Government Boys Graduate College Alipur

Course Title: Theories and Concepts of International Relations

Introduction, Nature and Scope of International Relations
International relations literally refer to the interrelationships of states. There is no state in the
world today that is completely self-sufficient or isolated from others. Each state is directly or
indirectly dependent on the other. International relations is a separate curriculum that deals with
the interrelationships of the various states of the world, non-State organizations, international
organizations, war and peace, disarmament, alliance formation, terrorism and the whole
international system.
Thus, in the international arena, interdependence has been created between the states. In view of
this interdependence of states, a separate topic called ‘International Relations’ has been created
for the purpose of discussing in detail how to establish peace and prosperity in the world through
cooperation, avoiding conflicts, wars, etc.
The scope of international relations is wide and its basis is mainly interdependence. The pace of
international relations has intensified with the development of information technology.
International Relations as a separate academic discipline emerged at the beginning of the
twentieth-century basically after World War I. The decree on peace of the Soviet Union in 1917
and the 14-point principles of US President Woodrow Wilson in 1918 are known as important
documents in international relations. The first University Chair that formally established in the
discipline was the Woodrow Wilson Chair of International Politics at the University College of
Wales in 1919.
Meaning and Definition
International Relations as a separate curriculum discusses international events and world issues
between states are discussed in the context of the international system.
Its main topics are the role of the state, international organizations, non-governmental
organizations, and multinational corporations. It is both an academic and government policy
field, and it can be either empirical or normative, as this branch of knowledge is used in both
foreign policy analysis and formulation.
There is no specific definition of international relations. Experts have defined it on their own
perspectives. There is also a problem with the definition of international relations. Many times
international relations are considered synonymous with world politics and international politics.
Nature of International Relations
The nature of a subject refers to the characteristics of that subject. In that sense, the natures of
International relations are in the following –
Changing Nature of International relations
The nature of international relations Is dynamic. International relations is a thorough analysis of
what is happening in world politics.
The post-World War II period saw a huge shift in world politics. World politics was divided into
two poles, such as the NATO led by the USA and the Warsaw Pact led by the USSR. The
collapse of the Soviet Union in the 1990s led to a kind of single polarity in world politics.
However, economically growing Asian countries such as China, India, Singapore, Vietnam and
various South American countries such as Brazil are all significantly influencing world politics.
So it is clear that international politics is moving towards multi polar again.
Then growing importance of non-state actors like NGO (Non-Governmental Organization),
MNC (Multinational Companies) etc. are also discussed in the field of International relations. 
International Relations as an academic discipline discusses the changing pattern of contemporary
world.
As an Interdisciplinary Subject
All social science subjects are interdisciplinary in nature. International Relations also is an
interdisciplinary field of study in which other disciplines in social science such as history,
economics, political science, philosophy, geography, culture, etc, are interconnected.
State is the primary actor in IR
In the field of international Politics State is the sole and unitary actor. The state has always been
a major player in international relations. The state’s behavior as a major driving force in
international politics is also studied in international relations.
National Interest and power are the core of IR
The protection of national interests is the main goal of the state. With this goal in mind, the state
engages in relations with other states and the national power of the state will be able to satisfy its
national interests.
Thus, it is seen that the issues of national interest and the role of national power in fulfilling
those interests are considered as the core of IR.
Struggle for Power
According to Morgenthau, International politics is the struggle for power. I have already said that
power is the means of national interest. So power politics is the key theme of IR.
Continuous Interaction among Nation States
No state in the present world is self-sufficient. Every state is dependent on each other. Hence the
need for interconnectedness and that is possible only because of the interaction among different
states.
International Relations also discuss the foreign policies of different states and how they behave
each other.
Analytical and Empirical Study for Theory Building
International Relations uses analytical and empirical method as well for the theory building.
There are several theories in IR. For example, Idealism and Neo-Liberalism is the result of the
analytical study, and Realism and Neo-Realism are the result of an empirical study.
Scope of International Relations
The international community is the instrument of international relations. The unimaginable
changes in the international community over the past seventy years have drastically changed
inter-state relations.
