FOND 121

CHUKA UNIVERSITY

SUPPLEMENTARY/ SPECIAL EXAMINATIONS

FIRST YEAR EXAMINATION FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF PSYCHOLOGY

FOND 121: PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN NUTRITION

STREAMS: B. PSYC TIME: 2 HOURS

DAY/DATE: THURSDAY 04/02/2021 11.30 AM – 1.30 PM

INSTRUCTIONS:

• Answer All questions in SECTION A and Any Two in SECTION B

• Do not write anything on the question paper

SECTION A: (30 MARKS)

1. Explain three guidelines to optimal nutrition (6 Marks)

Eat a variety of nutrient-dense foods: A balanced and healthy diet should

include a variety of nutrient-dense foods such as fruits, vegetables, whole
grains, lean proteins, and healthy fats. Nutrient-dense foods are those that
provide a high amount of essential nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, fiber,
and antioxidants, while being relatively low in calories. These foods are
essential for maintaining good health and preventing chronic diseases.

Control portion sizes and limit processed foods: While it's important to eat a
variety of nutrient-dense foods, it's equally important to control portion sizes
and limit the intake of processed and high-calorie foods. Overeating can lead
to weight gain, and consuming too much processed and high-calorie foods
can increase the risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease, diabetes, and
cancer. Try to eat smaller portions, and limit the intake of sugary drinks, fast
foods, processed snacks, and other high-calorie foods.

Stay hydrated and mindful: Staying hydrated is essential for optimal nutrition.
Water is needed for digestion, absorption, and transportation of nutrients, as
well as for removing waste and toxins from the body. Aim to drink at least 8-
10 glasses of water a day, and try to limit the intake of sugary and caffeinated
drinks. Additionally, being mindful of what you eat and how you eat can help
promote healthy eating habits. Pay attention to your hunger and fullness
signals, eat slowly and mindfully, and avoid distractions such as television or
mobile phones while eating.
2. Explain the following terms: (6 Mark)

a) Growth spurt: Growth spurt refers to a rapid increase in height and

weight that occurs during puberty in both boys and girls. This period
of accelerated growth is typically characterized by an increase in
hormones such as testosterone and estrogen, which stimulate bone and
muscle growth. Growth spurts usually occur between the ages of 8 and
13 for girls, and between 10 and 15 for boys. During this time, it is
important to ensure adequate nutrition and physical activity to support
healthy growth and development.
b) Monosaccharides: Monosaccharides are simple sugars that cannot be
broken down further into smaller sugars. They are the basic building
blocks of carbohydrates and are essential for energy production in the
body. The three most common monosaccharides are glucose, fructose,
and galactose. Glucose is the primary source of energy for the body,
while fructose is found in fruits and is often added to processed foods
as a sweetener. Galactose is found in milk and milk products
c) Essential amino acids : Amino acids are the building blocks of
proteins and are essential for growth, development, and repair of
tissues in the body. There are 20 different amino acids, nine of which
are considered essential because the body cannot produce them on its
own and they must be obtained through the diet. These essential amino
acids include histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine,
phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. It is important to
consume adequate amounts of these essential amino acids to support
the body's protein needs.

3. Distinguish between the following terms: (6 Marks)

a) Saturated fatty acids and monounsaturated fatty acids : Saturated fatty

acids are a type of fat found in animal products such as meat, dairy, and
eggs, as well as in some plant-based sources such as coconut and palm
oil. They are solid at room temperature and can contribute to an
increased risk of heart disease when consumed in excess.
Monounsaturated fatty acids, on the other hand, are a type of
unsaturated fat found in plant-based sources such as olive oil,
avocados, and nuts. They are liquid at room temperature and can help
lower cholesterol levels and reduce the risk of heart disease when
consumed in moderation.
b) Complementary feeding and mixed feeding : Complementary feeding
refers to the introduction of solid foods to an infant's diet while still
continuing to breastfeed or provide formula milk. This is typically done
around 6 months of age when an infant's nutrient needs exceed what
can be provided by breast milk or formula alone. Mixed feeding, on the
other hand, refers to a combination of breast milk or formula feeding
and solid food feeding. It can be used interchangeably with
complementary feeding, but can also refer to situations where an infant
is receiving a mix of breast milk and formula feeding.
c) Complete proteins and incomplete proteins : Proteins are made up of
amino acids, and complete proteins contain all nine essential amino
acids that the body needs to build and repair tissues. Animal-based
protein sources such as meat, fish, eggs, and dairy are typically
complete proteins. Incomplete proteins, on the other hand, do not
contain all nine essential amino acids. Plant-based protein sources such
as grains, legumes, nuts, and seeds are typically incomplete proteins,
but can be combined to create a complete protein profile. For example,
rice and beans or peanut butter on whole grain bread.

