EAI/Springer Innovations in Communication and Computing

Praveen Kumar Malik

Joan Lu
B T P Madhav
Geeta Kalkhambkar
Swetha Amit Editors

Smart Antennas
Latest Trends in Design and Application
EAI/Springer Innovations in Communication
and Computing
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Praveen Kumar Malik  •  Joan Lu
B T P Madhav  •  Geeta Kalkhambkar
Swetha Amit
Editors

Smart Antennas
Latest Trends in Design and Application
Editors
Praveen Kumar Malik Joan Lu
School of Electronics and Electrical School of Computing and Engineering
Engineering University of Huddersfield
Lovely Professional University Huddersfield, United Kingdom
Phagwara, Punjab, India
Geeta Kalkhambkar
B T P Madhav Electronics and Telecommunication
Electronics and Communication Department
Engineering Sant Gajanan Maharaj College of
K L Deemed to be University Engineering
Vaddeswaram, Andhra Pradesh, India Kolhapur, India

Swetha Amit
Department of Electronics and
Telecommunication Engineering
M S Ramaiah Institute of Technology
Bengaluru, India

ISSN 2522-8595     ISSN 2522-8609 (electronic)

EAI/Springer Innovations in Communication and Computing
ISBN 978-3-030-76635-1    ISBN 978-3-030-76636-8 (eBook)
[Link]

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
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This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
This book is dedicated to my late father, who
taught me to be an independent and
determined person, without whom I would
never be able to achieve my objectives and
succeed in life.

Late (Sr.) Dharamveer Singh

Preface

This edited book aims to bring together leading academic scientists, researchers,
and research scholars to exchange and share their experiences and research results
on all aspects of planer and printed antenna design. The book primarily focuses on
the latest trends in the field of patch and printed antenna design and their application
in various fields of wireless communication, mobile communication, vehicular
communication, and wearable applications. Students from different branches of
electronics, communication, and electrical engineering, researchers, and industry
persons will benefit from this book. This book provides the literature students and
researchers can use to design antennas for the above-mentioned applications. It also
provides a premier interdisciplinary platform for researchers, practitioners, and edu-
cators to present and discuss the most recent innovations, trends, and concerns as
well as practical challenges encountered and solutions adopted in the field of planer
antenna design.

Phagwara, Punjab, India Praveen Kumar Malik

Huddersfield, UK Joan Lu
Vaddeswaram, Andhra Pradesh, India B. T. P. Madhav
Kolhapur, Maharashtra, India Geeta Kalkhambkar
Bengaluru, Karnataka, India Swetha Amit

vii
Contents

Part I Overview and Introduction of Microstrip Antenna

Microstrip Antenna: An Overview and Its Performance Parameter����������    3
Hirendra Das, Mridusmita Sharma, and Qiang Xu
Compact Dual-Fed Self-Diplexing Antenna
A
for Wireless Communication Application������������������������������������������������������   15
Alpesh Vala, Amit V. Patel, Rashmi Vaghela, Keyur Mahant,
Hiren Mewada, Esraa Ali, and Biren Patel

Multiband Slot Microstrip Antenna for Wireless Applications ������������������   23
Mehaboob Mujawar and T. Gunasekaran

Effect of Encapsulating Materials on Monopole Antenna
Performance for Underwater Communication ��������������������������������������������   35
Mehaboob Mujawar and T. Gunasekaran

Parasitic Antennas for Current and Future Wireless Communication
Systems: Trends, Challenges, and Emerging Aspects����������������������������������   43
Roktim Konch, Sivaranjan Goswami, Kumaresh Sarmah,
Kandarpa Kumar Sarma, and Nikos Mastorakia

Multiband Laptop Antenna with Enhanced Bandwidth
for WLAN/WiMAX/GPS Wireless Applications ������������������������������������������   55
Trushit Upadhyaya, Killol Pandya, Arpan Desai, Upesh Patel,
Rajat Pandey, and Merih Palandoken

Part II Performance Analysis of Micro-strip Antenna

Antenna Optimization Using Taguchi’s Method������������������������������������������   69
Archana Tiwari and A. A. Khurshid

ix
x Contents

Novel Compact Frequency and Polarization Reconfigurable

A
Slot Antenna Using PIN Diodes for Cognitive Radio Applications ������������   85
V. N. Lakshmana Kumar, M. Satyanarayana, Sohanpal Singh,
and Dac-Nhuong Le

Mathematical Analysis and Optimization of a Remodeled Circular
Patch for 5G Communication ������������������������������������������������������������������������   97
Ribhu Abhusan Panda and Debasis Mishra

Study of Various Beamformers and Smart Antenna
Adaptive Algorithms for Mobile Communication����������������������������������������  111
Elizabeth Caroline Britto, Sathish Kumar Danasegaran,
Susan Christina Xavier, A. Sridevi, and Abdul Rahim Sadiq Batcha

Microstrip Patch Antennas: Past and Present State of the Art ������������������  131
Manish Sharma

Part III Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) Antenna Design and Uses

Planar Design, Analysis, and Characterization of
Multiple-Input Multiple-Output Antenna ����������������������������������������������������  149
Manish Sharma

Design of Smooth Curved Hexagonal-­Shaped Four-Element
MIMO Antenna for WiMAX, Wi-Fi, and 5G Applications��������������������������  163
S. Rekha, G. Shine Let, and Madam Singh
Quad-Port Orthogonal Wideband MIMO Antenna Employing Artificial
A
Magnetic Conductor for 60 GHz Millimeter-Wave Applications����������������  179
G. Viswanadh Raviteja
Massive MIMO-OFDM System Model: Existing
5G
Channel Estimation Algorithms and Its Review ������������������������������������������  193
Nilofer Shaik and Praveen Kumar Malik

Part IV Fractal and Defected Ground Structure Microstrip Antenna

Dual-Band Compact Transparent Fractal Antenna
for Smart WLAN Applications ����������������������������������������������������������������������  213
Minesh Thaker, Ashwin Patani, Arpan Desai, and Trushit Upadhyaya
Tapered Circular CPW-Fed Wideband Fractal Patch Antenna
A
for IoT Applications ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  223
Geeta Kalkhambkar, Rajashri Khanai, Pradeep Chindhi,
and Pradeep Kumar
Novel Ultra-Wideband Monopole Antenna with Defected
A
Ground Structure for X-Band and WiMAX Applications ��������������������������  233
T. Poornima and Korhan Cengiz
Contents xi

Design and Analysis of DGS-Based Fractal Antenna
for Metrological Satellite ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  247
Vimlesh Singh, Amit Kumar, and Mahesh Kumar Aghwariya

Part V Importance and Uses of Microstrip Antenna in IoT

Applications of Microstrip Antenna in IoT ��������������������������������������������������  259
Amit Kumar, Mahesh Kumar Agwariya, and Vimlesh Singh

Design of High Gain and Low Side Lobe Smart Antenna Array
for IoT Applications on Human Monitoring ������������������������������������������������  267
Mihir Narayan Mohanty, Shaktijeet Mahapatra, Sarmistha Satrusallya,
and Amit Kant Pandit

Planar Multiband Smart Antenna for Wireless
Communication Applications��������������������������������������������������������������������������  285
B. Elizabeth Caroline, B. Neeththi Aadithiya, J. Jeyarani,
and Abdul Rahim Sadiq Batcha

Part VI Ultra-Wide-Band Antenna Design for Wearable Applications

Low-Profile Compact EBG Integrated Circular Monopole
A
Antenna for Wearable Medical Application��������������������������������������������������  301
Prasad Jones Christydass Sam, U. Surendar, Unwana M. Ekpe,
M. Saravanan, and P. Satheesh Kumar
Slot-Based Miniaturized Textile Antenna for Wearable Application����������  315
Pranita Manish Potey, Kushal Tuckley, and Anjali Thakare
Terahertz Antenna Technology for Detection
of Explosives and Weapons: A Concise Review��������������������������������������������  331
A. Praveena, V. A. Sankar Ponnapalli, and G. Umamaheswari

Part VII Microstrip Antenna Design for Various

and Miscellaneous Applications

Determination of Moisture Content from Microstrip
Moisture Sensor with Minimum Mean Relative Error��������������������������������  345
Sweety Jain
Configurable OPFET-Based Photodetector
for 5G Smart Antenna Applications ��������������������������������������������������������������  359
Jaya V. Gaitonde and Rajesh B. Lohani

Bandwidth Optimization of a Novel Slotted Fractal Antenna
Using Modified Lightning Attachment Procedure Optimization����������������  379
Rohit Anand and Paras Chawla
xii Contents

Design and Fabrication of Axially Corrugated Gaussian
Profiled Horn Antenna������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  393
Prashant D. Sachaniya, Jagdishkumar M. Rathod, and Utkal Mehta

Antipodal Vivaldi Antennas Arranged in Circular Array for RADAR������  405
Sasmita Mohapatra

Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  415
About the Editor

Praveen Kumar Malik  is a professor in the School of Electronics and Electrical

Engineering, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India. He received
his [Link]. in 2000, [Link]. (Honors) in 2010, and Ph.D. in 2015 with specializa-
tion in wireless communication and antenna design. He has authored or coauthored
more than 40 technical research papers published in leading journals and confer-
ences by the IEEE, Elsevier, Springer, and Wiley. Some of his research findings are
published in top cited journals. He has also published three edited/authored books
with international publishers. Dr. Malik has guided several M.E./[Link]. and
Ph.D. students. He is associate editor of different journals. His current interest
includes micro-strip antenna design, MIMO, vehicular communication, and IoT. He
has been as guest editor/editorial board member of many international journals,
invited keynote speaker at many international conferences in Asia, and invited pro-
gram chair, publications chair, publicity chair, and session chair at many interna-
tional conferences. Dr. Malik has been granted two design patents, and few more are
in the pipeline.

Joan  Lu  is in the Department of Computer Science and is the research group
leader of Information and System Engineering (ISE) at the Centre for High
Intelligent Computing (CHIC), having previously been team leader in the IT depart-
ment of Charlesworth Group publishing company. She successfully led and com-
pleted two research projects in the area of XML database systems and document
processing in collaboration with Beijing University. Both systems were deployed as
part of company commercial productions. Professor Lu has published seven aca-
demic books and more than 200 peer-reviewed academic papers. Her research pub-
lications have 1388 reads and 185 citations by international colleagues, according
to incomplete statistics from the research gate. Professor Lu has acted as the founder
and a program chair for the International XML Technology Workshop for 11 years
and serves as chair of various international conferences. She is the founder and
editor-in-chief of the International Journal of Information Retrieval Research and
serves as a BCS examiner of Database and Advanced Database Management
Systems, and is an FHEA. She has been the UOH principle investigator for four

xiii
xiv About the Editor

recent EU interdisciplinary (computer science and psychology) projects: Edumecca

(student responses system) (143545-LLP-NO-KA3-KA3MP), DO-IT (multilingual
student response system) used by more than 15 EU countries (2009-1-NO1-­
LEO05-01046), and DONE-IT (mobile exam system) (511485-LLP-1-2010-NO-­­
KA3-KA3MP), HRLAW2016 - 3090 / 001 - 001.

B.  T.  P.  Madhav  was born in Andhra Pradesh, India, in 1981. He received his
[Link]., [Link]., MBA, and [Link]. degrees from Nagarjuna University, A.P, India, in
2001, 2003, 2007, and 2009, respectively. He received his Ph.D. in the field of
antennas from KLEF. Currently he is working as professor and associate dean at
KLEF. He has published more than 496 papers in international and national journals
and conferences. He has a Scopus and SCI publications of 336 with H-Index of 32
and total citations are more than 3842. Madhav is reviewer for several international
journals by IEEE, Elsevier, Springer, Wiley, and Taylor and Francis and has served
as reviewer for several international conferences. His research interests include
antennas, liquid crystals applications, and wireless communications. He is a mem-
ber of IEEE and life member of ISTE, IACSIT, IRACST, IAENG, and UACEE, and
fellow of IAEME. Madhav has received several awards, such as record holder in the
Indian Book of Records and Asian Book of Records, outstanding reviewer award
from Elsevier, and best researcher and distinguished researcher awards from K L
University. He has received best teacher award from KLU for 2011, 2012, 2013,
2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, and 2019; excellent citation award from IJIES; and
outstanding faculty award from Venus International; and many more. Madhav is the
editorial board member for 46 journals. He has authored 15 books and published 12
patents. He has guided three Ph.D. scholars for awards, three of his Ph.D. scholars
submitted their theses, and six scholars are pursuing Ph.D.

Swetha Amit  received her Ph.D. in electronics engineering from Jain University,

Bangalore, in 2018; [Link]. in communication systems from R.  V. College of
Engineering, Bangalore, securing gold medal in 2009; and B.E. from AIT,
Chikmagalur, in 2005. She is presently working as assistant professor in the
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering, M S Ramaiah
Institute of Technology, Bangalore. Her research work is on antenna design, wear-
able and textile antenna, SAR analysis and reduction of radiation in human body,
liquid antennas, and metamaterials. Dr. Amit was awarded first place jointly with a
startup company Avgarde Systems Pvt Ltd for winning Defense India Startup
Challenge (DISC 4) 2021. She has published over 35 articles in journals and confer-
ences, has patents to her credit, and written book chapters, in addition to guest lec-
tures. She has two ongoing government-funded projects with AICTE MODROBS
and VGST K_FIST Level 2 for 50 Lakhs. Dr. Amit has several consultancy projects
and a YouTube Channel “Antenna’s Enclave.”
About the Editor xv

Geeta  Kalkhambkar  is working as a Ph.D. scholar in the Department of

Electronics and Telecommunication at KLE Dr. MSSCET, Belagavi, India, and
research and development head at Sant Gajanan Maharaj College of Engineering,
Mahagaon, Maharashtra. Her research interest includes studies on multifrequency,
ultra-wideband antennas computational electronics, fractal and slotted antennas,
and miniaturized antennas for Internet of Things applications. She has contributed
over eight research papers and published two books.
Part I
Overview and Introduction of Microstrip
Antenna
Microstrip Antenna: An Overview and Its
Performance Parameter

Hirendra Das, Mridusmita Sharma, and Qiang Xu

1  Introduction

Antennas are the most critical components in modern age for wireless communica-
tions. The first wireless electromagnetic system was demonstrated in 1886 [1], and
in 1901, Marconi succeeded in sending signals over long distances from England to
Newfoundland, Canada. In 1950, the idea of microstrip antenna was first introduced
[2]; however, it took almost 20 years for researchers to practically realize the con-
cept, thanks to the development of printed circuit board (PCB) in the 1970s [3]. The
necessity for having antennas with low profile, low weight, low cost, easy integra-
tion into arrays and microwave-integrated circuits, or polarization diversity, encour-
aged the researchers to develop microstrip antennas [4, 5]. The compatibility of
microstrip antennas with integrated electronics is very evident and is a great impe-
tus to antenna designers particularly so, now that a large variety of new substrate
materials are commercially available in the market. Unlike other antennas, microstrip
patch antennas can be configured with either the transmitting or receiving modes of
operations. The limitations of the original microstrip antennas such as narrow
bandwidth, poor polarization purity, spurious feed radiation, limited

H. Das (*)
Department of Electronics and Communication Technology, Gauhati University,
Guwahati, Assam, India
e-mail: hirendra@[Link]
M. Sharma
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Gauhati University,
Guwahati, Assam, India
Q. Xu
Department of Engineering and Technology, University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, UK
e-mail: Q.Xu2@[Link]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 3

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
4 H. Das et al.

power-handling capacity, and tolerance problems have been overcome by continu-

ous research, design developments, and performance optimizations. This leads to
the design of novel microstrip antenna configurations with accurate and versatile
analytical models for the understanding of inherent limitation of microstrip anten-
nas to satisfy increasingly stringent system requirements [6, 7]. The three main
fundamental disadvantages of microstrip antenna are narrow bandwidth, low gain,
and relatively large size. Among these three, narrow bandwidth is the most signifi-
cant one and can be directly improved by increasing the substrate thickness.
However, with increasing thickness of the substrate, the radiation power decreases
[8]. Different ways are proposed by the researchers to improve the bandwidth of the
antenna without compromising the radiation power, including impedance matching
networks using stub [9, 10]; novel designs [11, 12]; using different shapes and sizes
of shots on the patch or in the ground plane such as U, step U, half step U, and
L-shaped rectangular microstrip antenna [13]; W-shaped patch antenna [14]; M-slot
folded patch antenna [15]; microstrip antennas using magneto-dielectric substrate
[16]; complementary rhombus resonator [17]; nanomaterial-based microstrip
antenna [18]; etc. The low-­gain problem can be solved by using cavity backing,
which eliminates the bidirectional radiation to provide higher gain compared to
conventional microstrip antenna [19]. The large size of the microstrip antenna par-
ticularly at lower microwave frequencies is another limitation which could be
addressed by inductive or capacitive loading techniques [20] to fabricate electrically
small microstrip antenna. In some other studies, works are also reported on different
composite metamaterial resonators and magneto-dielectric substrate-based
microstrip antennas for size reduction.
It is evident from the above discussion that continuous improvements and perfor-
mance enhancement of microstrip antenna are ongoing to meet the demands of
compact, highly efficient, lightweight, and low-cost devices. Lately, the demand of
compact wireless designs has necessitated the importance of continuously size-­
decreasing configurations. Emerging novel nanomaterials could also play an impor-
tant part in the development of next-generation microstrip patch antennas. However,
it is important to have a balance among bandwidth, gain, and size of microstrip
antenna. In this chapter, we will discuss the basic theory and different design and
performance parameters of microstrip antennas followed by a state-of-the-art review
of the recent trends in this area.

2  D
esign and Performance Parameters of Microstrip
Antenna: An Overview

Due to features like compact design, efficiency, high performance, lightweight, low
cost, etc., microstrip patch antennas (MPA) have become common elements in mod-
ern transmit-receive systems. The microstrip antennas are often termed as microstrip
patch antenna (MPA). The radiating elements and feed lines are usually photo
etched on the dielectric substrate. The basic structure of a rectangular microstrip
patch antenna is shown in Fig. 1a. Depending on the shape of the patch, the antenna
Microstrip Antenna: An Overview and Its Performance Parameter 5

Fig. 1 (a) Schematic of a rectangular microstrip patch antenna (b) Shapes of microstrip
patch element

may be square, rectangular, thin strip (dipole), circular, elliptical, triangular, or any
other configuration as shown in Fig. 1b. The length “L” defines the resonant fre-
quency of the antenna, and width “W” determines the radiation which in turn deter-
mines the bandwidth and gain of the antenna. There are many feeding methods
which can be used in microstrip antennas. The traditional microstrip antennas have
the impedance bandwidth of only a few percent and radiation pattern with omnidi-
rection, which obviously does not meet the requirements of various wireless appli-
cations. To solve this problem, a variety of different design topologies have been
used with different microstrip antenna element structures and different microstrip
array arrangements to meet the requirements of ultra-wideband (UWB), high-gain,
multi-polarized, and compact design.

2.1  Feeding Techniques

Feeding techniques are one of the most important things to be considered while
designing a microstrip antenna because many potential good designs have been
rejected because of their bad feeding quality. The four most commonly used feeding
techniques are microstrip line feed, coaxial feed, aperture coupling, and proximity
coupling. The schematic diagram of the four types of feeding techniques is given
in Fig. 2.
Microstrip line feeding is the most widely used technique because of its simplic-
ity in design and easy manufacturing process [21–23]. Figure 2a shows a patch with
microstrip line feed from the side of the patch. This type of feeding is used in both
single- and multi-patch (array) antennas. Coaxial feed which is also known as co-­
planner feed is one of the cheapest and simplest ways to couple power to the patch
antenna through a probe. The N-coaxial connector is coupled to the ground plane,
and the center connector of the cable is soldered to the patch as shown in Fig. 2b.
6 H. Das et al.

Fig. 2  A schematic representation of different feeding techniques used in microstrip antenna

The coaxial feed connected at exactly 50 ohm does not require any external match-
ing network for impedance matching.
Proximity coupled, which is also known as electromagnetically coupled,
microstrip feed is shown in Fig. 2c. Two different substrates with different dielectric
constants are used at the top and bottom of this structure as ground plane. The patch
is at the top, and the microstrip line is connected to the power source lying between
the two substrates. The working principle is based on the capacitive behavior of the
patch and the feed strip line which can be used for impedance matching of the
antenna. This design is relatively complicated compared to the earlier two tech-
niques. Figure  2d shows the aperture coupling mechanism used for microstrip
antenna. A circular or rectangular aperture at the ground plane separates the upper
substrate εr1 with the patch on it and the lower substrate εr2 which contains the
microstrip feed line under it. A wider bandwidth can be achieved using this feeding
technique with improved polarization purity.
All the feeding techniques have their advantages and disadvantages and are used
based on the requirements. A comparison between different parameters of the four
feeding techniques can be seen in Fig. 3. From the pie chart, a comparison among
return loss, bandwidth, and impedance of the four feeding techniques could be
obtained. Microstrip feed provides balanced characteristics among the four, except
the bandwidth. Aperture feed provides the best bandwidth, whereas return loss is
maximum for coaxial feeding technique. The discussion and comparison of feeding
techniques are very important as they affect important parameters of the microstrip
antenna such as the bandwidth, patch size, VSWR, and return loss up to a great
extent. Table  1 shows an overall comparison among the parameters of different
feeding techniques.
Microstrip Antenna: An Overview and Its Performance Parameter 7

Fig. 3  Comparison of return loss, bandwidth, and impedance parameters of different feeding
techniques

Table 1  Parameters of different feeding techniques: a comparison

Characteristic Microstrip feed Aperture feed Coaxial feed Proximity feed
Bandwidth 2–5% 21% 2–5% 13%
Return loss Less Less More More
Impedance matching Easy Easy Easy Easy
Reliability Better Good Poor Good
Resonant frequency More Least Less Highest
VSWR < 1.5 ~2 1.4–1.8 < 1.23
Polarization Poor Excellent Poor Poor

2.2  Performance Parameters

2.2.1  Directivity and Gain

The directivity of an antenna is defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity U in a

given direction from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all
directions.
Mathematically it can be represented as:

4π U
Directivity ( D ) = (1)
Prd

Here, Prd is antenna input power.
Gain can be defined as the directivity reduced by losses on the antenna structure.
Losses are represented by radiation efficiency er (0 ≤ er ≤ 1). Mathematically:

Gain ( G ) = e r D (2)

Continuous works are being reported by the researchers to enhance the directiv-
ity and gain of the MPA. A narrow bandwidth (BW) and unidirectional dual-layer
8 H. Das et al.

microstrip patch antenna with small-sized design for specific use in security and
military systems were designed in 2014 [24], where they have achieved a gain of
5.2 dB with directivity 7.6 dB by using a dual substrate layer of FR-4 of thickness
of 1.6 mm. Another report proposed two MPA arrays with enhanced gains of 12.41
and 10.11 dB as compared to 5.06 dB of conventional microstrip antenna array [25].
In a recent study, enhancement of gain up to 5.54 dB was reported using proximity
coupled MPA operating in 7.067GHz–7.40 GHz frequency range [26].