International relations as a distinct curriculum has followed that trend in international society
since the 1930s. For this reason, it is not possible to draw a permanent line on the scope of
international relations.
In the discussion of the nature of international relations, you already get the idea that what the
scope of international relations. The scope of international relations are mentioned below-
Study of the behavior of States in International Politics
Just as when a nation builds good relations for the sake of its overall development, it becomes
the subject of international relations, just as when there is a conflict of interest, bitterness
develops among itself and that too becomes part of international relations.
Thus international relations consist of both cooperation and conflict. International relations are
also a matter of forming alliances and dealing with the crisis.
Role of Non-State Actors in International Field
The content of international relations does not revolve only around the activities of the state and
its formal institutions. The state is not the only active actor in the international community. There
are many non-state actors whose activities affect international relations.
Multinational Corporations (MNCs), European Economic Community, Council for Mutual
Economic Assistance, NATO, SEATO, WARSAW PACT, ASEAN, Organization of American
States, different terrorist organizations, Religious Organizations are the examples of the non-
state elements in international relations.
Question of War and Peace
Today, international relations are not free from the discussion of the determination to save
mankind from war. What was utopian in the past is becoming more and more realistic today.
The main purpose of establishing the United Nations is to ensure world peace and security.
Large, and regional powers are often exchanging views to create an atmosphere of peace and
security. All kinds of contacts for the welfare of various exchanges and globalization process in
cultural and other fields are gradually increasing. All this has become the subject of international
relations.
Study of Foreign Policy
Another important issue in international relations is foreign policy. In the past, kings or prime
ministers or a few individuals played an active role in determining foreign policy.
Today, not only statesmen but also the legislature and many citizens are involved in the
formulation of foreign policy. The state of affairs or ideology in foreign policy and the
ideological issues of the respective regimes are important parts of international relations.
Study of Nation States
The ethnic composition, geographical location, historical background, religion or ideologies of
different states are not the same at all. And because of all these differences, the relationship
between different states is different.
So international relations need to discuss all these differences in detail. When the social
environment is different, his reaction falls on international relations.
International Organizations
The role of national and international organizations in international relations is no less important.
People from different countries are involved with the US Congress of Industrial Organizations,
the US Federation of Labor, the French Labor Organization, and the Women’s International
Democratic Federation Engagement Organization.
The non-governmental organizations are also involved in the activities of the Coalition and its
various expert organizations, such as UNESCO, the International Labor Organization and the
World Health Organization. Therefore, international relations also discusses all national and
international organizations.
Global Environmental Issues
Issues of the environment are one of the key matters of international relations now. During the
1970s the environmental politics only focused on the question of resource issues.
But from the 1990s the environmental politics focused on the issue of ‘Climate change’ brought
about through global warming. To overcome this issue, the UN Framework Convention on
Climate Change (FCCC), Kyoto Protocol in 1997, the Paris Agreement on climate change, etc,
have initiated.
So, global environmental issues affect every state in the world. For the protection of this
beautiful world all the states are trying their best by reduction of the usage of greenhouse gasses
and that is why it is considered as the most important part of international relations. 
Role of People in International politics
The importance of public and public opinion in the international arena is also expanding rapidly.
The end of imperialism, from international, disarmament, political and economic, has inspired
movements and protests by the people of different countries. U.S. scientists, intellectuals-people
from different societies have demonstrated against the Vietnam War.
So what do people think about the international situation or their views also come under
international relations.
Role of the Third World
The third emergence in recent world politics has brought about qualitative change. Most people
in the world are third generation. In 1986, 101 countries participated in the Eighth Non-
Alignment Conference.
The growing role of non-aligned countries in building new international systems, easing tensions
between the East and the West, disarmament, ending colonial rule, etc. is significant.
Therefore, the role of the third world in world politics is also the relevant point of discussion in
international relations.
The scope of international relations is becoming wider as it discusses various issues of dynamic
nature. All the domestic policies that affect or are likely to affect other countries are now being
covered by international relations. International relations currently discuss various decision-
making processes.
In the past, these issues were not related to international relations. Therefore, it can be said that
the scope of international relations has expanded.
