Metaphysics Crash

Course
Metaphysics: Concept & Examples

Concept: Metaphysics is a philosophical field that explores the

fundamental nature of reality and the things that ultimately matter.
It covers topics such as the relationship between matter and mind,
cause and effect, and the nature of existence. Metaphysics also
investigates abstract concepts like the existence of God, free will,
and the purpose of life. Some philosophers, such as logical
positivists, argue that metaphysical statements about reality are
meaningless expressions of emotion instead of factual statements.
However, metaphysics remains an important field of study within
philosophy as it aims to comprehend the essence of existence and
the nature of reality.

Example: What is the meaning of life? Does God exist? Does time
exist objectively? What is consciousness
Metaphysics & Thomas Hobbes

Based on Thomas Hobbes’ materialistic views, it is likely that

he would be critical of the study of metaphysics. He held that
reality could be reduced to material objects and their
movements. In his view, everything could be explained in terms
of matter and motion, including human beings and their
actions. Hobbes believed that the study of metaphysics was
unproductive and led to nothing but confusion and
controversy. Instead, he urged his contemporaries to focus on
the study of natural philosophy, which he saw as a more
concrete and scientific pursuit. Hobbes' rejection of
metaphysics reflects his broader philosophical outlook, which
was grounded in a materialistic worldview and a belief in the
power of science to explain the natural world.
Materialism
Concept: Materialism is a philosophical viewpoint that considers matter as the fundamental
substance in nature, stating that all phenomena are derived from material interactions.
Materialists rely on objective methodology and reject supernatural beliefs, affirming that
reality is composed of physical objects interacting according to the laws of physics.
Materialism is deterministic and reductionistic, explaining events by their causes and
analyzing the whole in terms of its parts. However, it struggles to account for human
consciousness, which materialists regard as a product of the physical brain's functioning.
Nevertheless, materialism remains a crucial perspective for understanding the nature of
reality and human existence.
Materialism: Examples

Reductionism: Complex phenomena can be reduced to

simpler material interactions. This approach is commonly
applied in fields such as biology, where intricate biological
processes are explained in terms of physical interactions
between molecules.

Objectivity: Reality is objective and the facts of the

universe can be known through empirical observation and
analysis.

Physicalism: Materialism contends that every event has a

cause, and that all phenomena are ultimately reducible to
material interactions.
Materialism: Thomas Hobbes & Julien Offroy

Thomas Hobbes was a prominent philosopher who held a

materialist view of the world. He believed that everything can be
explained in terms of measurable matter and that only matter is
real. Hobbes argued that physical matter is the fundamental
substance of the universe and that all other phenomena can be
reduced to material components. His materialist perspective
influenced his political philosophy, emphasizing the importance of a
strong central authority to prevent chaos in society.

Julien Offroy, a philosopher, believed in materialism and that the

body caused mental processes. He thought that humans are
complex machines resulting from the organization of matter at a
high level. His ideas challenged traditional dualistic views and
emphasized understanding the physical basis of cognition, paving
Julien Offroy De La Mettrie
the way for contemporary cognitive neuroscience.
Idealism: Concept & Examples
Concept: Idealism is a philosophical view that believes reality is
nonmaterial and exists as an idea, mind, or spirit. According to this
perspective, the mental or spiritual is the creative force behind
everything, and our understanding of the world is based on our
experiences and senses. However, there are challenges to idealism, such
as questions about the consistency and continuity of perceptions and
the possibility of objective knowledge. Idealism also suggests that we
perceive our perceptions instead of something concrete, which raises
concerns.
Examples:
● I believe in God. I do not need to see God in front of me to know
He exists. My faith gives me this belief.
● If a tree falls in the forest, does it make a sound?
○ Idealists says if no one is present to hear the sound then the
answer is “no”
● If I leave this classroom, does it cease to exist (since I am no
longer perceiving it?)
Idealism & George Berkely

