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Real Numbers
Introduction to Real Numbers
Real Numbers

Real numbers constitute the union of all rational and irrational numbers.
Any real number can be plotted on the number line.

Euclid's Division Lemma

Euclid's Division Lemma states that given two integers a and b, there exists a unique
pair of integers q and r such that a = b × q + r and 0 ≤ r < b.
This lemma is essentially equivalent to : dividend = divisor × quotient + remainder
In other words, for a given pair of dividend and divisor, the quotient and remainder
obtained are going to be unique. 

Euclid's Division Algorithm

Euclid’s Division Algorithm is a method used to find the H.C.F of two numbers, say a
and b where a> b.
We apply Euclid’s Division Lemma to find two integers q and r such that
a = b × q + r and 0 ≤ r < b .
If r = 0, the H.C.F is b, else, we apply Euclid’s division Lemma to b (the divisor) and r
(the remainder) to get another pair of quotient and remainder.
The above method is repeated until a remainder of zero is obtained. The divisor in that
step is the H.C.F of the given set of numbers.

The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

Prime Factorisation

Prime Factorisation is the method of expressing a natural number  as a product of

prime numbers.
Example: 36 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3  is the prime factorisation of 36.

Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic states that the prime factorisation for a given
number is unique if the arrangement of the prime factors is ignored.
Example: 36 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 OR, 36 = 2 × 3 × 2 × 3
Therefore, 36 is represented as a product of prime factors (Two 2s and two 3s)
ignoring the arrangement of the factors.
Method of Finding LCM

Example: To find the Least Common Multiple  (L.C.M) of 36 and 56, 

1. 36 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3

56 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 7

2. The common prime factors are 2 × 2

3. The uncommon prime factors are  3 × 3 for 36 and 2 × 7 for 56.
4. LCM of 36 and 56 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 2 × 7  which is 504

Method of Finding HCF

H.C.F can be found using two methods - Prime factorisation and Euclid’s division algorithm.

Prime Factorisation:
Given two numbers, we express both of them as products of their respective
prime factors. Then, we select the prime factors that are common to both the
numbers
Example - To find the H.C.F of 20 and 24
20 = 2 × 2 × 5

24 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3

The factor common to 20 and 24 is 2 × 2, which is 4, which in turn is the H.C.F of

20 and 24.
Euclid’s Division Algorithm:
It is the repeated use of Euclid’s division lemma to find the H.C.F of two numbers.
Example: To find the HCF of 18 and 30 

Finding the HCF of 18 and 30

The required HCF is 6.

Product of Two Numbers = HCF X LCM of the Two Numbers

For any two positive integers a and b,

a × b = H . C. F × L. C. M .

Example - For 36 and 56, the H.C.F is 4 and the L.C.M is 504
36 × 56 = 2016

4 × 504 = 2016

Thus, 36 × 56 = 4 × 504
The above relationship, however, doesn’t hold true for 3 or more numbers

Applications of HCF & LCM in Real-World Problems

L.C.M can be used to find the points of common occurrence. This could be the common
ringing of bells that ring with different frequencies, the time at which two persons running
at different speeds meet, and so on.

Revisiting Irrational Numbers

Irrational Numbers

Any number that cannot be expressed in the form of (where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0
p

.) is an irrational number. Examples - √2, √4, π, e and so on.

3

Number theory: Interesting results

If a number p (a prime number) divides a , then p divides a. Example: 3 divides 6 i.e 36,
2 2

which implies that 3 divides 6.

The sum or difference of a rational and an irrational number is irrational 
The product and quotient of a non-zero rational and irrational number is irrational.
√p is irrational when 'p' is a prime. For example, 7 is a prime number and √7 is
irrational. The above statement can be proved by the method of “Proof by
contradiction”.

Proof by Contradiction

In the method of contradiction, to check whether a statement is TRUE

(i) We assume that the given statement is TRUE.
(ii) We arrive at some result which contradicts our assumption, thereby proving the
contrary.
Eg: Prove that √7 is irrational.
Assumption : √7 is rational.
Since it is rational √7 can be expressed as
√7 =
a
, where a and b are co-prime Integers, b ≠ 0.
b
2

On squaring, a

2
= 7
b

⇒ a
2
. = 7b
2

Hence, 7 divides a. Then, there exists a number c such that a=7c. Then, a = 49c . Hence,
2 2

7b = 49c or b = 7c .
2 2 2 2

Hence 7 divides b. Since 7 is a common factor for both a and b, it contradicts our
assumption that a and b are coprime integers.
Hence, our initial assumption that √7  is rational is wrong. Therefore, √7 is irrational.

Revisiting Rational Numbers and Their Decimal Expansions

Rational Numbers

Rational numbers are numbers that can be written in the form , where p and q are
p

integers and q ≠ 0.  
Examples -   and so on.
1 4
, , 1, 0, −3
2 5

Terminating and nonterminating decimals

Terminating decimals are decimals that end at a certain point. Example: 0.2, 2.56 and so on.
Non-terminating decimals are decimals where the digits after the decimal point don’t
terminate. Example: 0.333333….., 0.13135235343…
Non-terminating decimals can be :
a) Recurring - a part of the decimal repeats indefinitely (0.142857142857….)
b) Non-recurring - no part of the decimal repeats indefinitely. Example: π = 3.1415926535...

Check if a given rational number is terminating or not

If a

b
is a rational number, then its decimal expansion would terminate if both of the
following conditions are satisfied :
a) The H.C.F of a and b is 1.
b) b can be expressed as a prime factorisation of 2 and 5 i.e b = 2 × 5 where either m or
m n

n, or both can = 0.
If the prime factorisation of b contains any number other  than 2 or 5, then the decimal
expansion of that number will be recurring
Example:
= 0.025 is a terminating decimal,  as the H.C.F of 1 and 40 is 1, and the denominator (40)
1

40

can be expressed as 2 3 1
× 5 .
is a recurring decimal as the H.C.F of 3 and 7 is 1 and the denominator (7) is
3
= 0.428571
7

equal to 7 1
Polynomial
Basics Revisited
Algebraic Expressions

An algebraic expression is an expression made up of variables and constants along with

mathematical operators. 

An algebraic expression is a sum of terms, which are considered to be building blocks

for expressions.

A term is a product of variables and constants. A term can be an algebraic expression in

itself.
Examples of a term - 3 which is just a constant.
- 2x, which is the product of constant '2' and the variable 'x'
- 4xy, which is the product of the constant '4' and the variables 'x' and 'y'.
- 5x y, which is the product of 5, x, x and y.
2

The constant in each term is referred to as the coefficient .

Example of an algebraic expression - 3x 2

y + 4xy + 5x + 6 - which is the sum of four terms -
2
3x y,  4xy,  5x and 6

An algebraic expression can have any number of terms. The coefficient in each term can be
any real number. There can be any number of variables in an algebraic expression. The
exponent on the variables, however, must be rational numbers.

Polynomial

An algebraic expression can have exponents that are rational numbers. However, a

polynomial is an algebraic expression in which the exponent on any variable is a whole
number. 

5x
3
+ 3x + 1 is an example of a polynomial. It is an algebraic expression as well

2x + 3√x is an algebraic expression, but not a polynomial. - since the exponent on x is 1

which is not a whole number.

Degree of a Polynomial

For a polynomial in one variable - the highest exponent on the variable in a polynomial is
the degree of the polynomial.
Example: The degree of the polynomial x 2
+ 2x + 3 is 2, as the highest power of x in the
given expression is x . 2

TYPES OF POLYNOMIALS

Polynomials can be classified based on

a) Number of terms
b) Degree of the polynomial.

Types of polynomials based on the number of terms

a) Monomial - A polynomial with just one term. Example - 2x, 6x , 9xy 2

b) Binomial - A polynomial with two terms. Example - 4x 2

+ x , 5x + 4

a) Trinomial - A polynomial with three terms. Example - x 2

+ 3x + 4

Types of polynomials based on degree:

Linear Polynomial

A polynomial whose degree is one is called a linear polynomial.

For example, 2x + 1 is a linear polynomial.

Quadratic Polynomial

A polynomial of degree two is called a quadratic polynomial.

For example, 3x 2
+ 8x + 5 is a quadratic polynomial.

Cubic Polynomial

A polynomial of degree three is called a cubic polynomial.

