CHAPTER 6

2. Interpersonal
Synthesis: MAKING INFORMED DECISIONS
• An individual is also a product of an
I.) THE MORAL AGENT AND CONTEXTS interpersonal cross-point if many events and
 What one ought to do in one’s life is not factors outside of one’s choosing.
dictated by one’s physical,
• Who one is-in the sense of one’s character or
interpersonal, social, or historical
personality-has been shaped by one’s
conditions. What one ought to do is also
relationships as well as the physical factors that
not abstracted from one’s own specific
affect how one thinks and feels.
situation.
3. Social
 The one who is tasked to think about
• Who one is, is shaped by one’s society. The
what is “right” and why it is so, and to
term society pertains to all elements of the
choose to do so, is a human individual.
human groups that one is a member of culture,
Who is this individual who must engage
in its varied aspects is included here.
herself in ethical thought and decision-
making? • It interacts with the physical and
interpersonal factors that the individual and her
The ancient Greeks even had a famous
people are immersed into or engaged in.
saying for it: “EPIMELEIA HE AUTO” usually
translated into english as “KNOW YOURSELF” 4. Historical
WHO ONE IS? • History is the events that one’s people has
“Epimeleia he auto” or “Know Thyself” undergone. In short, one’s people history
shapes who one is right now.
Ramon C. Reyes (1935-2014)
b.) Culture and Ethics.
One of the pioneers in the Philippines
of the philosophical approach known as One's culture dictates what is right or
“existential phenomenology”. Wrote the book wrong for an individual. One’s culture is
Ground and Norm of Morality: Ethics for inescapable, that is, one has to look into the
College Students and the essay about Man and standards of her society to resolve all her
Historical Action. ethical questions with finality.
a.) Man, and Historical Action James Rachels
· American philosopher
Reyes explained Who One Is, is a cross-point.
· Defines cultural relativism as the position that
One’s identity is a product of many forces and
claims there is no such thing as objective truth
events that happened outside of one’s
in the realm of morality.
choosing.
· Argument: since different cultures have
CROSS-POINTS different moral codes, then there is no one
moral code that all cultures must follow. Each
1. Physical
culture has its own standard of right and
• Who one is, is a function of physical events in wrong.
the past and material factors in the present
that one did not have a choice in. Reduction and Absurdum Argument
In order to show the absurdity that will
• Is usually given and have happened or will
ensue if the claim is accepted as such. Rachels
happen whether you want to or not.
uses these arguments to show what he thinks is
the weakest position.
1.One cannot criticize the practices or beliefs of
other culture anymore as long as that culture
thinks what it is doing is correct.
2.One cannot criticize the practices or beliefs of Stage 1- Punishment/ Obedience Orientation
one’s own culture.
 Deciding what is right or wrong is based
3.One cannot even accept the moral progress
on what action is punished. The child
that can happen.
obeys to do avoid punishment.
 An action is “good” if it enables one to
c.) Religion and Ethics
escape from the punishment: “bad” if it
A religion is a tradition and practices based leads to punishment.
on a conception of what is real and significant  Ang mindset ng bata is susunod siya
(God, Allah, the Tao, Braham, etc.), and the kase ayaw niyang mapagalitan or
belief that sin, vice, disillusionment, and illusion makatanggap ng kahit anong
may be overcome by grace, mediation, punishment.
practices, and living in harmony, unity, or wise  Example: Sumunod si butchog sa
concord with what is real and significant. iniuutos sa kaniya ng kaniyang ina na
bumili ng mantika para hindi
mapagalitan.
II.) MORAL DELIBERATION
There is a big difference between a
Stage 2 – Self – interest / Mutual Benefit
young child’s reasoning on the right thing to do
“Reward Orientation”
and the manner a morally mature individual
arrives at an ethical decision. This necessary  Deciding what is right or wrong based
growth, which is maturation in moral reasoning, on what is rewarded.
has been the focus of the study of many  What is good at this age is what child
theorists. thinks can bring his/her pleasure.
