ME 449

Macromechanical Analysis of Laminates

Acknowledgement: Mechanics of Composite Materials, Autar K. Kaw, 2nd Edition

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For a Laminate,

Where,

Nx, Ny = normal force per unit length

Nxy = shear force per unit length
Mx, My = bending moments per unit length
Mxy = twisting moments per unit length

midplane strains

midplane curvatures

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For a Laminate,

Extensional stiffness matrix (3*3)

Coupling stiffness matrix (3*3)

Bending stiffness matrix (3*3)

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Inverse relation,

Where, and,

The [A*], [B*], and [D*] matrices are called the extensional compliance matrix,
coupling compliance matrix, and bending compliance matrix, respectively

For symmetric laminate, we can define In-plane and flexural modulus:

Effective in-plane longitudinal modulus, Ex:

Effective in-plane transverse modulus, Ey:

Effective in-plane shear modulus Gxy:

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For symmetric laminate, we can define In-plane and flexural modulus:

Effective in-plane Poisson’s ratio, 𝑣xy:

Effective in-plane Poisson’s ratio vyx:

Reciprocal Poisson’s ratio relation:

Effective flexural longitudinal modulus, Exf

Effective flexural transverse modulus, Eyf

Effective flexural shear modulus, Gxyf

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For symmetric laminate, we can define In-plane and flexural modulus:

Effective flexural Poisson’s ratio, vxyf

Effective flexural Poisson’s ratio, vyxf

Reciprocal Flexural Poisson’s ratio relation:

In unsymmetric laminates, the stress–strain relationships are not uncoupled

between force and moment terms. Therefore, in those cases, the effective in-
plane stiffness constants and flexural stiffness constants are not meaningful

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▪ Example Problem:
▪ Find the in-plane and flexural stiffness constants for a three-ply [0,90]s
graphite/epoxy laminate. Use the unidirectional properties of graphite/
epoxy from table. Each lamina is 5 mm thick.
From the property table,

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Example Problem

For 0o lamina,

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Example Problem

For 90o lamina,

Note that for 0o and 90o lamina, the transformed reduced stiffness matrix can be
calculated easily from reduced stiffness matrix [Q]

The total thickness of the laminate is h = 0.005 × 3 = 0.015 m.

The midplane is 0.0075 m from the top and bottom surfaces of the laminate.
Thus,

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Example Problem
Extensional stiffness matrix,

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Example Problem

The in-plane engineering constants are:

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Example Problem
Bending stiffness matrix,

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Example Problem

The flexural engineering constants are:

Note that in this example of a cross-ply laminate, the in-plane shear moduli
and the flexural shear moduli are the same

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Hygrothermal Effects in a Laminate
▪ We have already developed the expressions of hygrothermal strains for
an angle and unidirectional lamina subjected to a temperature change,
ΔT, and moisture content change, ΔC

▪ If the lamina is free to expand, no residual mechanical stresses would

develop in the lamina at the micromechanical level

▪ However, in a laminate with various plies of different angles or materials,

each individual lamina is not free to deform

▪ This results in residual stresses in the laminate

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Hygrothermal Stresses and Strains
▪ Sources of hygrothermal loads include –
• cooling down from processing temperatures
• operating temperatures different from processing temperatures
• humid environments such as in aircraft flying at high altitudes

▪ The mechanical strains induced by hygrothermal loads alone are

…………………….(1)

where the superscript M represents the mechanical strains, T stands for

the free expansion thermal strain, and C refers to the free expansion
moisture strain

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Hygrothermal Stresses and Strains
▪ Using stress-strain relation, the hygrothermal stresses in a lamina are
given by

………………….(2)

where, TC stands for combined thermal and moisture effects

▪ Hygrothermal stresses induce zero resultant forces and moments in the
laminate and thus in the n-ply laminate

………………….(3)

………………….(4)

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Hygrothermal Stresses and Strains
▪ So, using (2), (3) and (4) we get

▪ Using eqn. (1) in above two eqn.s and using [𝜀 x]=[𝜀 x0] + z[kx] and
definition of [A], [B] and [D] matrices, we get,

……….(5a)

……….(5b)

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Hygrothermal Stresses and Strains
▪ The four arrays on the right-hand sides of Equation (5a) and
Equation (5b) are given by

These loads are called

fictitious hygrothermal
loads and are known

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Hygrothermal Stresses and Strains
▪ We can calculate the midplane strains and curvatures by combining
Equation (5a) and Equation (5b):

[6*6 system]

▪ Then, we can calculate the global strains in any ply of the laminate using

▪ These global strains are the actual strains in the laminate. However, it is
the difference between the actual strains and the free expansion strains,
which results in mechanical stresses.