For example, 2x 3
+ 5x
2
+ 9x + 15 is a cubic polynomial.  

Graphical Representations
Representing Equations on a Graph
Any equation can be represented as a graph on the Cartesian plane, where each point on
the graph represents the x and y coordinates of the point that satisfies the equation. An
equation can be seen as a constraint placed on the x and y coordinates of a point, and any
point that satisfies that constraint will lie on the curve

For example, the equation y = x, on a graph, will be a straight line that joins all the points
which have their x coordinate equal to their y coordinate. Example - (1,1), (2,2) and so on.

Visualization of a Polynomial
Geometrical Representation of a Linear Polynomial

The graph of a linear polynomial is a straight line. It cuts the X-axis at exactly one point.
Linear graph

Geometrical Representation of a Quadratic Polynomial

The graph of a quadratic polynomial is a parabola.

It looks like a U which either opens upwards or opens downwards depending on the
value of a in ax + bx + c. 
2

If a is positive then parabola opens upwards and if a is negative then it opens

downwards.
It can cut the x-axis at 0, 1 or two points.

Graph of a polynomial which cuts the x-axis in two distinct points (a>0)
Graph of a Quadratic polynomial which touches the x-axis at one point (a>0)

Graph of a Quadratic polynomial that doesn't touch the x-axis (a<0)

Graph of the polynomial x n

For a polynomial of the form y = x where n is a whole number:

n

as n increases, the graph becomes steeper or draws closer to the Y-axis.

If n is odd, the graph lies in the first and third quadrants
If n is even, the graph lies in the first and second quadrants.
The graph of y = −x is the reflection of the graph of  y = x on the x-axis
n n

Graph of polynomials with different degrees.

Zeroes of a Polynomial
Zeros of a Polynomial

A zero of a polynomial p(x) is the value of x for which the value of p(x) is 0. If k is a zero of
p(x), then p(k)=0.

For example, consider a polynomial p(x) = x 2

− 3x + 2 .
When x = 1, the value of p(x) will be equal to
2
p(1) = 1 − 3 × 1 + 2
= 1 − 3 + 2

= 0

Since p(x) = 0 at x = 1, we say that 1 is a zero of the polynomial x 2

− 3x + 2  

Geometrical Meaning of Zeros of a Polynomial

Geometrically, zeros of a polynomial are the points where its graph cuts the x-axis.

(i) One zero     (ii) Two zeros    (iii) Three zeros

Here A, B and C correspond to the zeros of the polynomial represented by the graphs.

Number of Zeros

In general a polynomial of degree n has at most n zeros.

1. A linear polynomial has one zero,

2. A quadratic polynomial has at most two zeros.
3. A cubic polynomial has at most 3 zeros.

Factorization of Polynomials
Factorisation of Quadratic Polynomials

Quadratic polynomials can be factorized by splitting the middle term. 

For example, consider the polynomial 2x 2

− 5x + 3

Splitting the middle term.

The middle term in the polynomial 2x − 5x + 3 is -5. This must be expressed as a sum of
2

two terms such that the product of their coefficients is equal to the product of 2 and 3
(coefficient of x and the constant term)
2

−5 can be expressed as (−2) + (−3), as −2 × −3 = 6 = 2 × 3

Thus, 2x 2
− 5x + 3 = 2x
2
− 2x − 3x + 3

Now, identify the common factors in individual groups

2
2x − 2x − 3x + 3 = 2x(x − 1) − 3(x − 1)

Taking (x − 1) as the common factor, this can be expressed as

2x(x − 1) − 3(x − 1) = (x − 1)(2x − 3)

Relationship between Zeroes and Coefficients

Relationship between Zeroes and Coefficients of a Polynomial

If α and β are the roots of  a quadratic polynomial ax 2

+ bx + c , then, 
b
α + β = −
a

c
αβ =
a

Sum of zeroes = −
coef f icient of  x

2
coef f icient of  x

Product of zeroes = constant term

2
coef f icient of  x

If α ,β and γ  are the roots of a cubic polynomial ax 3

+ bx
2
+ cx + d , then,
b
α + β + γ = −
a

c
αβ + βγ + γα =
a

−d
αβγ =
a

Division Algorithm
Division Algorithm for a Polynomial

To divide one polynomial by another, follow the steps given below.

Step 1: arrange the terms of the dividend and the divisor in the decreasing order of their
degrees.
Step 2: To obtain the first term of the quotient, divide the highest degree term of the
dividend by the highest degree term of the divisor  Then carry out the division process.

Step 3: The remainder from the previous division becomes the dividend for the next step.
Repeat this process until the degree of the remainder is less than the degree of the divisor.

Algebraic Identities
Algebraic Identities

1. (a + b) = a + 2ab + b
2 2 2

2. (a − b) = a − 2ab + b
2 2 2

3. (x + a)(x + b) = x + (a + b)x + ab
2

4. a − b = (a + b)(a − b)
2 2

5. a − b = (a − b)(a + ab + b )
3 3 2 2

6. a + b = (a + b)(a − ab + b )
3 3 2 2

7. (a + b) = a + 3a b + 3ab + b
3 3 2 2 3

8. (a − b) 3
= a
3 2
− 3a b + 3ab
2
− b
3
Pair of Linear Equations in
Basics Revisited Two Variables
Equation

An equation is a statement that two mathematical expressions having one or

more variables are equal.

Linear Equation

Equations in which the powers of all the variables involved are one are called
linear equations. The degree of a linear equation is always one.

General form of a Linear Equation in Two Variables

The general form of a linear equation in two variables is ax + by + c = 0, where a and b

cannot be zero simultaneously.

Representing linear equations for a word problem

To represent a word problem as a linear equation

Identify unknown quantities and denote them by variables.

Represent the relationships between quantities in a mathematical form, replacing the
unknowns with variables.

Solution of a Linear Equation in 2 variables

The solution of a linear equation in two variables is a pair of values, one for x and the other
for y, which makes the two sides of the equation equal.
Eg: If 2x+y=4, then (0,4) is one of its solutions as it satisfies the equation. A linear equation in
two variables has infinitely many solutions.

Geometrical Representation of a Linear Equation

Geometrically, a linear equation in two variables can be represented as a straight line. 

2x − y + 1 = 0

⇒ y = 2x + 1
Graph of y = 2x + 1

Plotting a Straight Line

The graph of a linear equation in two variables is a straight line. We plot the straight line as
follows:

Take any value for one of the variables(x 1 = 0) and substitute it in the equation to get
the corresponding value of the other variable (y ).  1

Repeat this again (put y = 0, get x ) to get two pairs of values for the variables which
2 2

represent two points on the Cartesian plane. Draw a line through the two points.    

Any additional points plotted in this manner will lie on the same line.

All about Lines

General form of a pair of linear equations in 2 variables

A pair of linear equations in two variables can be represented as follows

a1 x + b 1 y + c 1 = 0

a2 x + b 2 y + c 2 = 0

The coefficients of x and y cannot be zero simultaneously for an equation.

Nature of 2 straight lines in a plane

For a pair of straight lines on a plane, there are three possibilities

i) They intersect at exactly one point

pair of linear equations which intersect at a single point.

ii) They are parallel

pair of linear equations which are parallel.

iii) They are coincident

pair of linear equations which are coincident.

Graphical Solution
Representing pair of LE in 2 variables graphically

Graphically, a pair of linear equations in two variables can be represented by a pair of

straight lines.

Graphical method of finding solution of a pair of Linear Equations

Graphical Method  of finding the solution to a pair of linear equations is as follows:

Plot both the equations (two straight lines)

Find the point of intersection of the lines.

The point of intersection is the solution.

Comparing the ratios of coefficients of a Linear Equation

b
i) If the pair of equations are said to be consistent. Graphs of the two equations
a1 1
≠ ,
a2 b2

intersect at a unique point. The pair of linear equations have exactly one solution.
ii) If the equations are said to be dependent. One equation can be obtained by
a b1 c
1 1
= = ,
a b c
2 2 2

multiplying the other equation with a non-zero constant. In this case, graphs of both the
equations coincide. Dependent equations are consistent. The pair linear equations have
infinitely many solutions.
iii) If the equations are said to be inconsistent. The graphs of the equations are
a1 b1 c1
= ≠ ,
a b c
2 2 2

parallel to each other. The pair of linear equations have no solution.