(May malaking pagkakaiba sa pagitan ng (Nagdedeecide ang isang bata base sa
pangangatwiran ng isang bata sa tamang bagay reward na marereceive nila na
na dapat gawin at ang paraan na pagkarating ng makapagbibigay benepisyo sa kanila.)
isang may sapat na moral na indibidwal sa isang Example: Natulog ang magkapatid na si
etikal na desisyon. Ang kinakailangang paglago Toto at Biboy kase sabi ng nanay nila ay
na ito, na pagkahinog sa moral pangangatwiran, may meryenda raw sila pagkagising nila.
ay naging pokus ng pag-aaral ng maraming mga
teorista. At isa na rito si Lawrence Kohlberg.) Ginamit ni Kohlberg ang term na pre-
conventional to refer to these two stages since
Lawrence Kohlberg was an American sa mga ganitong edaran ay maaaring ang
Psychologist. He was a professor of Education thinking ng mga bata is naka based lang sa term
and Social Philosophy. He was influenced by of pain (punishment) or pleasure (reward)
Swiss Psychologist Jean Piaget. He studied how bilang consequences sa kanilang actions. So
children understand what is right and what is ayon, yun yung pre-conventional level. Hindi
wrong, and how they develop a sense of alam ng mga bata kung ano ang icconsider nila
morality. According to Weitein, “Morality is the as right or wrong sa society. Nagdedesisyon sila
ability to distinguish right from wrong and to base sa reward o punishment namatatanggap
behave accordingly”. Kohlberg recognized the nila.
role of cognitive ability in developing moral
reasoning of children. (Naniniwala si Kohlberg
na may three levels of morality at may tag ii.) CONVENTIONAL LEVEL – There is
dadalawa itong stages) understanding that there are rules to follow to
i.) PRE-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL – this be accepted and to maintain order.
corresponds to how infants and  Dito papasok ang mga older children,
young children think. adolescents, at young adults na
 There is recognition of authority who matututong umayon sa expectation ng
gives punishment or reward. (May society.
pagkilala sa awtoridad na nagbibigay
ng parusa o gantimpala.)
 Dito rin papasok yung pag-iisip na may The second level, might be the way that many
social law or parental rules na (if not most) adults think about morality, that it
sinusunod. is simply a question a following the right rules.
The greatest insight of Kohlberg, however, is
that a truly morally mature individual must
outgrow even the simple following of
supposedly right rules. Sa level na ito, nag
lelevel-up yung moral reasoning ng mga bata
Stage 3- Interpersonal Accord and conformity
like something na kinocompare nila ang bawat
 Or Social Approval “Good Boy- Good actions nila sa expectations ng society.
Girl Orientation”
 Deciding what is right or wrong is based
on what others approved or
disapproved. (Concern tayo sa
iii.) POST- CONVENTIONAL LEVEL - this is
perception ng ibang tao sa atin )
the highest stage of morality.
 More on pleasing other people.
 Yung pagdedesisyon is nakabase sa kung  There is flexibility in accepting rules.
magugustuhan ba o hindi ng mga tong  An individual may not necessarily
nakapaligid sa atin, such as yung accept or follow given rules as he/
playmates, family, or even yung barkada she develops his/her own personal
natin. code of ethics.
 “Good boy – Good girl Orientation- label  This level represents the individual’s
kung saan ito yung tingin nila sa atin realization that the ethical principles
base sa desisyon na nagawa. she has rationally arrived at take
precedence over even the rules or
Example: Naglalakad si Indang pauwi
conventions that her society
tapos may nakita siyang grupo ng kabataan
dictates. (Level kung saan
na nagtapon ng basura sa lugar kung saan
nagkakaroon na tayo ng sariling
may nakapaskil huwag magtapon ng basura.
desisyon base sa pinaniniwalaan na
So ang ginawa niya is pinulot niya ung
natin na tama o mali.)
itinapon ng bataan para itapon sa tamang
 Pinakamahirap idistinguish na level
basurahan.
of morality.
 Dito rin papasok kung paano
magkakaroon ng independent set of
Stage 4- Authority and Maintaining Social
values and ethics ang isang tao.
