Objectives
At the end of this session the student will be able to:
Define pathology and pathophysiology
Differentiate among pathophysiology and other
biomedical sciences
Discuss the basic concepts of disease and its
development
Briefly discuss each of the five component the
disease process
Prevalence , etiology , pathogenesis , clinical
manifestation ,outcomes
Pathology
The word pathology is derived from Greek word
“pathos” meaning “feeling or suffering”, and logy
“the study of”
The scientific study of disease is called pathology
Pathology deals with the study of the structural and
functional changes in cell,tissue,and organs of the
body that cause or are caused by disease.
physiology
Physiology deals with the functions of the human
body
Pathophysiology
The term combines the words pathology and
physiology
Thus ,pathophysiology deals not only with the
cellular and organ changes that occur with disease ,
but with the effect that these changes have on total
body function
Pathophysiology also focus on the mechanism of the
underlying disease and provides the background for
preventive as well as therapeutic health care
measure and practices
Cont.……..
An alternative definition is "the study of the
biological and physical manifestation of diseases as
they correlate with the underlying abnormalities and
physiological disturbances
Microbiology
From Greek micros, “small”, bios “life” and logy
“study”
It is the study of microscopic organism which are
defined as any living organism that is either a single
cell (unicellular) ,a cell cluster ,or has no cell at
all(acellular) .this include eukaryotes, such as fungi ,
and prokaryotes.
Viruses and prions though not strictly classed as
living organisms are also studied.
Cont.….
Microbiology is a broad term which includes virology,
mycology,parasitology,bacteriology,immunology and
other branches.
Microbiology deals with isolation and identification
of infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, fungi
and parasites that cause disease.
Specimens such as urine, feaces and swabs are
examined to identify pathogens to select the
appropriate treatment.
Hematology
From the Greek word hema means blood and logy
means study
Hematology is the branch of medical science that is
concerned with the study of blood, the blood forming
organs, and blood diseases. The laboratory work that
goes into the study of blood frequently performed by
a medical technologies to identify pathogenic agents
which cause disease.
Immunology
It is the branch of microbiology that covers the study
of all aspects of the immune system in all organisms.
It deals with the physiological functioning of the
immune system in states of both health and diseases;
abnormalities may the result of either under activity
(immunodeficiency) or over activity ( autoimmunity
and allergy/ hypersensitivity) of the immune system.
Generally immune systems interact with pathogenic
microbes.
Health
In 1948 the permeable to the constitution of the
world health organization ( WHO) define health as a
“ state of complete physical, mental and social well-
being and not merely the absence of disease and
infirmity.
Disease
A disease has been defined as an interruption,
cessation ,or disorder of a body system or organ
structure that is characterized usually by recognized
etiologic agent or agents, an identifiable group of
signs and symptoms, or consistent anatomic
alteration.
The aspect of the disease process include etiology,
pathogenesis, morphologic changes, clinical
manifestations, diagnoses, and clinical course.
Etiology
The word is derived from the Greek ,etiologia, “
giving a reason for” it is the study of causation or
origination.
There are two types of etiology:
Genetical
Acquired
Genetical: due to abnormalities of chromosomes,
called mutations or defects in genes.
Cont…
Acquired: which may be caused by:
Biologic agents( e.g. bacteria, viruses)
Physical agents: ( e.g. trauma, burns, radiations)
Chemical poisons: ( e.g. poisons, alcohol)
Nutritional deficiencies: ( excess or deficit)
Abnormal immunological reactions
Physiological factors
Risk factors
The multiple factors that predispose to a particular
disease often are referred to as risk factors.
Congenital condition
Congenital conditions are defects that are present
at birth although they may not be evident until later
in life.
Congenital condition may be caused by genetic
influences, environmental factors(e.g viral
infections in the mother ,maternal drug use,
irradiation, or intrauterine crowding),or a
combination of genetic and environmental factor.
pathogenesis
Pathogenesis is the sequence of cellular and tissue
events that take place from the time of initial
contact with an etiologic agent until the ultimate
expression of a disease.
The ability of an agent to cause disease depend on
its speed of production, extent of tissue damage,
and production of toxin.
Morphology
Morphology refer to the fundamental structure or
form of cells or tissue.
Morphologic changes are concerned with both the
gross anatomic and microscopic changes that are
characteristic of a disease.
Clinical manifestation
Clinical manifestation are the observable symptoms
by which a disease may be diagnosed.
It is how a disorder’ manifests’ itself to an observer.
Signs and symptoms are terms used to describe the
structural and functional changes that accompany a
disease.