Algebraic Solution
Finding solution for consistent pair of Linear Equations

The solution of a pair of linear equations is of the form (x,y) which satisfies both the
equations simultaneously. Solution for a consistent pair of linear equations can be found out
using

i) Elimination method

ii) Substitution Method

iii) Cross-multiplication method

iv) Graphical method

Substitution Method of finding solution of a pair of Linear Equations

Substitution method:
y − 2x = 1

x + 2y = 12

(i) express one variable in terms of the other using one of the equations.  In this case,
y = 2x + 1

(ii) substitute for this variable (y)  in the second equation to get a linear equation in one
variable, x.
x + 2 × (2x + 1) = 12

⇒ 5x + 2 = 12

(iii) Solve the linear equation in one variable to find the value of that variable.
5x + 2 = 12

⇒ x = 2

(iv) Substitute this value in one of the equations to get the value of the other variable.
y = 2 × 2 + 1 = 5

So, (2,5) is the required solution of the pair of linear equations y − 2x = 1 and x + 2y = 12.

Elimination method of finding solution of a pair of Linear Equations

Elimination method
Consider x+2y=8 and 2x-3y=2
Step 1: Make the coefficients of any variable same by multiplying the equations with
constants. Multiplying the first equation by 2, we get, 
2x+4y=16
Step 2: Add or subtract the equations to eliminate one variable, giving a single variable
equation.
Subtract second equation from the previous equation
 2x + 4y = 16
2x  - 3y =  2
- +       -
-----------------------
0(x)+7y=14
Step 3: Solve for one variable and substitute this in any
equation to get the other variable.
y = 2;

x = 8 − 2y = 8 − 4 = 4

(4,2) is the solution.

Cross-multiplication Method of finding solution of a pair of Linear

Equations

For the pair of linear equations

a1 x + b 1 y + c 1 = 0

a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0,

 x and y can be calculated as

b1 c2 −b2 c1
x =
a b −a b
1 2 2 1

c1 a2 −c2 a1
y =
a1 b2 −a2 b1

Solving Linear Equations

Equations reducible to a pair of Linear Equations in 2 variables

Some equations may be in a form which can be reduced to a linear equation through
substitution.
2 3
+ = 4
x y

5 4
− = 9
x y

In this case, we may make the substitution 1

x
= u and 
1

y
= v

The pair of equations reduces to 

2u +3v=4
5u-4v=9

The above pair of equations may be solved. After solving, back substitute to get the values of
x and y.
Quadratic Equation
Introduction to Quadratic Equations
Quadratic Polynomial

A polynomial of the form ax + bx + c, where a,b and c are real numbers and a ≠ 0
2

is called a quadratic polynomial.

Quadratic Equation

When we equate a quadratic polynomial to a constant, we get a quadratic equation.

Any equation of the form p(x)=c, where p(x) is a polynomial of degree 2 and c is a constant,
is a quadratic equation.

Standard form of a Quadratic Equation

The standard form of a quadratic equation is ax 2

+ bx + c = 0 , where a,b and c are real
numbers and a ≠ 0.
‘a’ is the coefficient of x . It is called the quadratic coefficient. ‘b’ is the coefficient of x. It is
2

called the linear coefficient. ‘c’ is the constant term.

Solving QE by Factorisation
Roots of a Quadratic equation

The values of x for which a quadratic equation is satisfied are called the roots of the
quadratic equation.

If α is a root of the quadratic equation ax 2

+ bx + c = 0 ,then, aα 2
+ bα + c = 0.

A quadratic equation can have two distinct roots, two equal roots or real roots may not
exist.  

Graphically, the roots of a quadratic equation are the points where the graph of the
quadratic polynomial cuts the x-axis.
Graph of a Quadratic Equation

In the above figure, -2 and 2 are the roots of the quadratic equation x 2
− 4 = 0

Note:

If the graph of the quadratic polynomial cuts the x-axis at two distinct points, then it
has real and distinct roots.
If the graph of the quadratic polynomial touches the x-axis, then it has real and equal
roots.
If the graph of the quadratic polynomial does not cut or touch the x-axis then it does
not have any real roots.

Solving a Quadratic Equation by Factorization method

Consider a quadratic equation 2x 2

− 5x + 3 = 0

2
⇒ 2x − 2x − 3x + 3 = 0

This step is splitting the middle term

We split the middle term by finding two numbers (-2 and -3) such that their sum is equal to
the coefficient of x and their product is equal to the product of the coefficient of x and the
2

constant.
(-2) + (-3) = (-5)
And (-2) × (-3) = 6 
2
2x − 2x − 3x + 3 = 0

2x(x − 1) − 3(x − 1) = 0

(x − 1)(2x − 3) = 0

In this step, we have expressed the quadratic polynomial as a product of its factors.
Thus, x = 1 and x = are the roots of the given quadratic equation.
3

This method of solving a quadratic equation is called the factorisation method. 

Solving QE by Completing the Square

Solving a Quadratic Equation by Completion of squares method
In the method of completing the squares, the quadratic equation is expressed in the form
2 2
(x ± k) = p .

Consider the quadratic equation 2x 2

− 8x = 10

(i) Express the quadratic equation in standard form.

2
2x − 8x − 10 = 0

(ii) Divide the equation by the coefficient of x to make the coefficient of x equal to 1.
2 2

2
x − 4x − 5 = 0

(iii) Add square of half of the coefficient of x to both sides of the equation to get an
expression of the form x 2
± 2kx + k .
2

2
(x − 4x + 4) − 5 = 0 + 4

(iv) Isolate the above expression, (x ± k) on the LHS to obtain an equation of the form
2

2 2
(x ± k) = p

2
(x − 2) = 9

(v) Take the positive and negative square roots.

x − 2 = ±3

x = −1 or x = 5

Solving QE Using Quadratic Formula

Quadratic Formula

Quadratic Formula is used to directly obtain the roots of a quadratic equation from the
standard form of the equation.

For the quadratic equation ax 2

+ bx + c = 0,
2
−b±√b −4ac
x =
2a

By substituting the values of a,b and c, we can directly get the roots of the equation.

Discriminant

For a quadratic equation of the form ax 2

+ bx + c = 0, the expression b 2
− 4ac is called the
discriminant, (denoted by D), of the quadratic equation.
The discriminant determines the nature of roots of the quadratic equation based on the
coefficients of the quadratic polynomial.

Solving using Quadratic Formula when D>0

Solve 2x − 7x + 3 = 0 using the quadratic formula.
2

(i) Identify the coefficients of the quadratic polynomial. a = 2,b = -7,c = 3

(ii) Calculate the discriminant, b − 4ac 2

2
D = (−7) − 4 × 2 × 3 = 25

D> 0, therefore, the roots are distinct.

(iii) Substitute the coefficients in the quadratic formula to find the roots
2
−(−7)±√(−7) −4×2×3

x =
2×2

7±5
x =
4

x = 3 and x = 1

2
are the roots.

Nature of Roots
Nature Of Roots

Based on the value of the discriminant, D = b 2

− 4ac , the roots of a quadratic equation can
be of three types.

Case 1: If D>0, the equation has two distinct real roots.

Case 2: If D=0, the equation has two equal real roots.

Case 3: If D<0, the equation has no real roots.

Be More Curious
Graphical Representation of a Quadratic Equation

The graph of a quadratic polynomial is a parabola. The roots of a quadratic equation are the
points where the parabola cuts the x-axis i.e. the points where the value of the quadratic
polynomial is zero.
In the above figure, -2 and -3 are the roots of the quadratic equation 
x + 5x + 6 = 0. 
2

For a quadratic polynomial ax 2

+ bx + c,

If a>0, the parabola opens upwards.

If a<0, the parabola opens downwards.
If a = 0, the polynomial will become a first-degree polynomial and its graph is linear.

The discriminant, D = b 2
− 4ac

Nature of graph for different values of D.

If D>0, the parabola cuts the x-axis at exactly two distinct points. The roots are distinct.
This case is shown in the above figure in a,
where the quadratic polynomial cuts the x-axis at two distinct points.
If D=0, the parabola just touches the x-axis at one point and the rest of the parabola lies
above or below the x-axis. In this case, the roots are equal. 
This case is shown in the above figure in b, where the quadratic polynomial touches the x-
axis at only a single point.