Order / Law and Order “Authority
Orientation”
Stage 5 – Social contract Orientation
 Deciding what is right or wrong is based
on the rules that should be followed.  Concerned with common good.
(Tungkol naman to sa pangkalahatang  Deciding what is right or wrong is
laws and order na narecognized) based on laws; however, one
 Dito rin marerecognized ang pagsunod recognizes that they can change. (An
sa idinidikta ng society ay hindi lang individual acts based on what will be
para sa sarili kundi para sa existency ng good for the majority ; Ang
mismong society. indibidwal na karapatan o pagkilos
ay nakadepende o tumutukoy sa
Example: Naisip ni BAdong na pag-uugali ng isang tao.)
magnakaw. Pero kung magnanakaw  Yung individual rights natin is ikino-
siya, susuway siya sa batas, at ang consider muna bago gumawa ng
pagsuway sa batas ay mali. action ang isang tao.
 Nacconsider yung law but must
Sa conventional, which at first glance
consider other people. Kung ano
looks like the sensible approach of morality.
mas nakabubuti para sa nakararami.
Example: right to life, liberty, justice. STAGE ONE:
We make moral judgement
based on obedience and punishment.
Stage 6 – Universal Ethical Principles
Antonio’s sense of good and bad is
 Deciding what is right or wrong is directly linked to whether he gets
based on universal principles. One punished or not. Nakita ni Antonio na
looks into one’s conscience, pursues inaaway ang kaibigan niya na si Tomas
justice, and seeks equality at all at gusto niyang tumulong. Pero hindi
costs. niya ginawa kase natatakot siyang
 One realizes that all conventions mapagalitan at makatanggap ng
(laws, rules, and regulations) of punishment kapag nakita rin siyang
society are only correct if they are nakikipag-away. So dito, tinanong niya
based on these universal ethical ang sarili, “How can I avoid
principles; they must be followed punishment?”
only if they reflect universal ethical
principles.
 Dito papasok ang pagkakaroon ng STAGE TWO:
respeto sa universal principles. We are motivated by self-
 Universal standards and principles interest. So nakisali si Mariposa sa away
na applicable sa lahat . Yung hindi para tulungan si Tomas. Alam niyang
biased sa nag iisang culture. pwede siyang mapagalitan o
makatanggap ng punishment pero alam
Example: the principle of justice, dignity, niya rin na may posibilidad na maging
and equality. biktima rin siya someday. Pero kung
tutulungan niya si Tomas, may
When it comes to post- posibilidad na tutulungan din siya nito in
conventional level, Ang naging pananaw the future. Kaya ang tanong niya sa sarili
ni Kohlberg is, dapat isipin ng isa para sa niya, “What’s in it for me?”
kanyang sarili kung ano ang dapat
niyang gawin. Dito rin papasok ang STAGE THREE:
mindset ng tao kung saan ang Interpersonal accord and
paniniwala nila ang nagwawagi. Kung confrmity guide our moral judgements.
ano ang paniniwala ng isang tao, yun na Nakita ni Kitkit yung scene ng pag-
yon. Walang makapagpapabago kahit pa aaway at gusto niyang makisali, mang-
sumasalungat ito sa kung ano ang awat, o mangialam pero nakita niya
itinuturing ng komunidad na mabuti o yung iba na nanonood lang,
masama. According to Kohlberg, the napagdesisyunan niya na huwag na lang
basis of one’s action is not just the din mangielam o makisali. Gusto niya na
common good or a social contract but nakikita siya ng ibang tao na good
deeper universal principle. He also girl,who is conforming with the ethics of
added that moral decision is not just community. She asks herself: What do
base on the laws and rules of society, others think of me?
but one’s conscience.
STAGE FOUR:
Imagine in your highschool life, may We value authority and want to
nag-aaway diyan sa quadrangle. Mga maintain social-order. Nakita ni Sir
highschool students. Ang magkaibigan na si Juswa yung grupo ng mga nag-aaway.
