Class XI Chemistry

UNIT 3
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND
PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES
Topics:-
• Early Attempts of Classification:-
• Döbereiner’s Triads
• Newlands’ Law of Octaves
• Lothar Meyer's Curve
• Mendeleev’s Periodic Law and Periodic Table

By:- Vijay Kumar Sethi

WHY DO WE NEED TO CLASSIFY ELEMENTS ?
• In 1800, only 31 elements were known.
• By 1865, the number of identified elements had more than doubled to 63.
• At present 118 elements are known it is very difficult to study individually the
chemistry of all these elements and their innumerable compounds individually.
• To ease out this problem, classification of elements is necessary.
Döbereiner’s Triads-Law of Triads
• He arranged the elements in a group of three in the order of increasing atomic
masses in such a way tha the atomic mass of the middle element is roughly the
average of the atomic masses of the other two elements.
• Döbereiner could identify only three triads from the elements known at that time.
Hence, this system of classification into triads was not found to be useful.

Triad:- Group of 3
elements
Döbereiner’s Triads-Law of Triads

Triad→ Lithium Sodium Potassium

Atomic mass→ 7 23 39
Triad→ Chlorine Bromine Iodine
Atomic mass→ 35.5 80 127
Triad→ Calcium Strontium Barium
Atomic mass→ 40 88 137
Newlands’ Law of Octaves
• He arranged the elements in increasing order of their atomic masses and noted that every eighth
element had properties similar to the first element.
• The relationship was just like every eighth note that resembles the first in octaves of music.

• Newlands’s Law of Octaves seemed to be true only for elements up to calcium.

Lothar Meyer's Curve:
1) Lothar Meyer plotted the physical properties such as atomic volume,
melting point and boiling point against atomic weight(mass) and obtained a
periodically repeated pattern. (elements having similar properties will
occupy the same position in the curve).
2) Also notice that the elements occupying the corresponding position
of the curve shows similar chemical properties.
Lothar Meyer's Curve:
Important features:
1) Alkali metals such as Na, K, Rb which have
similar properties occur as peaks of the curve.
He didn't mention alkaline earth metals.
2) Halogen elements like F, Cl, Br which have
similar properties occur at the rising or the
ascending part of the curve.
3) Noble gasses such as Ne, Ar, Kr which have
similar properties occur just before the alkali
elements.
Mendeleev’s Periodic Law :
• The properties of the elements are a periodic function of their atomic weights.

Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

• Mendeleev arranged elements in horizontal rows and vertical columns of a table in order
of their increasing atomic weights in such a way that the elements with similar properties
occupied the same vertical column or group.
• Mendeléev’s Periodic Table contains vertical columns called ‘groups’ and horizontal rows
called ‘Series’ .

• 63 elements were known at that time

Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
Achievements of Mendeléev’s
Periodic Table
• He ignored the order of atomic
weights and placed the
elements with similar
properties together.
• For example, iodine (126.9)
was placed in Group VII along
with fluorine, chlorine,
bromine because of
similarities in properties
Achievements of Mendeléev’s Periodic Table
• Mendeléev left some gaps in his Periodic Table .He proposed that some of the elements were still
undiscovered .
• For example, both gallium and germanium were unknown at the time
• He left the gap under aluminium and a gap under silicon, and called these elements Eka-
Aluminium and Eka-Silicon. And also described some of their general physical properties.
• When noble gases were discovered, they could be placed in a new group (Zero group) without
disturbing the existing order.
Limitations of Mendeléev’s Classification
• He could not assign a correct position to hydrogen in his Table.
• There is no separate position for isotopes as isotopes are the atoms of the same element
having different atomic masses.
• Atomic masses do not increase in a regular manner in going from one element to the next. So
it was not possible to predict how many elements could be discovered between two elements
Class XI Chemistry
UNIT 3
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND
PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES
Topics:-
• Modern Periodic Law
• Modern Periodic Table
• Nomenclature Of Elements With Atomic Numbers > 100

By:- Vijay Kumar Sethi

Henry Moseley showed that the atomic number is a more
fundamental property of an element than its atomic mass

Modern Periodic Law

• The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions of their
atomic numbers.