2.2.2  Return Loss

The return loss of MPA can be given by the measure of how properly the devices or
lines are matched. For a mismatched load, the whole input power is not delivered to
the load, and a fraction of the power is returned, which is termed as return loss.
Mathematically it can be given by:

Pin
R L ( dB) = 10 log10 (3)
Prd

where RL → return loss in dB

Pin → incident radiation
Prd → reflected power.
From Eq. 3, return loss can also be defined as the logarithmic ratio of the antenna
input power from the transmission line to the antenna’s reflected power.

SWR
R L = 20 log10 (4)
SWR − 1

Here, SWR is the standing wave ratio. Return loss is an important parameter to
describe the quality of the MPA, and several studies can be found in this area
[27–29].

2.2.3  Radiating Pattern and Efficiency

It is defined as the ratio of radiating power to the incident power of the antenna. The
value of radiating efficiency lies between 0 and 1, and “d” is measured in terms of
percentage (%). Mathematically it is given by:

Prd
er = (5)
Pin

Here, er → radiating power. It is less than 100% due to the losses in the antenna.
Microstrip Antenna: An Overview and Its Performance Parameter 9

Fig. 4 (a) 3D Radiation pattern and (b) efficiency vs. frequency graph of a microstrip antenna

Antenna efficiency is given by the radiation efficiency multiplied by the imped-

ance mismatch, which is always less than the radiating efficiency. Researchers are
continuously working to enhance the efficiency of MPA using different designs and
other techniques, which can be found in various reports [30–33]. The 3D simulated
radiation pattern and efficiency of a novel microstrip patch antenna designed at
1.84 GHz is shown in Fig. 4a and b, respectively. From the radiation pattern, it can
be observed that the maximum gain for the microstrip antenna is 2.86 dB.

2.3  Microstrip Antenna Topologies: A Review of Literature

A wide variety of MPA design topologies, along with different microstrip antenna
element structures and array arrangements, have been investigated throughout the
years by the researchers to achieve high gain and ultra-wideband operations. The
lowest frequency for which microstrip antenna is designed and fabricated is
450 MHz, published in 2017 [34]. The highest-frequency microstrip antenna pub-
lished till date is 60 GHz antenna reported in 2019 [35]. They measured a band-
width of 4.92 GHz for this antenna that covers channels 2 and 3 of 60 GHz WLAN/
WPAN applications. A novel wideband quasi-Yagi microstrip antenna design with
operating frequency in the range of 4.4–9.6 GHz and gain higher than 5 dB at most
frequency band was reported [36]. Works are being reported on the design of a
wideband planar microstrip-fed quasi-Yagi antenna using two rows of directors to
achieve a higher gain [37]. This proposed structure results a frequency range of
1.84–4.59 GHz and a gain of about 4.5–9.3 dB.
The current emerging wireless systems and radar applications require wide fre-
quency bands, which encourages the researchers to design wideband antennas. In a
recent study, researchers have proposed a compact high-gain quasi-Yagi antenna
array using split-ring resonator (SRR) at an operating frequency of 2.45 GHz [38].
The SSR antenna could be used to suppress mutual coupling with possible high
gain. Ground-plane slot microstrip antennas have the advantages of large bandwidth
and good impedance matching [39]. Works are also being proposed by researchers
10 H. Das et al.

on combining different types of MPA and frequency selective surfaces (FSSs) to

enhance certain antenna characteristics [40, 41]. Researchers have also used FSS
superstrate layer to increase the impedance bandwidth as well as the gain of an
aperture coupled microstrip patch antenna [42]. Other significant works and recent
developments are also being reported on the use of microstrip antennas for broad-
band applications [43, 44], mobile and satellite 5G communication [45, 46], radio-
frequency identification [47], WLAN/WiMAX applications [48], automobile
application [49], and so on.
In recent times, researchers are also exploring the idea of nanomaterial and low-­
dimensional structure-based efficient microstrip antenna for a wide range of appli-
cations. Tools like physical vapor deposition (PVD) and chemical vapor deposition
(CVD) can be used to deposit the required amount of conductive patch material on
the dielectric substrate instead of the conventional lithographic process or removing
the unwanted metal from a dielectric substrate. Nano-thin films as radiating patch
used to fabricate aperture coupled microstrip patch antenna (ACMPA) by research-
ers were reported in 2012 [50]. A nanotechnology-based proximity coupled patch
antenna in the X band frequencies was reported in 2013 [51]. They have discussed
the effect of nano-thin films as radiating patch on the antenna resonant frequency
and bandwidth. Nano-fillers such as fumed silica and aluminum oxide were used
with RT/duroid 5880 to fabricate antenna substrates with compact dimensions [52].
Silver nanoparticles are used to fabricate flexible microstrip antenna using a poly-
mer substrate [53]. An inkjet printer was used to print the antenna using the silver
nanoparticles. The said antenna is flexible and weighs only 0.208 g, which makes it
suitable for applications in wearable electronic devices. Works are also reported on
the use of carbon nanotube-based patch for microstrip antenna design to enhance
the gain of the system [54]. The reported multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT)-
based microstrip patch antenna was fabricated using spin coating technique operat-
ing in the frequency range of 8.5–11 GHz, which exhibits an increased impedance
bandwidth of 20%. In a recent study, researchers have reported investigation of
graphene-based microstrip radiating structure for possible use in L- and S-band
applications [55]. They obtained a multiband and tunable frequency response by
changing the reflection coefficient by varying the chemical potential of graphene.
The designed antenna showed the highest gain of 9.42 dB at a resonance frequency
of 3.25 GHz.

3  Design Parameters of Microstrip Antenna

The performance of MPA depends on different design parameters. One major design
parameter is the choice of the substrate. Substrate dielectric constant and thickness
are two major parameters for the selection of substrate. A few popular substrates for
MPA with the most pertinent parameters, such as substrate name, thickness, dielec-
tric constant, frequency range, and loss tangent, are given in Table 2.
Microstrip Antenna: An Overview and Its Performance Parameter 11

Table 2  Different substrates with most pertinent parameters

Substrate Thickness (mm) Dielectric constant (εr) Frequency (GHz) Loss tangent (tanδ)
Duroid 5880 0.127 2.20 0–40 0.0009
RO 3003 1.575 3.00 0–40 0.0010
RO 3010 3.175 10.2 0–10 0.0022
RO 4350 0.168 3.48 0–10 0.0037
HK 04 J 0.025 3.50 0.001 0.0050
IS 410 0.05–3.2 0.10 5.40 0.0350
FR4 0.05–100 4.70 0.001 –
DiClad 870 0.091 2.33 0–10 0.0013
RF-60A 0.102 6.15 0–10 0.0038
NH 9320 3.175 3.20 0–10 0.0024
Polyguide 0.102 2.32 0–10 0.0005

Apart from the abovementioned substrates, many others are also present in the
market. From the above, RO series along with FR4 is very popular for microstrip
antenna design. The bandwidth of the antenna related to the material substrate is
given by the following equation:

µr t
96
ε r λ0
BW ≅ (6)
2  4 + 17 µr ε r 

where “t” is the thickness of the substrate and “λ0” is resonance frequency wave-
length. The term µ r ε r is known as miniaturization factor or refractive index,
which determines the size of the antenna.
The dimensions of the patch (length and width) are also vital for antenna perfor-
mance. “W” is always related to the radiation edge, whereas “L” is always related
to the non-radiating edge. The width for an efficient radiator is given by:
−1
c  εr +1  2
W= (7)
2 fr  2 

where c → velocity of light
fr → antenna operating frequency
εr → dielectric constant.
The length of the patch is given by:

c
L= − 2 ∆l
2 fr ε e
(8)
12 H. Das et al.

Here, εe is the effective dielectric constant, and Δl represents the line extension
at the ends given by Hammerstad as:

( εe + 0.3) ( w / t + 0.264 )
∆l = 0.412 h

( εe − 0.258 ) ( w / t + 0.8 ) (9)
where “t” is the substrate thickness.

4  Conclusions

A brief overview of microstrip antenna with different performance and design

parameters is provided in this chapter. From the above discussion, it can be observed
that using different substrates and feeding techniques and controlling the perfor-
mance parameters, MPAs can be designed with different topologies and structures
to meet the modern-day requirements such as high flexibility, high gain and band-
width, compact, lightweight, and low cost. A state-of-the-art literature review is also
included in the chapter to outline the continuous research development works in this
field and future prospects for these structures. It is also observed from the study that
extensive works are ongoing nanomaterial-based microstrip antennas, which are
showing promising improvements in recent years. These new classes of materials
could be a game changer for developments of next-generation microstrip antennas.

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A Compact Dual-Fed Self-Diplexing
Antenna for Wireless Communication
Application

Alpesh Vala, Amit V. Patel, Rashmi Vaghela, Keyur Mahant, Hiren Mewada,

Esraa Ali, and Biren Patel

1  Introduction

Modern wireless communication system requires a multi-band antenna system with

better performance in terms of gain, size, and isolation among the frequency band
[1, 2]. The wireless device operated at different frequencies requires the dual-band
antenna with high isolation between ports. To reduce the requirement of the diplexer,
the idea of self-diplexing antenna is used nowadays. By reducing the required com-
ponent, it results in a less-dense RF front-end as well as a lower cost.
Various efforts are put by the researcher for the development of diplexer and
triplexer antennas. A substrate integrated waveguide (SIW)-based self-triplexer
antenna is proposed in [1]. Cavity-backed slot antenna concept is used for the real-
ization of the antenna. A self-diplexer antenna concept using half-mode SIW
(HMSIW) is proposed in [2]. A tunable self-diplexing patch antenna is proposed by
[3], in which two U-shapes are etched on the radiating patch and fed by two ports.

A. Vala · A. V. Patel (*) · R. Vaghela · K. Mahant

Chandubhai S Patel Institute of Technology, Charotar University of Science and Technology
(CHARUSAT University), Anand, Gujarat, India
e-mail: [Link]@[Link]; [Link]@[Link]; [Link]@
[Link]
H. Mewada
Electrical Engineering Department, Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd University,
Al Khobar, Saudi Arabia
e-mail: hmewada@[Link]
E. Ali
Aviation Science Faculty, Amman Arab University, Amman, Jordan
B. Patel
General Dynamics Mission System, Fairfax, VA, USA

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 15

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
16 A. Vala et al.

A multilayer patch antenna with additional filtering techniques to improve the port’s
isolation is given in [4, 5]. A nonplanar self-diplexing antenna is proposed in [6, 7].
A self-diplexing patch antenna design based on slot antenna concept is proposed
in this paper. A circular patch is divided into two parts, with the slot on the top
plane. Rectangular and tilted shape slots are created on top of the patch, excited by
two separate feed lines to resonate at two different frequencies in S-band 2.4 GHz
(2–4 GHz) and C-band 4.3 GHz (4–8 GHz). A high return loss and better isolation
between two input ports are achieved by properly optimizing the antenna dimensions.

2  Realization of Self-Diplexing Antenna

To realize the self-diplexing antenna, initially, a circular patch antenna is designed

for the cutoff frequency of 2.4 GHz. Equation 1 is used to calculate the diameter of
the patch. Inset type of feeding is used in a proposed antenna. Figure 1a shows the
patch antenna design with its associate dimension. Simulation is carried out with the
high-frequency structure simulator (HFSS) software which used the finite element
method. Simulation result of the structure for return loss is shown in Fig. 1b. It pro-
vides resonance at 2.4 GHz of frequency.

F
a=
 1

 2h   πF   2
1 +  ln   + 1.7726  
 πε ϒ F   2h   (1)

8.791 × 10 9
F=
fr ε r
Here in Eq. 1, a is the patch’s radius, εr is the dielectric constant, fr is the reso-
nance frequency, and h is the height of the substrate. Fr4 is used as a substrate mate-
rial having a dielectric constant of 4.4.
For the realization of the self-diplexing antenna, the above structure is divided
into two parts, as shown in Fig. 2. Dimensions of Fig. 2 are tabulated in Table 1.
Separate excitation is provided to both positions, as shown in Fig. 2. For the realiza-
tion of the antennas, two rectangle type slots are provided in the first part. In the
second part of the antenna, the tilted type of slots is introduced. A detailed dimen-
sion of the proposed antenna is tabulated in Table 1.
A simulated S-parameter result of the proposed antenna is shown in Fig. 3. It
shows that it provides the resonance at 2.4 GHz of frequency when the excitation is
provided at port 1 and resonates at 4.3 GHz of frequency while the excitation is at
the port 2. Isolation among the port is near 20 dB, as shown in Fig. 3.
Figure 4 indicates the simulation result of the radiation pattern and gain at the
required frequency of operation. It provides 3.26 dBi gain at 2.4 GHz of frequency
and 3.72 dBi at 4.3 GHz of frequency. A 3D polar plot for the same is shown in Fig. 3.
A Compact Dual-Fed Self-Diplexing Antenna for Wireless Communication Application 17

Fig. 1 (a) Circular patch antenna (b) Simulated return loss

3  Hardware Realization

For the proof of concept, the proposed structure is fabricated and tested. Figure 5a
shows the realized hardware of the proposed design. Agilent RF analyzer N9912A
is used for the measurement. It is a two-port network analyzer with a frequency
range of 2 MHz–6 GHz. A test setup for the same is shown in Fig. 5b. A measured
result of the realized structure is shown in Fig. 6. It indicates a similar performance
as a simulated one.
A comparison has been carried out of the proposed antenna with previously pub-
lished diplexer antennas in size, resonance frequency, and gain. A comparison table
for the same is tabulated in Table 2. The proposed structure provides small size and
better gain.
18 A. Vala et al.

Fig. 2  Geometry of the

self-diplexing antenna

Fig. 3  Reflection coefficient value of the proposed antenna

Table 1  Dimensions of self-diplexing antenna

Parameters Height of Wf1 and Wf (width of Lf1 and Lf (length of S1,S2 S3,S4(mm)
patch h the microstrip line) the microstrip line) (mm)
(mm) (mm) (mm)
Value 1.6 3.05 24.76 and 21 14.8, 10, 2
1.5
A Compact Dual-Fed Self-Diplexing Antenna for Wireless Communication Application 19

Fig. 4 (a) 3D polar plot of simulated proposed antenna at 2.4 GHz and 4.3 GHz (b) Radiation
pattern of simulated proposed antenna at 2.4 GHz and 4.3 GHz

4  Parametric Analysis of the Proposed Structure

Parametric analysis is carried out by changing the length and width of the slot. In
this section, the effect of the length and width on the antenna performance is dis-
cussed. Initially, the length and width of the first antenna are changed. Figure 7a
indicates the return loss value for different slot lengths, and Fig. 7b indicates the
return loss value for different slot widths.
The numerical value of the above analysis is tabulated in Tables 3 and 4. It shows
that by changing the slot’s length, it is possible to optimize the resonance frequency.
Here the length slot is varied from 8.00 mm to 11.0 mm. The corresponding results
indicate that it is possible to change the resonance frequency from 2.4  GHz to
2.9  GHz. Similarly, the resonance frequency can be optimized by changing the
width of the slot. Figure 8a and b indicates return loss value of various width and
slot on antenna one.
The numerical value of the above figure is tabulated in Tables 5 and 6. It shows
that by changing the slot’s length, it is possible to optimize the return loss value of
the resonance frequency. Here the length slot is varied from 12.00 mm to 15.0 mm.
20 A. Vala et al.

Fig. 5 (a) Realized structure of the proposed antenna (b) Measurement setup of the pro-
posed antenna

Fig. 6  Measured return loss of the antenna

Table 2  Comparison of the proposed antenna with previously published work

Resonance frequencies (GHz) Gain (dBi)
Reference Area fr1,fr2 fr1 fr2
[8] 0.70 λ × 1.9 λ 6.44, 7.09 3.1 2.78
[9] 0.42 λ × 0.85 λ 5.1, 5.2 2.02 2.96
[10] 0.49 λ × 0.7 λ 2.1, 2.5 1.96 2.97
[11] 0.65 λ × 1.04 λ 3.9, 4.63 3.82 4.23
Proposed antenna 0.32 λ × 0.56 λ 2.4, 4.3 3.26 3.72
A Compact Dual-Fed Self-Diplexing Antenna for Wireless Communication Application 21

Fig. 7  Return loss value by changing (a) length of the slot (b) width of the slot

Table 3  Parametric analysis by changing the length of the slot

Slot length (mm) 11.0 10.0 9.00 8.00
Parameters Frequency(GHz) 2.57 2.4 2.78 2.99
Return loss (dB) −23 −28.9 −21.57 −18.57
Gain (dB) 2.83 3.26 2.822 2.87

Table 4  Parametric analysis by changing the width of the slot

Slot width (mm) 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Parameters Frequency(GHz) 2.57 2.45 2.4 2.35
Return loss (dB) −20.67 −24.72 −28.92 −22.92
Gain (dB) 3.33 2.71 3.26 3.14

Fig. 8  Return loss value by changing (a) width of the slot (b) length of the slot

Table 5  Parametric analysis by changing the length of the slot

Slot length(mm) 12.0 13.0 14.8 15.0
Parameters Frequency (GHz) 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.3
Return loss (dB) −21.25 −20.00 −21.00 −27.00
Gain (dB) 3.609 2.636 3.722 2.892

Table 6  Parametric analysis by changing the width of the slot

Slot width(mm) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Parameters Frequency(GHz) 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.3
Return loss (dB) −30.00 −31.45 −21.00 −18.46
Gain (dB) 3.492 2.636 3.722 2.978
22 A. Vala et al.

The corresponding results indicate that it is possible to change the return loss value
of resonance frequency from 20  dB to 27  dB.  Similarly, the return loss value of
resonance frequency can be optimized by changing the slot’s width.

5  Conclusion

A compact, high-gain dual-fed self-diplexing antenna is designed and developed in

this chapter. The structure is realized by dividing a circular patch antenna into two
parts. Rectangular and tilted slots are placed on top of the structure to realize the
dual-band response. HFSS software is used for the simulation of the design. The
proposed design resonates at two frequencies, 2.4  GHz and 4.3  GHz, with more
than 20 dB return loss. Sufficient isolation of 20 dB is achieved between two ports.
Hardware is developed to prove the concept; the measured result of the proposed
structure is quite similar to the simulated one. Parametric analysis is carried out to
tune the resonance frequency and to achieve a better return loss.

References

1. Vala, A., Patel, A.: A multi-band SIW based antenna for wireless communication. Int.
J. Electron. Lett. 9, 1–9 (2020)
2. Vala, A., Patel, A.V., Mahant, K., Chaudhari, J., Mewada, H.K.: HMSIW-and QMSIW-based
antenna for wireless communication application. Circuit World. (2021)
3. Boukarkar, A., Lin, X.Q., Jiang, Y., Yu, Y.Q.: A tunable dual-fed self-diplexing patch antenna.
IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. 65(6), 2874–2879 (2017)
4. Montero de Paz, J., Muñoz, E.U., Martínez, F.J.H., Posadas, V.G., Muñoz, L.E.G., Vargas,
D.S.: Multifrequency self-diplexed single patch antennas loaded with split ring resonators.
Prog. Electromagn. Res. 113, 47–66 (2011)
5. Herraiz-Martinez, F.J., Ugarte-Munoz, E., Gonzalez-Posadas, V., Garcia-Munoz, L.E.,
Segovia-Vargas, D.: Self-diplexed patch antennas based on metamaterials for active RFID
systems. IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech. 57(5), 1330–1340 (2009)
6. Boyle, K.R., Udink, M., de Graauw, A., Ligthart, L.P.: A dual-fed, self-diplexing PIFA and RF
front-end. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. 55(2), 373–382 (2007)
7. Chang, C.-C., Row, J.-S.: Dual-feed dual-polarized patch antenna with low cross polarization
and high isolation. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. 57(10), 3405–3409 (2009)
8. Luo, G.Q., Hu, Z.F., Dong, L.X., Sun, L.L.: Planar slot antenna backed by substrate integrated
waveguide cavity. IEEE Antenna Wirel. Propag. Lett. 7, 236–239 (2008)
9. Herraiz-Martinez, F.J., Ugarte-Munoz, E., Gonzalez-Posadas, V., Garcia-Munoz, L.E.,
Segovia-Vargas, D.: Self-diplexed patch antennas based on metamaterials for active RFID
systems. IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech. 57(5), 1330–1340 (2009)
10. Boukarkar, A., Lin, X.Q., Jiang, Y., Yu, Y.Q.: A tunable dual-fed self-diplexing patch antenna.
IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. 65(6), 2874–2879 (2017)
11. Nakano, M., Arai, H.I.R.O.Y.U.K.I., Chujo, W., Fujise, M.A.S.A.Y.U.K.I., Goto, N.: Feed
circuits of double-layered self-diplexing antenna for mobile satellite communications. IEEE
Trans. Antennas Propag. 40(10), 1269–1271 (1992)
Multiband Slot Microstrip Antenna
for Wireless Applications

Mehaboob Mujawar and T. Gunasekaran

1  Introduction: Background

4G internet networks are expected to have a data speed of 1  Gbps, while non-­
stationary networks will have a fixed data speed of 100 Mbps. Long-distance com-
munication is possible only because of wireless communications and antenna being
the main element of the system, which converts electric power into radio waves and
vice versa. Wireless communication has seen an increase in the number of users,
and there have been restrictions on available bandwidth, so commercial operators
have large-capacity network with good-quality coverage. There are many merits
which are associated with the use of MSA, for example, it’s possible to achieve
antenna design which will provide more gain, compact design, narrow bandwidth,
and low profile. The main requirements of an antenna to be used for commercial
applications include impedance matching and bandwidth enhancement. There is a
direct relation between antenna size and resonance frequency of the antenna. As the
frequency increases, the size of the antenna becomes smaller. While designing
MSA, we have to choose the shape of the patch and feeding method based on the
desired applications. The performance of an antenna can be affected in many ways,
due to different shapes of the antenna. Different dielectric substrates have varying
dielectric constants which influence the antenna design parameters as well as
antenna performance. There are different feeding techniques available to feed the
antenna in order to allow it to radiate. The main motivation of this chapter is in the
use of MSA, which provides a huge range of advantages in communication systems
that have ultimately led to more demand of antennas for commercial purposes with

M. Mujawar (*)
Goa College of Engineering, Ponda, Goa, India
T. Gunasekaran
Higher College of Technology, Muscat, Oman

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 23

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
24 M. Mujawar and T. Gunasekaran

more enhanced features like multiband, wider bandwidth, and low profile.
Conventionally, there was a need for specific antenna for specific communication
application, since the antenna used to operate on one or two frequencies. This has
been a problem in the implementation of the antenna on the devices, since these
antennas had occupied a lot of space on the device. To get rid of this problem, there
was a need for a single antenna which could operate at wide bands of frequencies,
which can be obtained using multiband antennas. One of the methods to obtain such
antenna is by using defective ground plane and creating slots on the patch. Defected
ground structure is a technique which helps to improve the operation of an antenna
by purposely changing the ground-plane element of MSA.