If D<0, the parabola lies entirely above or below the x-axis and there is no point of contact
with the x-axis. In this case, there are no real roots.
This case is shown in the above figure in c, where the quadratic polynomial neither cuts nor
touches the x-axis.

Formation of a quadratic equation from it roots

To find out the standard form of a quadratic equation when the roots are given:
Let α and β be the roots of the quadratic equation ax + bx + c = 0. Then, 
2

(x − α)(x − β) = 0

On expanding, we get,
x
2
− (α + β)x + αβ = 0, which is the standard form of the quadratic equation. Here,
a = 1, b = −(α + β) and c = αβ.

Sum and Product of roots of a Quadratic equation

Let α and β be the roots of the quadratic equation ax 2

+ bx + c = 0. Then,
Sum of roots = α + β = −b

Product of roots = αβ = c

a
Arithmetic Progression
Introduction to AP
Sequences, Series and Progressions

A sequence is a finite or infinite list of numbers following a certain pattern. For

example - 1,2,3,4,5… is the sequence is infinite.sequence of natural numbers.
A series is the sum of the elements in the corresponding sequence. For example -
1+2+3+4+5….is the series of natural numbers. Each number in a sequence or a series is
called a term.
A progression is a sequence in which the general term can be can be expressed using a
mathematical formula.

Arithmetic Progression

An arithmetic progression (A.P) is a progression in which the difference between two

consecutive terms is constant.
Example: 2,5,8,11,14.... is an arithmetic progression.

Common Difference

The difference between two consecutive terms in an AP, (which is constant) is the "common
difference"(d) of an A.P. In the progression: 2,5,8,11,14 ...the common difference is 3.
As it is the difference between any two consecutive terms. For any A.P, if the common
difference is:

 positive, the AP is increasing.

 zero, the AP is constant.
negative, the A.P is decreasing.

Finite and Infinite AP

A finite AP is an A.P in which the number of terms is finite. For example: the
A.P: 2,5,8......32,35,38 
An infinite A.P is an A.P in which the number of terms is infinite. For
example: 2,5,8,11.....

A finite A.P will have the last term, whereas an infinite A.P won't.
General Term of AP
nth term of an AP
n

The nth term of an A.P is given by T = a + (n − 1)d , where a is the first term, d is the
common difference and n is the number of terms.

General form of an AP

The general form of an A.P is: (a, a+d,a+2d,a+3d......) where a is the first term and d is
the common difference. Here, d=0, OR d>0, OR d<0

Sum of Terms in an AP
Formula for sum to n terms of an AP

The sum to n terms of an A.P is given by:

n
Sn = (2a + (n − 1)d)
2

Where a is the first term, d is the common difference and n is the number of terms.

The sum of n terms of an A.P is also given by

n
Sn = (a + l)
2

Where a is the first term, l is the last term of the A.P. and n is the number of terms.

Arithmetic Mean (A.M)

The Arithmetic Mean is the simple average of a given set of numbers.The arithmetic mean of
a set of numbers is given by:

Sum of  terms
A. M =
N umber of  terms

The arithmetic mean is defined for any set of numbers. The numbers need not necessarily
be in an A.P.

Basic Adding Patterns in an AP

The sum of two terms that are equidistant from either end of an AP is constant.
For example:  in an A.P: 2,5,8,11,14,17...
T1 + T6 = 2 + 17 = 19
T2 + T5 = 5 + 14 = 19 and so on....
Algebraically, this can be represented as

Tr + T(n−r)+1 = constant

Sum of first n natural numbers

The sum of first n natural numbers is given by:

n(n+1)
Sn =
2

This formula is derived by treating the sequence of natural numbers as an A.P where the
first term (a) = 1 and the common difference (d) = 1.
Triangles
Similar Triangles
Similar Figures

Similar figures are the figures having the same shape but not necessarily the same size.
For example in the figure given below, the two triangles have the same shape, but their
perimeter and area are different.

Similar Triangles

Congruent Figures

Two figures are said to be congruent if they have the same shape as well as the same size.
Congruent figures are exactly the same. They have the same perimeter, area and can be
superposed on each other.

Difference between Congruency and Similarity

Congruent figures are exactly the same, with the same size, shape and dimensions.

Similar figures are scaled up or scaled down versions of each other. They have the same
shape but their sizes need not be the same.

Similar Polygons

Two polygons are similar if their corresponding angles are equal and their corresponding
sides are in the same ratio.

Two polygons cannot be similar if their number of sides are different.

Similar Triangles

Two triangles are similar if their 

corresponding angles are equal
corresponding sides are in the same ratio.

△ABC & △DEF  are similar triangles

ΔABC ∼ ΔDEF if and only if

∠A = ∠D, ∠B = ∠E, ∠C = ∠F

AB BC CA
= =
DE EF FD

Basic Proportionality Theorem

Basic Proportionality Theorem

Basic Proportionality Theorem (BPT) states that if a line is drawn parallel to one
side of a triangle to intersect the other two sides in distinct points, the other two
sides are divided in the same ratio.

In the above figure DE| |BC. Then, BPT says that,

AD AE
=
DB EC

Converse of Basic Proportionality Theorem

The converse of Basic Proportionality Theorem is true. It states that if a line
divides two sides of a triangle in the same ratio, then the line is parallel to the
third side.

In the above figure, if AD

DB
=
AE

EC
,

then, the converse of BPT states that DE| |BC.

Criteria for Similarity of Triangles

Criteria for Similarity of Triangles

Two triangles are said to be similar if their corresponding angles are equal and their
corresponding sides are in the same ratio. However, we need not check for all angles and
sides to ensure similarity. There are certain criteria to confirm the similarity of two
triangles by comparing a lesser number of corresponding parts of a triangle. These are

AAA similarity
SSS similarity
SAS similarity

AAA Similarity

According to AAA similarity criterion, if the corresponding angles of two

triangles are equal, then the corresponding sides are in the same ratio and the
triangles are similar.

If ∠A = ∠D, ∠B = ∠E and ∠C = ∠F , then ΔABC ~ ΔDEF

If two angles of a triangle are respectively equal to two angles of another triangle, then by
angle sum property, the third angle of the triangles are equal and the triangles are similar.
This is called AA similarity criterion.
SSS Similarity

According to SSS similarity criterion, if the sides of one triangle are proportional
to the corresponding sides of another triangle, then their corresponding angles
are equal and the triangles are similar.

△ABC & △DEF  are similar by SSS criterion

If AB

DE
=
BC

EF
=
AC

DF
, then ΔABC ~ ΔDEF

SAS Similarity

According to SAS similarity criterion, if two sides of one triangle are proportional to two
sides of another triangle and the corresponding included angles are equal, then, the
triangles are similar.
△ABC & △DEF  are similar by SAS criterion

If AB

DE
=
AC

DF
and ∠A = ∠D, then ΔABC ~ ΔDEF

Areas of Similar Triangles

Relation between Areas and Sides of Similar Triangles

In the given figure, ΔABC is similar to ΔDEF , the ratio of their areas is given by,
area(ΔABC)
AB 2 BC 2 AC 2
= ( ) = ( ) = ( )
area(ΔDEF ) DE EF DF

Pythagoras Theorem
Perpendicular from Right Angle to Hypotenuse Divides the Triangle
into Two Similar Triangles

In a right-angled triangle, if a perpendicular is drawn from the vertex of the right

angle to the hypotenuse, then the triangles on both sides of the perpendicular
are similar to the whole triangle and to each other.
CD is the perpendicular from the vertex to hypotenuse AB

In the above figure, CD is the perpendicular drawn from the vertex C on the hypotenuse AB
of ΔABC .
So, ΔABC  ~ ΔCBD ~ ΔACD

Pythagoras Theorem

Pythagoras Theorem states that in a right-angled triangle, the square of the

hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides.