Cont.…
A symptom is a subjective complaint that is noted by
the person with a disorder, whereas a sign is a
manifestation that is noted by an observer.
Pain ,difficulty in breathing, and dizziness are
symptoms of a disease.
An elevated temperature , a swollen extremity , and
changes in pupil size are objective signs that can be
observe by someone other than the person with the
disease.
Diagnoses
A diagnoses is the designation as to the nature or
cause of a health problem ( e.g. bacterial pneumonia
or hemorrhagic stroke)
The diagnostic process usually requires a careful
history and physical examination.
The history is used to obtain a persons account of
his or her symptoms and there progressions and the
factors that contribute to a diagnoses.
The physical examination is done to observe for
signs of altered body structure or functions.
Cont.…
Laboratory tests , radiologic studies, computed
tomography ( CT ) scans, and other tests often are
use to confirm a diagnoses.
Clinical course
The clinical course describes the evolution of a
disease.
A disease can have an acute, sub acute, or chronic
course.
An acute disorder is one that is relatively severe,
but self – limiting.
Chronic disease implies continues, long-ter process.
Cont.…
A chronic disease can run a continuous course or
can present with exacerbations ( aggravation of
symptoms and severity of the disease) and
remissions ( a period during which there is a
decrease in severity and symptoms).
Sub acute disease is intermediate are between
acute and chronic : it is not as severe as an acute
disease and not as prolonged as a chronic disease.
Outcomes
The condition of a patient at the end of therapy or a
disease process, including the degree of wellness
and the need for continuing care, medication,
support, counseling, or education.
Basic Concepts
In infection by pathogen is influenced by several
factors:
1:mechanism of action: pathogens directly interfere
with cellular metabolism, render the cell
dysfunctional and damage cell because of the
accumulation of pathogenic substances and toxin
production.
Cont.….
Virulence: the potency of a pathogen measure in
terms of the number of microorganism of toxin
required to kill a host.
[Link]: the ability of pathogens to induce
an immune response.
Cont..
4. Toxigenicity: a factor important in determining a
pathogens , virulence, such hemolysin, leucocidin,
and other exotoxins, and endotoxin.
Hemolysin destroy erythrocytes, and leucocidin
destroys leukocytes, both are product of
streptococci and staphylococci.
Cont.…
5. Portal of entry: the rout by which a pathogenic
organism infect the host: direct contact, inhalation,
ingestion, or bite of an animal or insect. Spread of
infection is facilitated by the ability of pathogens to
spread through lymph and blood and into tissue and
organs where they multiply and cause disease.
Incidence
In epidemiology incidence reflects the number of new
cases arising in a population at risk during a specified
time.
The population at risk is considered to be persons
without the disease but who are at risk for developing
it.
It determined by dividing the number of new cases of a
disease by the population at risk for development of
the disease during the same period( e.g.. New cases per
1000 0r 100,00 persons in the population who are at risk)
.
Prevalence
In epidemiology the prevalence of a disease in a
statistical population in defined as the total number
of cases of the risk factor in the population at a
given time or total number of cases in the
population divided by the number of individuals in
the population.
It is used as an estimate of how common a disease
is within a population over a certain period of time.
Levels of prevention
There are three fundamental types of prevention:
Primary prevention, secondary prevention, tertiary
prevention.
Primary prevention
Primary prevention is directed at keeping disease
from occurring by removing all risk factors.
Example of primary prevention include the
administration of folic acid to pregnant women and
women who may become pregnant to prevent fetal
neural tube defects, giving immunization to children
to prevent communicable disease, and counseling
people to adopt healthy lifestyle as a means of
preventing heart disease.
Secondary prevention
Secondary prevention detects disease early when it is
still asymptomatic and treatment measures can effect
a cure or stop it from progressing. Screening includes
history taking( asking if a person smokes)physical
examination( blood pressure measurement).laboratory
test( cholesterol level determination), and other
procedures( colonoscopy) that can be “ reasonably
rapidly to asymptomatic people.
Most secondary prevention is done in clinical setting.
All types of health care professionals ( e.g.. Physicians,
nurses,dntists,audiologists,optometrists) participle in
secondary prevention.
Tertiary prevention
Tertiary prevention is directed at clinical interventions
that prevent further deterioration or reduce the
complication of a disease once it has been diagnosed.
In person with diabetes ,for example:tertiary prevention
requires more than good glucose control-it include
provision for regular opthalmologic examinations for
early detection of retinopathy, education for good foot
care and treatment for other cardiovascular factor risk
factors such as hyperlipidemia.
Tertiary prevention measures also include measures to
limit physical impairment and the social conssequences
of an illness.
THE END