2  Review of the Existing Techniques

This paper [1] describes the MSA, which is rectangular in shape and can be oper-
ated on wide range of frequencies. The optimization of the antenna has been carried
out for a wide range of frequencies, which shows the improvement in various
parameters of the antenna. The gain of the antenna was increased along with the
surface current by making four slots of L shape on the patch. The feeding technique
used in this project was inset feedline; the substrate used was RT-duroid having
dielectric constant of 2.2. The simulation software used for the project was CST. This
paper [2] deals with MSA, which is compact and has slots that improve the perfor-
mance of the antenna for a wide range of applications, including X-band and
LTE. This antenna operates on a wide range of frequencies, having the substrate
material FR4 with 4.4 dielectric constant. In this project, U- and Y-shaped slots were
created on the patch for the antenna, which was kept under test. The feeding tech-
nique used in this project was inset feedline. The simulation software used for the
project was CST. The antenna which was kept under test had resonated at 7.98GHz
with −20 dB, 4.1 GHz with −13.7 dB, and 2.4 GHz with −21.3 dB return loss with
frequencies, respectively. This paper [3] describes an antenna, which is specifically
designed to operate in C-band and S-band. The main aim of this paper was to reduce
the size of the antenna in comparison to other multiband antennas, and it was
achieved. In order to operate on multiple frequency bands, this antenna utilized the
technique of stubs. It had T- and E-shaped stubs, which helped to operate on multi-
ple frequency bands and also reduced the size of the antenna. The software used in
the project was HFSS. The main aim of this antenna was achieved, as it resonated at
desired frequencies. This paper [4] deals with an antenna having fractal slots, which
is operated at a frequency of 4.1 GHz. E shape has been mounted on the patch which
is resonating at the center. FR4 has been selected as substrate, having a height of
2 mm. This antenna has been miniaturized with the slots, specifically of H and L
shape, to about 60%, which has a wide range of applications such as in C-band,
S-band, GPRS, GSM, and 4G.  In this paper [5], wideband antenna has been
designed, which is operating in the frequency range of 800  MHz–9  GHz. this
ensures that antenna can be operated in almost ten bands. For the construction of
Multiband Slot Microstrip Antenna for Wireless Applications 25

antenna, inverted F-, L-, and C-type shapes were used. The main outcomes of this
antenna were the possibility to obtain a gain of 2 dB, reflection coefficient of less
than −10 dB, and all the bands with a bandwidth of 3 dB. This paper [6] deals with
antenna, which will be desired for 4G applications. It uses substrate material such
as RT-duroid. The software used for antenna design is IE3D. It has been constructed
using slots of L, Z, and U shape. Using this antenna, it was possible to achieve
VSWR less than 2 and return loss to be −20 dB. This paper [7] deals with the con-
struction and design of an antenna that is widely used for the transmission and
reception of TV signals. The antenna structure with defected ground plane widely
improves the overall performance of MSA. This antenna can be operated on multi-
ple frequency bands, which includes C- and S-band frequencies. The substrate
material used for the implementation of the antenna is FR4, with substrate thickness
to be 1.7 mm and having a dielectric constant of 4.4. The antenna parameters have
been analyzed using CST software. This paper [8] describes multiheaded starfish-­
shaped multiband microstrip patch antenna for satellite communication. This
antenna could help us to achieve a reflection coefficient of less than −10  dB.  It
could resonate at 9.13 GHz, 7.81 GHz, 10.18 GHz, and 3.04 GHz frequencies. This
paper [9] describes a quad-band CPW-fed slot antenna array for LTE and WiMAX
application. This antenna mainly consists of slot, which is tapered and etched on the
antenna, so that it could support a wide range of frequencies (3.45, 2.6, 0.8, and
1.8 GHz), which operate on multiple frequency bands for different applications. It
has a reflection coefficient of less than −10 dB, and simulated radiation patterns
were omnidirectional, which is desired in case of mobile terminals. This paper [10]
describes a modified planar inverted F antenna with triple-band for Wi-Fi and LTE
applications. It provides a detailed study and implementation of the planar inverted
F antenna. The construction of the antenna involves two L-shaped open and shared
short arms. This antenna is designed taking into consideration various factors,
which yield antenna having less reflection coefficient and omnidirectional radiation
patterns with good gain, which operates on three different frequency bands that sup-
port LTE and Wi-Fi applications. This paper [11] describes the design of multiband
microstrip patch antenna for WiMAX, C-band, and X-band applications. The feed-
ing technique used in the construction of this antenna is microstrip feedline. The
substrate material used in the construction of this antenna is FR4. The multiband
characteristic created by two different slots employed on the radiating patch. This
antenna covered three frequency bands: from 3.2 to 3.4 GHz for WiMAX, from 6.57
to 6.8 GHz for C-band applications, and from 7.24 to 7.57 GHz for X-band satellite
communication. The provided return losses are better than −23 dB at 3.32 GHz,
−15.74 dB at 6.67 GHz, and − 22.4 dB at 7.39 GHz. The VSWR is less than 2 at all
operating resonance frequencies. This paper [12] describes a multiband PIFA with
a slot on the ground plane for wireless applications. The software used for the opti-
mization of the antenna is HFSS. Various parameters of the antenna have been ana-
lyzed by using HFSS. It was possible to obtain acceptable return loss over multiple
frequency bands. This antenna was built using the substrate material of FR4. It
basically describes PIFA antenna, whose parameters have been varied to obtain a
suitable antenna for wireless applications. This paper [13] describes dual-band
26 M. Mujawar and T. Gunasekaran

microstrip patch antenna. This antenna has been constructed using microstrip patch,
which is square in shape and operating on dual frequencies. It is operating on C- and
X-band. The simulation software used was HFSS. Using this software, it was
possible to analyze various antenna parameters. It helped to obtain acceptable
reflection coefficient for both the frequency bands and VSWR within the acceptable
range for an ideal antenna, i.e., between 1 and 2. The frequencies at which the
antenna resonated at both bands are 6.7, 6.4, and 7.3. This paper [14] describes
compact triple C-shaped microstrip patch antenna for WLAN, WiMAX, and Wi-Fi
application at 2.5 GHz. The software used for the antenna design is computer simu-
lation technology microwave studio. The substrate material used for the construc-
tion of antenna is FR4. After obtaining the simulation results, it was analyzed that
return loss was –10 dB, and VSWR was within the range of 1–2.

3  Antenna Design Considerations of Proposed Work

This chapter proposes an inverted HE-shaped microstrip patch antenna for four dif-
ferent frequencies ranging from 2 to 8 GHz. It is designed on defective ground plane
so as to increase the bandwidth. This antenna has been mainly designed to operate
on multiple frequency bands, and the performance of the antenna with various sub-
strates such as RT-duroid, FR4, and Rogers has been analyzed. Detailed analyses of
antenna performance parameters like gain, directivity, return loss, and VSWR are
obtained. The software used for the construction of the antenna is IE3D. The main
objectives of the chapter are (a) to design a microstrip patch antenna using three
different substrates, (b) to optimize the dimensions of the antenna to find the desired
results, (c) to observe the results for individual antenna design, and (d) to compare
the results of all the three designs.

4  Antenna Structure

The overall structure of the antenna includes H- and E-shaped slots, which are basi-
cally in the inverted orientation. The performance of the antenna has been enhanced
with the use of different substrates with fixed height. This antenna is constructed at
four different frequencies to obtain the desired multiband characteristics within the
frequency band for wireless applications. This antenna configuration mainly
involves MSA and inverted HE slot, which helps to operate on multiple frequency
bands. Patch antenna shown below is designed using FR4 with dimensions of
[−W/2, W/2] and [−L/2, L/2] and the ground plane with dimensions as [−Wg/2,
Wg/2] and [−Lg/2, Lg/2], where L is the length and W is the width of the patch,
whereas Lg is the length and Wg is the width of the ground plane. The patch is cut
on the substrate. The dimensions of the microstrip feedline are [−(Wf/2), (Wf/2)]
and [−(Lf/2), (Lf/2)] (Figs. 1, 2, and 3).
Multiband Slot Microstrip Antenna for Wireless Applications 27

10mm

4mm

4mm
8mm

1mm
5mm

Fig. 1  Dimensions of HE slot with FR4

11mm

5mm

5mm
9mm

1mm
6mm

Fig. 2  Dimensions of HE slot with Rogers

The proposed antenna can be operated on multiple frequencies with the forma-
tion of inverted H- and E-shaped slots. The horizontal slots operate at 3–3.7 GHz.
The vertical slot of the H shape operates at 4.5–5.5 GHz. The three vertical slots of
E shape operate from 5.9 GHz to 6.3 GHz. With the introduction of defect in the
ground plane, it leads to bandwidth enhancement. Mathematical analyses with the
help of antenna design equations have been carried out to obtain the desired design.
28 M. Mujawar and T. Gunasekaran

13mm

7mm

7mm
11mm

2mm
7mm

Fig. 3  Dimensions of HE slot with RT-duroid

Table 1  Patch and the ground-plane dimensions

Sr. Patch length in Patch width in Ground-plane length Ground-plane width
no Substrate mm (L) mm (W) in mm (Lg) in mm (Wg)
1 FR4 29 38 47 56
2 Rogers 31 41 49 59
4350
3 RT-duroid 39 48 57 66

IE3D software has been used to analyze various antenna parameters, and optimiza-
tion of the antenna helps to get the desired results. The antenna has been designed
with three different dielectric substrates and analyzed for the frequency ranging
from 2 GHz to 8 GHz. Substrate thickness is taken at a height of 3 mm for all three
substrates. FR4, Rogers, and RT-duroid have dielectric constant of 4.4, 3.48, and 2.2
and loss tangent of 0.002, 0.02, and 0.0004, respectively (Table 1).
Table 2 gives the remaining parameters of the designed antenna like slot width,
slot length, and feedline.
Multiband Slot Microstrip Antenna for Wireless Applications 29

Table 2  Dimensions of the slot and feedline

Parameters (mm) FR4 Rogers 4350 RT-duroid
Wf 16 19 27
Lf 4.59 5.71 8.42
Ls 30 32 40
Ws 39 42 49

Fig. 4  Return loss of the proposed antenna with FR4 substrate

5  Results

5.1  Return Loss (dB)

The return loss of the proposed antenna with FR4 substrate is shown in Fig. 4. The
antenna resonates over four frequencies, i.e., 2.2  GHz, 3.3  GHz, 5.3  GHz, and
6.0 GHz. The return loss for all frequencies varies from −13 dB to −22 dB; the
maximum value of return loss for this design is −21.22 dB.
The simulated results of the antenna designed on Rogers 4350 substrate are
shown in Fig. 5. The antenna resonates over four frequencies, i.e., 2.2 GHz, 3.6 GHz,
5.3 GHz, and 6.2 GHz. The return loss for all frequencies varies from −13 dB to
−18 dB; the maximum value of return loss for this design is −17.48 dB at 2.2 GHz.
Figure 6 shows the graph of return loss of an antenna designed on RT-duroid
substrate. The antenna resonates over four frequencies, i.e., 2.2  GHz, 3.6  GHz,
5.3 GHz, and 5.9 GHz. The return loss for all frequencies varies from −14 dB to
−26 dB. All frequencies achieve a high value of return loss, which means that this
antenna radiates maximum power, for all the frequencies. Maximum return loss is
achieved at −25.66 dB at 5.9 GHz.
30 M. Mujawar and T. Gunasekaran

Fig. 5  Return loss of the proposed antenna with Rogers 4350

Fig. 6  Return loss of the antenna designed on RT-duroid

5.2  VSWR

VSWR plays a very important role in determining the performance of the antenna.
Antenna having VSWR within the range of 0–2 is considered to be a good design.
The VSWR plot of an antenna designed on FR4 substrate is shown in Fig. 7. The
minimum value of VSWR is 1.18, which is obtained at 6.0 GHz.
Figure 8 shows the VSWR graph for an antenna designed on Rogers 4350 sub-
strate. VSWR achieved for the frequencies 2.2 GHz, 3.6 GHz, 5.3 GHz, and 6.2 GHz
are 1.32, 1.57, 1.82, and 1.43, respectively.
Figure 9 shows the graph of VSWR, designed on RT-duroid substrate. The values
of VSWR achieved for this design are 1.2, 1.5, 1.2, and 1.1 for the four different
Multiband Slot Microstrip Antenna for Wireless Applications 31

Fig. 7  VSWR of the antenna designed on FR4

Fig. 8  VSWR of the antenna designed on Rogers 4350

frequencies. These VSWR values are close to 1. Hence, we can say that the mis-
match between the antenna and the feed is minimum.
As can be seen in Table 3, return loss obtained for the antennas designed with
different substrates is below –10 dB. Antenna with return loss below –10 dB is con-
sidered to be a perfect antenna desirable for wireless applications. When the antenna
was designed using RT-duroid substrate and resonated at four different frequencies,
the return loss was maximum. The antenna which was designed with FR4 offered
minimum return loss.
32 M. Mujawar and T. Gunasekaran

Fig. 9  VSWR of the antenna designed on RT-duroid

Table 3  Return loss and VSWR

Substrate Frequency (GHz) Return loss (dB) VSWR
FR4 2.2 −13.53 1.57
3.3 −17.48 1.31
5.3 −14.18 1.4
6 −21.22 1.18
Rogers 4350 2.2 −17.11 1.32
3.6 −13.08 1.57
5.3 −10.74 1.82
6.2 −14.89 1.43
RT-duroid 2.2 −18.38 1.2
3.6 −14.09 1.5
4.8 −19.84 1.2
5.9 −25.66 1.1

The return loss value of the antenna using Rogers 4350 substrate was in between
RT-duroid and [Link] antenna designed with RT-duroid substrate also offered
VSWR approximately equal to 1 for the desired range of frequencies.
Table 4 gives the values of gain, directivity, and bandwidth. The maximum gain
and directivity for FR4 is observed at 5.3GHz, which is 4.60 dBi and 6.39 dBi,
respectively. The maximum bandwidth of 570 MHz is seen at 5.9 GHz. Antenna
designed with RT-duroid has maximum values at a frequency of 3.6 GHz with a
gain of 5.1 dBi, directivity of 5.55dBi, and bandwidth of 512 MHz.
It is seen that Rogers 4350 has good gain and directivity compared to FR4 and
RT-duroid, whereas greater bandwidth is achieved with RT-duroid.
Multiband Slot Microstrip Antenna for Wireless Applications 33

Table 4  Gain, directivity, and bandwidth

Substrate Frequency (GHz) Gain (dBi) Directivity (dBi) Bandwidth (MHz)
FR4 2.2 4.31 5.48 290
3.3 3.28 5.14 229
5.3 4.60 6.39 320
5.9 3.21 6.50 570
Rogers 4350 2.2 5.18 5.49 200
3.6 3.47 4.79 300
5.3 4.07 5.44 500
6.2 3.79 5.46 600
RT-duroid 2.2 4.91 4.44 491
3.6 5.12 5.55 512
4.8 3.39 3.49 339
5.9 4.96 5.03 496

6  Conclusion

The proposed antenna works on four different frequencies. This antenna has been
designed with different substrate materials to enhance the performance of the
antenna. The operation of this antenna on multiple frequency bands was possible
with the introduction of H- and E-shaped slots on the microstrip patch. Bandwidth
enhancement was possible with defected structures on the ground plane. The thick-
ness of the substrate was kept constant throughout the design, and analyses of the
antenna with different substrates were done. From the comparison of simulation
results obtained for the antenna, it is clear that antenna designed with RT-duroid
substrate offers better performance results. The antenna designed using RT-duroid
substrate is more preferred because this antenna can offer good performance in
terms of various antenna parameters such as bandwidth, VSWR, and return loss.
Antenna can be designed with different patch shapes and different shapes of the slot
so as to get better performance. Aperture coupled feed can be used as a feeding
technique which can give very high bandwidth of about 21%.

References

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TD-LTE, ITU and X-band applications. IEEE Transaction on Signal Processing and Integrated
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Effect of Encapsulating Materials
on Monopole Antenna Performance
for Underwater Communication

Mehaboob Mujawar and T. Gunasekaran

1  Introduction

It is realized that 70% of the Earth involves water, and the greatest merchandise
transportation is finished over the sea; thus, sea communication is a critical part in
everyday life. Truly a huge number of ships or other vessels are far away in the
ocean. Consequently, dependable oceanic communications are considered to play
an imperative part in sea operations [1]. Because of progression in unmanned auton-
omous vehicles, robots venture to every part of the ocean without any supervision
or control from the administrator. There is a requirement for communication of
information, which is gathered by these unmanned autonomous vehicles with the
host ship or to a ground station, yet their correspondence over the ocean is affected
by different variables, for example, at the point when the electromagnetic waves
spread over the ocean surface, there exists reflection, dispersion, and diffraction [2].
This chapter deals with wireless communication of autonomous underwater vehicle
(AUV) [3, 4] with a ground station or aboard a ship for 2.4 GHz band. A design of
an elementary-enclosed Marconi antenna operating at 2.4  GHz is simulated in
CADFEKO simulator, and the results are analyzed. Autonomous underwater vehi-
cle (AUV) explores by submerging below the sea even when no instructions are
provided by the administrator. AUVs have six degrees of freedom, namely, surge,
sway, heave, roll, pitch, and yaw. AUVs have a vital part for a nation that has a vast
sea area. AUV is broadly utilized for sea investigation and contour mapping and as
a method for defense under the sea. Due to advancements in AUVs, they are utilized
for various research and military tasks for their broad information-gaining

M. Mujawar (*)
Goa College of Engineering, Ponda, Goa, India
T. Gunasekaran
Higher College of Technology, Muscat, Oman

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 35

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
36 M. Mujawar and T. Gunasekaran

capacities; this obtained information is sent to the host transport, which is basically
the ship utilizing EM waves on the plane of the sea, yet the nature of the EM wave
is corrupted due to the accompanying components which influence the transmission
and reception of EM waves on the sea plane. Doppler shift plays a very important
role in the transmission and reception of EM waves because a signal having a high
frequency is affected by this mechanism due to movement of the sea, rough plane of
the sea due to wind additionally affects the transmission and reception of the EM
waves, distance communication is also affected by the reflection which is occurring
above sea, and losses are due to interference at the sea level [5]. Various networks
using sensors working on the plane of the ocean have been helplessly set up to send
EM waves to various communication systems located near the plane of the ocean,
close to level of the ocean, or when the seaside height is low [6]. When signals need
to be transmitted over very long distances, line of sight is required by the signals,
which need frequency to be very high. Additionally, changes in the boundary layer
of the atmosphere cause signal reflections and straightforwardly affect wave behav-
ior and propagation paths, resulting in blurring [7]. Thinking about marine condi-
tion, the state of the ocean, also taking into consideration cyclonic winds, has a very
close impact on both the transmission and reception of EM waves on the plane of
the ocean. The said impacts are explicitly an issue for significant distance commu-
nication (past several hundred meters or 2 or 3 km). One of the important plans is to
relocate the autonomous unmanned vehicles and unmanned surface vehicles or
main ship adjacently with a particular ultimate objective to improve the radio chan-
nel. This causes wastage of time as well as resources. For instance, fuel will be used
more because the movement between the vehicles will be longer. Spacecraft inter-
face association is a commonplace methodology that has a number of obstructions,
including incomplete satellite inclusion by most structure frameworks with little
impression, as well as tolerably high expenses and generally low information rate
[8]. There is a significant improvement in the radio channel which is used for com-
munication with the help of communication relays; however, it needs a raised stage
to give adequate location. To relieve these problems, it is desirable to construct
antennas specifically for autonomous unmanned vehicles, which relatively have
more gain, resulting in transmission and reception of signals at greater separations
of up to 100 m. The parameters of the antenna are restricted by the autonomous
unmanned vehicles because the sizes of the autonomous unmanned vehicles are
typically small. The antenna is covered using a covering material to protect it below
the water surface whenever an autonomous unmanned vehicle navigates. Delrin is
the typical covering material used because of its excellent performance in underwa-
ter application. There may be loss in signal quality because of this material; conse-
quently in this research, distinctive material are utilized for embodying the antenna,
and the best material for antenna is decided by considering the value, which is
obtained by designing the antenna in simulation software FEKO. The antenna will
be operating at a frequency band of 2.4 GHz.
Effect of Encapsulating Materials on Monopole Antenna Performance for Underwater… 37

Table 1  Antenna covering materials used

Sr. Dissipation Dielectric constant at Mass density Water absorption
no Material factor 2.4 Ghz kg/m3 24 hours
1 PET 0.002 3.74 1380 0.1
2 PETG 0.02 2.64 1380 0.2
3 ULTEM 0.0015 4.07 1270 0.25
4 Hydex 301 0.025 3.74 1200 0.19
5 Tecaform 0.001 4.07 1410 0.18
AH
6 PVC 0.0096 3.509 1100–1450 0.02
7 Delrin 0.005 4.07 1410 0.25

2  Antenna Encapsulating Materials Used

While picking the covering material for the embodiment of the antenna, several
standards have been considered; before selecting the covering material, we need to
make sure that the material can withstand critical conditions below the surface of
the water as the autonomous unmanned vehicles can move somewhere below the
sea surface without contorting or disfiguring. The material strength should be strong
enough to bear the critical conditions, and it should be free from corrosion, since the
vehicle can stay below water surface for weeks. In the below table, we have enlisted
covering materials which are considered suitable for underwater applications
(Table 1).