George Berkeley, a prominent philosopher, espoused the

concept of idealism which postulates that the only true
reality is the conscious mind and its ideas or perceptions.
Although he did not completely reject the existence of the
world, Berkeley contended that it is not independent of the
mind. In his view, our knowledge of the external world is
restricted to the sensations and perceptions of our senses,
and there is no empirical evidence to support the notion
that reality exists beyond these perceptions. Consequently,
there is no justification for assuming the existence of any
external physical reality. To Berkeley, the external world is
merely a collection of perceptions that are erroneously
referred to as physical reality.
Pragmatism

Concept: Pragmatism, developed by Peirce, James, and

Dewey, rejects absolutistic assumptions about reality and
takes a middle ground between materialism and idealism. It
contends that practical consequences determine reality,
and only claims focusing on "fruits, consequences, facts"
are meaningful. The pragmatic method involves studying
the consequences of our ideas in natural experience to
discover their meaning. Pragmatism recognizes that any
view of reality is tied to social values and that the test of an
idea is its ability to solve problems. However, objections to
pragmatism include questioning the mind's function as an
instrument of biological survival and whether activities like
meditation and philosophical questioning are necessary.
Pragmatism: Examples
A teacher who adopts a pragmatic approach in the classroom
will prioritize teaching methods that have been proven to be
effective in helping students learn, rather than focusing on
theoretical or abstract ideas that may not have practical
applications.

A politician who takes a pragmatic stance will focus on policies

that are likely to be successful in achieving specific goals,
rather than dogmatically sticking to a particular ideology or
party platform.

A scientist with a pragmatic philosophy will prioritize empirical

evidence and experimentation over abstract theories or
speculation, in order to achieve practical results that can be
applied in the real world.
Pragmatism & John Dewey
John Dewey, an American philosopher and educator,
associated with pragmatism viewed it as a way of life
emphasizing practicality, experimentation, and democracy.
Dewey believed that philosophy should not be limited to
abstract theorizing, but instead focus on helping people solve
practical problems and improve their lives. He argued that
knowledge constantly evolves through experience and
experimentation, and the human intellect could make its ideals
a reality. Dewey also believed that thinking exists to defend
personal interests and strengthen some human interest,
rejecting any belief that limits the human mind and will. Overall,
Dewey's vision of pragmatism emphasized practicality,
experimentation, and democracy in philosophy, education, and
society, and continues to influence fields such as education,
political theory, and philosophy of science.
Determinism
John Dewey, an American philosopher and educator,
associated with pragmatism viewed it as a way of life
emphasizing practicality, experimentation, and democracy.
Dewey believed that philosophy should not be limited to
abstract theorizing, but instead focus on helping people solve
practical problems and improve their lives. He argued that
knowledge constantly evolves through experience and
experimentation, and the human intellect could make its ideals
a reality. Dewey also believed that thinking exists to defend
personal interests and strengthen some human interest,
rejecting any belief that limits the human mind and will. Overall,
Dewey's vision of pragmatism emphasized practicality,
experimentation, and democracy in philosophy, education, and
society, and continues to influence fields such as education,
political theory, and philosophy of science.
Determinism: Examples

If you did not choose your psychological makeup and have

little control over this makeup, are you responsible for your
actions?

Most legal and moral systems regard all people (not

including infants and those with diminished mental
faculties) as agents capable of exhibiting self-control and
self-direction, thereby deeming them responsible for their
actions.

Is what happens in the universe, including human actions,

determined by the laws of nature?
Determinism & Pierre Simon

Pierre Simon, Marquis de LaPlace, a French

mathematician, astronomer, and physicist, was
influenced by Newton's laws of motion and their
applicability to the natural world. LaPlace believed in
determinism, which posits that human actions are
ultimately determined by previous causes and the laws
of nature. Despite our perception of free will, LaPlace
thought that it was simply a result of our ignorance of
the laws that govern us. He was confident that we
would eventually discover these laws that dictate human
actions, and once we did, we would come to the
realization that freedom is nothing but an illusion.
Free Will: Concept & Examples
Concept: Free will is the concept that an individual's will is
insulated from external causes, meaning that even the most
powerful influence cannot alter it. The will exists outside the natural
law that governs the body and brain, granting individuals the
freedom to choose their own paths. While the debate over free
will's compatibility with determinism continues, it remains a
fundamental concept in philosophy, ethics, and psychology,
emphasizing individuals' control over their actions and responsibility
for their decisions.