Conversely, In a triangle, if square of one side is equal to the sum of the squares
of the other two sides, then the angle opposite the first side is a right angle.
Coordinate Geometry
Basics Revisited
Points on a Cartesian Plane

Points on a plane are located by a pair of numbers called the coordinates.  The distance of a
point from the y-axis is called its x-coordinate, or abscissa. The distance of a point from the
x-axis is called its y-coordinate, or ordinate

Representation of (x,  y) on the cartesian plane

Distance Formula
Distance between Two Points on the Same Coordinate Axes

The distance between two points which are on the same axis (x-axis or y-axis), is given by
the difference between their ordinates if they are on the y-axis, else by the difference
between their abscissa if they are on the x-axis.
Distance AB = 6 - (-2) = 8 units

Distance CD = 4 - (-8) = 12 units

Distance between Two Points Using Pythagoras Theorem

Transparent BG
Finding distance between 2 points using 
Pythagoras Theorem

Let P (x , y ) and Q(x , y ) be any two points on the cartesian plane.

1 1 2 2

Draw lines parallel to the axes through P and Q to meet at T. ΔP T Q  is right angled at T.
From Pythagoras Theorem,
2 2 2 2 2
PQ = PT + QT = (x2 − x1 ) + (y2 − y1 )

2 2
P Q = √(x2 − x1 ) + (y2 − y1 )

Distance Formula

Distance between any two points (x 1, y1 ) and (x 2, y2 ) is given by

2 2
d = √(x2 − x1 ) + (y2 − y1 )

Where d is the distance between the points (x 1, y1 ) and (x 2, y2 ) .

Section Formula
Section Formula

If the point P(x,y) divides the line segment joining A(x 1, y1 ) and B(x 2, y2 ) internally in the
ratio m:n, then, the coordinates of P are given by the section formula as
mx2 +nx1 my2 +ny1
P (x, y) = ( , )
m+n m+n

Finding ratio given the points

To find the ratio in which a given point P(x,y) divides the line segment joining A(x 1, y1 ) and
B(x2 , y2 ),

Assume that the ratio is k :1

Substitute the ratio in the section formula for any of the coordinates to get the value
of k.
kx +x
2 1
x =
k+1

Since, x 1
, x2 and x are known, k can be calculated. The same can be calculated from the y-
coordinates also.

Mid Point

The midpoint of any line segment divides it in the ratio 1:1.

The coordinates of the midpoint(P) of line segment joining A(x 1, y1 ) and B(x 2, y2 ) is given by 
x +x y +y
1 2 1 2
P (x, y) = ( , )
2 2

Points of Trisection

To find the points of trisection P and Q which divides the line segment joining 
A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x 2, y2 ) into three equal parts:

i) AP : PB = 1 : 2
x2 +2x1 y2 +2y1
So, P = (
3
,
3
)

ii) AQ : QB = 2 : 1
So, Q = (
2x2 +x1 2y2 +y1
, )
3 3

Centroid of a triangle

If A(x , y ), B(x , y ) and C(x

1 1 2 2 3, y3 ) are the vertices of a ΔABC, then the coordinates of its
centroid(P) is given by
x +x +x y +y +y
1 2 3 1 2 3
P (x, y) = ( , )
3 3

Area from Coordinates

Area of a triangle given its vertices

If A(x 1, y1 ), B(x2 , y2 ) and C(x 3, y3 ) are the vertices of a Δ ABC, then its area is given by

1
A = [x1 (y2 − y3 ) + x2 (y3 − y1 ) + x3 (y1 − y2 )]
2

Where A is the area of the Δ ABC.

Collinearity Condition

If three points A, B and C are collinear and B lies between A and C, then,
AB + BC = AC.  AB, BC, and AC can be calculated using the distance formula.
The ratio in which B divides AC, calculated using section formula for both the x and y
coordinates separately will be equal.
Area of triangle formed by the three points is zero.
Introduction To Trigonometry
Trigonometric Ratios
Opposite & Adjacent Sides in a Right Angled Triangle

In the ΔABC right-angled at B, BC is the side opposite to ∠A, AC is the hypotenuse and AB
is the side adjacent to ∠A.

Trigonometric Ratios

For the right ΔABC , right angled at ∠B, the trigonometric ratios of the ∠A are as follows:
opposite side BC
sinA = =
hypotenuse AC

adjacent side
AB
cosA = =
hypotenuse AC

opposite side
BC
tanA = =
adjacent side AB

hypotenuse AC
cosecA = =
opposite side BC

hypotenuse AC
secA = =
adjacent side AB

adjacent side
AB
cotA = =
opposite side BC
Visualisation of Trigonometric Ratios Using a Unit Circle

Draw a circle of unit radius with the origin as the centre. Consider a line segment OP joining
a point P on the circle to the centre which makes an angle θ with the x-axis. Draw a
perpendicular from P to the x-axis to cut it at Q.

PQ PQ
sinθ = = = PQ
OP 1

OQ OQ
cosθ = = = OQ
OP 1

PQ sinθ
tanθ = =
OQ cosθ

OP 1
cosecθ = =
PQ PQ

OP 1
secθ = =
OQ OQ

OQ cosθ
cotθ = =
PQ sinθ
Visualisation of Trigonometric Ratios Using a Unit Circle

Relation between Trigonometric Ratios

1
cosecθ =
sinθ
1
secθ =
cosθ

sinθ
tanθ =
cosθ

cosθ 1
cotθ = =
sinθ tanθ

Trigonometric Ratios of Specific Angles

Range of Trigonometric Ratios from 0 to 90 degrees

For 0
∘
≤ θ ≤ 90 ,
∘

0 ≤ sinθ ≤ 1

0 ≤ cosθ ≤ 1

0 ≤ tanθ < ∞
1 ≤ secθ < ∞

0 ≤ cotθ < ∞

1 ≤ cosecθ < ∞

tanθ and secθ are not defined at  90 ∘

.

cotθ and cosecθ are not defined at 0

∘
.

Variation of trigonometric ratios from 0 to 90 degrees

As θ increases from 0 to 90 ∘ ∘

sinθ increases from 0 to 1.

cosθ decreases from 1 to 0.
tanθ increases from 0 to ∞.
cosecθ decreases from ∞ to 1.
secθ increases from 1 to ∞.
cotθ decreases from ∞ to 0.

Standard values of Trigonometric ratios

30
∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘
∠A 0 45 60 90

1 1 √3
sin A 0 1
2 √2 2

√3 1 1
cos A 1 0
2 √2 2

1
tan A 0 1 √3 N ot def ined
√3

2
cosec A N ot def ined 2 √2 1
√3

2
sec A 1 √2 2 N ot def ined
√3

1
cot A N ot def ined √3 1 0
√3

Trigonometric Ratios of Complementary Angles

Complementary Trigonometric ratios

If θ is an acute angle, its complementary angle is 90 ∘

− θ. The following relations hold true
for trigonometric ratios of complementary angles.

∘
sin(90 − θ) = cosθ

∘
cos(90 − θ) = sinθ

∘
tan(90 − θ) = cotθ

∘
cot(90 − θ) = tanθ

∘
cosec(90 − θ) = secθ
∘
sec(90 − θ) = cosecθ

Trigonometric Identities
Trigonometric Identities
2 2
sin θ + cos θ = 1

2 2
1 + cot θ = coesc θ

2 2
1 + tan θ = sec θ
Some Applications Of
Trigonometry
Heights and Distances
Horizontal Level and Line of Sight

Line of sight and horizontal level

Line of sight is the line drawn from the eye of the observer to the point on the object viewed
by the observer.

Horizontal level is the horizontal line through the eye of the observer.

Angle of elevation

The angle of elevation is relevant for objects above horizontal level.

 It is the angle formed by the line of sight with the horizontal level.

Angle of elevation

Angle of depression

The angle of depression is relevant for objects below horizontal level.

It is the angle formed by the line of sight with the horizontal level.
Angle of depression

Calculating Heights and Distances

To, calculate heights and distances, we can make use of trigonometric ratios.

Step 1: Draw a line diagram corresponding to the problem.

Step 2: Mark all known heights, distances and angles and denote unknown lengths by
variables.

Step 3: Use the values of various trigonometric ratios of the angles to obtain the unknown
lengths from the known lengths.

Be More Curious
Measuring the distances of Celestial bodies with the help of
trigonomety

Large distances can be measured by the parallax method. The parallax angle is half the
angle between two line of sights when an object is viewed from two different positions.
Knowing the parallax angle and the distance between the two positions, large distances can
be measured.
Circles
Introduction to Circles
Circle and line in a plane
For a circle and a line on a plane, there can be three possibilities.
i) they can be non-intersecting
ii) they can have a single common point: in this case, the line touches the circle.
ii) they can have two common points: in this case, the line cuts the circle.