Periodic Function:-
Repetition of the properties after a
fixed number of elements in increasing
atomic number is referred as periodic
function
Modern Periodic Table:-
• “Long form” of the Periodic Table of the elements is the most convenient and widely used.
• The horizontal rows are called periods and the vertical columns, groups.
• Elements having similar outer electronic configurations in their atoms are arranged in groups.
• According to the recommendation of International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), the
groups are numbered from 1 to 18.
• There are altogether seven periods. The period number corresponds to the highest principal quantum
number (n) of the elements in the period.
• In this form of the Periodic Table, 14 elements of both sixth and seventh periods (lanthanoids and
actinoids, respectively) are placed in separate panels at the bottom.
Modern Periodic Table
Nomenclature Of Elements With Atomic Numbers > 100
• Both American and Soviet scientists claimed credit for discovering element 104.
• The Americans named it Rutherfordium whereas Soviets named it Kurchatovium.

• To avoid such problems, the IUPAC has made recommendation that until a new element’s discovery is
proved, and its name is officially recognised, a systematic nomenclature be derived directly from the
atomic number of the element using the numerical roots for 0 and numbers 1-9.
• The roots are put together in order of digits which make up the atomic number and “ium” is added at
the end.
• Later permanent name and symbol are given by a vote of IUPAC representatives from each country.
• The permanent name might reflect the country (or state of the country) in which the element was
discovered, or pay tribute to a notable scientist.
Mendelevium
(Dmitri
Mendeleev)

Rutherfordium
(Ernest
Rutherford)

Copernicium
(Nicolaus
Copernicus)
Class XI Chemistry
UNIT 3
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND
PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES
Topics:-
• Electronic Configurations Of Elements And The Periodic Table

By:- Vijay Kumar Sethi

Electronic Configurations of Elements in Periods
• The period indicates the value of n for the outermost or valence shell.
• In other words, successive period in the Periodic Table is associated with the filling of the
next higher principal energy level (n = 1, n = 2, etc.).
• The number of elements in each period is twice the number of atomic orbitals available in
the energy level that is being filled.
• The 4f and 5f-inner transition series of elements are placed separately in the Periodic Table
to maintain its structure and to preserve the principle of classification by keeping elements
with similar properties in a single column.
Electronic Configurations of Elements in Periods
Period Filling of electrons in No. of No. of Outer shell electronic configuration
No. orbitals orbitals filled Elements
(n) Starts Ends First Element Last Element
from with
1 1s 1s 1 2 1H – 1s1 2He – 1s2
2 2s 2p 1+3=4 8 3Li – 1s2 2s1 10Ne – 1s22s22p6
3 3s 3p 1+3=4 8 11Na – 1s22s22p63s1 18Ar – 1s22s22p63s23p6
4 4s 3d 4p 1+5+3=9 18 19K – 1s22s22p63s23p64s1 36Kr - 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6
5 5s 4d 5p 1+5+3=9 18 37Rb –[Kr] 5s1 54Xe –[Kr] 4d105s25p6
6 6s 4f 5d 6p 1+7+5 +3 = 16 32 55Cs –[Xe] 6s1 86Rn –[Xe] 4f145d106s26p6
7 7s 5f 6d 7p 1+7+5 +3 = 16 32 87Fr – [Rn] 7s1 118Og– [Rn] 5f146d107s27p6

Transition Elements (d-Block Elements)

Inner Transition Elements
3d Series :- 21Sc – 30Zn
(f-Block Elements)
4d Series:- 39Y- 48Cd
Lanthanoids (4f Series):-58Ce – 71Lu
5d Series :- 57La, 72Hf -80Hg
Actinoids (5f Series):- 90Th – 103Lr
6d Series :- 89Ac, 104Rf – 112Cn
Electronic Configurations of Elements in Groups
• Elements in the same group have similar valence shell electronic configurations, the
same number of electrons in the outer orbitals, and similar properties.
Class XI Chemistry
UNIT 3
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND
PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES
Topics:-
• Types Of Elements: s-, p-, d-, f- Blocks
By:- Vijay Kumar Sethi
TYPES OF ELEMENTS: s-, p-, d-, f- BLOCKS
• Depending on the type of atomic orbitals that are being filled with electrons the elements can be classified
into four blocks viz., s-block, p-block, d-block and f-block.
• There are two exceptions to this categorisation.
• Helium (1s2) belongs to the s-block it is placed in the p-block along with other group 18 elements
because it has a completely filled valence shell (1s2) and as a result, exhibits properties characteristic of
other noble gases.
• The other exception is hydrogen. It has only one s-electron and hence can be placed in group 1 (alkali
metals). It can also gain an electron to achieve a noble gas arrangement and hence it can behave
similar to a group 17 (halogen family) elements. Because it is a special case, we shall place hydrogen
separately at the top of the Periodic Table
The s-Block Elements
• The outermost electronic configuration ns1-2.
• The elements of Group 1 and Group 2 belong to the s-Block Elements
• The Group 1 elements :-Aalkali metals ns1 and lose 1 electron and form unipositive ion ,M +
• The Group 2 elements :- Alkaline earth metals ns2 and lose 2 electrons and forms dipositive ion, M2+
• They are all reactive metals with low ionization enthalpies.
• The metallic character and the reactivity increase as we go down the group.
• Because of high reactivity they are never found pure in nature.
• The compounds of the s-block elements, with the exception of those of lithium and beryllium are
predominantly ionic.
How to
Mnemonics for The s-Block Elements
remember?