2. Approaches to the Theories of International Relations.
Realism
Realism is “a paradigm based on the premise that world politics is essentially and unchangeably
a struggle among self-interested states for power and position under anarchy, with each
competing state pursuing its own national interests”.
History
Realism emerged as a challenge to idealism during the inter-war period (1919 – 1939). They
criticized the idealists on many grounds, e.g. they ignored the role of power, overestimated the
degree to which human beings are rational, mistakenly believed that nation-states shared a set of
interests and were overly optimistic that war could be prevented. The outbreak of World War II
in 1939 confirmed, for realists at least, that idealists approach to the study of IR was inadequate.
This great debate took place between the 1930s and the 1940s, between the idealists and the new
generation realists writers like E.H. Carr, Hans. J. Morgenthau, Reinhold Niebuhr, realists
emerged victorious.
Works of Scholars
Niebuhr in his ‘Moral Man and Immoral Society’, 1932 has criticized liberalism assumptions
about goodness of human nature. E. H. Carr in his ‘The Twenty Years Crisis’, 1939 has
criticized liberalism beliefs as ‘utopian’. He claimed that conflict is inevitable because of the
scarcity of resources. After World War II, Hans J. Morgenthau produced the standard work on
Classical realism, ‘Politics among Nations: the Struggle for Power and Peace’, 1948. He used the
ideas from older political thinkers – Thucydides and Machiavelli to support his own ideas.
In Ancient Greece, Thucydides’ account of the Melian Dialogue stressed the importance of
power and the dangers of being weak: “The strong do what they have the power to do and the
weak accept what they have to accept” Classical Realists also recalled the ideas of Niccolo
Machiavelli, author of ‘Prince’. He stressed on two necessary ideas for a wise ruler: Policies are
more important than principles. The end justifies the means.
Basic Realist Ideas and Assumptions
A pessimistic view of human nature. A conviction that international relations are necessarily
conflictual and that international conflicts are ultimately resolved by war. A high regard for the
values of national security and state survival. A basic skepticism that there can be progress in
international politics that is comparable to that in domestic political life.
Essentials of Realism
Statism
• States are unit of analysis
• State is bound to use force when necessary for the security.
• Without state nothing can be accomplished.
• Power cannot be exercised in a vacuum.
Survival
• Survival is a pre-condition to other objectives.
• Without state survival – nothing can be accomplished.
• Without state all achievements are useless.
Self Help
 In International system, no state can be relied upon for security.
 States find it difficult to trust others.
Morgenthau in his famous work, ‘Politics among Nations’ (1948), speaks of the animus
dominandi, the human ‘lust’ for power. The human animus dominandi inevitably brings men and
women into conflict with each other. Politics is a struggle for power over men, and whatever its
ultimate aim may be, power is its immediate goal and the modes of acquiring, maintaining, and
demonstrating it determine the technique of political action.
Six Principles of Morgenthau
1. Politics is governed by objectives laws; IR theory is a rational theory that reflects these
laws.
2. Politics is an autonomous sphere, independent of economics and personal morality.
3. International politics is about national interests though these interests reflect the political
and cultural context within which foreign policy is formulated.
4. The political ethics is different from the universal moral principles.
5. Particular nations cannot impose their national aspirations on other nations.
6. Pessimistic knowledge of human nature is in the center of international politics.
Conclusion
 International Relations is predominantly the studies of how states interact.
 Realism is not one consistent theory, it is a consistent set of assumptions.
 Realism rejects the legalistic-moralist approach to International Politics.
 Peace that is conducive to felicity in the state system – international peace – is a
dangerous illusion.
Neo-Realism
Neo-realism is an ideological departure from Hans Morgenthau’s writings on Classical Realism.
Classical Realism originally explained the mechanism of international politics as being based on
human nature and therefore subject to the ego and emotion of world leaders.
Neo-realism is often called ‘structural realism’, which signifies that the theory primarily centers
on the effects of the structure of the international system when it seeks to explain the outcomes
in international politics. Actors are relatively unimportant because structures compel them to act
in certain ways. Structures more or less determine actions.