(i) Non intersecting (ii) Touching (iii) Intersecting

Tangent
A tangent to a circle is a line that touches the circle at exactly one point. For every point
on the circle, there is a unique tangent passing through it.
Tangent

Secant
A secant to a circle is a line that has two points in common with the circle. It cuts the
circle at two points, forming a chord of the circle.

Secant
Tangent as a special case of Secant

Tangent as a special case of Secant

The tangent to a circle can be seen as a special case of the secant when the two endpoints
of its corresponding chord coincide.

Two parallel tangents at most for a given secant

For every given secant of a circle, there are exactly two tangents which are parallel to it
and touch the circle at two diametrically opposite points.
Parallel tangents

Theorems

Tangent perpendicular to the radius at the point of contact

Theorem: The theorem states that “the tangent to the circle at any point is the
perpendicular to the radius of the circle that passes through the point of contact”.
Tangent and radius

Here, O is the centre and OP⊥XY.

The number of tangents drawn from a given point

i) If the point is in an interior region of the circle, any line through that point will be a
secant. So, no tangent can be drawn to a circle which passes through a point that lies
inside it.

No tangent can be drawn to a circle from a point inside it

AB is a secant drawn through the point S
ii) When a point of tangency lies on the circle, there is exactly one tangent to a circle
that passes through it.

A tangent passing through a point lying on the circle

iii) When the point lies outside of the circle, there are accurately two tangents to a circle
through it
Tangents to a circle from an external point

Length of a tangent
The length of the tangent from the point (Say P) to the circle is defined as the segment of
the tangent from the external point P to the point of tangency I with the circle. In this
case, PI is the tangent length.
Lengths of tangents drawn from an external point
Theorem: Two tangents are of equal length when the tangent is drawn from an external
point to a circle.

Tangents to a circle from an external point

PT1=PT2

Thus, the two important theorems in Class 10 Maths Chapter 10 Circles are:
Theorem 10.1: The tangent at any point of a circle is perpendicular to the radius
through the point of contact.

Theorem 10.2: The lengths of tangents drawn from an external point to a circle are
equal.

Interesting facts about Circles and their properties are listed below:
● In two concentric circles, the chord of the larger circle, which touches the smaller
circle, is bisected at the point of contact.

● The tangents drawn at the ends of a diameter of a circle are parallel.

● The perpendicular at the point of contact to the tangent to a circle passes through
the centre.

● The angle between the two tangents drawn from an external point to a circle is
supplementary to the angle subtended by the line segment joining the points of
contact at the centre.

● The parallelogram circumscribing a circle is a rhombus.

● The opposite sides of a quadrilateral circumscribing a circle subtend supplementary

angles at the centre of the circle.
Constructions
Dividing a Line Segment
Division of a Line Segment

1) Bisecting a Line Segment

Step 1: With a radius more than half the length of the line-segment, draw arcs centred at
either ends of the line segment so that they intersect on either sides of the line segment.

Step 2: Join the points of intersection. The line segment is bisected by the line segment
joining the points of intersection.

PQ is the perpendicular bisector of AB

2) Given a line segment AB, divide it in the ratio m:n, where both m and n are positive
integers.

Suppose we want to divide AB in the ratio 3:2 (m=3, n=2)

→
Step 1: Draw any ray AX, making an acute angle with AB.
¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯

Step 2: Locate 5 (= m + n) points A 1, A2 , A3 , A4  and A5 on AX such that

AA1 = A1 A2 = A2 A3 = A3 A4 = A4 A5

Step 3: Join BA 5. (A(m+n) = A5 )

Step 4: Through the point A (m = 3), draw a line parallel to BA (by making an angle equal
3 5

to ∠AA B) at A intersecting AB at the point C.

5 3

Then, AC : CB = 3 : 2.
Division of a line segment

Constructing Similar Triangles

Constructing a Similar Triangle with a scale factor

Suppose we want to construct a triangle whose sides are 3

4
times the corresponding sides
of a given triangle

Caption

→ ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯
Step 1: Draw any ray BX making an acute angle with side BC   (on the side opposite to the
vertex A).

Step 2: Mark 4 consecutive distances(since the denominator of the required ratio is 4) on

BX   as shown.
¯¯
¯¯¯
¯¯¯¯

Step 3: Join B 4C as shown in the figure.

Step 4: Draw a line through B parallel to B

3 4C to intersect BC at C'. 

Step 5: Draw a line through C' parallel to AC to intersect AB at  A'. ΔA BC is the required
′ ′

triangle.

Same procedure can be followed when scale factor > 1. 

Drawing Tangents to a Circle
Tangents: Definition

A tangent to a circle is a line which touches the circle at exactly one point.

For every point on the circle, there is a unique tangent passing through it.

PQ is the tangent, touching

the circle at A

No. of Tangents to a circle from a given point

i) If the point in interior region of the circle, any line through that point will be a secant. So,
no tangent can be drawn to a circle passing through a point lying inside it.

AB is a secant drawn 
through the point S

ii) There is one and only one tangent to a circle passing through a point lying on the circle.
PQ is the tangent touching 
the circle at A

iii) There are exactly two tangents to a circle through a point lying outside the circle.

P T1and (\PT_2\) are tangents

touching the circle at T and T
1 2

Drawing tangents to a circle from a point outside the circle

To construct the tangents to a circle from a point outside it.

Consider a circle with center O and let P be the exterior point from which the tangents to
be drawn.

Step 1: Join P O and bisect it. Let M be the midpoint of P O.

¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯ ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯

Step 2: Taking M as centre and MO(or MP) as radius, draw a circle. Let it intersect the given
circle at the points Q and R.

Step 3: Join PQ and PR

Step 3: P Q and P R are the required tangents to the circle.

¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯ ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯
Drawing Tangents to a circle from a point on the circle

To draw a tangent to a circle through a point on it.

Step 1: Draw the radius of the circle through the required point.
Step 2: Draw a line perpendicular to the radius through this point. This will be tangent to
the circle.
Areas Related to Circles
Introduction
Area of a Circle

 Area of a circle is πr , where π =

2 22

7
 or  ≈ 3.14 (can be used interchangeably for problem
solving purposes)and r is the radius of the circle. 
 π is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. 

Circumference of a circle

The perimeter of a circle is the distance covered by going around its boundary once. The
perimeter of a circle has a special name: CIrcumference, which  is  π times the diameter
which is given by the formula 2πr

Segment of a circle

A circular segment  is a region of a circle which is "cut off" from the rest of the circle by a
secant or a chord

Sector of a circle

A circular sector or circle sector, is the portion of a circle enclosed by two radii and an arc,
where the smaller area is known as the minor sector and the larger being the major sector.

Angle of a Sector

Angle of a sector is that angle which is enclosed between the two radii of the sector.

Length of arc of a sector

The length of the arc of a sector can be found by using the expression for the
circumference of a circle and the angle of the sector, using the following formula:

θ
L = ∘
× 2πr
360

where θ is the angle of sector and r is the radius of the circle.

Area of a Sector of a Circle

Area of a sector is given by

θ 2
∘
× πr
360

where ∠θ is the angle of this sector(minor sector in the following case) and r is its radius

Area of a sector

Area of a Triangle

Area of a triangle is,

1
Area = × base × height
2

If the triangle is a equilateral then

√3
Area =
4
× a
2
  where a is the side of the triangle.

Area of a Segment of a Circle

Area of the segment

Area of segment APB (highlighted in yellow) 
= (Area of sector OAPB) - (Area of triangle AOB)
2ϕ 1
2
= ( ∘
× πr ) − ( × AB × OM )
360 2

[To find the area of triangle AOB, use trigonometric ratios to find OM (height) and AB (base)]

Also, Area of segment APB can be calculated directly if the angle of the sector is known
using the following formula.

θ 2 2 θ θ
= ( ∘
× πr ) − (r × sin × cos )
360 2 2

where θ is the angle of the sector and r is the radius of the circle

Visualisations
Areas of different plane figures

- Area of a square (side l) = l 2

- Area of a rectangle = l × b, where l and b are the length and breadth of the rectangle
- Area of a parallelogram = b × h, where b is the base and h is perpendicular height.

parallelogram

(a+b)

Area of a trapezium = 2
× h, where a & b are the lengths of the parallel sides and h is the
height of the trapezium
Area of a rhombus = , where p & q are the diagonals 
pq

Areas of Combination of Plane figures

For example : Find the area of the shaded part in the following figure : Given the ABCD is a
square of side 28cm and has four equal circles enclosed within.