Examples:
● An individual choosing to pursue a certain career path, even if
it goes against their family's expectations or societal norms.
● A person deciding to forgive someone who has wronged
them, despite feeling anger and resentment towards them.
● Choosing to help someone in need, even if it requires
personal sacrifice or effort.
Free Will & Immanuel Kant
Kant postulated two ways of looking at the world. The
first way is the world that we observe using our senses,
which science tries to explain using laws. In this world,
objects are determined, and therefore our actions as
part of this world must also be determined. The second
way of looking at the world is through conscious beings
who act in this world. Kant believed that we must think
of ourselves as free beings because if we believed that
other forces determined our actions, we would not feel
as though we were indeed acting. Kant's postulates
suggest that determinism and indeterminism are not
features of the world but rather features of different
ways of looking at ourselves.
Reality

Concept: Reality pertains to the actual state of things,

regardless of our beliefs or perceptions. It differs from
illusion or appearance, which refers to misleading
perceptions of the world. Throughout history, the
nature of reality has been a fundamental topic in
philosophy, with varying theories proposed by different
philosophers. Some argue that reality is objective and
exists independently of human perception or
consciousness, while others suggest that reality is
fundamentally subjective and reliant on our perceptions
and experiences.
Reality: Examples
Sarah has always been afraid of dogs since she was a child. She
believes that all dogs are dangerous and will attack her if they get
too close. One day, Sarah is walking in the park when she sees a
small dog running towards her. She immediately assumes that the
dog is going to attack her, so she starts to panic and runs away.

However, what Sarah didn't realize was that the dog was actually
running towards its owner, who was nearby. The dog was not
interested in Sarah at all and was simply excited to see its owner.
Sarah's perception of reality was that all dogs are dangerous, so
she believed that the small dog was going to attack her. In reality,
the dog was harmless and had no intention of hurting her. Her fear
of dogs caused her to misinterpret the situation and perceive a
harmless event as a threat.
Reality & Julien Offray de La Mettrie

Julien Offray de La Mettrie's notoriety stemmed from his

materialistic perspective and his controversial notions
concerning the correlation between the mind and body.
Regarding his interpretation of reality, La Mettrie dismissed the
notion of an otherworldly or spiritual reality and instead posited
that reality was founded on the material world. La Mettrie
subscribed to the belief that everything, including humans, was
comprised of material substances and were governed by the
principles of physics and chemistry. In essence, La Mettrie's
conception of reality was firmly based on a materialistic
philosophy that dismissed the concept of a spiritual or
transcendental realm. He maintained that all cognitive
processes could be accounted for through physical processes
in the brain and nervous system.
Libertarianism
Libertarianism upholds individual autonomy and the ability to
choose one's actions freely. It rejects determinism, as it denies
the freedom experienced when making choiLces. As a political
philosophy, libertarianism promotes individual liberty and
limited government, often associated with free markets,
minimal regulation, and personal responsibility. In essence,
libertarianism advocates for individuals to live their lives as they
see fit, free from government or external authority
intervention. This includes the right to own property, engage in
voluntary transactions, and make personal decisions regarding
education, healthcare, and lifestyle. Libertarianism is a
multifaceted philosophy emphasizing individual freedom, limited
government, and the potential of free markets to drive
prosperity and innovation.
Libertarianism: Examples
An individual chooses to establish a business without the
involvement of the government. They hold the view that they
should have the autonomy to decide on the merchandise to offer,
the marketing strategy, and the business operations without
government intervention. Moreover, they believe that consumers
should have the liberty to decide whether or not to purchase their
products.

