promotion

iv) Social Tensions

30.6 LIMITS ON SOCIAL CONTROL

iii) In a complex society, it is not generally possible to impose social control

Check Your Progress 3

30.7 LET US SUM UP

30.8 KEY WORDS

30.10 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

31.3 Basic Types of Deviance and Deviants

31.3.2 Five Types of Deviants

31.4 Explanations of Deviation

31.5 Let Us Sum Up

31.2 MEANING AND NATURE OF DEVIANCE

31.3 BASIC TYPES OF DEVIANCE AND DEVIANTS

‘abnormal’ varies cross-culturally. It also depends on the socio-economic status of

31.4 EXPLANATIONS OF DEVIATION

31.4.2 Psychological Explanations

These explanations focus on the person who engages in deviant behaviour.

One group of psychological explanations associates deviance with sickness, arguing

31.4.3 Sociological Explanations

Sociological theories attempt to explain deviance by looking at the socio-cultural

The theories we shall consider here are:

i) Anomie Theory: It focuses on value conflicts between culturally prescribed

The implications of the labelling perspective is that it redirects our attention,

iv) The Conflict Theory

31.5 LET US SUM UP

31.7 FURTHER READINGS

31.8 MODEL ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR

32.3 Elements of Social Conflict

32.5 Types of Social Conflict

32.6 Conflict as a Condition of Social Change

• define social conflict and describe its nature;

• explain the integrative and disintegrative aspects of social conflicts;

• describe conflict as a condition of social change.

32.2.1 Perspective of Economic Determinism

Karl Marx’s (1818-1883) contribution to the area of social conflict is of immense

Opposing Economic Interest of the Bourgeoisie & the Proletariat;

32.2.2 Perspective of Max Weber

Check Your Progress 1

32.3 ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL CONFLICT

whereby the other actor or the group negates this claim.

32.4 FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL CONFLICT

32.4.1 Positive Consequences of Conflict

32.4.2 Dysfunctions of conflict

There are, of course, numerous dysfunction’s of social conflict such as increasing

Check Your Progress 2

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answer.