4. Explain any two functions of the following: (6 Marks)

a) Vitamin A:
i) Vision: Vitamin A plays a crucial role in maintaining healthy
vision. It helps to form the light-detecting cells in the retina, which are
responsible for detecting light and transmitting signals to the brain for
visual perception. Vitamin A also helps to prevent night blindness, a
condition where a person has difficulty seeing in low light conditions.

ii) Immune function: Vitamin A is essential for a healthy immune

system. It helps to maintain the integrity of the epithelial barriers,
which act as the first line of defense against pathogens entering the
body. Vitamin A also plays a role in the production and function of
white blood cells, which help to fight infections and diseases.
b) Lipids :
i) Energy storage: Lipids are an important source of energy for the
body. They are stored in adipose tissue and can be used by the body
as fuel when needed. One gram of lipids provides approximately 9
calories of energy, which is more than double the amount provided by
carbohydrates or proteins.

ii) Insulation: Lipids are also important for insulation and protection
of vital organs. Adipose tissue acts as a layer of insulation, helping to
maintain body temperature and protect organs from physical damage.
c) Proteins :
i) Tissue repair and growth: Proteins play a crucial role in tissue repair
and growth. They provide the building blocks needed to repair and
maintain tissues such as muscle, bone, and skin. Proteins are also
important for growth and development during childhood and
adolescence.

ii) Enzyme activity: Proteins also function as enzymes, which are

responsible for catalyzing biochemical reactions in the body. Enzymes
help to regulate various metabolic pathways, including digestion,
energy production, and DNA replication. Without enzymes, many
important biochemical reactions in the body would not occur at a
sufficient rate to support life.

5. Briefly explain two methods of taking anthropometric measurements (4 Marks)

a) Height measurement: Height is typically measured using a
stadiometer, which is a specialized measuring tool that is attached to
a wall. The individual being measured stands with their back against
the stadiometer, and the measurement is taken to the nearest
millimeter. To ensure accuracy, it is important to ensure that the
individual is standing upright with their feet flat on the ground and
their heels, buttocks, and shoulder blades touching the wall.

b) Waist circumference measurement: Waist circumference is measured

using a flexible tape measure. The measurement is taken at the
narrowest part of the waist, typically at the level of the belly button.
The tape measure should be snug but not compressing the skin, and
the measurement should be taken to the nearest millimeter. To ensure
accuracy, it is important to measure at the end of a normal expiration,
with the individual standing upright and relaxed. The waist
circumference measurement can provide an estimate of the amount of
abdominal fat, which is associated with an increased risk of various
health conditions such as cardiovascular disease and diabetes.
6. Briefly explain two reasons why an infant may receive artificial feeding (2 Marks)
a) Inability to breastfeed: Some infants may be unable to breastfeed due c)
to medical conditions such as cleft lip or palate, or neurological issues
that make it difficult for them to coordinate the sucking and
swallowing reflexes needed to breastfeed effectively. In some cases,
the mother may also be unable to produce sufficient breast milk, or
may have a medical condition that requires her to take medications
that are not compatible with breastfeeding.

b) Personal or cultural preferences: Some mothers may choose to

formula feed their infants due to personal or cultural preferences. For
example, some women may prefer not to breastfeed due to discomfort
or concerns about breastfeeding in public. In some cultures, formula
feeding may be more widely accepted or may be seen as a more
modern or convenient option. It is important to note, however, that
breast milk provides numerous health benefits for both the infant and
the mother, and that formula feeding should only be used as a
substitute when breastfeeding is not possible or practical.