Choco at barako, inaaway nila si Tomas. And Dali dali siyang pumunta sa scene at
then, yung mga nanonood, sila yung sinabing, “Hoy stop, don’t, hajima. Ang
sumisimbolo sa six stages ng moral pag- aaway sa loob ng school ay
development. So ano kaya ang gagawin ng six ipinagbabawal”. Ginawa niya ‘yon kase
stages na witnesses? pakiramdam niya na importante na
sumunod tayo sa rules kase kung hindi
ay dadami ang kaguluhan. Kaya duty ni PRE- CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
Sir Juswa na panindigan ang mga rules Sa pre-conventional level, si
na tumutulong upang mapanataling Antonio ay nadala sa kaniyang takot at
maayos ang isang society. At that si Mariposa naman ay dahil sa
moment he aks himself: “How can I pansariling kagustuhan niya. Parehas
maintain law and order?” nilang jinudge kung anoang tama o mali
by thedirect consequences they expect
STAGE FIVE: for themselves, and not by social norms.
We understand rules as social This form of reasoning is common
contract as opposed to a stict order. Si among children.
Brenda ay nanonood lang mula sa
malayo, hindi siya sure sa kung ano ba
CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
ang dapat maramdaman at gawin niya.
Para kase sa kanya, nagkakaroon lang ng Sa conventional, gumawa ng
sense ang rules kapagka they serve th action si KItKit dahil sa influence ng mga
right purpose. Obviously, isa sa tao sa paligid niya. Tapos si sir juswa
patakaran ng school na bawal makipag naman ay may sinunod siyang rules as a
away lalo’t higit sa loob ng school. Pero teacher. Their morality is centered
baka kase deserve ni Tomas na around what society regard as right. Sa
matutunan ang kanyang lesson. Kase level na ito, ang pagiging patas ngmga
yun pala ay nang bully si Tomas na patakaran ay bihirang kinukwestion.
lower grade nung nakaraang araw na
siya ring nakita ni Brenda. She asks
POST- CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
herself: “ Does a rule truly serve all
members of the community?” Sa post conventional level namna, alam
ni Brenda na komplikado ang mga bagay- bagay
kase may mga taong maaaring suwayin ang
rules depende sa morality na mayroon sila.
STAGE SIX: Yung Headmaster namna nasi Mr. Boo, is
We are guided by universal sumusunod sa universal ethical idea, sa kung
ethical principles. Lahat ng involved sa ano ang sinasabi ng lipunan o panuntunan.
nasasbing away ay kailangan nang
harapin ang headmaster na si Mr. Boo.
The significance of studying the
So as a headmaster, inexplain niya ang
different ethical theories and frameworks
mga school rules at kung bakit nag
becomes clear only to the individual who has
eexist yon. Klinarify niya rin na ang rules
achieved, or is in the process of achieving,
ay valid only if they are grounded in
moral maturity. For someone who is still in
justice. Ang rules daw ay may bisa
Kohlberg’s pre-conventional or conventional
lamang kung ang mga ito ay batay sa
stages, moral valuation remains a matter of
katarungan. Ang pagkakaroon
seeking reward or avoiding punishment, or at
ngcommitment sa hustisya ay may
the best, a question of following the dictates of
kasamang obligasyon na suwayin ang
other people.
hindi makatarungang tuntunin. Ang
highest moral principle ni Mr. Boo ay
compassion. NAniniwala siya na ang  FEELINGS IN MORAL DELIBERATION
lahat ng tao ay dapat matuto kug pano
makikinig at mauunawa ang pananaw · Aristotle precisely points out that moral
ng isa’t- isa atpara hindi nila virtue goes beyond the mere act of
maramdaman na nag-iisa sila. So he asks intellectually identifying the right thing to do.
to himself: “ What are the abstract Instead, it is the condition of one’s character by
ethical principles that serve my which the agent is able to manage his\her
understanding of justice? emotions or feelings. The mature moral agent
realizes that he\she is both a product of many for the self by making full use of the
forces, elements, and events, all of which shape four ethical theories or framework.
his/her situation and options for a decision.