An individual chooses to forego purchasing health insurance,

despite it being mandatory by law. They hold the belief that they
should have the liberty to make their own decision regarding
purchasing insurance, and that the government should not have the
authority to compel them to do so. They further assert that
mandates for insurance infringe upon their individual rights and
impede their autonomy in making healthcare decisions.
Libertarianism & Jean Paul Sartre
Jean Paul Sartre's views on freedom are rooted in his belief
that humans have the ability to conceive of what is not yet
present. This power to apprehend "negativity" or "non-being"
allows us to form plans that are not determined by the past or
the present, and our actions are not predetermined. Sartre
saw libertarianism, which emphasizes individual freedom, as
misguided and incomplete. He argued that true freedom could
only be achieved through collective action and solidarity, as
our sense of self and identity is intimately tied to our
relationships with others. For Sartre, the pursuit of individual
self-interest neglects the complex social and historical forces
that shape our lives and limit our choices. Instead, he
advocated for a more radical understanding of freedom that
emphasizes social responsibility and social justice.
Existentialism

Existentialism is a philosophical movement that

emphasizes personal freedom, self-determination,
and the lack of inherent meaning in the world. It
asserts that individuals must create their own
meaning and purpose in life, and be true to
themselves rather than conforming to societal norms
or authority figures. Existentialism gives rise to
anxiety and emphasizes the importance of personal
freedom and making choices that define one's
existence. It has had a significant impact on literature,
art, culture, and psychology.
Existentialism: Examples

You notice someone crying in the cafeteria and choose

to approach them and inquire about their well-being.
The individual expresses gratitude for your concern.
This experience serves as evidence that aiding someone
in distress can lead to a favorable result.

Despite the potential financial instability that may arise,

an individual chooses to leave their corporate job and
pursue their passion for art. This decision reflects their
freedom and choice to pursue and create a more
meaningful existence.
Existentialism & Soren Kierkegaard
Soren Kierkegaard’s philosophy revolves around the subjective
experience of the individual and highlights the importance of
individual freedom and choice. Kierkegaard argued that reality
cannot be separated from existence and that to exist is to
become a self, not just to be a self. He also proposed that the
self is a doer and decision-maker who acts, and that reality
must be understood from the subjective perspective of the self
who chooses and acts. Kierkegaard also noted that anxiety is
associated with the freedom to choose and the "leap of faith"
into nothingness that we make when we make choices in the
absence of clear knowledge that we are choosing correctly.
Kierkegaard emphasized that individuals are responsible for
creating their own meaning and purpose in life and that this
requires making choices that are not dictated by external
authorities or social norms.
Phenomenology

Phenomenology is a philosophical approach that focuses on

studying conscious experience from a subjective perspective. It
is concerned with phenomena, which are the objects or
experiences perceived by individuals, and analyzes the
structures and qualities of perception, emotion, and thought.
Instead of focusing on the objective properties of the world,
phenomenology emphasizes how individuals experience and
interpret it. It shares a central concept of human existence with
existentialism and often employs the technique of bracketing,
where questions about an object's existence are set aside to
analyze its mental experience. Phenomenology ultimately
argues that reality is determined by consciousness, and
consciousness itself is the ultimate reality.
Phenomenology: Examples
A vivid dream that a person has, makes them feel like the dream
was real.

A person is standing in front of a work of art, and they are

struck by its beauty or emotional power. The phenomenological
approach would focus on how the person experiences the art
and how their perceptions and emotions shape their
understanding of it.

A person is walking through a forest, and they notice the

sunlight filtering through the trees, the sound of leaves rustling
underfoot, and the scent of pine needles in the air. Their
experience of the forest is shaped by their subjective
perceptions, and the phenomenological approach would focus
on how the person experiences and understands the forest.
Phenomenology & Edmund Husserl

Edmund Husserl believed that the primary objective of

philosophy was to examine conscious experience and developed
a method to study it in depth. He viewed consciousness as having
intentionality, always directed towards an object or phenomenon
in the world. Husserl's approach involved setting aside any
assumptions about the world and analyzing the phenomena as
they appear to us. For Husserl, only what appears in our
consciousness can hold meaning, and being is the ultimate reality,
with consciousness itself being. According to Husserl, reality
reveals itself to us through pure consciousness. Phenomenology
seeks to attain certainty by questioning our most fundamental
assumptions about the world, even though we typically accept
the world without question.
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