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FOND 121

SECTION TWO: Answer any TWO questions (Total 40 marks)

7. a) Explain five nutrition challenges that adolescents face (10 Marks)

1. Unhealthy eating habits: Adolescents are often exposed to a wide range of unhealthy
food options, such as fast food, processed snacks, and sugary beverages. These foods
tend to be high in calories, salt, sugar, and unhealthy fats, and low in essential
nutrients. If these unhealthy eating habits persist, they can lead to various health
issues such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.
2. Nutrient deficiencies: Adolescents may also be at risk of nutrient deficiencies due to
poor eating habits or inadequate intake of certain nutrients. For example, adolescent
girls are at risk of iron deficiency anemia due to increased iron requirements during
menstruation. Adolescents who follow restrictive diets or who have food allergies or
intolerances may also be at risk of nutrient deficiencies.

3. Disordered eating: Adolescents may also develop disordered eating behaviors such
as binge eating, purging, or restrictive eating. These behaviors can lead to serious
health issues such as malnutrition, dehydration, and electrolyte imbalances.

4. Body image issues: Adolescents may also struggle with body image issues, which
can lead to unhealthy dieting behaviors or the development of eating disorders such
as anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa. These behaviors can have serious health
consequences and require professional treatment.

5. Limited access to healthy food: Adolescents from low-income families or in food-

insecure environments may have limited access to healthy food options such as fresh
fruits and vegetables, lean proteins, and whole grains. This can lead to an increased
risk of nutrient deficiencies and chronic health conditions such as obesity and type
2 diabetes.

b) Explain five reasons why an elderly woman is likely to end up with a poor nutrition
status (10 Marks)
i Reduced appetite: Older women may have a reduced appetite due to a variety of factors,
such as changes in taste and smell perception, medications that affect appetite, and dental or
oral health issues. This can lead to a decreased intake of essential nutrients, vitamins, and
minerals.

ii Social isolation: Elderly women may be more likely to experience social isolation and
loneliness, which can impact their motivation to cook and eat meals. This can lead to a
decreased intake of essential nutrients and an increased risk of malnutrition.

iii Functional limitations: Older women may experience functional limitations that make it
difficult to shop for groceries, prepare meals, and feed themselves. This can lead to a
decreased intake of essential nutrients and an increased risk of malnutrition.

iv Chronic health conditions: Older women may have chronic health conditions such as
diabetes, heart disease, or cancer, which can affect their nutritional status. These conditions
can impact nutrient absorption, increase nutrient requirements, and affect the appetite and
food choices of older women.

v Financial constraints: Elderly women may face financial constraints that limit their ability
to purchase healthy food options. This can lead to a reliance on cheaper, less nutrient-dense
foods, which can contribute to poor nutrition status.

8. a) Discuss six strategies that would reduce food shortage in developing countries
(12 Marks)
i Increasing agricultural productivity: Developing countries could focus on improving
agricultural productivity through investments in research and development,
providing farmers with access to high-quality seeds, fertilizers, and other inputs, and
implementing effective irrigation systems. This could help increase crop yields and
reduce food shortages.

ii Improving access to credit: Small-scale farmers in developing countries often lack

access to credit, making it difficult for them to invest in their farms and improve
productivity. Providing access to affordable credit and other financial services could
help farmers invest in their farms and improve their production.

iii Promoting sustainable agriculture: Sustainable agriculture practices, such as

agroforestry, conservation agriculture, and organic farming, can help improve soil
fertility, conserve water, and reduce the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
These practices could help increase agricultural productivity and reduce food
shortages.

iv Developing infrastructure: Developing countries could invest in infrastructure, such

as roads, storage facilities, and markets, to improve access to food and reduce post-
harvest losses.

v Addressing climate change: Climate change can impact agricultural productivity,

with extreme weather events such as droughts and floods leading to crop failures and
food shortages. Developing countries could focus on addressing climate change
through investments in renewable energy, sustainable land use, and climate-resilient
crops.