Instead, a meaningful moral decision is one that
he/she makes in full cognizance of where  UTILITARIANISM
he/she is coming from and of where he/she  John Stuart Mill’s utilitarianism given
ought to go. its emphasis on maximizing pleasure
and minimizing pain elevates the
 MORAL PROBLEMS human above the animalistic and
above the merely selfish.
· Aristotle recognizes the importance of  A theory of morality, which
continuous habituation in the goal of shaping advocates actions that foster
one’s character so that he/she becomes more happiness or pleasure and opposes
used to choosing the right thing. A moral actions that cause unhappiness or
individual is always a human being whose harm.
intellect remains finite and whose passions  When directed toward making
remain dynamic, and who is always placed in social, economic, or political
situations that are unique. There are no decisions, a utilitarian philosophy
automatic moral decisions; one must continue would aim for the betterment of
to manage his/her reason and passion to society as a whole.
respond in the best way possible to the  Jeremy Bentham posited that what
kaleidoscope of moral situations that he/she makes an action good is that it
finds himself/herself in. brings about the greatest happiness
for the greatest number.
 THE VALUES OF STUDYING ETHICAL  Individual self-interest (egoism) –
THEORIES AND FRAMEWORK when individual are deciding what to
do for themselves alone, they
· The ethical theories or frameworks may consider only their own utility.
serve as guideposts, given that they are the
best attempts to understand morality that the  NATURAL LAW
history of human thought has to offer. What
the responsible moral individual must instead  A theory in ethics and philosophy
perform is to continuously test the cogency and that says that human beings possess
coherence of the ethical theory or framework intrinsic values that govern our
in question against the complexity of the reasoning and behavior.
concrete experience at hand.  It maintains that these rules of right
and wrong are inherent in people
and are not created by society or
court judges.
III.) SELF, SOCIETY AND ENVIRONMENT  Any action therefor that sustains
OBJECTIVE: and cultivates one’s biological or
• Understand and apply the four ethical physical existence is to be deemed
theories on moral issues involving the good, while all actions that lead to
self, society, and the environment. the destruction of one’s existence is
to be called bad or evil.
 SELF
to pay attention not just on how one  DEONTOLOGY
deals with oneself, but in the realm of  Kantian Deontology puts the
the self, one has also on how to interact premium on rational will. Kant
with other individual in personal focuses on the principle of
relation. One may respond to the autonomy teaches that no one else
demand for an ethically responsible care can tell her what she ought to do in
a particular situation.
 Is an ethical theory that uses rules to 2. EDUCATION
distinguish right from wrong. 3. MEDIA
 Unlike consequentialism, deontology 4. RELIGION
does not weight cost and benefits of 5. GOVERNMENT
the situation, to avoid subjectivity
The environment that we live in has a
because you just have to follow
big part of what we are today. From our
some set of rules.
parents who guide us most of the moral lessons
 In deontology, one action is
in our lives, our schools, where we are molded
considered morally good based on
by our second parents to be holistic individuals,
the characteristics of the action and
to our culture which helps us perceive our
not the outcome of the action.
society. These factors determine what we are
Deontological ethics also holds that
and how we behave in the community as moral
some acts are morally obligatory no
agents.
matter what the consequence is for
human welfare.
 The highest authority is neither the
king nor the general or the poor. The
highest authority, that which is self-
legislating in the realm of moral law.

 VIRTUE ETHICS
 Aristotle virtue ethics teaches one to
cultivate her own intellect as well as
her lifetime. For Aristotle, one’s
ethical or moral responsibility is one
of self-cultivation.
 Normative ethical theories that
emphasize virtue of mind, character,
and sense of honesty.
 Mainly deals with the honesty and
morality of a person. It states that
practicing good habits such as
honesty, generosity makes a moral
and virtuous person. It guides a
person without specific rules for
resolving ethical complexity.
 The purpose of man is to achieve
eudaimonia which is a state of
serene and permanent happiness,
rather than the momentary
exaltation of the senses. In this way,
our actions will be good or bad
depending on this ultimate goal. If a
person performs an action, this
action will be good if it gives him or
her happiness.

SOCIETY
Society has a multitude of ways in which it can
influence a person’s personal code of ethics.

1. FAMILY