Anarchic structure of global state system, not human nature, should be the basis of formulating
the theory and policy for IR.
Security Dilemma: Lack of trust – each state increasing its capabilities – end results – heightened
tension, no increase in security
Balance of Power: Internal Vs External; Rank ordering of states on the basis of capabilities and
power; to identify great powers – uni, bi and multi-polar world order.
Key Assumptions
 States are the only actors in the international system.
 They argue that states exist and operate in the system of international anarchy.
 They assume that the structure of the system is a major determinant of the actor’s
behavior.
 States are self-interest-oriented, and an anarchic and competitive system pushes them to
favor self-help and survival over cooperative behavior.
 States are rational actors, selecting strategies to maximize benefits and minimize losses.
 The most critical problem presented by anarchy is survival.
 States see other states as potential enemies and threats to their national security. This
distrust and fear creates a security dilemma, and this serves as a motivation of policies of
most states.
Idealism
Idealism stands for improving the course of IR by eliminating war, hunger, inequality, tyranny,
force, suppression and violence from international relations. It believes in the possibility of
creating a world free from these evils by depending upon reason, science and education.
Political Idealism in IR represents a set of ideas which together opposes war and advocates the
reform of international community through dependence upon moral values and the development
of international institutions and international law.
Basic Assumptions of Idealists
 Human Nature is essentially ‘good’ and capable of altruism, mutual aid and
collaboration.
 The fundamental instinct of humans for the welfare of others makes progress possible.
 Bad human behavior is the product, not of evil people, but of evil institutions and
structural arrangements that create incentives for people to act selflessly and to harm
others including making war.
 Wars represent the worst feature of the international system.
 War is not inevitable and can be eliminated by doing away with the institutional
arrangements that encourage it.
 War is an international problem that requires global rather than national efforts to
eliminate it.
 The international society has to therefore reorganize itself to eliminate the institutions
that make war more likely.

Suggestions for Reforms for solving International Problems by Idealists

Moral Nations should act according to the moral principles in their international behavior and
follow policies of non-partisanship. Thus this will minimize the bad effects of power politics.
Create supranational institutions to replace the competitive and war-prone system of territorial
states. It aspires for the ideal of world federation or one world.
It attempted to exercise a legal control of war calling for new transnational norms to check the
initiation of war. E.g. The Kellogg – Briand Pact of 1928, which outlawed war as an instrument
of national policy. Attempts towards global disarmament and arms control. The elimination of
totalitarianism. Restructuring the international monetary system and elimination of barriers of
international trade.
Critical Evaluation
E.H. Carr – it neglects the power politics. He says that power is constant which cannot be
eliminated from statecraft. He also called the Idealists as Utopians and their phenomenon of
study as one emphasizing upon Utopianism.
Conclusion
The basic idealist position is that humanity cannot afford to continue in realist tradition,
especially with the advent of nuclear weapons. International peace means social and economic
development; money from military projects can be put into more socially useful infrastructural
projects.
The Idealist Tradition
It stressed on peace and held that state action need not be motivated by power politics. The
idea of harmony of interests in international political and economic relations was challenged in
the early part of the 20th century, when Europe came under the grip of the First World War
(1914-18).The War established that, peace must be constructed. Thus an important development
that contributed to liberalism was the 20th century Idealism. This approach proclaimed that long
lasting peace is possible in the international politics and relations through the existence of a
world federation, an international system that is free from power politics and war. In his famous
‘Fourteen Points’ speech, addressed to the Congress in January 1918, Wilson argued that a
general association of nations must be formed to preserve peace and the League of Nations was
to be that general association. Wilson argued that, peace could only be secured with the creation
of an international organization to regulate international anarchy.
Behavioralism
Behavioralism is an approach to studying International Relations (IR) that emerged in the 1950s
and 1960s. It emphasizes the scientific study of human behavior, particularly in the realm of
politics, and emphasizes observable, measurable, and quantifiable phenomena.