Group 1 Elements Group 2 Elements

Atomic Element Symbol Mnemonics Atomic Element Symbol Mnemonics
No. No.

3 Lithium Li ली 4 Beryllium Be बेटा

11 Sodium Na ना 12 Magnesium Mg मागें
19 Potassium K की 20 Calcium Ca कार
37 Rubidium Rb रब 38 Strontium Sr स्कूटर
55 Caesium Cs से 56 Barium Ba बाप
87 Francium Fr फररयाद 88 Radium Ra राजी
The p-Block Elements
• Elements of Group 13 to 18 belongs to the p-block elements
• The outermost electronic configuration ns2np1-6
• At the end of each period is a noble gas element with a closed valence shell ns2np6 configuration.
• The noble gases exhibit very low chemical reactivity.
• Preceding the noble gas family are two chemically important groups of non-metals. They are the
halogens (Group 17) and the chalcogens (Group 16).
• These two groups of elements have highly negative electron gain enthalpies and readily add one or
two electrons respectively to attain the stable noble gas configuration.
• The non-metallic character increases as we move from left to right across a period and metallic
character increases as we go down the group.
The s-and p-block elements together
called Representative Elements or
Main Group Elements
MNEMONICS FOR The p-Block Elements
The d-Block Elements (Transition Elements)
• These are the elements of Group 3 to 12 in the centre of the Periodic Table.
• These are characterised by the filling of inner d orbitals by electrons and are therefore referred to as d-Block
Elements.
• These elements have the general outer electronic configuration (n-1)d1-10ns0-2 .
• They are all metals.
• They mostly form coloured ions, exhibit variable valence (oxidation states), paramagnetism and oftenly used as
catalysts.
• However, Zn, Cd and Hg with electronic configuration, (n-1) d10ns2 do not show most of the properties of
transition elements.
• In a way, transition metals form a bridge between the chemically active metals of s-block elements and the less
active elements of Groups 13 and 14 and thus take their familiar name “Transition Elements”.
Transition Elements (d-Block Elements)
3d Series :- 21Sc – 30Zn
4d Series:- 39Y- 48Cd

5d Series :- 57La, 72Hf -80Hg

6d Series :- 89Ac, 104Rf – 112Cn
The f-Block Elements (Inner-Transition Elements)
• The two rows of elements at the bottom of the Periodic Table are called f-Block Elements
• The outer electronic configuration (n-2)f1-14 (n-1)d0-1ns2.
Inner Transition Elements
• The last electron added to each element is filled in( n-2) f- orbital.
(f-Block Elements)
• They are all metals.
Lanthanoids (4f Series):-58Ce – 71Lu
• Within each series, the properties of the elements are quite similar.
Actinoids (5f Series):- 90Th – 103Lr
• Actinoid elements are radioactive.
• Many of the actinoid elements have been made only in nanogram quantities or even less by
nuclear reactions and their chemistry is not fully studied.
• The elements after uranium are called Transuranium Elements.
Class XI Chemistry
UNIT 3
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND
PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES
Topics:-
• Position of Elements in the Periodic Table
• Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids in periodic table