3  Antenna Design

A basic monopole antenna [7, 8] is intended for a frequency of 2.4 GHz; the con-
ducting rod is placed on the ground plane, which is circular; and its height and
diameter are simulated for a frequency of 2.4 GHz. The antenna has been covered
with the covering material whose length is 10 m. The investigation is accomplished
for characteristics of its frequency and theta versus gain. The antenna which uses a
covering material and also the antenna which does not use a covering material have
been shown in Fig. 1. The wavelength of an antenna can be calculated as the ratio of
the speed of light to the frequency [9]; as we already know, the antenna is operating
at a frequency of 2.4  GHz. In order to calculate the diameter of the conducting
ground plane, we need to take the ratio of thrice wavelength to twice. The height of
the covering material for the antenna is now fixed, yet the width of the covering
material is varied with respect to its position from the antenna for different covering
materials listed in the table below, and analyzed values are noted.
38 M. Mujawar and T. Gunasekaran

Fig. 1  Antenna structure a

(a) covering material not conducting rod
used. Antenna structure (b)
covering material used 1 wavelength
4

ground plane

monopole antenna
t
d
encapsulation for monopole

conducting ground plane

Frequency versus Gain when encapsulation thickness is 5 mm and it is

placed at a distance 0 mm from monopole

4.5
4
3.5
delrin
3
hydex
gain in dB

2.5
PET
2
PETG
1.5
PVC
1
Tecaform
0.5
Ultem
0
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3
Frequency in GHz

Fig. 2  Gain vs frequency chart for the different materials when the encapsulation of 5 mm thick-
ness is placed 0 mm away from the monopole antenna

4  Results

Figure 2 shows the gain vs frequency simulation result, when the encapsulation of
5 mm thickness is placed at a distance of 0 mm away from the monopole antenna
for different materials. We can see that the highest gain at 2.4 GHz is for PET with
a gain of 4.25537516 dB and the lowest is for PETG with a gain of 3.71669396 dB. PET
encapsulation gives 0.53 dB gain more as compared to PETG.
Effect of Encapsulating Materials on Monopole Antenna Performance for Underwater… 39

Frequency versus Gain when encapsulation thickness is 5 mm and it is

placed at a distance 5 mm from monopole

4.5
4
3.5
delrin
3
hydex
gain in dB

2.5
PET
2
PETG
1.5
PVC
1
Tecaform
0.5
Ultem
0
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3
Frequency in GHz

Fig. 3  Gain vs frequency chart for the different materials when the encapsulation of 5 mm thick-
ness is placed 5 mm away from the monopole antenna

Figure 3 shows the gain vs frequency simulation result for when the encapsula-
tion of 5 mm thickness is placed at a distance of 5 mm away from the monopole
antenna for different materials. The highest gain at 2.4 GHz is for Tecaform with a
gain of 3.97090007  dB, and the lowest gain is for Hydex with a gain of
3.82773938 dB. The difference between the gains from Tecaform encapsulation is
only 0.14 dB; we can also see that more or less all the materials exhibit similar gain.
Figure 4 shows the gain vs frequency simulation result when the encapsulation
of 8 mm thickness is placed at a distance of 5 mm away from the monopole antenna
for different materials. The highest gain at 2.4 GHz is for Tecaform with a gain of
4.00149462 dB, and the lowest gain is for Hydex with a gain of 3.62640553 dB. We
can see that Tecaform encapsulation gives a 0.62 dB more gain compared to Hydex
encapsulation.
Figure 5 shows the gain vs frequency simulation result, when the encapsulation
of 11  mm thickness is placed at a distance of 5  mm away from the monopole
antenna, for different materials. The highest gain at 2.4 GHz is for PET with a gain
of 3.84855183 dB, and the lowest gain is for PETG with a gain of 2.39470329 dB. The
difference in the observed gain is very high for PET and PETG encapsulation about
1.45 dB, whereas all other encapsulation materials have gain similar to PET.
Figure 6 shows the gain vs frequency simulation result, when the encapsulation
of 5  mm thickness is placed at a distance of 10  mm away from the monopole
antenna, for different materials. The highest gain at 2.4 GHz is for Tecaform with a
gain of 4.07821083 dB, and the lowest gain is for PET with a gain of 3.96754903 dB. It
can be seen that the gain difference between Tecaform encapsulation and PET is
only 0.11 dB; we can also see that more or less all the materials exhibit similar gain.
40 M. Mujawar and T. Gunasekaran

Frequency versus Gain when encapsulation thickness is 8 mm and is

placed at a distance 5mm from monopole
4.5
4
3.5
delrin
3
hydex
gain in dB

2.5
PET
2
PETG
1.5
PVC
1
Tecaform
0.5
Ultem
0
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3
Frequency in GHz

Fig. 4  Gain vs frequency chart for the different materials when the encapsulation of 8 mm thick-
ness is placed 5 mm away from the monopole antenna

Frequency versus Gain when encapsulation thickness is 11 mm and is

placed at a distance 5 mm from monopole
4.5
4
3.5
delrin
3
hydex
gain in dB

2.5
PET
2
PETG
1.5
PVC
1
Tecaform
0.5
Ultem
0
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3
Frequency in GHz

Fig. 5  Gain vs frequency chart for the different materials when the encapsulation of 11 mm thick-
ness is placed 5 mm away from the monopole antenna
Effect of Encapsulating Materials on Monopole Antenna Performance for Underwater… 41

Frequency versus Gain when encapsulation thickness is 5 mm and it is

placed at a distance 10 mm from monopole

4.5
4
3.5
delrin
3
hydex
gain in dB

2.5
PET
2
PETG
1.5
PVC
1
Tecaform
0.5
Ultem
0
2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3
Frequency in GHz

Fig. 6  Gain vs frequency chart for the different materials when the encapsulation of 5 mm thick-
ness is placed 10 mm away from the monopole antenna

5  Conclusion

As can be observed from the results, it has been clear that if we keep the separation
between the covering material and the antenna fixed at a particular value, for exam-
ple, around 5 mm from the antenna, and the covering material width is shifted for
various covering materials, the antenna would have less gain, while the width of the
covering material is more. As we practically know, the antenna will be mounted on
the autonomous unmanned vehicles, which will be exploring below the plane of the
sea. So antenna should be strong enough to withstand the strong winds and pressure
created by the water under several critical conditions; so for this purpose, it will be
very effective to have more width for the covering material. It is likewise seen from
the software that the antenna will have more gain when the separation of the cover-
ing material from the antenna is less, that is, 0 mm, for the condition when the width
of the covering material is fixed at 5  mm and the separation values between the
antenna and covering material are different. When we compare the plots of gain vs
frequency of the various covering materials, it is clear that antenna gain is more, that
is, 4.25 dB, for the PET covering material when the separation between the antenna
and PET was 0 mm.
42 M. Mujawar and T. Gunasekaran

References

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Microwave Conference Proceedings (APMC) (2011)
3. Zhang, Q., Yang, K., Shi, Y., Xidang: Oceanic Propagation Measurement in the Northern Part
of the South China Sea. Yan School of Marine Science and Technology, OCEANS 2016  –
Shanghai on, 10–13 April 2016
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tenna. In: 2020 International Conference on Industry 4.0 Technology (I4Tech), Pune, India,
pp. 182–185 (2020). [Link]
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for underwater communications. OCEANS 2017  – Aberdeen, Aberdeen, pp.  1–6 (2017).
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School, Monterey CA 93943
7. Pasya, I., Zali, H.M., Saat, M., Ali, M.T., Kobayashi, T.: Buffer layer configuration for wide-
band microstrip patch antenna for underwater applications. 2016 Loughborough Antennas &
Propagation Conference (LAPC), Loughborough, pp.  1–5 (2016). [Link]
LAPC.2016.7807577
8. Inácio, S.I.: Antenna design for underwater radio communications. OCEANS 2016 – Shanghai,
Shanghai, pp. 1–6 (2016). [Link]
9. Swetha, K., Jayasree, P.V.Y., Saradhi, V.: Orthogonal mode dual band MIMO antenna system
for 5G smartphone applications using characteristic mode analysis. Circuit World, Vol. ahead-
of-print No. ahead-of-print (2021). [Link]
Parasitic Antennas for Current and Future
Wireless Communication Systems: Trends,
Challenges, and Emerging Aspects

Roktim Konch, Sivaranjan Goswami, Kumaresh Sarmah,

Kandarpa Kumar Sarma, and Nikos Mastorakia

1  Introduction

Antennas are generally classified according to their physical structure or operating

frequencies. Depending upon the structure, these are categorized as wire antennas,
aperture [1] antennas, reflector antennas, lens antennas, microstrip antennas, and
array antennas. Due to its unique radiation properties, these antennas are used in
different applications. When input power is fed to an antenna, some power gets
reflected back to the source, while the other part is transmitted through the antenna.
In that transmission, some portions are lost due to conduction, while the remaining
part of the power is radiated to the medium from the antenna. This radiation occurs
from a radiating surface in the form of electromagnetic waves. Therefore, the radiat-
ing structure plays a crucial role in an antenna system; the radiating surface deter-
mines the antenna’s resonance frequency, gain, and polarization [2].
The parasitic element plays a crucial role in enhancing the efficiency of an
antenna [3]. The parasitic element-based antenna design concept is very old. It was
first proposed by H. Yagi and S. Uda in 1926, a very popular type of antenna called

R. Konch (*) · S. Goswami · K. K. Sarma

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Gauhati University,
Guwahati, Assam, India
e-mail: roktim@[Link]; [Link]@[Link]; kandarpaka@[Link]
K. Sarmah
Department of Electronics and Communication Technology, Gauhati University,
Guwahati, Assam, India
e-mail: kumaresh@[Link]
N. Mastorakia
Technical University Sofia, Sofia, Bulgaria
e-mail: mastor@[Link]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 43

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
44 R. Konch et al.

Yagi-Uda antenna. Yagi-Uda antennas consist of a parallel set of linear dipole radia-
tors typically reflector, driven dipole, and directors. The reflector element is a little
longer [4] than the driven dipole, whereas the directors are a little shorter. These
combinations of elements opened a new era of antenna design. Parasitic elements
are passive structures present in the radiating system and have an effect on the radia-
tion of the system. Each of these elements absorbs and re-­radiates the radio waves
from the driven element with a different phase, modifying the dipole’s radiation
pattern. It is similar to an end-fire array, meaning that radiation pattern is along the
axis of the array in the direction of director elements. The Yagi-Uda antenna is a
widely used early radar system, television broadcasting system, etc. Micostrip
antenna was proposed in 1952 as a solution for wireless communication through
portable devices [5]. Various techniques have been reported for the improvement of
microstrip antennas in terms of size reduction, diversity of the far-field radiation
pattern, enhancing bandwidth up to ultra-wideband, and resonance at multiple fre-
quencies. Some of the approaches include the use of modification geometry [6],
multilayer substrate [7], introducing cut slots of various sizes and shapes on the
ground plane or near the top of the active patch [8], etc. Currently, parasitic-based
designs for high-performance and low-size antennas have attracted the attention of
researchers around the world. A number of novel techniques have been proposed
worldwide in the last few decades to enhance the performance of the antennas.
Microstrip parasitic antennas have received wide attention in the past few decades
due to their advantages such as steerable radiation patterns [9], multiband function
[10], ultra-­wideband application [11], and polarization diversity [12], which can
reduce the size [13], complexity [14], and cost of an antenna while improving the
total performance of a communication system. A simple design of a parasitic ele-
ment-based microstrip antenna structure is shown in Fig. 1.
In [15], authors presented a simple patch antenna surrounded by a parasitic ele-
ment that can broaden the resonance frequency of the antenna. It has been recog-
nized as a pioneer work in the use of parasitic elements for designing antennas with
tunable parameters. The planar version of the Yagi-Uda antenna is introduced in
[16]. After that, many similar structures have been proposed by different researchers

Fig. 1  Simple microstrip patch antenna surrounded by parasitic elements

Parasitic Antennas for Current and Future Wireless Communication Systems: Trends… 45

[17]. Yet performance improvement is required for meeting the increasing demand
of greater reliability. Nowadays, planer and stack parasitic element structures along
RF switches [18] are extensively used in microstrip antennas. The switch parasitic
antenna (SPA) is one of the most popular structures reported in the recent times.
The key objective of the chapter is to provide a practical insight into the design
and application of the parasitic block-based microstrip antennas. So far, a brief
introduction to the trends and practices of parasitic element-based design of
microstrip antenna has been covered. This is followed by a brief theoretical over-
view of the parasitic structures along with the analysis and several experimental
techniques for the antenna characteristics reported by previous works. Electrically
steerable passive array radiator antenna and its widely used parasitic structure are
discussed. In this discussion, microstrip parasitic-based antenna design and its
future perspective in terms of a new adaptable modern wireless communication
system have been highlighted. Introducing reconfigurable intelligent surfaces and
its future prospects in the next-generation wireless communication system is also
discussed.

2  P
erformance Enhancement of the Microstrip Antenna by
Using Parasitic Elements

In this section, we discuss the different configurations of the parasitic elements and
their contributions to performance improvement of the microstrip patch antenna.
For the analysis of various antenna structures, each of the designs is categorized in
terms of bandwidth enhancement, steerable radiation pattern, and parasitic element-­
based reconfigurable structures.

2.1  Bandwidth Enhancement

The bandwidth (BW) of a microstrip antenna rises with the increase in thickness (h)
or with a decrease in the dielectric constant (ε). However, increasing the thickness,
surface wave propagation takes place, resulting in degradation in antenna perfor-
mance. Therefore, parasitic coupling multiple resonator techniques using microstrip
patches for broadband operation are preferred. Only one patch is fed. Further, the
other patches are parasitically coupled. The coupling between the multiple resona-
tors has been realized by either using a little gap [19] between the patches or directly
connecting the patches through a thin microstrip line [20]. A patch closer to the
active one gets excited through the coupling between the two patches. These are
called parasitic patches. If the resonance frequencies f1 and f2 of these two patches
are closer to each other, then broad BW is obtained as shown in Fig. 2 [21]. If the
46 R. Konch et al.

Fig. 2  VSWR plots of two coupled resonators having (a) BW (…) individual resonators and (---)
overall response (b) A simple coaxial feed microstrip antenna

BW is narrow for the individual patch, then the combination of f1 and f2 results in
broader BW.
Based on the position of the parasitic element, it is divided into gap-coupled,
direct-coupled, or hybrid-coupled [22]. In gap-coupled microstrip antennas, the
structure is excited at the fundamental TM10 mode and has one λ/2 cycle variation
in the field along its length and has uniform field along its width [21]. The edges
along the width and length are correspondingly known as radiating and non-­
radiating edges [22–24] as shown in Fig. 3. Either one or two parasitic equal rectan-
gular patches can be placed along one or both of the radiating edges of the fed
rectangular patch with a small gap between them. The BW of the gap-coupled
antenna can be increased further by choosing the parasitic patches of different sizes.
In the non-radiating edges, the coupling between the parasitic elements is smaller as
compared to the coupling along the radiating edges, because the field varies in the
non-radiating edge in a sinusoidal pattern and is uniform along the radiating edges.
In direct-coupled [25] approach, a thin microstrip line is connected in between the
fed patch and parasitic patch. The strip is usually located at the midpoint of the
widths of the patches, so the antenna is symmetric with the fed-point axis. In the
hybrid type, the coupling between the patches is through the gap as well as through
the connecting strip. Similar configurations can be constructed for patches and para-
sitic elements of various sizes and shapes.

2.2  Parasitic Antenna Arrays with Steerable Radiation Pattern

The energy radiated by an antenna is represented by the radiation diagram of the

antenna. Radiation is the term used to represent the emission or reception of an
electromagnetic wavefront at the antenna, specifying its strength. From the radia-
tion pattern, one can understand the function and directivity of an antenna. Figure 4a
shows a simple patch antenna fed by a microstrip line. A RF switch [18] is
Parasitic Antennas for Current and Future Wireless Communication Systems: Trends… 47

Non-radiating edge
gap coupled

Radiating edge gap

coupled

Direct couple patch

Fig. 3  Parasitic coupling for broad BW (a) Gap coupling (b) Direct coupling

connected in between the active patch and parasitic patch. If the RF switch is OFF
and the input power is fed into the antenna, then the radiation occurs from the active
patch together with the mutually coupled parasitic patch. When the RF switch is
ON, some current flows through the switch into the parasitic patch; these combina-
tions of the radiating surfaces increase the resonance length of the antenna and
produce an overall change within the radiation pattern. Using this ON or OFF tech-
nique, the radiation pattern of an antenna can be changed in a desired direction as
shown in Fig.  4b. Based on this technique, different shapes and combinations of
parasitic patch have been reported [26]. Also there is a change in cross-pole. For
simplicity, here only co-pole radiation pattern is given.
In [27–29], it is reported that when a parasitic structure is present near the patch
or at the ground plan of the microstrip patch antenna, there is a change in the radia-
tion pattern of the antenna. When a parasitic antenna is used, the antenna radiates
more power in a specific direction and less power in some other directions. This
results in a radiating power variation in a direction. Moreover, this steerable
48 R. Konch et al.

Fig. 4  A simple example (a) A microstrip-fed patch antenna with RF switch (b) Co-pole radia-
tion pattern

property of the radiation pattern helps in beam-space multi-input multi-output

(MIMO) [30].

2.3  Parasitic Element-Based Reconfigurable Antenna

Design of reconfigurable antennas is one of the emerging areas of research world-

wide due to its multirole properties. Depending on the performance of the antenna,
it can be classified as frequency reconfigurable [31], radiation pattern
Parasitic Antennas for Current and Future Wireless Communication Systems: Trends… 49

reconfigurable [32], polarization reconfigurable [33], and hybrid reconfigurable

[34] type. The dynamic tuning can be achieved by manipulating a certain switching
mechanism through controlling electric, mechanical, and physical or optical
switches [35]. Among them, electric switches are the most popular in constituting
reconfigurable antennas due to their efficiency, reliability, and ease of integrating in
microwave circuitry. The combination of parasitic elements and RF switches leads
to configurability properties of the antenna.
In [31, 36], the operating frequency of the antenna has been shifted to some other
frequency by using PIN diodes as a microwave switch. This frequency configuration
is achieved by altering the electrical length of the antenna. Similarly, changing the
radiating structure of the antennas leads to a change in radiation pattern [26].
Polarization reconfiguration allows to change the polarization of an antenna by
altering the vertical orientation of the E field and without altering the resonant fre-
quencies and shape of the radiation diagram [33].

3  N
ext-Generation Communication Design
and a Passive Radiator

To increase the capacity and higher data rates, wireless system designers recently
have drawn attention to the reconfigurable intelligent surface (RIS) [37, 38, 39] to
create smart wireless communication. In a smart radio environment, surfaces are
able to control the propagation of incident electromagnetic waves in a programma-
ble way to actively adjust the channel realization, which turns the wireless channel
into a controllable system block that may be optimized to boost the overall system
performance [40]. MIMO technology is already a part of the high data rate of wire-
less communication systems as well as radar systems. One of the most common
applications of MIMO technology is to utilize spatial diversity in order to enhance
data rate and reliability of a wireless communication system [41]. However, there
are many challenges in the implementation of a MIMO system in many scenarios,
especially with regard to patch antenna design [42]. First of all, unavailability of
sufficient space impedes the design of efficient and decorated MIMO antennas [43].
Second, traditional MIMO requires each antenna to be fed by a unique RF chain. It
makes the system costly and bulky [42].
In order to overcome these two limitations, a number of reduced complexity and
antenna-decoupling schemes have been proposed. Among them, beam-space MIMO
has attracted the attention of many researchers worldwide. Beam-space MIMO is
viewed by many researchers as the next-generation implementation technique for
massive MIMO. Most of the works related to beam-space MIMO consider switched
parasitic array (SPAs) and electronically steerable passive array radiators (ESPARs)
[37]. An SPA involves an active radiating element and several physically separated
parasitic elements, which can be either connected or disconnected with the active
radiating elements using PIN diode switches. To control the switches, the system
50 R. Konch et al.

requires an extra power, and failure of any switches disrupts the system perfor-
mance. An ESPAR, on the other hand, is a smart antenna [44] whose beam pattern
can be controlled. ESPAR also contains an active element and switched parasitic
elements. However, the parasitic elements are loaded with adjustable reactive ele-
ments so that the input impedances of the elements can be controlled. To meet the
exponential increase in the demand of the recent wireless data services, massive
MIMO with antenna arrays deployed at both base station and user terminals is able
to increase the capacity of the channel. To increase the radio frequency transmission
or more reliable circuitry, there are a few major limitations in an electromagnetic
wave, such as diffraction, scattering effect, and signal being weaker after traveling
through obstacles such as buildings in the urban area. As a result, it is not possible
to ensure a global coverage of wireless services in 5G and beyond using conven-
tional cellular techniques. So the current progress of the RIS technique provides a
revolutionarily new solution to implement the problem by artificially controlling the
propagation environment of the radio signal. In general, a RIS is contained in a large
number of low-cost and energy-efficient reconfigurable reflecting elements that can
reflect the transmitting electromagnetic waves with a smart controller. These intel-
ligent systems provide an extra high-quality channel link to overcome unfavorable
propagation conditions of wireless communication systems (Fig. 5).
The dissipated electromagnetic wave in the sky and signal loss due to the obsta-
cle in direct line of sight communication can be reduced using the RIS system.

Fig. 5  Next-generation communication system using RIS antenna

Parasitic Antennas for Current and Future Wireless Communication Systems: Trends… 51

Table 1  Summary of the important work and contribution

Important
Description work Contribution
BW improvement with [21] A stable radiation pattern over the resonance
parasitic elements frequency
[23] Dual polarization antenna using RF switch
[24] Circularly polarized wideband antenna by using
inner and outer parasitic elements
Beam steering with parasitic [45] Flexible and wearable antenna using partially
elements reflective surface with a parasitic patch array
[47] A novel null steering antenna for angle-of-arrival
(AoA) estimation
[18] Planer application of the RF switches and its
modeling
Reconfigurable antenna with [44] Theory of mode analysis of ESPER for a RF
parasitic elements MIMO system
[35] Different switching techniques used in
reconfigurable antennas
[33] Reconfigurable antenna and its used in wireless
communication
Reconfigurable intelligent [40] Working principle of RIS
surface (RIS) [41] Next-generation wireless design and use of RIS
[42] High-speed data rate and upcoming challenges
[38, 46] Practical implementation of RIS

Switch reconfigurable antennas can be used to cope up with the requirement of the
environment, including operating from car, confined by ceilings, clothes [45], build-
ing facades, etc. Since RIS is used as a passive component, it consumes very less
energy as compared to conventional wireless systems [46]. Since RIS only reflects
the electromagnetic wave, it can support full-duplex and full-band transmission.
The advantage is the absence of analog-to-digital/digital-to-analog converters and
power amplifier for which it is low cost and reliable. The contributions of the vari-
ous recent works in this direction are summarized in Table 1.

4  Conclusion

In this chapter, the design considerations for some trending applications of the
microstrip parasitic patch have been discussed. The proper design of antenna can fit
into the next-generation efficient and high data rate wireless communication sys-
tems. Parasitic element-based microstrip antenna design and its radiation principle
have been discussed. Also, introducing the new trends of RIS and its importance in
the next-generation communication systems have been covered. From the literature,
it is observed that the objective is to focus on designs that provide low radiation loss,
higher bandwidth, compact, and smaller size and help in energy conservation. The
52 R. Konch et al.

chapter has focused on the works dealing with microstrip antennas with parasitic
elements used for bandwidth enhancement, beam width and radiation steering,
reconfigurable structures, and reconfigurable intelligent surface systems. Further,
the coverage has included ESPARs, which have far-reaching consequences and are
critical for a range of applications.