Historically, behavioralism emerged as a response to the failure of traditional approaches to IR to
adequately explain and predict political behavior. Traditional approaches, such as realism and
idealism, relied heavily on theoretical frameworks and assumptions about human nature, without
providing concrete evidence to support their claims. This led to a growing dissatisfaction among
scholars with the state of the field and a desire for a more empirical and scientific approach.
Behavioralism sought to address these shortcomings by emphasizing the importance of empirical
observation and measurement. It focused on observable, measurable, and quantifiable
phenomena, such as the actions of individual actors in the international system. Behavioralism
also emphasized the use of scientific methods, such as statistical analysis and other quantitative
methods, to analyze data and test hypotheses.
The importance of behavioralism lies in its contribution to the development of IR as a scientific
discipline. It helped to bring rigor and objectivity to the study of politics, and introduced a range
of empirical research methods and tools that are still widely used today. By focusing on
observable phenomena and empirical evidence, behavioralism helped to establish IR as a more
credible and respected field of study.
Behavioralism also had important implications for the study of international relations theory. It
challenged traditional theoretical frameworks and called for a more evidence-based approach to
theorizing about politics. This led to the development of new theoretical approaches, such as
rational choice theory and game theory, which are still widely used in IR today.
In summary, behavioralism is an important approach to studying international relations that
emphasizes empirical observation and scientific methods. Its historical background lies in a
dissatisfaction with traditional approaches to IR, and its importance lies in its contribution to the
development of IR as a scientific discipline and its impact on the study of international relations
theory.
In the context of IR, behavioralism has several key characteristics:
Emphasis on empirical observation: Behavioralism emphasizes the importance of empirical
observation and measurement. This means that it seeks to understand political behavior by
analyzing observable actions and events, rather than relying solely on theoretical or ideological
frameworks.
Focus on individual actors: Behavioralism places a strong emphasis on the actions of individual
actors, such as policymakers, diplomats, and other political elites. This approach seeks to
understand the decision-making processes and actions of these actors in order to better
understand how international politics functions.
Use of scientific methods: Behavioralism emphasizes the use of scientific methods to study
political behavior. This means that researchers use statistical analysis and other quantitative
methods to analyze data, rather than relying solely on qualitative methods or subjective
interpretation.
Rejection of normative judgments: Behavioralism is generally focused on understanding political
behavior in a value-neutral way. This means that it avoids making normative judgments about
what is good or bad in politics, and instead seeks to understand how political actors behave in
order to better predict and explain their actions.
Emphasis on cross-national comparisons: Behavioralism places a strong emphasis on comparing
political behavior across different countries and regions. This approach seeks to identify patterns
and regularities in political behavior that can be generalized across different contexts.
Several theorists contributed to the development of behavioralism in the context of international
relations. Some of the most influential include:
Quincy Wright: Quincy Wright was an American political scientist who played an important
role in the development of behavioralism in international relations. He argued that the study of
international relations should be based on empirical observation and measurement, and that
theories should be tested against data.
Herbert Simon: Herbert Simon was an American economist and social scientist who contributed
to the development of rational choice theory, a key aspect of behavioralism in international
relations. He argued that individuals make decisions based on a rational calculation of costs and
benefits, and that this decision-making process can be analyzed using mathematical models.
Robert Keohane: Robert Keohane is an American political scientist who is known for his work
on international institutions and cooperation. He has emphasized the importance of empirical
evidence in studying international relations, and has argued that theories should be based on
observable phenomena rather than abstract concepts.
Kenneth Waltz: Kenneth Waltz was an American political scientist who is best known for his
work on international relations theory. He argued that the behavior of states in the international
system can be explained by the structure of the system itself, and that this structure can be
analyzed using scientific methods.
James Rosenau: James Rosenau was an American political scientist who contributed to the
development of behavioralism in international relations by emphasizing the importance of
individual decision-making and the role of psychological factors in shaping political behavior.
Overall, these and other theorists played a crucial role in the development of behavioralism in
international relations. Through their work, they helped to establish the importance of empirical
observation, scientific methods, and individual decision-making in the study of international
politics. Their ideas continue to influence the field today, and have helped to shape the way that
scholars understand and analyze international relations.