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Hygrothermal Stresses and Strains
▪ The mechanical strains in the kth ply are given by

▪ The mechanical stresses in the kth ply are then calculated by

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Example Problem
▪ Calculate the residual stresses at the bottom surface of the 90° ply
in a two ply [0/90] graphite/epoxy laminate subjected to a
temperature change of –75°C. Use the unidirectional properties of a
graphite/epoxy lamina from Table. Each lamina is 5 mm thick.

From Table, the coefficients of thermal expansion for a 0 graphite/epoxy ply are:

The terms αx, αy, and αxy are the coefficients of thermal expansion for an angle lamina
and are given in terms of the coefficients of thermal expansion for a unidirectional
lamina as

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Example Problem
From the previous Example (slides 7-8), the reduced transformed
stiffness matrices are,

The fictitious thermal forces are,

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Example Problem
The fictitious thermal moments are,

The stiffness matrices [A], [B], and [D] are calculated as,

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Example Problem

We can find the midplane strains and curvatures using,

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Example Problem

Which gives,

Midplane strains and

Midplane curvatures

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Example Problem
The actual strains at the bottom surface (h2 = 0.005) of the 90 ply are,

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Example Problem
The mechanical strains result in the residual stresses. Thus, if one
subtracts the strains that would have been caused by free expansion
from the actual strains, one can calculate the mechanical strains.

The free expansion thermal strains in the 90 ply:

The mechanical strains at the bottom of the 90 ply are thus:

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Example Problem
The stress–strain equation gives the mechanical stresses at the bottom
surface of the 90 ply as

Global Strains

Global Stress (Pa)

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Coefficients of Thermal and Moisture
Expansion of Laminates
▪ The concept of finding coefficients of thermal and moisture expansion of
laminates is again well suited only for symmetric laminates because, in this
case,
• the coupling stiffness matrix [B] = 0 and
• no bending occurs under hygrothermal loads

▪ The coefficients of thermal expansion are defined as the change in length

per unit length per unit change of temperature. Three coefficients of
thermal expansion, one in direction x (αx) and the others in direction y (αy)
and in the plane xy (αxy), are defined for a laminate.

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Coefficients of Thermal and Moisture
Expansion of Laminates
Assuming T = 1 and C = 0,

where [NT] is the resultant thermal force corresponding to T = 1 and C = 0

Similarly, assuming T = 0 and C = 1, the moisture expansion coefficients can be

defined as,

where [NC] is the resultant moisture force corresponding to T = 0 and C = 1

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▪ Example Problem
▪ Find the coefficients of thermal and moisture expansion of a
[0,90]s graphite/ epoxy laminate. Use the properties of a
unidirectional graphite/epoxy lamina from Table.
From previous problem solved in the class (slide 7), the extensional
compliance matrix is

Corresponding to a temperature change of T = 1C, the fictitious thermal

forces are

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The coefficients of thermal expansion for the laminate,

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Corresponding to a moisture content of C = 1 kg/kg, the fictitious
moisture forces are,

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The coefficients of moisture expansion for the laminate,

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Warpage of Laminates
▪ In laminates that are not symmetric, a temperature difference results
in out-of-plane deformations

▪ This deformation is also called warpage and is calculated by

integrating the curvature-displacement Equation

…………………………(1a)

…………………………(1b)

…………………………(1c)

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Warpage of Laminates
▪ From the integration of Equation (1), the out-of-plane deflection, w,
can be derived.
▪ Integrating Equation (1a) w.r.t. x,

…………………………(2)

where f1(y) and f2(y) are unknown functions. Substituting Equation

(2) in Equation (1c),

This gives, ……………..………………(3)

where C1 is an unknown constant of integration

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Warpage of Laminates
From Equation (2) and Equation (3),

…………………………(4)

Substituting Equation (4) in Equation (1b),

This gives, …………………………(5)

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Warpage of Laminates
Substituting Equation (5) in Equation (4),

We realize that the terms (C1x + C2y + C3) are simply rigid body
motion terms and we can relate the warpage to be

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▪ Example Problem:
▪ Find the warpage in [0/90] graphite/epoxy laminate under a
temperature change of –75°C. Use the properties of graphite/epoxy
from Table.

From previous example problem discussed in the class (slide 21), the
midplane curvatures of the laminate are given by,

Thus, the warpage at any point (x,y) on the plane is,

w = 0.6383*10–1 x2 –0.6383*10–1y2

Note that this warpage is calculated relative to the point (x,y) = (0,0)

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