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Multiband Laptop Antenna with Enhanced
Bandwidth for WLAN/WiMAX/GPS
Wireless Applications

Trushit Upadhyaya, Killol Pandya, Arpan Desai, Upesh Patel, Rajat Pandey,

and Merih Palandoken

1  Introduction

Wireless communication systems rely on Internet access technology where portable

devices incorporating recent technologies are in immense demand as they satisfy
the requirements of high-quality wireless links for higher data rates. Apart from
adequate performance, wireless devices should be compact and thin to get fitted in
laptops, tablets, and notebooks. These devices should also adopt technological
advancements to cater to the growing communication needs. The literature depicts
that planar monopole antennas are an appropriate candidate for tri-band perfor-
mance where various resonant frequencies could be attained by structural changes.
The planar monopole antenna could be understood as the wire element of an ideal
monopole with a planar element. It offers various advantages such as compact in
size, wide impedance bandwidth, and omnidirectional radiation pattern.
In [1], a compact monopole antenna was proposed for WLAN and WiMAX
applications. In design, a toothbrush-shaped patch, U-shaped patch, and a meander
line were provided for a tri-band generation. The detailed review of this literature
shows targeted resonances could be achieved by changing the dimensions of the
structure. The tri-band monopole antenna with good impedance matching was pre-
sented in [2]. A compact radiator was introduced in the structure to satisfy the
requirement of impedance matching. The planar monopole antennas could fulfill

T. Upadhyaya (*) · K. Pandya · A. Desai · U. Patel · R. Pandey

Charotar University of Science and Technology, Changa, Gujarat, India
e-mail: [Link]@[Link]; [Link]@[Link]; [Link]@
[Link]; [Link]@[Link]; [Link]@[Link]
M. Palandoken
Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir, Turkey
e-mail: [Link]@[Link]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 55

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
56 T. Upadhyaya et al.

the demand for wireless devices that are embedded in laptops, tablets, and note-
books. A miniaturized novel inverted F antenna for laptop computers was discussed
in [3]. In this antenna, two meander shorting strips with a C-shaped radiator are
proposed to obtain dual-band operations. Similarly, an ultrathin inverted E-shaped
novel antenna was proposed for wireless applications [4]. Two radiating strips are
provided for wider impedance bandwidth at targeted frequencies in this design. In
[5], an open-slot, dual-wideband, low-profile, L-shaped antenna has been presented
for LTE/WWAN application-based tablet devices. Two inverted L-shaped open slots
were provided, where a longer inverted L (IL) shape was utilized for the lower fre-
quency band, and shorter IL was utilized for higher frequency band optimization.
Compact wideband monopole antenna for LTE/GSM/UMTS applications was pre-
sented in [6]. A distributed inductive strip was engineered with the design for size
reduction and better impedance matching.
There is some evidence of multiband operations by planar antennas in the litera-
ture. A uniplanar eight-band antenna with adequate size reduction was discussed in
[7]. In this design, a printed coupling circuit was introduced by utilizing a printed
loop, which was integrated with a shorted strip to resonate the structure for LTE/
GSM/UMTS band applications. A frequency reconfigurable antenna for LTE/
WWAN applications was proposed in [8]. The geometry includes a loop feeding
strip where the radio frequency (RF) switch was engineered for resonance mode
variation. Due to such arrangement, the model provided multiband operations with
reasonably good gain and radiating efficiency. A dual-strip monopole antenna was
presented in [9]. A monopole antenna was resonating for GSM and UMTS band
applications. In this structure, an antenna is embedded between hinges and a metal
cover. Due to this design, the operating bandwidth could be enhanced with moder-
ate radiation efficiency. The researchers have reported another technique where the
branch strip of an antenna was inductively coupled to achieve the desired bandwidth
and size miniaturization. Due to this branch strip, an additional resonance was
excited near a resonance mode that increases the bandwidth of the lower band [10].
Planar antennas having dual-wideband characteristics were designed [11]. In this
design, feeding strip, tuning strip, and parasitic strip were provided to reduce ground
effects for the betterment of antenna performance. The size miniaturization is very
essential for any antenna development. Such kind of compact antenna model was
proposed in [12], where radiating branches and stubs were directly connected with
a monopole. With this geometry, the effective size could be reduced to 60%. Few
researchers have worked on specific antenna structures where two antennas were
combined for 4G/5G applications [13]. The meandered structure and various stubs
played a vital role in achieving resonances at desired frequencies. In [14], the half-­
loop antenna structure was discussed for tablet devices. In this structure, the metal
casing was utilized to make the model thinner. The literature describes multiple
variants of technologies for achieving the multiband planar antennas [15–29]. These
antennas incorporate modifications in the electrical length of the conducting resona-
tor by altering the conducting surface path. The alterations primarily involve the
introduction of the slots on conducting patches of various structures (Table 1).
Multiband Laptop Antenna with Enhanced Bandwidth for WLAN/WiMAX/GPS… 57

Table 1  Comparison of proposed laptop antenna with other antennas

Resonance Antenna
Ref. frequencies (GHz) dimensions (mm3) Gain (dBi) Bandwidth (%)
[1] 0.7, 0.92, 1.7, 1.9, 35 × 10 × 0.8 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.2, 28, 44 (covering few
2.3 1.6, 2, 1.8 bands only)
[2] 0.83, 1.95, 2.35, 60 × 200 × 4 −0.9, 0.1, −0.95, 36.47,59.37
2.66 −0.98
[3] 0.85, 0.92, 1.79, 60 × 200 × 0.8 0.6, 0.5, 1.2, 2.2, 22.59, 37.22
1.92, 2.045 1.8
[4] 2.4, 2.59, 2.95, 3.7, 50 × 200 × 1.6 1.89, 1.61, 0.97, 14.16, 6.78, 6.21,
4.56, 5.5 0.98, 1.72, 1.92 3.15, 7.77, 8.18
[5] 0.46, 0.7, 0.9, 1.5, 200 × 150 × 1.5 1.8, 3.5, 3.2, 2.83, 4.35, 34.2, 90.6, 23.2
1.9, 3.3, 5.5 3.65, 5.9, 5
[6] 0.86, 0.91 128.3 × 50 × 1.6 −12.56, −4.98 –
[7] 2.4, 5.2 260 × 200 × 1.6 4.8, 6.8 3.6, 7.5
Proposed 1.57, 2.4, 3.5, 5 50 x 200 x 1.56 6.2, 6.5, 6.2, 8.2 20.6, 46.44, 20.94,
7.26

Fig. 1  Antenna design configuration (a) Top view (b) Back view

2  Antenna Structure and Parametric Variation

The designed antenna is presented in Fig. 1 along with the physical size notations.
The antenna is having a size of 50 × 200  m2. The electrical dimensions of the
antenna are in the order of 0.86λ × 0.21λ mm2 at the lowest frequency, which is
considered large in terms of the typical resonator size, but the objective of the pre-
sented design is to incorporate the proposed antenna in the laptop configuration,
which has a larger base sheet dimension.
58 T. Upadhyaya et al.

The antenna was designed by making use of the standard FR4 laminates. These
laminates offer the benefits of cost-effectiveness in bulk production. The disadvan-
tage of FR4 laminates is the high losses at frequencies about 1 GHz; however, the
tradeoff between cost and losses is needed to be considered while engineering the
antenna structure. The surface-mountable antenna has multiple slits that are respon-
sible for the generation of multiple resonance modes. The dimensions of the con-
ducting slits on the top of the substrate are further engineered to improve the
impedance bandwidth at each exciting mode. The antenna is excited using offset
feed. The feed dimensions are calculated to present 50 Ω impedance to the SMA
connector. The engineered feed offers better radiation characteristics of the antenna.
The surface current density on the slits of the antenna can be effectively varied by
altering the electrical dimension of the feedline at target resonance. The partial
ground plane has been employed to improve the bandwidth of the patch resonator;
however, the partial ground plane does offer the disadvantage of reducing the
antenna F/B ratio. The antenna dimensions are selected after carrying out paramet-
ric variation and observing its effect on the reflection coefficient. The four parame-
ters including PL13, PL14, PW13, and GL are varied after which the optimized parameters
are decided.
Figure 2a indicates that the variation of PL13 leads to a change in the reflection
coefficient values along with the impedance bandwidth of the antenna. When the
length of PL13 decreases, the bandwidth and reflection coefficient are smaller as

Fig. 2  Performance analysis of antenna in terms of |S11| by varying (a) PL13 (b) PL14 (c)
PW13 (d) GL
Multiband Laptop Antenna with Enhanced Bandwidth for WLAN/WiMAX/GPS… 59

Table 2  Antenna dimensions (in mm)

SW 200 Pi7 19 Pw1 92.9 Pw9 85
SL 50 Pi8 26 Pw2 2.1 Pw10 10
Pi1 13 Pi9 2 Pw3 66 Pw11 11
Pi2 6 Pi10 6 Pw4 59 Pw12 58
Pi3 4 Pi11 3 Pw5 11 Pw13 15
Pi4 5 Pi12 13 Pw6 56 Pw14 26
Pi5 5 Pi13 3 Pw7 31 Pw15 2
Pi6 10 Pi14 17 Pw8 39 Gi 14

compared to the values when the size of the PL13 increases. The optimum value of
PL13 is selected as 3 mm. The variation of PL14 and PW13 helps in achieving the accept-
able values of reflection coefficient at the second band, while bandwidth at the
respective bands is not much affected. The value of PL14 and PW13 is selected as
6 mm. Ground length (GL) variation helps in achieving the required bands of opera-
tion. The GL is chosen as 14 mm to accomplishing the proposed application bands.
The optimized parameters of the antenna are shown in Table 2. The top and bottom
view of an antenna fabricated on the FR4 substrate is illustrated in Fig. 3.

3  Results and Discussion

The fabricated antenna is tested in terms of reflection coefficient and radiation pat-
terns using Keysight VNA 9912A and anechoic chamber, respectively. The reflec-
tion coefficient plot of the radiator is depicted in Fig. 4, where antenna bandwidth
spans from (20.6%) 1.3–1.6 GHz, (46.44%) 2.0–3.21 GHz, (20.94%) 3.42–4.22 GHz,
and (7.26%) 4.91–5.28  GHz below the −10  dB level which covers GPS, ISM,
WiMAX, and WLAN bands, respectively.
The current distribution pattern at 1.49 GHz depicts that current is concentrated
near the edges toward the right, middle, and upper left side connected arms as shown
in Fig. 5a. At 2.59 GHz, the majority of the current flows in the lower arm of the
antenna, while a small amount of current is observed at the other parts of the antenna
as illustrated in Fig. 5b. The measured |S11| shows a great correlation with the simu-
lated values.
Figure 5c depicts that maximum current distribution at 3.87 GHz is on the feed-
line and toward the right lower side of the antenna, while at 5 GHz, the current is
concentrated at the feedline and right lower side of the radiator, whereas at 5 GHz,
the current is concentrated near the feedline and right lower side as illustrated from
Figs. 5d and 6.
The 2D radiation pattern measured in an anechoic chamber at E and H plane
shows that at all frequencies, the antenna shows an omnidirectional pattern which
makes the antenna suitable for its use in laptop applications since it can detect the
60 T. Upadhyaya et al.

Fig. 3  Fabricated prototype of the proposed antenna (a) Top view (b) Back view

Fig. 4  Reflection coefficient of the antenna [simulated (solid) and measured (dashed)]
Multiband Laptop Antenna with Enhanced Bandwidth for WLAN/WiMAX/GPS… 61

Fig. 5  Surface current densities at (a) 1.498 GHz (b) 2.59 GHz (c) 3.87 GHz (d) 5 GHz

signals from all sides. Simulated 2D patterns are in good association with the mea-
sured patterns. The setup for radiation pattern measurement is illustrated in Fig. 7.
Figure 8 shows the measured gain where an average gain value of more than 5
dBi is observed at bands of concern, which matches well with the simulated gain.
The 75% efficiency is achieved for the antenna. The characteristics of the antenna
are illustrated in Table 3.
62 T. Upadhyaya et al.

Fig. 6  2D radiation patterns at (a) 1.498 GHz (b) 2.59 GHz (c) 3.87 GHz (d) 5 GHz [simulated
(solid) and measured (dashed)]
Multiband Laptop Antenna with Enhanced Bandwidth for WLAN/WiMAX/GPS… 63

Fig. 7  Radiation pattern measurement setup in anechoic chamber (a) E plane (b) H plane

Fig. 8  Gain and efficiency of the antenna

4  Conclusion

A quad-band flat-plate antenna operating at (20.6%) 1.3–1.6  GHz, (46.44%)

2.0–3.21 GHz, (20.94%) 3.42–4.22 GHz, and (7.26%) 4.91–5.28 GHz bands suit-
able for integrated or internal laptop applications is proposed. The bandwidth of the
64 T. Upadhyaya et al.

Table 3  Antenna characteristics

Center Peak gain Efficiency Radiation
Impedance bandwidth (%) frequency (dBi) (abs) pattern
S M (GHz) S M S M
1.3–1.6 GHz 1.31–1.59 GHz 1.498 6.2 5.5 0.84 0.81 Omnidirectional
(20.6%) (19.3%)
2.0–3.21 GHz 2.12–3.01 GHz 2.59 6.5 7.1 0.83 0.80 Omnidirectional
(46.44%) (34.7%)
3.42–4.22 GHz 3.40–4.12 GHz 3.87 6.2 6.3 0.82 0.81 Omnidirectional
(20.94%) (19.14%)
4.91–5.28 GHz 4.88–5.20 GHz 5 8.2 8.2 0.78 0.75 Omnidirectional
(7.26%) (6.34%)

antenna at the proposed bands is sufficient enough to cover the GPS, ISM, WiMAX,
and WLAN bands. The omnidirectional radiation pattern, economical antenna
material, gain, and efficiency values more than 5 dBi and 75%, respectively, with
ease of integration make the antenna suitable for its use in midsize laptop applica-
tions. The simulated and experimental results are presented, where a good correla-
tion is observed. The antenna could be made low profile in order to make it useful
for mini tablets and laptops.

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for tri-band applications. Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett. 57(3), 706–709 (2015)
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Part II
Performance Analysis of Micro-strip
Antenna
Antenna Optimization Using Taguchi’s
Method

Archana Tiwari and A. A. Khurshid

1  Introduction

Wireless communication has been widely used all over the world. Antenna is the
key component of wireless communication, and hence it has attracted the interest of
researchers from industry and academics toward antenna design [1]. Antenna
requirements for wireless communication include features like miniaturization,
flexibility, high data rate, etc. [2]. The flexibility feature of antenna can open the
possibility of flexible antennas to be integrated into clothing or wearable devices
[3]. These antennas should have the ability to adopt any arbitrary shape during vari-
ous movements of the body, specifically for the wearable devices [4, 5]. Critical
parameters of flexible antenna design are as follows [6, 7]:
(i) Selection of flexible substrate
(ii) Antenna’s performance when the antenna is flexed or bent
(iii) Reconfigurability
(iv) Fabrication method
(v) Specific absorption rate (SAR)
(vi) Close proximity with human body
This will allow exploiting the area of clothing and other flexible materials to cre-
ate efficient antennas in critical applications including communication and tracking
for defense or safety and monitoring of patients in a hospital or workforce in indus-
tries [8, 9].

A. Tiwari (*) · A. A. Khurshid

Department of Electronics Engineering, Shri Ramdeobaba College of Engineering and
Management, Nagpur, India
e-mail: tiwariar@[Link]; khurshidaa@[Link]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 69

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
70 A. Tiwari and A. A. Khurshid

The aim is to achieve the compactness of antenna without affecting the perfor-
mance of antenna. Microstrip patch antenna with rectangular shape is considered
for the performance analysis as a case study. The antenna performance is dependent
on the following parameters [10]:
(i) Width of patch
(ii) Ground plane
(iii) Feed point location
(iv) Height of substrate
(v) Dielectric constant
(vi) Loss tangent
(vii) Probe diameter
(viii) Cover/coating
Parametric variations of above parameters can lead to performance improvement
in terms of resonance frequency, return loss, gain, bandwidth, etc. The parametric
variations need to be done in a systematic way, which can be done by optimization.
Optimization can be achieved by various methods like genetic algorithm, Taguchi’s
optimization, simulated annealing, artificial neural network, gradient-based tech-
niques, particle swarm optimization, etc. [11].
Taguchi’s optimization technique is explained in the further part of the book
chapter, where orthogonal array is used for optimization. Orthogonal array method
is more preferred over other two methods, like trial-and-error approach and full
factorial experimentation method, because it reduces the number of experiments to
be performed and requires less time and resources [12].

2  Microstrip Patch Antenna

Microstrip patch antennas are more preferred because of its features like light
weight, low profile, ease of fabrication, etc. Microstrip antennas are of various types
like circular, triangular, rectangular, etc., out of which rectangular-shaped patch is
the simplest one. The basic structure of rectangular patch with inset feed is shown
below in Fig. 1.
The rectangular patch is designed taking into consideration the frequency of
resonance (fr) as 2.45 GHz, which is assigned for ISM (Industrial Scientific Medical)
band. The substrate material is selected as FR4, which is an easily available mate-
rial. The dielectric constant (εr) is 4.4 and height of substrate (h) is 1.59 mm. After
considering fr, εr and h, the rectangular patch parameters can be calculated using the
following formulas:

c 2
Width of patch ( w p ) =
2 fr  r +1
(1)
Antenna Optimization Using Taguchi’s Method 71

Fig. 1  Rectangular microstrip patch antenna with inset feed 

Where; a, width of substrate; b, length of substrate; c, height of substrate; a1, width of patch;
b1, length of patch; u, width of feedline; v, length of feedline; u1, width of slot between patch
and feed; v1, length of slot between patch and feed

where:
c – velocity of light

c
Length of patch ( L p ) = − 2 ∆L
2 fr  eff
(2)
r + 1 r − 1
Effective dielectric constant ( eff ) = +
2 h
2 1 + 12
wp
(3)
 wp 
(eff + 0.3)  + 0.264 
 h 
Extended length ( ∆L ) = ∗ 0.412h
 wp 
(eff − 0.258 )  + 0.8 
 h  (4)
Width of substrate ( ws ) = 6h + 6h + w p
(5)
Length of substrate ( Ls ) = 6h + 6h + L p
(6)
The width and length of the patch are calculated as 37.26 mm and 29.72 mm by
using formulas 1 and 2, respectively. The width and length of the substrate is calcu-
lated as 56.34 mm and 48.80 mm using formulas 5 and 6, respectively. Hence, the
size of the antenna is found out to be 56.34 × 48.80 × 1.59 mm3. But for wearable
device application, the compact size of the antenna is desirable. Hence, miniaturiza-
tion is achieved by using Taguchi’s optimization method.
72 A. Tiwari and A. A. Khurshid

3  Taguchi’s Optimization Method

Optimization techniques are basically classified into two types, i.e., local optimiza-
tion technique and global optimization technique. Gradient-based techniques come
under local optimization technique, whereas global optimization technique is used
in particle swarm optimization, genetic algorithm, Taguchi’s method, simulated
annealing, and artificial neural network. For achieving optimization there are vari-
ous methods like trial-and-error approach, full Factorial experimentation and
orthogonal array method. Orthogonal array method basically reduces the trial
experiments by the systematic selection of input parameters, whereas in other two
methods, the number of experiments to be performed is more, which requires more
time and resources. Hence, orthogonal arrays are more preferred over other meth-
ods. Taguchi’s method is selected for optimization. The process flow of Taguchi’s
method is explained in Flow Chart 1.
The first step of the process flow of Taguchi’s method is to design an orthogonal
array (OA) to select a fitness function. Orthogonal array consists of:
N – rows or number of experiments
k – columns or number of input parameters
s – levels of parameters
t – strength (0 ≤ t ≤ k)
Hence, orthogonal array is in the form OA (N, k, s, t). In the orthogonal array, the
number of experiments to be performed is decided by Rao’s inequality equations,
and the parameters of OA must satisfy the equations of existence and construction
as shown in Eqs. 7 and 8 [13].

u
k
N ≥ ∑   ( s − 1) , if t = 2u, u > 0
i

i =0  i 
(7)
u
k  k − 1
N ≥ ∑   ( s − 1) +   ( s − 1) , if t = 2u + 1, u ≥ 0
i u +1

i =0  i   u 
(8)

4  I mplementations of Taguchi’s Method for Rectangular

Patch Antenna

The antenna size is targeted to be reduced without affecting the performance of the
antenna, like frequency of resonance, return loss, and gain. This is achieved using
parametric variations by systematic section method, i.e., using OA of Taguchi’s
optimization method. The parameters which are considered for variation are width
of patch, ground plane, and position of feed for FR4 as substrate material. The
ground-plane variation is further divided into two parameters, such as width and
length of ground plane. As in the design, full ground plane is used; hence, the size
Antenna Optimization Using Taguchi’s Method 73

Flow Chart 1  Process flow of Taguchi’s method

of the ground plane is the size of the substrate. Also the position of feed is further
divided into two parameters, such as width of slot and width of feed.
The OA for the rectangular patch antenna is considered for the following param-
eters of antenna:
P1 – width of patch
P2 – width of ground plane
P3 – length of ground plane
P4 – width of slot
P5 – width of feed
The above five parameters of antenna are considered for five different levels,
which is given in Table 1. The OA (25, 5, 5, 2) designed is shown in Table 2.
For the designed OA (25, 5, 5, 2) shown in Table 2, a total of 25 design experi-
ments are simulated in the first iteration. The first iteration results found in terms of
resultant frequency and return loss, after simulations, are presented in Table 3.
The parametric variations observed from Table 3 simulation experimentation are
as follows.
74 A. Tiwari and A. A. Khurshid

Table 1  Parameters of antenna with five different levels

Ground plane Feed point location
Width of Width of Length of Width of Width of
Factor patch substrate substrate slot feed
levels P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
1 18.63 23.4 39.26 0.25 1.515
2 27.94 35.1 44.17 0.37 2.27
3 37.26 46.8 49.07 0.5 3.03
4 46.57 58.5 53.83 0.62 3.79
5 55.89 70.2 58.89 0.75 4.545

Table 2  OA (25, 5, 5, 2)
Elements
Experiment P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
E1 1 1 1 1 1
E2 1 2 2 2 2
E3 1 3 3 3 3
E4 1 4 4 4 4
E5 1 5 5 5 5
E6 2 1 2 3 4
E7 2 2 3 4 5
E8 2 3 4 5 1
E9 2 4 5 1 2
E10 2 5 1 2 3
E11 3 1 3 5 2
E12 3 2 4 1 3
E13 3 3 5 2 4
E14 3 4 1 3 5
E15 3 5 2 4 1
E16 4 1 4 2 5
E17 4 2 5 3 1
E18 4 3 1 4 2
E19 4 4 2 5 3
E20 4 5 3 1 4
E21 5 1 5 4 3
E22 5 2 1 5 4
E23 5 3 2 1 5
E24 5 4 3 2 1
E25 5 5 4 3 2
Antenna Optimization Using Taguchi’s Method 75

Table 3  First iteration results of OA after simulation

Width Length Width
of Width of of Width of
patch substrate substrate of slot feed
(a1) (a) (b) (u1) (u) Resultant Return Fitness S/N
Experiments P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 frequency loss function ratio
E1 18.63 23.4 39.26 0.25 1.515 2.44 −24.93 0.01 40
E2 18.63 35.1 44.17 0.37 2.27 2.48 −20.02 −0.03 30.46
E3 18.63 46.8 49.07 0.5 3.03 2.48 −11.8 −0.03 30.46
E4 18.63 58.5 53.83 0.62 3.79 2.54 −10.96 −0.09 20.91
E5 18.63 70.2 58.89 0.75 4.545 2.58 −12.7 −0.13 17.72
E6 27.94 23.4 44.17 0.5 3.79 2.42 −23.69 0.03 30.46
E7 27.94 35.1 49.07 0.62 4.545 2.44 −28.71 0.01 40
E8 27.94 46.8 53.83 0.75 1.515 2.38 −8.91 0.07 23.10
E9 27.94 58.5 58.89 0.25 2.27 2.4 −29.32 0.05 26.02
E10 27.94 70.2 39.26 0.37 3.03 2.42 −23.81 0.03 30.46
E11 37.26 23.4 49.07 0.75 2.27 2.4 −10.76 0.05 26.02
E12 37.26 35.1 53.83 0.25 3.03 2.38 −14.39 0.07 23.10
E13 37.26 46.8 58.89 0.37 3.79 2.36 −16.44 0.09 20.91
E14 37.26 58.5 39.26 0.5 4.545 2.36 −23.7 0.09 20.91
E15 37.26 70.2 44.17 0.62 1.515 2.3 −7.64 0.15 16.48
E16 46.57 23.4 53.83 0.37 4.545 2.3 −29.79 0.15 16.48
E17 46.57 35.1 58.89 0.5 1.515 2.32 −10.89 0.13 17.72
E18 46.57 46.8 39.26 0.62 2.27 2.26 −8.08 0.19 14.42
E19 46.57 58.5 44.17 0.75 3.03 2.56 −22.19 −0.11 19.17
E20 46.57 70.2 49.07 0.25 3.79 2.34 −14.96 0.11 19.17
E21 55.89 23.4 58.89 0.62 3.03 2.66 −22.45 −0.21 13.55
E22 55.89 35.1 39.26 0.75 3.79 2.48 −18.94 −0.03 30.46
E23 55.89 46.8 44.17 0.25 4.545 2.32 −19.98 0.13 17.72
E24 55.89 58.5 49.07 0.37 1.515 2.58 −10.89 −0.13 17.72
E25 55.89 70.2 53.83 0.5 2.27 2.58 −18.99 −0.13 17.72

4.1  Effect of Width of Patch

The width of the patch has significant effect on the performance of antenna such as
input impedance, resonance frequency BW, and gain of the antenna. For the five
different values of width of patch, performance variation is observed in terms of
resonance frequency of antenna, and it is found that if the width of the patch is
decreased from 44.71 mm to 22.35 mm, the resonance frequency of the antenna is
increased from 2.43 GHz to 2.53 GHz. So as the width of the patch increases, reso-
nance frequency decreases; hence, it will increase the gain and bandwidth of the
antenna.
76 A. Tiwari and A. A. Khurshid

4.2  Width of Slot

Feed point location of patch is another important parameter, and in the discussed
optimization method, it is governed by the parameter width of slot. For the five dif-
ferent widths of slot from 0.25 mm to 0.75 mm variations, the resonance frequency
is observed to be varied from 2.43 GHz to 2.53 GHz.