vi Providing food aid and nutritional support: In the short term, providing food aid and
nutritional support to vulnerable populations, such as children and pregnant women,
could help address food shortages and malnutrition. This could include distributing
food and supplements, providing nutrition education, and implementing food
assistance programs.
b) Explain five reasons why exclusive breastfeeding is important to the baby
(8 Marks)
i Provides optimal nutrition: Breast milk is the ideal food for infants as it contains all the
nutrients, vitamins, and minerals necessary for their growth and development. It also
contains antibodies that protect against infections, reducing the risk of illness.

ii Reduces the risk of infections: Breastfeeding provides natural immunity to the infant against
infections, reducing the risk of illnesses such as diarrhea, pneumonia, and ear infections.
Breast milk also contains antibodies that can protect the infant from illnesses that the mother
has had.

iii Promotes cognitive development: Breastfeeding has been shown to promote cognitive
development in infants, leading to better performance in school later in life. Breast milk
contains long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids that are important for brain development.

iv Reduces the risk of chronic diseases: Infants who are breastfed exclusively have a reduced
risk of developing chronic diseases later in life, such as obesity, diabetes, and high blood
pressure. Breastfeeding also reduces the risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).

v Promotes bonding between mother and baby: Breastfeeding promotes bonding between the
mother and baby, which can have positive emotional and psychological effects on both. This
can lead to a more secure attachment between mother and baby, which can have long-term
benefits for the infant's mental health.

9. a) Explain why expectant and lactating women have higher nutrient requirements
(10 Marks)
i Increased energy requirements: During pregnancy and lactation, the body requires more
energy to support the growth and development of the fetus and the production of breast
milk. This increased energy demand means that pregnant and lactating women need to
consume more calories than non-pregnant or non-lactating women.

ii Increased protein requirements: Protein is essential for the growth and development of the
fetus and the production of breast milk. Pregnant and lactating women require more
protein to support these processes.

iii Increased iron requirements: Iron is necessary for the production of hemoglobin, which
carries oxygen in the blood. During pregnancy, the mother's blood volume increases, and
the fetus also requires iron for its own development. Lactating women also require more
iron to make up for the iron lost in breast milk.

iv Increased calcium requirements: Calcium is necessary for the development of the fetus's
bones and teeth. Pregnant and lactating women require more calcium to support these
processes.

v Increased vitamin and mineral requirements: Pregnant and lactating women require more
vitamins and minerals than non-pregnant or non-lactating women to support fetal
development and the production of breast milk. For example, folic acid is essential for the
development of the fetal nervous system, and vitamin D is necessary for the absorption of
calcium.

b) Discuss the carbohydrate nutrient, its sources and functions (10 Marks)
Carbohydrates are one of the three macronutrients, along with protein and fat, that the body
requires in relatively large amounts for energy. Carbohydrates are made up of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen molecules, and they are the primary source of energy for the body.

There are two types of carbohydrates: simple and complex. Simple carbohydrates are made
up of one or two sugar molecules and are found in foods such as fruits, milk, and candy.
Complex carbohydrates, also called starches, are made up of many sugar molecules and are
found in foods such as bread, rice, pasta, and potatoes.

Sources of carbohydrates include fruits, vegetables, grains, legumes, and dairy products. It's
important to choose sources of carbohydrates that are high in fiber and other nutrients, such
as whole grains, fruits, and vegetables, rather than sources that are high in added sugars,
such as candy and soda.

Carbohydrates have several important functions in the body:

i Energy: Carbohydrates are the primary source of energy for the body. They are
broken down into glucose, which the body uses to fuel its cells and organs.
ii Brain function: The brain requires glucose for energy, and carbohydrates provide a
steady supply of glucose to the brain.

iii Digestive health: Carbohydrates that are high in fiber, such as fruits, vegetables, and
whole grains, promote digestive health by adding bulk to the diet and preventing
constipation.

iv Athletic performance: Carbohydrates are important for athletes, as they provide

energy for workouts and help to replenish glycogen stores in the muscles after
exercise.

v Blood sugar control: Carbohydrates can affect blood sugar levels, and choosing
sources of carbohydrates that are low on the glycemic index, such as whole grains
and vegetables, can help to stabilize blood sugar levels and prevent spikes and
crashes.
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