By:- Vijay Kumar Sethi

Position of Elements in the Periodic Table
How can we find out Group number and Period number of an element?
• First write electronic configuration.
• Principal Quantum Number of outer most shell = Number of Period
• The subshell in which last electron enters decides the block (s-, p-, d-, or f-)
• Group Number:-
• For s-block elements, Group Number = = No. of valence electrons
• For p-block elements, Group Number = 10 + No. of valence electrons
• For d-block elements, Group Number = No. of electrons in (n-1) d and ns subshells
• For f-block elements, Group Number :- 3
Continue…
How can we find out Group number and Period number of an element?
For example
Z= 4 Be 1s22s2 Period-2 , Block:-s, Group :-2
Z=9 F 1s22s22p5 Period- 2 ,Block:- p, Group :- 10 + 7 = 17
Z= 11 Na 1s22s22p63s1 Period- 3 , Block:-s , Group :– 1
Z= 14 Si 1s22s22p63s23p4 Period- 3 , Block:- p , Group :– 10 + 4 = 14
Z= 18 Ar 1s22s22p63s23p6 Period- 3 , Block:- p , Group :– 10 + 8 =18
Z= 20 Ca 1s22s22p63s23p6 4s2 Period- 4 , Block:- s, Group :– 2
Z=25 Mn 1s22s22p63s23p6 4s23d5 Period- 4 , Block:- d, Group:- 5+2=7
Z= 29 Cu 1s22s22p63s23p6 4s13d10 Period- 4 , Block:- d, Group:- 10+1=11

Z=21 to 29
Group No.=Sum of digits of atomic number
Problem 3.3
The elements Z = 117 and 120 .In which family / group would you place these
elements and also give the electronic configuration in each case.
Solution
Z = 117, 7s27p5 , [Rn] 7s25f146d107p5
Period:-7 , Block:- p, Group:-10+7=17 (Halogen Family)
Z = 120, [Og] 8s2 ,
Period:-8 , Block:- s, Group:- 2 (Alkaline Earth Metals)
Q.3.5 In terms of period and group where would you locate the element with Z =114?
Answer:-
First write electronic configuration 7s27p2
Period :- 7 Block:- p Group:- 10 + 4 = 14
Q.3.6 Write the atomic number of the element present in the third period and seventeenth
group of the periodic table.
Answer:-
Third Period :- Quantum number of outer most shell =3
17th Group :- p-block element
No. of electrons in the outer most shell=17-10=7
Outer most shell electronic configuration :- 3s23p5
Electronic configuration of the element:-1s22s22p63s23p5
So atomic number of the element:-17
Q.3.30 Assign the position of the element having outer electronic configuration
(i) ns2np4 for n=3 (ii) (n-1)d2ns2 for n=4, and (iii) (n-2) f7 (n-1)d1ns2 for n=6, in the periodic table.
Answer:-

(i) ns2np4 for n=3 3s23p4 Period:-3 Block:- p Group:-10+6 = 16

(ii) (n-1)d2ns2 for n=4 3d24s2 Period:- 4 Block:- d Group:- 2+2=4

(iii) (n-2) f7 (n-1)d1ns2 for n=6 4f75d16s2 Period:-6 Block:- f Group:-3

Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids
• The elements can be divided into Metals and Non-Metals.
• Metals comprise more than 78% of all known elements and appear on the left side of the Periodic
Table.
• Metals are usually solids at room temperature [mercury is an exception; gallium and caesium also
have very low melting points (303K and 302K, respectively)].
• Metals usually have high melting and boiling points.
• They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
• They are malleable (can be flattened into thin sheets by hammering) and ductile (can be drawn
into wires).
Continue…
Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids
• Non-metals are located at the top right hand side of the Periodic Table.
• Non-metals are usually solids or gases at room temperature with low melting and boiling
points (boron and carbon are exceptions).
• They are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
• Most nonmetallic solids are brittle and are neither malleable nor ductile.
• The elements become more metallic as we go down a group;
• The nonmetallic character increases as one goes from left to right across the Periodic Table.
Continue…
Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids
• In the Modern Periodic Table, a zig-zag line separates metals from non-metals.
• The elements (e.g., silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony and tellurium)
bordering this line and show properties that are characteristic of both metals
and nonmetals.
• These elements are called Semi-metals or Metalloids.

Problem 3.4
Considering the atomic number and position in the periodic table, arrange the
following elements in the increasing order of metallic character : Si, Be, Mg, Na, P.

Solution
Metallic character increases down a group and decreases along a period as we move from left to right. Hence
the order of increasing metallic character is: P < Si < Be < Mg < Na.
Class XI Chemistry
UNIT 3
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND
PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES
Topics:-
• Periodic Trends In Properties Of Elements-
• Atomic Radius and Ionic radius

By:- Vijay Kumar Sethi

Atomic Radius

Finding the size of an atom is a Two reason

lot more complicated than Why? (1) Size of an atom (1.2 × 10–10 m in radius) is very small.
measuring the radius of a ball. (2) The electron cloud surrounding the atom does not have a
sharp boundary,
So the determination of the atomic size cannot be precise.