4.3  Width of Feed

Width of feed is also considered as one of the parameters for optimization, and it is
observed that if the width of feed is increased from 5.98 mm to 8.97 mm, the reso-
nance frequency is decreased from 2.53 GHz to 2.43 GHz.
In the first iteration, it is observed that experiments 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 10, and 22 have
given minimum fitness function and high signal-to-noise ratio, which is shown in
Table  4. Optimization results are considered based on resonance frequency and
return loss parameter. It is evident from the identified experiments that the first
design experiment from the first iteration gives optimized results in terms of return
loss parameter and directivity.
The optimum design selected with parameters is shown in Table 5. After simula-
tion of experiment 1, the size of the antenna is optimized as 39.26 × 23.4 ×1.59 mm3
at a resonance frequency of 2.44 GHz with a return loss of −24.93 dB and opera-
tional bandwidth of 4.09%.
The optimized antenna fabricated on FR4 substrate with dielectric constant 4.4
has a loss tangent of 0.02. The optimized antenna’s front and back sides after simu-
lation and fabrication are shown in Fig. 2.
The measurement of the optimized antenna is performed with the use of VNA
from Keysight technologies with a 50 Ω SMA connector to the microstrip feedline.
Figures 3 and 4 show the return loss plot vs frequency and Smith chart plot of simu-
lated and fabricated antenna, respectively. Comparative analysis of simulated and
measured results of the antenna is shown in Table 6.

5  F
lexible Antenna and Implementation of Taguchi’s
Method for Rectangular Patch Antenna

To cope up with the design requirements of flexible antenna, flexible substrate is

required. Some identified alternative flexible substrate materials with their com-
parative studies are shown in Table 7.
Textile polyester material is considered as flexible antenna substrate with dielec-
tric constant of 2.75 and thickness of 1.5 mm, for further designing procedure. The
Antenna Optimization Using Taguchi’s Method 77

Table 4  Results with minimum fitness function and maximum S/N ratio
Antenna parameters Exp 1 Exp 2 Exp 3 Exp 6 Exp 7 Exp 10 Exp 22
(a) Width of substrate (mm) 23.4 35.1 46.8 23.4 35.1 70.2 35.1
(b) Length of substrate 39.26 44.17 49.07 44.17 49.07 39.26 39.26
(mm)
(a1) Width of patch (mm) 18.63 18.63 18.63 27.94 27.94 27.94 55.89
(u1) Width of slot of feed 0.25 0.37 0.5 0.5 0.62 0.37 0.75
(u) Width of feedline (mm) 1.515 2.27 3.03 3.79 4.545 3.03 3.79
εr 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.4
Feed type Inset Inset Inset Inset Inset Inset Inset
feed feed feed feed feed feed feed
Height of substrate (mm) 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59 1.59
Length of patch (mm) 29.72 29.72 29.72 29.72 29.72 29.72 29.72
Length of feedline (mm) 16.62 16.62 16.62 16.62 16.62 16.62 16.62
∆L (mm) 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29
εr (effective) (mm) 4.082 4.082 4.082 4.082 4.082 4.082 4.082
Effective length (mm) 30.3 30.3 30.3 30.3 30.3 30.3 30.3
Electrical length (mm) 87.38 87.38 87.38 87.38 87.38 87.38 87.38
Results achieved after simulation
Resultant frequency (GHz) 2.44 2.48 2.48 2.42 2.44 2.42 2.48
Return loss −24.93 −20.02 −11.8 −23.69 −28.71 −23.81 −18.94

Table 5  Results with minimum fitness function and maximum S/N ratio
Antenna parameters Experiment
(a) Width of substrate (mm) 23.4
(b) Length of substrate (mm) 39.26
(a1) Width of patch (mm) 18.63
(u1) Width of slot of feed 0.25
(u) Width of feedline (mm) 1.515
Dielectric constant εr (for FR4 material) 4.4
Feed type Inset feed
Height of substrate (mm) 1.59
Length of patch (mm) 29.72
Length of feedline (mm) 16.62
∆L (mm) 0.29
Effective dielectric constant εr (effective) (mm) 4.082
Effective length (mm) 30.3
Electrical length (mm) 87.38
Results after simulation
Resultant frequency (GHz) 2.44
Return loss −24.93
Operational bandwidth 4.09%
78 A. Tiwari and A. A. Khurshid

Fig. 2  Simulated and fabricated antenna, front and back side

Antenna Optimization Using Taguchi’s Method 79

Fig. 3  Return loss vs frequency plot of simulated and fabricated antenna

Fig. 4  Smith chart of simulated and fabricated antenna

parameters of antenna are calculated, and for compactness, Taguchi’s method is

implemented on flexible textile polyester substrate-based rectangular patch antenna.
As discussed earlier, Taguchi’s optimization procedure includes orthogonal array
design with consideration of different antenna parameters. Five parameters of
antenna are considered for five different levels as shown in Table 8.
The orthogonal array is considered for N, rows or number of experiments; k,
columns or number of input parameters; s, levels of parameters; and t, strength
(0 ≤ t ≤ k) with the values N = 25, k = 5, s = 5, and t = 2. Hence, for the designed
OA (25, 5, 5, 2), 25 design experiments are simulated in the first iteration. The first
iteration results found after simulations are presented in Table 9.
In the first iteration, experiments 1, 2, 3, 6, 10, 14, and 15 have given minimum
fitness function and high signal-to-noise ratio, which is shown in Table  10.
Optimization results can be considered based on resonance frequency and return
loss parameter. From the identified experiments, best result is then considered based
on minimum fitness function and maximum S/N ratio, and better return loss.
80 A. Tiwari and A. A. Khurshid

Table 6  Comparative analysis of simulated and measured results of the antenna

Real part of impedance
Proposed Resonance Bandwidth Return loss measured on Smith chart
antenna frequency (GHz) (%) (dB) (ohms)
Simulated 2.44 4.06 −24.93 47.26
results
Measured 2.43 2.46 −30.35 49.9
results

Table 7  Comparative study of flexible substrate materials

Paper reference [14] [15] [16] [17] [18]
Year of 2019 2019 2018 2019 2019
publication
Substrate Fabric PDMS Paper Polyimide PET
material
Antenna type Textile PDMS Paper Kapton Polyester (PETP)
polyimide film-based
Antenna shape Inset feed Unit Square MIMO complex Rectangular
rectangular patch cell shape
Size (mm) 54 × 37 8×8 50x50 22 × 31 50 × 33
Thickness (mm) 1.5 2 0.18 0.125 0.1
Dielectric 2.75 2.63 2.8 3.4 3.8
constant
Dielectric loss Not mentioned 0.076 0.15 Not mentioned 0.0021
(tan δ)
Frequency 2.45 11.4 2.45 2.9–12 GHz 2.21–2.69 and
(GHz) 3.14–3.55
Band Single Single Single Variable Variable

Table 8  Parameters of flexible antenna with five different levels

Ground-plane
Width of width of Length of Width of Length of
Factor patch substrate substrate slot slot
levels P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
(a1) (a) (b) (u1) (v1)
1 44.71 62.71 53.89 0.25 8.97
2 39.12 57.12 49.39 0.37 8.22
3 33.53 51.53 44.89 0.5 7.47
4 27.94 45.94 40.39 0.62 6.72
5 22.35 40.35 36 0.75 5.98
Antenna Optimization Using Taguchi’s Method 81

Table 9  Simulation results of flexible antenna after the first iteration of OA

Width Length Width
of Width of of of Length
patch substrate substrate slot of slot
(a1) (a) (b) (u1) (v1) Resultant Return Fitness
Experiment P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 frequency loss function S/N ratio
E1 44.71 62.71 53.89 0.25 8.97 2.43 −22.46 0.02 33.98
E2 44.71 57.12 49.39 0.37 8.22 2.43 −19.72 0.02 33.98
E3 44.71 51.53 44.89 0.5 7.47 2.43 −14.01 0.02 33.98
E4 44.71 45.94 40.39 0.62 6.72 3.98 −28.34 −1.53 −3.694
E5 44.71 45 36 0.75 5.98 5.06 −24.23 −2.61 −8.333
E6 39.12 62.71 49.39 0.5 6.72 2.45 −10.59 −0.01 45.04
E7 39.12 57.12 44.89 0.62 5.98 2.45 −7 −0.01 45.04
E8 39.12 51.53 40.39 0.75 8.97 2.46 −7.41 −0.01 40
E9 39.12 45.94 36 0.25 8.22 2.54 −3.49 −0.09 20.92
E10 39.12 40.35 53.89 0.37 7.47 2.44 −32.66 0.01 40
E11 33.53 62.71 44.89 0.75 8.22 2.48 −7.53 −0.03 30.46
E12 33.53 57.12 40.39 0.25 7.47 2.48 −4.03 −0.03 30.46
E13 33.53 51.53 36 0.37 6.72 2.57 −2.8 −0.12 18.42
E14 33.53 45.94 53.89 0.5 5.98 2.46 −11.77 −0.01 40
E15 33.53 40.35 49.39 0.62 8.97 2.46 −17.39 −0.01 40
E16 27.94 62.71 40.39 0.37 5.98 4.91 −34.12 −2.46 −7.819
E17 27.94 57.12 36 0.5 8.97 4.83 −20.66 −2.38 −7.532
E18 27.94 51.53 53.89 0.62 8.22 2.5 −9.39 −0.05 26.02
E19 27.94 45.94 49.39 0.75 7.47 2.5 −7.5 −0.05 26.02
E20 27.94 40.35 44.89 0.25 6.72 4.86 −15.08 −2.41 −7.64
E21 22.35 62.71 36 0.62 7.47 2.63 −1.86 −0.18 14.89
E22 22.35 57.12 53.89 0.75 6.72 2.53 −5.15 −0.08 21.94
E23 22.35 51.53 49.39 0.25 5.98 2.54 −3.55 −0.09 20.92
E24 22.35 45.94 44.89 0.37 8.97 2.54 −3.81 −0.09 20.92
E25 22.35 40.35 40.39 0.5 8.22 2.55 −2.23 −0.1 20

Table 10  Identified experiments after optimization with minimum fitness function and maximum
S/N ratio
Antenna parameters Exp 1 Exp 2 Exp 3 Exp 6 Exp 10 Exp 14 Exp 15
(a) Width of substrate 62.71 57.12 51.53 62.71 40.35 45.94 40.35
(mm)
(b) Length of substrate 53.89 49.39 44.89 49.39 53.89 53.89 49.39
(mm)
(a1) Width of patch (mm) 44.71 44.71 44.71 39.12 39.12 33.53 33.53
(u1) Width of slot of feed 0.25 0.37 0.5 0.5 0.37 0.5 0.62
(u) Width of feedline (mm) 8.97 8.22 7.47 6.72 7.47 5.98 8.97
εr 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75
(continued)
82 A. Tiwari and A. A. Khurshid

Table 10 (continued)
Antenna parameters Exp 1 Exp 2 Exp 3 Exp 6 Exp 10 Exp 14 Exp 15
Feed type Inset Inset Inset Inset Inset Inset Inset
feed feed feed feed feed feed feed
Height of substrate (mm) 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Length of patch (mm) 35.89 35.89 35.89 35.89 35.89 35.89 35.89
Length of feedline (mm) 17.97 14.97 11.97 13.47 16.47 14.98 15.72
∆L (mm) 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92 0.92
εr (effective) (mm) 2.63 2.63 2.63 2.63 2.63 2.63 2.63
Effective length (mm) 37.74 37.74 37.74 37.74 37.74 37.74 37.74
Electrical length (mm) 105.51 105.51 105.51 105.51 105.51 105.51 105.51
Results achieved after simulation
Resultant frequency 2.43 2.43 2.43 2.45 2.44 2.46 2.46
(GHz)
Return loss (dB) −22.46 −19.72 −14.01 −10.59 −32.66 −11.77 −17.39
Gain (dBi) 6.75 6.56 6.35 6.48 6 6 6

It is evident from the identified experiments that the 15th design experiment from
the first iteration has given optimized results in terms of return loss parameter, reso-
nance frequency, and compactness. After simulation of experiment 15, the return
loss found is −17.39 dB at a resonance frequency of 2.46 GHz for a compact size of
49.39 x 40.35 mm2, which is comparatively small than the size obtained by consid-
ering formulae which is 62.71 x 53.89 mm2. The return loss vs frequency plot is
shown in Fig. 5. Gain plot is shown in Fig. 6, which shows a maximum gain of 6 dBi.
It is observed that after application of Taguchi’s optimization, the first iteration
results indicate a percentage reduction of around 58.97% in size. In order to comply
with the requirements of various wearable devices or other biomedical applications,
the design can be simulated for further set of iterations to achieve compactness. The
results presented are exemplary, and the designers can apply the same as per their
requirements.
Antenna Optimization Using Taguchi’s Method 83

Fig. 5  Return loss vs frequency plot of optimized design of flexible antenna

Fig. 6  3D and 2D gain plot of optimized design of flexible antenna

References

1. Abbasi, Q.H., Rehman, M.U., Yang, X., Alomainy, A., Qaraqe, K., Serpedin, E.: Ultrawideband
band-notched flexible antenna for wearable applications. Antenna Wirel. Propag. Lett. 12,
1606–1609 (2013). [Link]
2. Ahmed, S., Tahir, F.A., Shamim, A., Cheema, H.M.: A compact Kapton-based inkjet-printed
multiband antenna for flexible wireless devices. Antenna Wirel. Propag. Lett. 14, 1802–1805
(2015). [Link]
3. Hu, J.: Overview of Flexible Electronics from ITRI’s Viewpoint, p. 1
4. Velasco-Castillo, E.: The smart wearables market will be worth USD22.9 billion worldwide by
2020, p. 3 (2014)
5. Kiourti, A., Volakis, J.L.: Stretchable and Flexible E-Fiber Wire Antennas Embedded in
Polymer. Antenna Wirel. Propag. Lett. 13, 1381–1384 (2014). [Link]
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6. Hu, B., Gao, G.-P., He, L.-L., Cong, X.-D., Zhao, J.-N.: Bending and On-Arm Effects on
a Wearable Antenna for 2.45  GHz Body Area Network. Antenna Wirel. Propag. Lett. 15,
378–381 (2016). [Link]
7. Salonen, P., Rahmat-Samii, Y., Kivikoski, M.: Wearable antennas in the vicinity of human
body. In: IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society Symposium, 2004., Monterey, CA, USA,
2004, pp. 467–470 Vol.1, [Link]
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antenna preliminary design and development. In: 2017 IEEE 3rd International Conference
on Engineering Technologies and Social Sciences (ICETSS), Bangkok, Aug. 2017, pp. 1–5,
[Link]
9. Vallozzi, L., Vandendriessche, W., Rogier, H., Hertleer, C., Scarpello, M.L.: Wearable textile
GPS antenna for integration in protective garments, p. 4
10. Kumar, G., Ray, K.P.: Broadband microstrip antennas. Artech House, Boston (2003)
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Trans. Magn. 45(3), 1542–1545 (2009). [Link]
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designs. Antenna Wirel. Propag. Lett. 18(8), 1581–1585 (2019). [Link]
LAWP.2019.2924247
13. Weng, W.-C., Yang, F., Elsherbeni, A.: Electromagnetics and Antenna Optimization Using
Taguchi’s Method. Morgan & Claypool (2008)
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for wearable applications. IEEE Trans. Antenna Propag. 68, 2323–2331 (2019). [Link]
org/10.1109/TAP.2019.2948521
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P.: Broadband single-layered, single-sided flexible linear-to-circular polarizer using square
loop array for S-band pico-satellites. IEEE Access. 7, 149262–149272 (2019). [Link]
org/10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2944901
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by using a conductive strip line”, IEEE Antenna Wirel. Propag. Lett., 17 12: 2449-2453
December 2018.
17. Li, W., Hei, Y., Grubb, P.M., Shi, X., Chen, R.T.: Compact inkjet-printed flexible MIMO antenna
for UWB applications. IEEE Access (2018). [Link]
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with discrete-frequency reconfigurability. IET Microw. Antenna Propag. 13(12), 2053–2060,
ISSN 1751-8725 (2019). [Link]
A Novel Compact Frequency
and Polarization Reconfigurable Slot
Antenna Using PIN Diodes for Cognitive
Radio Applications

V. N. Lakshmana Kumar, M. Satyanarayana, Sohanpal Singh,

and Dac-Nhuong Le

1  Introduction

Present days, wireless communications systems need advanced ways to bring speed
data communication and superior use of frequency spectrum in consonance to user
requirement. An auspicious surrogate that achieves these symptoms is cognitive
radio systems. As per the guidelines of FCC, CR means real-time scanning of a
channel or frequency spectrum and inhibits communications in terms of power and
frequency in order to avert unhealthy interference to other frequency users [1, 2].
The authors in the paper [2] comment that, for a cognitive radio (CR) equipment to
function properly, it must fundamentally follow a series of steps: (1) sensing chan-
nel operation, (2) selecting which frequency part is applicable for transmission, (3)
communication starts through that channel, and (4) culture from earlier channel
activity. In CR, empty frequency slots of the spectrum are identified and allocated
to other users dynamically [3].
The most important subsystem of CR is the antenna. It should be reconfigurable
in performance parameters like polarization, pattern, and frequency, depending on

V. N. Lakshmana Kumar (*) · M. Satyanarayana

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, M.V.G.R College of
Engineering(A), Vizianagaram, Andhra Pradesh, India
e-mail: lakshmana@[Link]
S. Singh
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Mahatma Gandhi Institute of
Technology, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
e-mail: spsingh@[Link]
D.-N. Le
Haiphong University, Haiphong, Vietnam
e-mail: nhuongld@[Link]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 85

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
86 V. N. Lakshmana Kumar et al.

the system’s needs [4]. In the paper [5], the authors have mentioned the capabilities
that are required for an antenna in order to play a vital role in CR systems. An
antenna design for spectrum sensing and communication is highly difficult. Many
researchers have been trying to cross the requirements for the design of such type of
antennas for CR systems.
The reconfiguration is accomplished through the reconstruction of the currents,
so that the EM fields of the effective interstitial antenna cause reversible variations
in the radiation properties or impedance of the antenna [6].These variations are
facilitated via different mechanisms. These are material adjustment, structural
changes, and switching. Different antennas are not required for covering different
frequency bands with this reconfigurability. There are disparate alternative methods
to achieve reconfigurable antenna. For example, the authors have proposed a
microstrip antenna with circular intersection truncation to obtain polarization recon-
figurability [7]. In [8], reconfigurability was achieved with tunable inductor. The
concept of placing switchable PIN diodes is explained to achieve dual-band absorber
in [9]. The combination of varactor diodes and PIN diodes for printed monopole
antennas resulted in a reconfigurable ultra-wideband MIMO antenna in [10].The
concept of DC-controlled varactor-based matching network is proposed to design
reconfigurable ultra-wideband antenna for cognitive radio applications [11].  To
achieve circular polarization, the idea of orthogonally placing stub and strip in the
ground plane of the microstrip patch antenna is presented in [12].
In this study, we have mentioned an investigation and composition of a compact
polarization and frequency reconfigurable slot antenna. This is reconfigured with
HPND4005 PIN diodes for CR applications.

2  Design

The proposed design is a compact polarization and frequency reconfigurable single-­

slot microstrip antenna. The feedline of this antenna is λ/4. The current through the
antenna surface is linear when all the diodes are OFF, which increase the antenna
gain and efficiency. Figure 1 shows the structure of this antenna. The impedance of
the feedline is 50 ohms, and the resonant frequency is 5.2 GHz. FR4 substrate mate-
rial is used for the design of the proposed antenna with εr = 4.4 .The simulations are
carried out using high-frequency structure simulator (HFSS).
The dimensions of the proposed design are calculated using the equations in [6].
The polarization reconfiguration was achieved by placing four L-shaped microstrip
lines in the four corners of the patch antenna. The four L-shaped strip lines are of
different widths and lengths. The dimensions of L-shaped strip lines are chosen by
optimetrics in HFSS tool to achieve polarization reconfigurability. By changing the
effective electrical length, the L-shaped strip lines provide polarization
A Novel Compact Frequency and Polarization Reconfigurable Slot Antenna Using PIN… 87

Fig. 1 (a) Antenna design top view (b) Antenna design ground view
88 V. N. Lakshmana Kumar et al.

reconfigurability. These are interconnected with the patch by ON/OFF of the PIN
diode switches. When switches S1, S2, S3, and S4 are OFF, the proposed antenna
radiates with linear polarization. For circular polarization, switches S1, S2, S3, and
S4 are ON. The frequency reconfiguration was achieved by changing the state of
switch S5.