Area of shaded region

- Looking at the figure we can visualise that the required shaded area =
A(square ABCD)  −  4  × A(Circle).

- Also, the diameter of each circle is 14 cm.

2 2
= (l ) − 4 × (πr )

2
= (28 ) − [4 × (π × 49)]

22
= 784 − [4 × × 49]
7

= 784 − 616

2
= 168cm
Surface Areas and Volumes
Basics
Cuboid and Its Surface Area

The surface area of a cuboid is equal to the sum of the areas of its six rectangular faces. Consider a
cuboid whose dimensions are l × b × h respectively.

Total surface area of cuboid(TSA) = Sum of the areas of all its six faces TSA
(cuboid) = 2(l × b) + 2(b × h) + 2(l × h) = 2(lb + bh + lh)

Lateral surface area (LSA) is the area of all the sides apart from the top and bottom faces. The lateral
surface area of the cuboid = Area of face AEHD + Area of face BFGC + Area of face ABFE + Area
of face DHGC  
LSA (cuboid) = 2(b × h) + 2(l × h) = 2h(l + b)

Length of diagonal of a cuboid =

Cube and Its Surface Area

For a cube length = breadth = height

TSA (cube) = 2 × (3l 2) = 6l2

Similarly, the Lateral surface area of cube = 2(l × l + l × l) = 4l2
Note: Diagonal of a cube = √3l

Cylinder and Its Surface Area

Take a cylinder of base radius r and height h units. The curved surface of this cylinder, if opened along
the diameter (d = 2r) of the circular base can be transformed into a rectangle of length 2πr and height
h units. Thus,
Transformation of a Cylinder into a rectangle.

CSA of a cylinder of base radius r and height h = 2π × r × h

TSA  of a cylinder of base radius r and height h = 2π × r × h + area of two circular bases
= 2π × r × h + 2πr2
= 2πr(h + r)

Right Circular Cone and Its Surface Area

Consider a right circular cone with slant length l, radius r and height h.
CSA of right circular cone = πrl
TSA = CSA + area of base = πrl + πr 2 = πr(l + r)

Sphere and Its Surface Area

For a sphere of radius r

Curved Surface Area (CSA) = Total Surface Area (TSA) = 4πr 2

Volume of a Cuboid
Volume of a cuboid = (base area) × height = (lb)h = lbh

Volume of a Cube
Volume of a cube = base area×height
Since all dimensions of a cube are identical, volume = l3
Where l is the length of the edge of the cube.

Volume of a Cylinder

Volume of a cylinder = Base area × its height = (π × r2) × h = πr2h

Cylinder with height h and base radius r 

Volume of a Right Circular Cone

The volume of a Right circular cone is ⅓ times that of a cylinder of same height and base. 
In other words, 3 cones make a cylinder of the same height and base. 

Volume of a Right circular cone = ⅓ πr2h

Where r is the radius of the cone and h is the height of the cone.

Volume of a Sphere

The volume of a sphere of radius r = 4/3(πr3)

Hemisphere and Its Surface Area

Hemisphere of radius r

We know that the CSA of a sphere  = 4πr 2. A hemisphere is half of a sphere. 

∴ CSA of a hemisphere of radius r = 2πr 2
Total Surface Area = curved surface area + area of the base circle
⇒TSA = 3πr 2

Volume of Hemisphere

The volume (V) of a hemisphere will be half of that of a sphere.

∴ Volume of the hemisphere of radius r = ⅔ πr3

Combination of Solids
Surface Area of Combined Figures

Areas of complex figures can be broken down and analysed as simpler known shapes. By finding the
areas of these known shapes we can find out the required area of the unknown figure.  
Example: 2 cubes each of volume 64 cm3  are joined end to end. Find the surface area of the resulting
cuboid.

Length of each cube = 641/3 = 4cm

Since these cubes are joined adjacently,  they form a cuboid whose length l = 8cm. But height and
breadth will remain the same = 4cm. 

Combination of 2 equal cubes

∴ The new surface area

= TSA
= 2(lb + bh + lh)
= 2(8 × 4 + 4 × 4 + 8 × 4)
= 2(32 + 16 + 32)
= 2(80)
= 160 cm2
Volume of Combined Solids

The volume of complex objects can be simplified by visualising them as a combination of shapes of
known solids.
Example: A solid is in the shape of a cone standing on a hemisphere with both their radii being
equal to 1 cm and the height of the cone is equal to its radius.  The above figure can be visualised as
follows :

Volume of combined solids

V(solid) = V(Cone) + V(hemisphere)

⇒ V (solid) = ⅓ πr 2h + ⅔ πr3
⇒ V (solid) = ⅓ π(9)(5) + ⅔ π(27)

⇒ V (solid) = 33π cm 3
Shape Conversion of Solids
Frustum of a Cone

If a right circular cone is sliced by a plane parallel to its base then the part with the two circular
bases is called a Frustum.

Frustum of a cone
Surface Area of a Frustum

Frustum with radius r1 and r2 and height h

CSA of frustum = π(r 1 + r2)l,  where l = √[h2 + (r1 – r2)2]

TSA of the frustum is the CSA + the areas of the two circular faces = π(r 1 + r2)l + π(r21 + r22)

Volume of a Frustum
Volume of frustum of a cone = ⅓ πh(r21 + r22 + r1r2)

Shape Conversion of Solids

When a solid is converted into another solid of a different shape(by melting or casting), the volume remains
constant.

Suppose a metallic sphere of radius 9 cm is melted and recast into the shape of a cylinder of radius 6
cm. Since the volume remains the same after a recast, therefore the volume of the cylinder will be equal to the
volume of the sphere.
The radius of the cylinder is known however the height is not known. Let h be the height of the cylinder.
r1 and r2 be the radius of the sphere and cylinder respectively. Then,
V(sphere) = V(cylinder)

⇒ 4/3 πr31= πr22h

⇒ 4/3 π(93) = π(62)h  (On substituting the values)

⇒ h = 27cm
Statistics
Introduction to Statistics
Ungrouped Data

Ungrouped data is data in its original or raw form. The observations are not classified into
groups.

For example, the ages of everyone present in a classroom of kindergarten kids with the
teacher is as follows:

3, 3, 4, 3, 5, 4, 3, 3, 4, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 3, 27.

This data shows that there is one adult present in this class and that is the teacher. 
Ungrouped data is easy to work when the data set is small.

Grouped Data

In grouped data, observations are organized in groups.

For example, a class of students got different marks in a school exam. The data is tabulated
as follows:

Mark Interval No. of students

0 − 20 13

21 − 40 9

41 − 60 36

61 − 80 32

81 − 100 10

This shows how many students got the particular mark range. Grouped data is easier to
work with when large amount of data is present.

Frequency

Frequency is the number of times a particular observation occurs in a data.

Class Interval

Data can be grouped into class intervals such that all observations in that range belong to
that class.

Class width = upper class limit - lower class limit

Mean
Finding mean for Grouped Data when class Intervals are not given

For grouped data without class intervals,

Mean, x̄ = where f is the frequency of i observation x .
∑ x i fi
th
i i
∑f
i

Finding mean for Grouped Data when class Intervals are given

For grouped data with class intervals,

∑x f
Mean, x̄ = i i

∑ fi

Where f is the frequency of i class whose class mark is x .

i
th
i

Class mark =
U pper class limit+Lower class limit

Direct method of finding mean

Step 1: Classify the data into intervals and find the corresponding frequency of each class.

Step 2: Find the class mark by taking the midpoint of the upper and lower class limits.

Step 3: Tabulate the product of class mark and its corresponding frequency for each class.
Calculate their sum (∑ x f ).  i i

Step 4: Divide the above sum by the sum of frequencies (∑ f ) to get the mean. i

Assumed mean method of finding mean

Step 1: Classify the data into intervals and find the corresponding frequency of each class.

Step 2: Find the class mark by taking the midpoint of the upper and lower class limits.

Step 3: Take one of the x ’s (usually one in the middle) as assumed mean and denote it by
i
′
a
′
.