Therefore ,an estimate of the

atomic size can be made by
knowing the distance between
the atoms in the combined state.
For non-metallic element For metals,
Covalent Radius:- Metallic Radius:-
Half the distance between two atoms when they are It is taken as half the internuclear distance separating
bound together by a single bond in a covalent molecule the metal cores in the metallic crystal.
For example, the bond distance in the chlorine molecule For example, the distance between two adjacent
(Cl2) is 198 pm and half this distance (99 pm), is taken as copper atoms in solid copper is 256 pm; hence the
the atomic radius of chlorine. metallic radius of copper is assigned a value of 128 pm.

Atomic Radius refer to both

covalent or metallic radius
depending on whether the
element is a non-metal or a
metal.
van der Waal’s Radius:-
• It is half the distance between two
adjacent atoms when they are not bound
together by any bond.
• It is grater than covalent radius.
Variation of Atomic size in a period
• The atomic size generally decreases across a period from left to right
• It is because within the period the outer electrons are in the same valence shell and the effective nuclear
charge increases as the atomic number increases resulting in the increased attraction of electrons to the
nucleus

Atomic radii of noble gases For noble gases van der

are not considered here. Wall’s radii is calculated
(Non-bonded radii)
Variation of Atomic size in a Group
• Within a group of the periodic table, the atomic radius increases regularly with atomic number.
• This is because, down the group the principal quantum number (n) increases (i.e. number of shells increases)
and the valence electrons are away from the nucleus.
• And also inner energy levels shield the outer electrons from the pull of the nucleus. So effective nuclear charges
decreases. Consequently the size of the atom increases .
Ionic Radius
Ionic radius is the distance from the nucleus of an ion up to which it has an
influence on its electron cloud

Cation:- Anion:-
It is formed by the removal It is formed by gain of
of an electron from an atom an electron by an atom.

The ionic radii can be estimated by In general, the ionic radii of

measuring the distances between elements exhibit the same

cations and anions in ionic crystals. trend as the atomic radii.

Size of Cation:-
• A cation is smaller than its parent atom because it has fewer electrons while its nuclear
charge remains the same. So effective nuclear charge increases.
• For example, the atomic radius of sodium is 186 pm compared to the ionic radius of 95
pm for Na+.
Size of Anion:-
• The size of an anion will be larger than that of the parent atom because the addition of one or
more electrons would result in increased repulsion among the electrons and a decrease in
effective nuclear charge.
• For example, the ionic radius of fluoride ion (Cl– ) is 181 pm whereas the atomic radius of
fluorine is only 99 pm.
Isoelectronic species
• Two or more species with same number of atoms, same number of valence electrons and same
structure, regardless of the nature of elements involved are called isoelectronic species.
• For example, O2− , F − , Na+ , Mg 2+ have the same number of electrons (10).
• Their radii would be different because of their different nuclear charges.
• Decreasing Order of radii :- O2− > F − > Na+ > Mg 2+

Problem 3.5
Which of the following species will have the largest and the smallest size?
Mg, Mg 2+ , Al, Al3+ .
Solution
Atomic radii decrease across a period. Cations are smaller than their parent atoms.
Among isoelectronic species, the one with the larger positive nuclear charge will have a smaller radius.
Hence the largest species is Mg; the smallest one is Al3+ .
Class XI Chemistry
UNIT 3
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND
PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES
Topics:-
• Periodic Trends In Properties Of Elements-
• Ionization Enthalpy
By:- Vijay Kumar Sethi
Ionisation Enthalpy
• It is the energy required to remove an electron from an isolated gaseous atom (M) in its ground state.
• The first ionization enthalpy for an element M is the enthalpy change (∆i H) for the reaction
𝑀 𝑔 → 𝑀+ 𝑔 + 𝑒 −
• The ionization enthalpy is expressed in units of kJ mol−1.
• The second ionization enthalpy is the energy required to remove the second most loosely bound electron;
𝑀+ 𝑔 → 𝑀2+ 𝑔 + 𝑒 −
• Energy is always required to remove electrons from an atom and hence ionization enthalpies are always positive.
• The second ionization enthalpy will be higher than the first ionization enthalpy because it is more difficult to
remove an electron from a positively charged ion than from a neutral atom.
• In the same way the third ionization enthalpy will be higher than the second and so on.
• The term “ionization enthalpy”, if not qualified, is taken as the first ionization enthalpy.