2.1  Design Equations

The proposed antenna design specifications are as follows. The substrate material is
FR4 epoxy with a dielectric constant of 4.4 and height of substrate (h) = 1.6 mm.
The operating frequency of the recommended antenna f0 is 5.2  GHz. The design
steps for the proposed antenna are as follows:
The width (W) of the patch is calculated using Eq. (1):

c
W (1)
2 f0
r 1
2
where c = 3 × 108 m/s and εr = 4.4.
The effective length of patch antenna depends on the resonance frequency (f0)
and is given by Eq. (2):

c
Leff (2)
2 f0 reff

1

1 r 1 12h 2
Where reff r 1 (3)
2 2 w

The E fields at the edges of the patch undergo fringing effects. Because of these
effects, the effective length of the patch antenna appears to be greater than its actual
length. So, the actual and effective length of a patch antenna can be related as:

L Leff 2L (4)

where L is the actual length, ΔL is a function of an effective dielectric constant εreff,
and w/h is the width-to-height ratio.

w
0.264
L reff 0.3 h
0.412 (5)
h reff
0 . 258 0.8
w
h

A Novel Compact Frequency and Polarization Reconfigurable Slot Antenna Using PIN… 89

The calculated values of W and L are 17.5  mm and 12.56  mm, respectively,
which are named as Wp and LP in the following table. The quarter-wave impedance
transformer rule is used for calculating the feedline dimensions. The diagonal slot
length is chosen as 12 mm, which is the optimized value selected between λg/3 and
λg/2. λg, which is the guided wave length.

2.2  D
imensional Parameters for the Designed Antenna
(Table 1)

Table 1  Dimensions of the proposed antenna in mm

Ls Ws Lg Wg Lf Wf Lf1 Wf1 L1
58.94 35.9 58.9 35.9 14 3.05 8.29 0.9 6
W1 W11 L2 W2 W21 L3 W3 W31 L4
8 2.1 6 7.5 2 5.5 7 1.5 5
W4 W41 V1 Wp Lp Sw4 Sw5 Sw1 Sw2
6 1 12 17.5 12.56 1.62*1.19 1*0.75 3.17*2.19 2.62*2.25
Sw3
2.12*2.25

3  Results and Discussion

The S11 plot of the recommended antenna is shown in Fig. 2. This antenna operates
in different bands, achieved by changing the state of the PIN diode. When switches
S1, S2, S3, S4, and S5 are OFF, the minimum return loss of 13.2 dB is observed at

Fig. 2 S11 plot for four 0

switching states (0, OFF;
1, ON)
–5

–10
S11(dB)

–15

–20 00000
00001
–25 11110
11111
7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5
FREQUENCY(GHz)
90 V. N. Lakshmana Kumar et al.

Fig. 3  VSWR plot for 5

four switching states (0,
OFF; 1, ON)
4

VSWR
2

00000
1
00001
11110
0 11111
7 8 9 10 11 12
FREQUENCY(GHz)

a frequency of 10.75 GHz. When switches S1, S2, S3, and S4 are OFF and S5 is
ON, the antenna resonates at 10.5 GHz with a return loss of 19.36 dB .When the
state of switches S1, S2, S3, S4, and S5 changes to ON condition, the antenna reso-
nates at 10.9 GHz with a return loss of 27.42 dB. When S1, S2, S3, and S4 are ON
and S5 is OFF, the antenna resonates at 11.41  GHz with a return loss of
18.97 dB. Thus, the proposed antenna achieved frequency reconfiguration.
Figure 3 shows the VSWR plot for the four switching states. For all the states,
VSWR value less than 2 is achieved at different frequencies. The radiation pattern
for different switch conditions is shown in Fig. 4. They are plotted for phi (Φ = 00)
and for different values of “θ.” For S1, S2, S3, S4, and S5 ON-state combination,
maximum radiation is observed for θ = −200 direction.
The 3D polar plots of the recommended antenna for the two switching states are
shown in Fig. 5. A maximum gain of 3 dBi is achieved when S1, S2, S3, and S4 are
ON and S5 is in OFF condition, and maximum gain of 5 dBi is achieved when the
five switches are in the ON-state condition.
The proposed design switches from linear (LP) to circular polarization (CP),
when the switching states of S1–S4 are changed from OFF condition to ON condi-
tion. Figure  6 shows the axial ratio plot for the two mentioned states. The axial
ratios less than 3 dB are obtained at 9.75 GHz, 11.7 GHz, and 13.75 GHz, respec-
tively, for switches 11111 combination.
The surface current distribution of the suggested antenna is shown in Fig. 7. For
the switch state where S1, S2, S3, and S4 are OFF and S5 is ON, the maximum cur-
rent density of 1.57 × 102A/m is achieved, and for the another state where S1–S5 are
ON, the maximum current density is 2.47 × 102 A/m.
A Novel Compact Frequency and Polarization Reconfigurable Slot Antenna Using PIN… 91

Fig. 4  Radiation pattern for (a) S1,S2,S3,S4, and S5 ON (b) S1,S2,S3,S4, ON; S5, OFF (c) For
S1,S2,S3,S4, and S5, OFF

4  Comparison of Parameters

Table 2 shows the comparison of parameters for different switch combinations. For
circular polarization, 11110 and 11111 switch combinations are desirable, and for
linear polarization, the other two combinations of the switches are selected.
92 V. N. Lakshmana Kumar et al.

Fig. 5  3D gain plot for (a) S1,S2,S3,S4, and S5, ON (b) S1,S2,S3,S4, ON and S5, OFF
A Novel Compact Frequency and Polarization Reconfigurable Slot Antenna Using PIN… 93

Fig. 6  Axial ratio plot for 50

switch state 00001 and
45 00001
11111(0, OFF; 1, ON)
40 11111

35

AXIAL RATIO(dB)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
FREQUENCY(GHz)

Table 2  Performance comparison for different switching states

Switch state Resonant frequency(GHz) S11 (dB) Gain (dBi) Axial ratio (dB)
00000 7.4,10.75 −10.9,−13.2 3 45
00001 9.1,10.5 −14.23,−19.36 3 30
11110 11.4 −18.97 5 2
11111 10.9 −27.42 5 1.5
94 V. N. Lakshmana Kumar et al.

a
Jsurf (A/m)

1.5720E+002
1.4673E+002
1.3626E+002
1.2580E+002
1.1533E+002
1.0486E+002
9.4395E+001
8.3927E+001
7.3460E+001
6.2992E+001
5.2525E+001
4.2058E+001
3.1590E+001
2.1123E+001
1.0656E+001
1.8811E–001

b
Jsurf (A/m)

2.4797E+002
2.3146E+002
2.1495E+002
1.9844E+002
1.8194E+002
1.6543E+002
1.4892E+001
1.3241E+001
1.1590E+001
9.9391E+001
8.2882E+001
6.6374E+001
4.9865E+001
3.3356E+001
1.6847E+001
3.3857E–001

Fig. 7  J-surface plot for the switch state (a) 00001 (0, OFF; 1, ON) (b) 11111(0, OFF; 1, ON)

5  Conclusion

A novel antenna design for polarization and frequency reconfiguration is presented.

Microstrip patch antenna with diagonal slot and four L-shaped strip lines on the four
corners of the patch is designed. The frequency reconfiguration is obtained by put-
ting a switch on the diagonal slot, and polarization reconfiguration is obtained with
the help of the four switches on the four corners of the patch antenna, which connect
A Novel Compact Frequency and Polarization Reconfigurable Slot Antenna Using PIN… 95

to the L-shaped strip lines. The simulated results indicate that both polarization and
frequency reconfiguration are achieved. Frequency reconfiguration gives resonant
frequencies in the X-band. Axial ratio less than 3 dB is also achieved for polariza-
tion reconfiguration. This antenna is useful in cognitive radio and satellite commu-
nication applications.

References

1. Jayaweera, S.K.: Distributed Reinforcement Learning based MAC protocols for autonomous
cognitive secondary users”, (WOCC), 2011, pp.1–6.
2. Analysis and design of a reconfigurable antenna for ISM and GSM bands for CR applications,
Fernando Lopez-Marcos, IEEE, 2015.
3. FCC Spectrum policy task force “Report of the spectrum Efficiency working group”, Technical
Report, Washington DC, 2002.
4. Constantine, J.: Cognitive radio and antenna functionalities: a tutorial. IEEE APM. 56(1),
231–243 (2014)
5. Narlawar, M.S., Badjate, S.L.: A circular monople with a rectangular microstrip antenna for
cognitive radio applications. IJIRSE. 2(4), 190–194 (2014)
6. Balanis, C.A.: Modern Antenna Handbook. Wiley, Somerset (2008)
7. Parihar, M.S., Basu, A., Koul, S.K.: Polarization reconfigurable microstrip antenna. Asia
Pacific Microwave conference, December 2009
8. Abou Shahine, M.Y., Al-Husseini, M., Nasser, Y., Kabalan, K.Y., El-Hajj, A.: A recon-
figurable miniaturized spiral monopole antenna for TV white spaces. In: PIERS Proc.,
pp. 1026–1029 (2013)
9. Ghosh, S., Srivastava, K.V.: Polarization-insensitive dual-band switchable absorber with inde-
pendent switching. IEEE Antenna Wirel. Propag. Lett. 16, 1687–1690 (2017)
10. Zhao, X., Riaz, S., Geng, S.: A reconfigurable MIMO/UWB MIMO antennas for cognitive
radio applications. IEEE Access. 7, 46739–46747 (2019)
11. Adnan, K., Tak, J., Siyari, P., Abdelrahman, A.H., Krunz, M., Xin, H.: A novel compact recon-
figurable Broadband antenna for cognitive radio applications. IEEE Trans. Antenna Prop.
68(9), 6538–6547 (2020)
12. Rekha, S., Nesasudha, M.: Design of circularly polarized planar monopole antenna with
improved axial ratio bandwidth. Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett. 59(9), 2353–2358 (2017)
Mathematical Analysis and Optimization
of a Remodeled Circular Patch for 5G
Communication

Ribhu Abhusan Panda and Debasis Mishra

1  Introduction

As per the need of time, antenna designs have evolved faster than expected. In the
past decade, there are many designs based on perturbed patch antenna for suitable
applications. As soon as 5G applications are incorporated in technology, designs of
planar antenna have taken shape with better efficiency. Novel planar antennas have
been designed for 5G communications [1–4]. Antisymmetric L-shaped probe feeds
have been included in the patch antenna for 5G application in the year 2018 [5].
Circular polarization and the revitalization of dielectric resonating antenna have
been developed in the year 2019 [6, 7]. The 28/38 GHz frequency ranges have been
considered for designing planar antennas in the year 2018 and 2019 [8–10]. The
conventional patches have been modified in terms of design frequency and its cor-
responding wavelength for different applications. These modified structures resem-
ble bicircular shape [11], biconvex shape [12], and biconcave shape [13].
Array of patches and fractal structure also have been designed for 5G application
with novel analysis [14–16]. A prominent integration of antenna design with differ-
ent optimization techniques has emerged in recent years. In 2020, hybrid topology
optimization has been used for a patch with novel discontinuities in it [17]. In 2019,
deep neural network has been implemented for an E-shaped patch antenna [18], and
an equilateral triangle antenna has been designed with a soft computing-based
model in the year 2018 [19]. In this paper, the mathematical approach to determine

R. A. Panda ()
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, GIET University, Gunupur,
Odisha, India
e-mail: ribhuabhusanpanda@[Link]
D. Mishra
Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla, Odisha, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 97

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
98 R. A. Panda and D. Mishra

the appropriate resonance frequency for a perturbed circular patch has been done on
the basis of available theories of cavity model of circular patches. The working
formula for the design of the patch is ascertained by machine learning algorithms
like linear regression, polynomial regression, logistic regression, naive Bayes clas-
sifier, and decision tree. The dataset including different values of maximum arc-to-­
arc length is considered for optimization with different algorithms. A comparative
study of results determined from different optimization algorithms is also reported.
The design of the patch has been done on a substrate with dimension 40 mm×40
mm×1.6 mm, including FR4 epoxy material.

2  Mathematical Analysis of the Remodeled Circular Patch

2.1  Circular Disc Cavity

For a disc patch with height “h” smaller than the radius, TMz modes of vibration (Z is
taken perpendicular to the plane of the patch) can be considered in the cavity model
for mathematical analysis. In a disc patch, the top and bottom parts of its metallization
are bound by electric field, and the edge is bound by magnetic field. Because “h” is
very small, the electric field is considered in Z-direction, and magnetic field is in ρ and
φ directions represented in cylindrical coordinate system (CCS). The field inside the
cavity can be calculated in terms of vector potential Az [20] as

− j ∂2 Az
Eρ = (1)
ωµ ∂ρ∂z

− j 1 ∂2 A2
Eφ = (2)
ωµ ρ ∂φ∂z

− j  ∂2 2
Ez =  2 + k  Az (3)
ωµ  ∂z 
1 ∂A z
Hρ = (4)
µρ ∂φ
1 ∂A z
Hφ = − (5)
µ ∂ρ

Hz = 0 (6)

Electric and magnetic field are denoted as Eρ, Eϕ, Ez, Hρ, Hϕ, and Hz, respectively,
in cylindrical coordinate system.
The wave equation is given by

∇ 2 Az + K r2 Az = 0 (7)
Mathematical Analysis and Optimization of a Remodeled Circular Patch for 5G… 99

where the magnitude of the propagation vector kr is given by

K r = ωr2 µ (8)

The boundary conditions which are applicable for circular patch are

Eρ = 0 for 0 ≤ ρ ≤ r ,θ ≤ φ ≤ 2π , z = 0 (9)

Eρ = 0 for 0 ≤ ρ ≤ r ,θ ≤ φ ≤ 2π , z = h (10)

Hφ = 0 for ρ = r ,θ ≤ φ ≤ 2π , 0 ≤ z ≤ h (11)

2.2  Geometry of Proposed Design and Boundary Conditions

The remodeled shape of the patch is, by geometry, the intersection of two circular
shapes of radius “r” each, in such a way that the center of one circle lies on the cir-
cumference of the other, as shown in Fig. 1. The centers C1 and C2 are at distance
“r,” the radius of the circle.
The shape is a part of circular shape, so can be a circular waveguide.
2≠
This design is encircled by two arcs of length r.
3
The angle produced by the arc with the axis is

r 3
θ = cos−1 = cos−1 ≈ 170 (12)
πr π
3
The patch metallization is only in the region where “φ” varies between θ and π-θ.
The magnetic field that is produced in the ρ,φ region of the patch is now a lim-
ited space.
Thus, the boundary conditions become

Eρ = 0 for 0 ≤ ρ ≤ r ,θ ≤ φ ≤ π − θ , z = 0 (13)

Fig. 1  Geometrical representation of the proposed patch shape

100 R. A. Panda and D. Mishra

Eρ = 0 for 0 ≤ ρ ≤ r ,θ ≤ φ ≤ π − θ , z = h (14)

Hφ = 0 for ρ = r ,θ ≤ φ ≤ π − θ , 0 ≤ z ≤ h. (15)

2.3  Solution of Wave Equation

Solving Eq. 7, the expression for magnetic vector potential Az is given by

Az = BJ m ( k p ρ ) ( A2 cos mφ + B2 sin mφ ) cos kz Z (16)

where B, A2, and B2 are constants m=0, 1, 2……; n=1, 2, 3 and are the values for
different modes for vibration

As k p 2 + kz2 = K r2 = ωr2 µ (17)

Using boundary conditions (13, 14, 15), the result produced is

J mn′ ( k p ρ ) = 0 When ρ = r (18)

′
Considering X mn as the zeroes of the derivatives of Bessel’s function
Jmn (kpρ), we get
′

′
X mn
kρ = (19)
r
Provided (A2 cos mϕ + B2 sin mϕ) ≠ 0 as coskzZ = 1 for z=0
As by the boundary condition Eqs. 13 and 14 the value of “φ” is limited, which
is between 170 and 1630, m has the minimum value to produce resonance:

180 0
is ⊕11
170

2.4  Resonance Frequency

Using Eqs. 17 and 19, for the proposed biconvex patch, the resonance frequency can
be calculated by the formula
′
1 X mn
fmnp = (20)

2π
µ r
Mathematical Analysis and Optimization of a Remodeled Circular Patch for 5G… 101

1 c
= (21)
µ r

where “c” is the speed of light (EM radiation in air) and ϵr is the dielectric constant
m
of the patch material. Considering c = 3 × 108 and ϵr = 4.4 , n=1 and m=11:
s
′
X mn = 12 . 826 (22)

Taking r = 10.625 mm, fmnp = 27.47 GHz, which is established by the resonance

frequency.

3  Optimization for Maximum Arc-to-Arc Length

As explained in the previous section, the presence of a circular part in a design can
be a circular waveguide. In this case, the shape is produced by intersection of two
circles, and the possibility that the center of one circle falls on the circumference of
the other is one of the many. The mathematics discussed in the previous section is
feasible only when the maximum distance between two arcs is equal to the radius of
′
the circle. As stated in Eq. 20, the frequency of resonance depends on X mn and r as
other factors are constant for the same substrate. Here, the variables are “m” and the
arc-to arc distance “r”. With datasets that have been generated by simulation values,
the algorithms can be employed to calculate “r.” The machine learning mathematics
utilizes probability statistics to find out the best-suited value. There are different
algorithms like linear regression, logistic regression, polynomial regression, naive
Bayes classification, and decision tree. Each one has been explained in the follow-
ing part.

3.1  Linear Regression

This is a type of supervised machine learning algorithm that is used to analyze

incessant range of data. It performs tasks on one dependent variable and one or
more independent variable. If there is a single dependent variable, then simple lin-
ear regression occurs. Similarly, if there is more than one dependent variable, mul-
tiple linear regression occurs. This type of regression is used to find the linear
relationship of both input and output variables. The hypothesis function of linear
regression is
,
B = n1 + n 2.a (23)
,

where
102 R. A. Panda and D. Mishra

Fig. 2 (a) Linear regression for maximum arc-to-arc length, (b) logistic regression for maximum
arc-to-arc length, (c) polynomial regression for maximum arc-to-arc length, (d) naive Bayes clas-
sifier, (e) decision tree, (f) comparative analysis of different algorithms

“a” = input data

B’ = labeled data
Ө1 = intercept
Ө2 = coefficient of data
, c 2π  r
Relating to Eq. 20, B = , a = r, n1 = 0, n 2 =
,
′
. A variation is produced
f mn X mn
which is represented in Fig. 2a. It is observed that in case of linear regression, the
arc length varies linearly. The arc length and feed dimension have been considered
as input training data and dielectric constant as output labeled data. The accuracy
rate is more than 85%. The error rate of the proposed model has also been calcu-
lated. The most accurate value of arc length lies within the range of 10–11 mm, i.e.,
10.85 mm.
Mean Absolute Error: 0.34947547432692666
Mean Squared Error: 0.15705959804731964
Root Mean Squared Error: 0.39630745393863037

3.2  Logistic Regression

It is a type of supervised machine learning, which takes trained data as input and
predicts the target value. It is binary in nature and only contains Boolean values,
which are 0 and 1. It may contain unordered pair of data. It is of three types, bino-
mial, ordinal, and nominal, but for the data, ordinal and binomial logistic regression
can be considered. The mathematical equation uses sigmoid function:
Mathematical Analysis and Optimization of a Remodeled Circular Patch for 5G… 103

1
g (z) = (24)
1 + e− z

g(z) is used to find the threshold value based on the dependent variable of the com-
puted model. The plot, which has been illustrated in Fig. 2b, is obtained by using
sigmoid threshold function. The arc length, line of feed, and dielectric constant are
used for training and testing a model. Equation 20 can be remodeled as

λ 2 = a 2 k ′r (25)
c
where k′ is constant and λ = .
fmn
The accuracy is more than 90% and the best arc length value is nearly 10.99 mm.
Here, the error rate is very less.
Mean Absolute Error: 1.0
Mean Squared Error: 1.5714285714285714
Root Mean Squared Error: 1.2535663410560174

3.3  Polynomial Regression

It is a regression analysis in which there is a relationship between independent input

variables and dependent output variables. The output of the model is determined by
the degree of the polynomial:

d = β 0 + β 1.i + n (26)

where
i = independent variable
d = dependent variable
β0 = an intercept
β1 = slope coefficient
n = error rate
The plot, which has been shown in Fig. 2c, is obtained by considering the degree
of polynomial function. The arc length, dimension of the feed, and dielectric con-
stant of the substrate are used for independent and dependent value of the computa-
tional model. The accuracy is more than 97%, and the best arc length value is nearly
10.99 mm. Here, the error rate is very less.
Mean Absolute Error: 0.23789618690576209
Mean Squared Error: 0.08814209614415353
Root Mean Squared Error: 0.29688734588081306
104 R. A. Panda and D. Mishra

3.4  Naive Bayes Classifier

It is a conditional classifier based on probability statistics. The dataset evaluation

can be determined by response vector and feature matrix. Bayes theorem for finding
the probable values can be considered:

P ( A|B ) = P ( B|A ) .P ( A ) / P ( B ) (27)

where
P(A|B) = posterior probability
P(B|A) = likelihood function
P(A) = prior probability
P(B) = probability of B
This uses the concept of probability statistics. The resultant plot is reported in
Fig. 2d. The arc length, dimension of feed, and dielectric constant of substrate are
used for input value, i.e., P(A), and output value, i.e., P(B), for the computational
model. The accuracy is more than 81% and the best arc length value is nearly
10.78 mm.
Mean Absolute Error: 1.7142857142857142
Mean Squared Error: 4.857142857142857
Root Mean Squared Error: 2.2038926600773587

3.5  Decision Tree

It can be both supervised and unsupervised machine learning algorithm. Decision

tree is classified based on regression and classification. It is a tree-type flow struc-
tures which consist of
Internal Node: Attribute of model
Branch: Output of the test data
Leaf Node: Labeled data
Decision tree algorithm is used to find the final value, and the plot that has been
obtained by implementing this algorithm has been illustrated in Fig.  2e. The arc
length and dimension of feed are input data variable, and the dielectric constant is
the input value for model. The accuracy is more than 99% and the best arc length
value is nearly 10. 98 mm. Hence, there is very acute average error.
Mean Absolute Error: 0.5
Mean Squared Error: 0.5
Root Mean Squared Error: 0.707
Mathematical Analysis and Optimization of a Remodeled Circular Patch for 5G… 105

3.6  Performance Evaluation

Mathematical model for the proposed patch has been analyzed by using different
machine learning algorithms like linear regression, polynomial regression, logis-
tic regression, naive Bayes classifier, and decision tree. The major internal param-
eters that are to be observed are arc-to-arc length, dielectric constant, and feed
dimension. Evaluation of accuracy has been done, and also the error rate of the
model is calculated. The accurate value of the arc length lies within 10–11.
Different classifiers predict different values. It is observed that in polynomial
regression, the accuracy rate is very high, i.e., 99%, minimizing the error rate.
Root mean squared error (RMSE) is used to identify the deviation of data point
from regression line. Mean squared error (MSE) is used to find the difference
between the actual value and estimated values. Mean absolute error (MAE) is the
absolute average value between actual and predicted values. In this case, the suit-
able arc length is 10.625 mm, which gives the best result for computing our model.
The comparison statistics has been reported in Fig. 2f. As a result, of which it can
be concluded that among all types of learning algorithms, polynomial regression
gives accurate result.

4  Design of the Antenna

Design has been done using HFSS software, and the design parameters have been
shown in Fig. 3, and the dimensions are provided in Table 1.
High-frequency structure simulator (HFSS) that includes finite element method
is used for simulation.