Step 4: Find the deviation of ′

a
′
from each of the x s
′

d i = xi − a

Step 5: Find the mean of the deviations

∑ fi d i
¯
d =
∑f
i

Step 6:  Calculate the mean as 

∑f d
i i
x̄ = a +
∑ fi

Relation between Mean of deviations and mean

d i = xi − a

Summing over all x s, ′

i

∑ d i = ∑ xi − ∑ a

Dividing throughout by ∑ f i = n, Where ′

n
′
is the total number of observations.
¯ = x̄ − a
d

¯
⇒ x̄ − d = a

Step-Deviation method of finding mean

Step 1: Classify the data into intervals and find the corresponding frequency of each class.

Step 2: Find the class mark by taking the midpoint of the upper and lower class limits.

Step 3: Take one of the x s (usually one in the middle) as assumed mean and denote it by
′
i
′
a
′
.

Step 4: Find the deviation of a from each of the x s ′

i

d i = xi − a

Step 5: Divide all deviations −d  by the class width (h) to get u s.
i
′

i
x −a
i
ui =
h

Step 6: Find the mean of u s  ′

i
∑f u
i i
ū =
∑ fi

Step 7:  Calculate the mean as 

∑ fi u i
x̄ = a + h × = a + hū
f
i

Relation between mean of Step- Deviations (u) and mean

x −a
i
ui =
h
x −a
i
∑f
i
h
ū =
∑ fi

1 ∑ fi xi −a ∑ fi
ū = ×
h ∑f
i

1
ū = × (x̄ − a)
h

Important relations between methods of finding mean

All three methods of finding mean yield the same result.

Step deviation method is easier to apply if all the deviations have a common factor.
Assumed mean method and step deviation method are simplified versions of the direct
method.

Median
Finding median of Grouped Data when class Intervals are not given

Step 1: Tabulate the observations and the corresponding frequency in ascending or

descending order.

Step 2: Add the cumulative frequency column to the table by finding the cumulative
frequency up to each observation. 

Step 3: If the number of observations is odd, the median is the observation whose
cumulative frequency is just greater than or equal to  (
n+1
).
2

 If the number of observations is even, the median is the average of observations whose
cumulative frequency is just greater than or equal to ( n

2
) and n

2
+ 1 .

Cumulative Frequency

Cumulative frequency is obtained by adding all the frequencies up to a certain point.

Finding median for Grouped Data when class Intervals are given

Step 1: find the cumulative frequency for all class intervals.

Step 2: the median class is the class whose cumulative frequency is greater than or nearest
to , where n is the number of observations.
n

2
n
−cf

Step 3: M edian = l +
2
× h
f

Where,
l =lower limit of median class,

n = number of observations,

cf = cumulative frequency of class preceding the median class,

f = frequency of median class,

h = class size (assuming class size to be equal).

Cumulative Frequency distribution of less than type

Cumulative frequency of the less than type indicates the number of observations which are
less than or equal to a particular observation. 

Cumulative Frequency distribution of more than type

Cumulative frequency of more than type indicates the number of observations which are
greater than or equal to a particular observation.

Visualising formula for median graphically

Median from Cumulative Frequency Curve

Step 1: Identify the median class. 

Step 2: Mark cumulative frequencies on the y-axis and observations on the x-axis
corresponding to the median class.

Step 3: Draw a straight line graph joining the extremes of class and cumulative frequencies.

Step 4: Identify the point on the graph corresponding to cf =

n

2
.

Step 5: Drop a perpendicular from this point on to the x-axis.

Ogive of less than type

The graph of a cumulative frequency distribution of the less than type is called an ‘ogive of
the less than type’.

Ogive of more than type

The graph of a cumulative frequency distribution of the more than type is called an ‘ogive of
the more than type’.

Relation between the less than and more than type curves

The point of intersection of the ogives of more than and less than types gives the median of
the grouped frequency distribution.

Mode
Finding mode for Grouped Data wen class intervals are not given

In grouped data without class intervals, the observation having the largest frequency is the
mode.

Finding mode for Ungrouped Data

For ungrouped data, the mode can be found out by counting the observations and using
tally marks to construct a frequency table.
The observation having the largest frequency is the mode.
Finding mode for Grouped Data when class intervals are given

For, grouped data, the class having the highest frequency is called the modal class. Mode
can be calculated using the following formula. Formula valid for equal class intervals and
when the modal class is unique.
f1 −f0
M ode = l + ( ) × h
2f −f −f
1 0 2

l =lower limit of modal class

h = class width

f = frequency of the modal class

1

f = frequency of the class preceding the modal class

0

f = frequency of the class succeeding the modal class

2

Visualising formula for mode graphically

Graphical Method for finding mode

Step 1: Express the class intervals and frequencies as a histogram.

Step 2: Join the top corners of the modal class to the diagonally opposite corners of the
adjacent classes

Step 3: Drop a perpendicular from the point of intersection of the above on the horizontal
x-axis.

Measures of Central Tendency for Grouped Data

i) Mean is the average of a set of observations.

ii) Median is the middle value of a set of observations.
iii) Mode is the most common observation.

Best suited measure of central tendency in different cases and the

Empirical relationship between them
i) The mean takes into account all the observations and lies between the extremes. It
enables us to compare distributions.

ii) In problems where individual observations are not important, and we wish to find out a
‘typical’  observation where half the observations are below and half the observations are
above, the median is more appropriate. Median disregards the extreme values.

iii) In situations which require establishing the most frequent value or most popular item,
the mode is the best choice.

Mean, mode and median are connected by the empirical relationship

3 Median = Mode + 2 Mean

Probability
Introduction to Probability
Probability

The branch of mathematics that measures the uncertainty of the occurrence of an event
using numbers is called probability. The chance that an event will or will not occur is
expressed on a scale ranging from 0-1.

It can also be represented as a percentage, where 0% denotes an impossible event and 100
% implies a certain event.

Event and outcome

An Outcome is a result of a random experiment. For example, when we roll a dice getting six
is an outcome.
An Event is a set of outcomes. For example when we roll a dice the probability of getting a
number less than five is an event. 
Note:
An Event can have a single outcome.

Experimental Probability
Experimental Probability

Experimental probability can be applied to any event associated with an experiment that is
repeated a large number of times. 
A trial is when the experiment is performed once. It is also known as empirical probability.
Experimental or empirical probability: P(E) = 
N umber of  trials where the event occurred

T otal number of  trials

Theoretical Probability
Theoretical Probability

Theoretical Probability 
N umber of  outcomes f avourable to E
P (E) =
N umber of  all possible outcomes of  the experiment

Here we assume that the outcomes of the experiment are equally likely.

Elementary Event
An event having only one outcome of the experiment is called an elementary event.
Example: Take the experiment of tossing a coin n number of times. One trial of this
experiment has two possible outcomes: Heads(H) or Tails(T). So for an individual toss, it has
only one outcome, i.e Heads or Tails.

Sum of Probabilities

The sum of the probabilities of all the elementary events of an experiment is one.
Example : take the coin tossing experiment. P(Heads) + P(Tails ) = 1

2
+
1

2
= 1.

Impossible event

An event that has no chance of occurring is called an Impossible event, i.e. P(E) = 0.
E.g: Probability of getting a 7 on a roll of a die is 0. As 7 can never be an outcome of this trial.

Sure event

An event that has a 100% probability of occurrence is called a sure event. The probability of
occurrence of a sure event is one.
E.g: What is the probability that a number obtained after throwing a die is less than 7?
So,  P(E) = P(Getting a number less than 7) =
6
= 1
6

Range of Probability of an event

The range of probability of an event lies between 0 and 1 inclusive of 0 and 1, i.e.
0 ≤ P (E) ≤ 1.

Geometric Probability
Geometrical Probability

Geometric probability is the calculation of the likelihood that one will hit a particular area
of a figure. It is calculated by dividing the desired area by the total area. In case of
Geometrical probability, there are infinite outcomes.

Complementary Events
Complementary event
Complementary events are two outcomes of an event that are the only two possible
outcomes. This is like flipping a coin and getting heads or tails. P (E) + P (E ) = 1 , where E
¯
¯¯¯

and E are the complementary events.

¯
¯¯¯

The event E , representing 'not E', is called the complement of the event E.
¯
¯¯¯