∆𝑖 𝐻1 < ∆𝑖 𝐻2 < ∆𝑖 𝐻3
Factors affecting Ionisation Enthalpy
1. Atomic size:- Larger the size , easy to remove electron, low IE
2. Effective nuclear charge:- More the effective nuclear charge, more difficult to remove the
electron , high IE
3. Shielding effect:- More the shielding of nuclear charge by inner electrons, less the effective
nuclear charge, so low IE
4. Stability of Half filled and Full filled orbitals:- removal of electron is more difficult form the
elements having stable half filled and full filled electronic configuration, so high IE
5. Penetrating Effect:- s-electron are more close to nucleus compared to p and d electrons, we
can say that s-electrons are more penetrating towards nucleus so removal of electron is more
difficult from s-electron compared to p and d electrons.
Variation of Ionisation Enthalpy
• Across a period:-
• effective nuclear charge increases, size decreases .
• Consequently, the outermost electrons are held more and more tightly and the ionization
enthalpy increases across a period.
• As we go down a group:-
• number of shells increases, size increases , shielding of the nuclear charge by the electrons in the
inner levels is also increased , effective nuclear charge decreases so removal of the outermost
electron requires less energy down a group. Hence IE decreases down a group.
Continue…
Variation of Ionisation Enthalpy
• Noble gases which have closed electron shells and very stable electron configuration have
highest IE in a period
• Low ionization enthalpies of Alkali metals can be correlated with their high reactivity
• Generally, first ionization enthalpy increases as we go across a period and decreases as we
descend in a group
Continue…
Variation of Ionisation Enthalpy
Exceptions:-
(1) First ionization enthalpy of boron (Z = 5) is slightly less than that of beryllium (Z = 4) even though the
boron has a greater nuclear charge.
Reason:- Be: 1s2 2s2 B: is2 2s2 2p1
• The s-electron is attracted to the nucleus more than a p-electron.
• The penetration of a 2s-electron to the nucleus is more than that of a 2p-electron; hence the 2p
electron of boron is more shielded from the nucleus by the inner core of electrons than the 2s
electrons of beryllium.
• Therefore, it is easier to remove the 2p-electron from boron compared to the removal of a 2s-
electron from beryllium.
• Thus, boron has a smaller first ionization enthalpy than beryllium.
Continue…
Variation of Ionisation Enthalpy
Exceptions:-
(2) First ionization enthalpy of Oxygen (Z= 8) is less than that of Nitrogen (Z = 7) .
Reason:-

• N has stable half filled 2p orbitals while in O , 2 electrons are present in one of the 2p orbitals
resulting in an increased electron-electron repulsion.
• Consequently, it is easier to remove the fourth 2p-electron from oxygen than it is, to remove one
of the three 2p-electrons from nitrogen
Problem 3.6
• The first ionization enthalpy (DiH ) values of the third period elements, Na, Mg and Si are
respectively 496, 737 and 786 kJ mol –1. Predict whether the first DiH value for Al will be more
close to 575 or 760 kJ mol –1 ? Justify your answer.
Solution
Element Na Mg Al Si
IE (kJ/mol) 496 737 ? 786
Outer most electronic 3s1 3s2 3s23p1 3s23p2
Configuration
• It will be more close to 575 kJ mol –1. The value for Al should be lower than that of Mg because of
effective shielding of 3p electrons from the nucleus by 3s-electrons.
Class XI Chemistry
UNIT 3
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND
PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES
Topics:-
• Periodic Trends In Properties Of Elements-
• Electron Gain Enthalpy
• Electronegativity
By:- Vijay Kumar Sethi
Electron Gain Enthalpy
• When an electron is added to a neutral gaseous atom (X) to convert it into a negative ion, the enthalpy
change accompanying the process is defined as the Electron Gain Enthalpy (DegH).
𝑋 𝑔 + 𝑒 − → 𝑋 − (𝑔)
• Depending on the element, the process of adding an electron to the atom can be either endothermic or
exothermic
• For many elements energy is released when an electron is added to the atom and the electron gain
enthalpy is negative.
• For example, group 17 elements (the halogens) have very high negative electron gain enthalpies
because they can attain stable noble gas electronic configurations by picking up an electron.
• On the other hand, noble gases have large positive electron gain enthalpies because the electron has to
enter the next higher principal quantum level leading to a very unstable electronic configuration.
Electron Gain Enthalpy
• Electron gain enthalpies have large negative values toward the upper right of the periodic
table preceding the noble gases.
Continue…

Variation In Electron Gain Enthalpy

• The variation in electron gain enthalpies of elements is less systematic than for ionization enthalpies.
Across a period:-
• As a general rule, electron gain enthalpy becomes more negative with increase in the atomic number across a
period.
• Reason:-The effective nuclear charge increases from left to right across a period and consequently it will be
easier to add an electron to a smaller atom since the added electron on an average would be closer to the
positively charged nucleus.
Down a group:-
• Generally, electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative as we go down a group
• Reason:-because the size of the atom increases and the added electron would be away from the nucleus.
Variation In Electron Gain Enthalpy
Exception:-
• Electron gain enthalpy of O or F is less negative than that of the succeeding element (S or Cl).

• This is because size of O or F is smaller (compact). When an electron is added to O or F, the

added electron goes to the smaller n = 2 quantum level and suffers significant repulsion from
the other electrons present in this level.
• For the n = 3 quantum level (S or Cl), the added electron occupies a larger region of space and
the electron-electron repulsion is much less.
Problem 3.7
• Which of the following will have the most negative electron gain enthalpy and which the least negative? P, S,
Cl, F. Explain your answer.
Solution
• Electron gain enthalpy generally becomes more negative across a period as we move from left to right.
• Within a group, electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative down a group.
• However, adding an electron to the 2p-orbital leads to greater repulsion than adding an electron to the larger
3p-orbital.
• Hence the element with most negative electron gain enthalpy is chlorine;
• the one with the least negative electron gain enthalpy is phosphorus.
Electronegativity
• The ability of an atom in a chemical compound to attract shared electrons to itself is called
electronegativity.
• Unlike ionization enthalpy and electron gain enthalpy, it is not a measureable quantity.
• A number of numerical scales of electronegativity of elements viz., Pauling scale, Mulliken-Jaffe scale,
Allred-Rochow scale have been developed.
• The one which is the most widely used is the Pauling scale.
• Fluorine have the greatest ability to attract shared electrons to itself . So it is considered as the most
electronegative element in the periodic table. And it is assigned a value of 4.0 of electronegativity
Variation of Electronegativity
Across a period:-
• Electronegativity generally increases across a period from left to right in the periodic table.
• Reason:-Atomic radii decrease across each period from left to right.
• The attraction between the outer (or valence) electrons and the nucleus increases as the atomic
radius decreases in a period. So the electronegativity also increases.
Down a group:-
• Electronegativity generally decreases down a group in the periodic table.
• Reason:- Atomic radii increase down a group so attraction between outer electrons
and the nucleus decrease as the size increase down a group so electronegativity also
decreases
Relationship between electronegativity and Metallic & non-metallic properties
• Non-metallic elements have strong tendency to gain electrons.
• Therefore, electronegativity is directly related to that non-metallic properties of elements.
• Or we can say that the electronegativity is inversely related to the metallic properties of elements.
• Thus, the increase in electronegativities across a period is accompanied by an increase in non-
metallic properties (or decrease in metallic properties) of elements.
• Similarly, the decrease in electronegativity down a group is accompanied by a decrease in non-
metallic properties (or increase in metallic properties) of elements.
The periodic trends of elements in the periodic table
Class XI Chemistry
UNIT 3
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND
PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES
Topics:-
• Periodicity of Valence or Oxidation States
• Anomalous Properties of Second Period Elements
• Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactivity

By:- Vijay Kumar Sethi

Periodicity of Valence or Oxidation States
Valency :
• Combining capacity of an element is called its valency.
• Valency of an element is determined by the number of valence electrons present in
the outermost shell of its atom.
• For representative elements:-
• Valency= Number of valence electrons OR
• Valency = 8 - Number of valence electrons
Oxidation state
• Oxidation state of an element in a particular compound can be defined as the charge acquired by its
atom on the basis of electronegative consideration from other atoms in the molecule.
• Consider the compounds: OF2 and Na2O.
• The order of electronegativity of the three elements involved in these compounds is F > O > Na.
• Each fluorine atom (2s22p5) shares one electron with oxygen in the OF2 molecule. Being highest
electronegative element, fluorine is given oxidation state –1.
• Oxygen (2s22p4) shares two electrons, one from each fluorine atom and thereby exhibits oxidation
state +2.
• In Na2O, oxygen being more electronegative accepts two electrons, one from each of the two sodium
atoms and, thus, shows oxidation state –2. On the other hand sodium (3s1) loses one electron to
oxygen and is given oxidation state +1.
Problem 3.8
Using the Periodic Table, predict the formulas of compounds which might be formed by the
following pairs of elements;
(a) silicon and bromine (b) aluminium and sulphur.
Solution
(a) Silicon group 14 element valence of 4;
Problem 3.9
bromine group 17 halogen family valence of 1.
Are the oxidation state and covalency of Al in
Hence the formula of the compound formed would be SiBr4
[𝐴𝑙𝐶𝑙(𝐻2𝑂)5]2+ same ?
(b) Aluminium group 13 element valence of 3;
Solution
sulphur group 16 element valence of 2.
No. The oxidation state of Al is +3 and the
Hence, the formula of the compound formed would be Al 2S3
covalency is 6.
Anomalous Properties of Second Period Elements
• Diagonal relationship
• Lithium and beryllium, the first elements of Group 1 and Group 2 respectively exhibit some properties
which are different from those of the other members of the respective group.
• In these anomalous properties they resemble the second element of the following group.
• Thus, lithium shows similarities to magnesium and beryllium to aluminium in many of their properties.
• This type of diagonal similarity is commonly referred to as diagonal relationship in the periodic table.
• The diagonal relationship is due to the similarity in ionic sizes and /or charge/radius ratio of the elements.

For example, lithium unlike other alkali metals,

and beryllium unlike other alkaline earth metals,
form compounds with predominantly covalent
character; the other members of these groups
predominantly form ionic compounds
Continue…
Anomalous Properties of Second Period Elements
• The first element of each of the groups 13-17 (boron to fluorine) also differs in many respects from
the other members of their respective group.

Reasons for Small size, large charge/ radius ratio ,high

this anomalous electronegativity of the elements and
behaviour?
absence of d-orbitals.

• The first member of group has only four valence orbitals (2s and 2p) available for bonding, whereas
the second member of the groups have nine valence orbitals (3s, 3p, 3d).
• Therefore, the maximum covalency of the first member of each group is 4 (e.g., 𝐵𝐹4−) whereas the
other members can expand their valence e.g., aluminium AlF63−
Continue…
Anomalous Properties of Second Period Elements

• Furthermore, the first member of p-block elements displays greater ability to form pp – pp
multiple bonds to itself (e.g., C = C, C  C, N = N, N  ) and to other second period elements
(e.g., C = O, C = N, C  N, N = O) compared to subsequent members of the same group.
Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactivity
• The ionization enthalpy of the extreme left element in a period is the least and the electron gain
enthalpy of the element on the extreme right is the highest negative (Except noble gases).
• This results into high chemical reactivity at the two extremes and the lowest in the centre.
• Thus, the maximum chemical reactivity at the extreme left (among alkali metals) is exhibited by
the loss of an electron leading to the formation of a cation and at the extreme right (among
halogens) shown by the gain of an electron forming an anion.

Reactivity of alkali metals increases down the

group because of decrease in ionisation enthalpy

Reactivity of halogens decreases down the group

because electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative
and electronegativity also decreases down the group
Continue…

Periodic Trends and Chemical Reactivity

• The metallic character of an element, which is highest at the extremely left decreases and the non-
metallic character increases while moving from left to right across the period.
• The chemical reactivity of an element can be best shown by its reactions with oxygen and halogens.
• Elements on two extremes of a period easily combine with oxygen to form oxides.
• The normal oxide formed by the element on extreme left is the most basic (e.g., Na2O), whereas that
formed by the element on extreme right is the most acidic (e.g., Cl2O7).
• Oxides of elements in the centre are amphoteric (e.g., Al2O3, As2O3) or neutral (e.g., CO, NO, N2O).
• Amphoteric oxides behave as acidic with bases and as basic with acids, whereas neutral oxides have no
acidic or basic properties.
Problem 3.10
• Show by a chemical reaction with water that Na2O is a basic oxide and Cl 2O7 is an acidic oxide.
Solution
• Na2O with water forms a strong base whereas Cl 2O7 forms strong acid.
Na2O + H2O → 2NaOH
Cl2O7 + H2O → 2HClO4
Their basic or acidic nature can be qualitatively tested with litmus paper.