Fig 3  Design using Ansys HFSS

106 R. A. Panda and D. Mishra

Table 1  Design parameters

Parameters Symbol Value (mm)
Maximum arc-to-arc length r 10.625
Substrate width ws 40
Substrate length wl 40
Ground-plane width gw 40
Ground-plane length gl 40

Fig. 4  S-parameter of the proposed antenna with resonance frequency of 27.8GHz and bandwidth
of 5.2 GHz

5  Results

Figure 4 highlights the resonance frequency, -10dB bandwidth, and return loss of
the proposed patch. This result has been compared to four other results of the anten-
nas, which have been designed for this frequency range for 5G communication. The
comparison of works for the frequency 28 GHz has been shown in Table 2.
The antenna gain is 4.01 dB at the frequency of 27.8 GHz, as shown in Fig. 5.
The E-field and H-field polarizations have been shown in Figs. 6 and 7, respec-
tively. Figure 8a indicates standing wave measured in terms of voltage with a value
of 1.056. Radiation pattern in 3D and distribution of surface current have been
shown in Figs. 8b and 8c, respectively.
Mathematical Analysis and Optimization of a Remodeled Circular Patch for 5G… 107

Table 2  Comparison of works at 28 GHz application

Return
loss Resonance Bandwidth Antenna gain Substrate material
Work S11 (dB) frequency (GHz) (GHz) (dB) and its cost
Ref 3 −18.25 28.06 1.1 6.8 Roger RT5880, high
Ref 4 −40.64 28 4.864 5.75 Roger RT5880, high
This −39.13 27.7 5.2 4.01 FR4 epoxy, low
work

Fig 5  Antenna gain at 27.7 GHz

6  Conclusion

With theoretical approach including a mathematical derivation and analysis with

different optimization algorithms, the appropriate dimension of a modified circular
patch resembling biconvex shape is determined, which provides a sharp resonance
frequency at 27.7  GHz with high gain. So, it can be used efficiently for 5G
communication.
108 R. A. Panda and D. Mishra

Fig 6  E-plane polarization

Fig 7  H-plane polarization

Mathematical Analysis and Optimization of a Remodeled Circular Patch for 5G… 109

Fig. 8 (a) VSWR at 27.7 GHz having the value of 1.056, (b) 3D radiation pattern (c) Surface cur-
rent distribution

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Study of Various Beamformers and Smart
Antenna Adaptive Algorithms for Mobile
Communication

Elizabeth Caroline Britto, Sathish Kumar Danasegaran,
Susan Christina Xavier, A. Sridevi, and Abdul Rahim Sadiq Batcha

1  4G/5G Technology

In today’s economy and lifestyles, mobile connectivity plays a critical role and has
grown rapidly over the last few decades. In the 1980s, the first generation (1G) was
deployed and provided speech chat, which was the only 1G operation. It was based
on analogue methodology [1, 2]. It had a simple mobile connectivity structure and
basics such as cellular architecture adoption, frequency band multiplexing, domain
roaming, mobile communication without interruption, etc. During the 1990s, the
second-generation wireless mobile infrastructure [3] based on digital cellular net-
works was a major success for global mobile connectivity systems. In October
2001, the third-generation system was launched in Japan [4] to offer data service
speeds of 144–384 kbps and 2 Mbps, respectively, in areas of outdoor and outdoor
coverage.
A word used to characterize the next full evolution of wireless connectivity is the
fourth generation (4G), also known as beyond 3G. [5]. A 4G framework will be able
to offer a robust alternative to the Internet protocol, where users will be provided

E. C. Britto (*) · S. K. Danasegaran

Department of ECE, IFET College of Engineering, Villupuram, Tamil Nadu, India
S. C. Xavier
Department of ECE, MAM College of Engineering and Technology,
Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India
A. Sridevi
Department of ECE, M. Kumarasamy College of Engineering, Karur, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: [Link]@[Link]
A. R. S. Batcha
Department of EEE, Mahsa University, Mahsa, Malaysia
e-mail: abdulrahim.b@[Link]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 111

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
112 E. C. Britto et al.

with voice, data, and streamed multimedia content on an “anytime, anywhere” basis
and at faster data speeds than previous generations. This includes automatic roam-
ing between various networks, as well as user transparency. 4G will be able to offer
both indoor and outdoor speeds of between 100 Mbps and 1 Gbps, with premium
content and high security. The two candidates for 4G coverage are actually universal
interoperability for microwave connectivity [6, 7] and long-term evolution [8, 9].
5G will be substantially better than 4G, providing up to 20 Gigabits per second
(Gbps). While large-scale MIMO would improve spectrum and data bandwidth uti-
lization by 5G [10, 11], it is not easy to integrate multiple antenna systems into a
very tightly spaced cell phone. In response to the diversity antenna and 4G main
antenna, 5G mobile antenna packages would support additional operational bands
and resonant modes, which is a challenging problem for the 5G mobile antenna
design, taking into account the future requirements for large-scale multiband and
multimode MIMO implementations.

1.1  Multiple-Input Multiple-Output

A single antenna for transmission and a single antenna for reception are used by
conventional wireless communication networks. These systems are classified as
single-input and single-output (SISO) systems, and Fig. 1 indicates one such system.
Important improvement has been made in the development of systems seen in
Fig.  2 in recent years, which use multiple transmitter and receiver antennas to
achieve improved performance. These schemes are called MIMO systems. In broad-
band wireless networking, MIMO has recently gained interest, as it provides a sub-
stantial improvement in data throughput and connectivity range without extra
bandwidth or transmitting power. This is accomplished by higher spectral efficiency
(more bits per second per bandwidth hertz) and stability or variety of connections
(reduced fading). Due to its uses [12] in satellite media, cellular local area networks,
regional area networks, and mobile networking, MIMO technology has provoked
concern.
Multiple users can connect at about the same time and/or speed in a cellular wire-
less communication network. The more time and frequency resources are reused
more efficiently, the greater the performance of the network, given that the broad-
cast signals can be accurately detected. The time (time-division) or frequency
(frequency-­division) or code will distinguish different users (code-division). In
MIMO networks, the spatial dimension creates an extra dimension to differentiate
consumers, allowing frequency and time resources to be utilized more vigorously,
therefore increasing network bandwidth.

Fig. 1  SISO wireless

systems DSP RF RF DSP

TX RX
Study of Various Beamformers and Smart Antenna Adaptive Algorithms for Mobile… 113

Fig. 2  MIMO wireless

systems RF1 RF1

DSP DSP
RFNt RFNr

TX RX

Fig. 3  Smart antenna a b

types (a) Switched
beamformer (b) Adaptive
beamformer

Spatial multiplexing(SM) and spatial diversity (SD) characterize MIMO sys-

tems. Signal copies are sent or obtained from more than one SD antenna [13]. With
SM [14, 15], the device concurrently retains over than one spatial source of data
onto one frequency over antenna elements. SM reaches higher capability [16], but
improved signal efficiency lags behind it. SM is forced to its limits, especially in
extensive network areas, as it demands high signal power, while SD increases signal
quality increases and the receiver side achieves a higher signal-to-noise ratio.

1.2  Smart Antenna System

A rising market for heterogeneous broadband services and applications would have
to be met by future mobile connectivity systems. It needs to provide high data rate
connectivity for growing wireless users, given the restricted bandwidth available.
The implementation of smart antennas is bound to enhance the total capacity and
efficiency of the device. In order to refine the transmitting and reception beam pat-
terns automatically, a smart antenna [17] integrates multiple antenna components
with a signal processing power. Smart antenna development [18, 19] provides a
dramatically improved approach that decreases the amount of interference and
improves the range of linking and enables channel frequency reuse. With this tech-
nology, the signal from each device is sent and received only in the direction of that
specific user by the base station (BS). This significantly decreases the power budget
of the connection as well as the total system intrusion. For each user in the system,
a smart antenna unit is composed of an array antenna controlling different commu-
nication beams.
Smart antennas, as seen in Fig.  3, are split into two classes. One approach is
referred to as switched beamforming [20–23] if the complicated weights are chosen
in unique, predetermined positions from a library of weights that shape beams. In
this method, based on the obtained wireless signal observations, BS essentially
114 E. C. Britto et al.

switches between different beams. The other approach is called adaptive beamform-
ing [24, 25], in which the weights are measured in real time and adaptively modi-
fied. The BS shapes broader beams into the target user by adaptive beamforming
and nullifies the intervening users, greatly increasing the ratio of
signal-to-interference-plus-noise.
Smart antenna transmitters encrypt separate data streams on various paths, maxi-
mizing the data rate or redundantly encoding data on paths that fade individually to
shield the receiver from ruinous fades of the signal. This leads to an improvement in
the efficiency of the signal by more oriented propagation and also increases fre-
quency reuse capability. For a fixed number of customers and perhaps more devices
for a given data rate per account, this improved flexibility would contribute to higher
data rates. The utilization of smart antenna technologies allows clients to expand
their spectrum, enhance coverage efficiency, and allow more optimal use of channel
and bandwidth capacities with almost any wireless communication system. Smart
antenna systems include the benefits and features [26] of signal gain, greater range,
rejection of interference, improved performance, multipath rejection of spatial
diversity, power quality, and decreased service costs.

2  Beamforming Technology

Beamforming engineering experiments have provided insight into the motives and
implications of this study and are contrasted to newer technologies. This segment
consists of simple phased antenna array (PAA), beamforming network, and various
beamforming developments.

2.1  Phased Array Antenna Fundamentals

The phased array antenna (PAA) [27–30] consists of an array of radiating elements,
each with a phase shifter that enables the transmitting and/or receiving of electro-
magnetic waves through adequate integrated circuits. The array consists of two or
three components of the antenna as seen in Fig. 4. They are spatially organized and
electrically interconnected to create a directional pattern of radiation. Interconnection
between the components, called the feed network, will include the fixed phase of
each element and thus the name of the phased array.
To form a single array output, the signals induced by multiple elements of an
array are combined. It is claimed that the direction of the beam pointing is the direc-
tion in which the array has maximum reaction, and so it is the direction in which the
array has maximum gain. In order to steer the beams in the direction required,
beams are created to provide constructive/destructive interference by adjusting the
phase of the signal generated from each radiating unit. The phase shift φ between
Study of Various Beamformers and Smart Antenna Adaptive Algorithms for Mobile… 115

Main Direction

θs

x x x x x x x
d d d d d d d
ϕ ϕ ϕ ϕ ϕ ϕ ϕ ϕ Phase shifters
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Fig. 4  Phased array components

two consecutive components, as shown in Eq. (1), is constant and is called phase
increment:

360
d sin s
(1)
where φis the phase change between two consecutive elements,dis the range amid
the two radiating components, and θs is the beam navigation angle.
The major advantages of PAA are the low side lobes’ high gain width, the ability
to allow the beam to jump in a few microseconds and system power from one target
to the next, and modes of tracking or sensing and multipurpose operation by emit-
ting several beams. While PAAs have significant advantages over mechanically
operated antennas, such as shifting speed and durability, issues of height, weight,
cost, and complexity have hindered traditional phased array antennas. As the PAA
for beamforming is used in fixed locations, there is no power over phase and ampli-
tude of the signal induced between the different elements of the array.

2.2  Beamforming Network

Beam-steering and beam-shaping circuits are referred to as beamforming networks

(BFN). BFN integrates the arrays of antenna with signal processor to dynamically
redirect the signal in retort to the orientation of arrival to pick up the signal and to
isolate the signal from the location of disturbance. BFN can perform a lot of pur-
poses such as beam-guiding, beam-shaping, beam-grinding, and multibeam trans-
mission. Signal magnitude and phase are governed independently by the BFN
according to the propagation of the signal in the expected direction. First, the num-
ber of antenna components with an electrical power splitter separates the input elec-
trical signal to be distributed. Nonetheless, where high-bit rate signals are considered,
electrical BFN has significant disadvantages. Electrical circuits tend to be dense,
116 E. C. Britto et al.

lossy, heavy, and more sensitive to electromagnetic interference working at these

higher frequencies. Three beamforming techniques for array antennas are known as
RF, digital, and optical beamforming [31, 32] technique.

2.3  RF Beamforming Method

The most popular technique is RF beamforming, which is commonly used in small-­

scale structures [33]. Figure 5 shows the simple beamforming network design using
RF technologies, assuming that there are M input beams and N output components
in a multibeam transmission array antenna. The standard type of matrix network
includes M × N phase-shifter elements, attenuators, and linkages to regulate the
phase and magnitude of the received signals and redirect the orientation of the con-
sumer. However, it has the downside that the hardware architecture becomes com-
plicated and cumbersome, and thus, costly hardware is required for large-scale
systems as the size of the antenna is increased.

Antenna
Elements

Attenuator

Phase shifter

Fig. 5  RF beamforming method setup

Study of Various Beamformers and Smart Antenna Adaptive Algorithms for Mobile… 117

2.4  Digital Beamforming Method

Signal processing is performed in an arithmetical format for the automatic beam-

forming procedure, where highly scalable algorithms [34] are used to modify the
signal received at the BS. To form a very narrow beam against individual users in
the cell, this technology incorporates the inputs of multiple antennas. Figure 6 dis-
plays the basic configuration of the digital network for beamforming. The obtained
data are received digitally and require up-/downconverters and analogue-to-digital
converters in parallel. However, the digital computer’s speed limits the signal band-
width to 100 MHz [35].

2.5  Optical Signal Processing Beamforming Method

Optical signal processing beamforming network (OSPBFN) provides both signal

delivery and optical domain processing functionality. The approach of optical signal
processing (OSP) substantially decreases the difficulty and speed of the traditional
device. Using OSPBFN techniques in the BS, the limitations described in electrical
BFN are overcome. For example, the optical frequency is reasonably greater than the
RF frequency by several folds; the OSPBFN itself is independent of the RF

Antenna
Elements

up/down up/down up/down up/down

converter converter converter converter

Analog to Analog to Analog to Analog to

digital converter digital converter digital converter digital converter

Parallel Digital signal Processing

Fig. 6  Digital beamforming techniques

118 E. C. Britto et al.

frequency. Due to the obvious optical elements, benefits such as large bandwidth, low
mass, compact size, and sensitivity to electromagnetic interference are commonly
accepted. Furthermore, because of the use of parallel signal processing, the number
of hardware components M x N is diminished to M+N in the category of RF-BFN.
By way of spatial sequential signal processing, an OSP in a BFN achieves the
desired magnitude and phase variation for each array element. Individual optical
carriers at the control station correctly modulate the data corresponding to each
beam. These optical upconverted messages are transmitted through the optical fiber
to the base station (BS). An optical equivalent carrier is sent by another fiber to BS
as well. Each modulated optical signal is processed at BFN in the BS with spectral
conversion, and then converted RF signal is obtained by the heterodyne method
using optical backing carrier. In order to reach individual mobile terminals, the mul-
tibeam antenna nurtured by the transformed RF signals emits alone beam.
Figure 7 displays the condensed diagram of OSPBFN for eight antenna compo-
nents. The number of antenna components with an optical power splitter separates
the optically modulated input signal to be sent to the BS. These signals are con-
nected to amplitude controls, which regulate each signal’s amplitude levels and ulti-
mately decide the shape of the transmitted beam (i.e., the main lobe beam width and
the side lobe power levels) and are called beam-shaping operations. By adjusting
the amplitude of the optical signal applied to each antenna part, beam-shaping is
accomplished. This is achieved through optical attenuators in operation. An optical
phase shifter, which controls the phase of each signal and sets the direction of the
transmitted wave, is then related to each of the amplitude-regulated signals. The
location of the transmitted signal is determined by the differential phase delay. This
process is called steering with beams. Finally, after downconversion to electrical
signal by a picture detector, the individual controlled signals are added to their
respective element and sent out to the end-user.

3  Overview of Existing OSPBFN

Many applications like ad hoc mobile communication, remote-controlled net-

works, wireless satellite links, and 4G/5G handheld devices require the extensive
use of multi-antenna technologies with active phased array antennas. Most of the

Laser Electro-optic 1*8 Optical Amplitude Modulator

Phase Controller as Photo
Source modulator as Beam shaping 1*8 antenna
power splitter beam-steering section detector
section

Electrical input signal

to be transmitted

Fig. 7  Basic schematic diagram of an OSPBFN

Study of Various Beamformers and Smart Antenna Adaptive Algorithms for Mobile… 119

signal processing algorithms used are based on arrival direction, and another
technique is adaptive beamforming algorithm. Usually in the available systems,
the arrival direction calculation algorithm is used first to calculate the incoming
signal direction of arrival; after that, system parameters are updated with the help
of adaptive beamforming algorithms. MMIC (monolithic microwave integrated
chip) methods require very complex, heavy, and costly beamforming networks to
arrange a great number of beams (BFNs). Although there has been a great deal of
activity in the research and development of digital-based BFNs, bandwidth is
still minimal.
The application of optical or photonic [36] technologies to microwave array
antennas has been researched over the past few decades. Optically controlled
smart antenna techniques are based on Fourier optics, fibers [37–46], optical
delay element [47–53], acousto-optic [54], fiber-optic prism [55], spatial light
modulator, spatial Fourier optical processing approach [56], chirped fiber grat-
ings, microelectromechanical system-spatial light modulation (MEMS-SLM)
[57, 58], fiber optic dispersive prism [59], and micro-ring resonator [60] and liq-
uid crystal-based beamformer. The amplitude and phase errors (tracking) of all
subsystems within the frequency spectrum of interest are a crucial requirement
within the OSPBFN. The radiated beam pattern that influences the average and
peak side lobe levels and the precision of the beam aiming is specifically influ-
enced by this definition.

4  Beamforming Algorithm

The smart antenna array is an amalgamation of different structured antenna part

arrays and digital signal processing techniques, adapting its weights to the common
parameter and adaptive algorithm types. The main goal of the beamforming is to
reduce the co-channel interference and methods of assigning the weight for the
algorithm [61]. Few quasi-algorithms like least mean square (LMS), minimum vari-
ance distortionless response (MVDR) algorithm, normalized least mean square
(NLMS), sample matrix inversion (SMI), constant modulus (CMA) algorithm,
recursive least square (RLS) and hybrid least mean square algorithm/SMI (LMS/
SMI), maximal directivity (MD) algorithm, and hybrid MD/SMI algorithm, which
can be related by changing the number and displacement of radiating elements
between the array elements. There are many performance parameters to be mea-
sured, like stability of beam formation, width of the beam, maximum achievable
level of side lobes, null depth, and rate of convergence. All these algorithms work
on deciding and assigning the complex weights for every signal value, in which it
generates narrow beams for deliberate users and deep nulls in the direction of
interference.
120 E. C. Britto et al.

4.1  LMS Algorithm

The use of this LMS algorithm to approximate the optimum conditions of an array
is normal, and its research has been of significant interest for some time. By com-
puting the mean of the quadratic mean square error (MSE) surface and then adjust-
ing the values by a small amount in the reverse direction of the gradient, the
algorithms change the weights for each iteration. The constant that defines this
quantity is known as the size of the phase. If the step size is relatively small, the
process contributes to suitable weights for such approximate weights.
A real-time, unregulated LMS algorithm is given to evaluate the optimum device
WMSE using the reference signal:

n 1 s n g s n (2)
where s(n + 1) represents the original weights computed at the (n + 1)th reiteration,
μis an optimistic scalar, and g(s(n)) is an impartial assessment of the MSE gradient.
For a presumed s(n), the MSE is quantified by

s n E ( r n 1 s H n Rs n s H n z z H s n
2

(3)
The gradient of MSE at the nth iteration is found by distinguishing the above equa-
tion wrt w, yielding

w s 2 Rs n 2 z
(4)
At the (n + 1)threpetition, the array is operating with weights s(n) calculated at the
earlier reiteration; however, the array signal direction isx(n + 1), the reference signal
illustration is r(n + 1), and the assortment output is

y s n s H n x n 1
(5)
The algorithm contains three steps in each recursion:
• Compute the processed signal with the current weights.
• Generate the error between the processed signal and the desired signal.
• Adjust the weights using the new error information by the gradient method [11].
For each iteration in VSLMS algorithm, the step-size parameters of weights are
updating [68]; variable step-size adaptive algorithms like variable step-size LMS
(VS-LMS), variable step-size sign LMS (VS-SLMS), and variable step-size nor-
malized LMS (VS-NLMS) are made with the variation of antenna elements and
spacing between them. The purpose of data reusing the least mean square (DRLMS)
is to increase the convergence rate by reusing the same dataset (i.e., input and refer-
ence signal) many times. DRLMS adaptive algorithm reuses the same dataset (n)
Study of Various Beamformers and Smart Antenna Adaptive Algorithms for Mobile… 121

input and t(n) desired L time at the same time index n. The DRLMS algorithm with
L data reuse and coefficient is modified.

4.2  MVDR Algorithm

The aim is to maximize the response of the beamformer in such a way that the out-
put involves minimal contributions owing to noise and signal coming from places
besides the signal line expected. A linear filter vector is desired for this optimization
procedure; it is an explanation to the limited minimization s(f, θ)topic that agrees

signals from the 2direction of the look to pass with a defined gain:
MV s fi , R fi n s fi , ,
Minimize: subject to

s fi , D fi , 1
(6)
D fi ,
where is the conventional steering vector. The solution is given by

R 1 fi D fi , ,
s fi , ,
D fi , , R 1 fi D fi , ,
(7)
It delivers adaptive steering vectors for the N hydrophone line array beamforming
of the received signals. Then, the adaptive beam at a steering θs is defined in the
frequency domain by

B fi , s fi , x fi
(8)

4.3  RLS Algorithm

The computational burden of the LMS algorithm varies on the array correlation
matrix’s actual values. In a framework that delivers an array correlation matrix with
massive eigenvalues, the clustering is based at a slow rate. With the RLS algorithm,
this problem is solved by substituting the gradient phase size μ with a gain matrix
R−1(n) at the nth iteration, generating the equation for weight update:

s n s n 1 R 1 n x n s n 1
(9)
−1
where Rn is given by

Rˆ n 0 Rˆ n 1 x n x H n

122 E. C. Britto et al.

n
0n k x k x H k
k 0 (10)
with δ0 denoting a real scalar less than but close to 1.
This is used for past data exponential weighting δ0, which is referred to as the
forgetting factor, as the equation of the update appears to deemphasize the old sam-
ples. This is being used for exponential grading of past results δ0, which is known as
the forgotten factor, as the update equation tends to deemphasize the old datasets.
The quantity 1/(1 − δ0) is in general denoted to as the algorithm memory. So, the
memory of the algorithm is close to 100 samples for δ0 = 0.99. Using the previous
samples and the present samples, the RLS algorithm updates the necessary inverse as

1 Rˆ 1 n 1 x n x H n Rˆ 1 n 1
Rˆ 1 n Rˆ 1 n 1
0 0 x H n R 1 n 1 x n
ˆ

(11)
1
The matrix isadjustedas Rˆ 1 0 I e , 0 0
0
(12)

4.4  CMA Algorithm

Using the LMS algorithm, adaptive beamformer typically minimizes array perfor-
mance power subject to constraints. There are two important shortcomings with
these beamformers. At the beginning, the two signals are mutually associated; they
appear to cancel the signal of interest along with the disturbance. In multipath con-
texts, this has discouraged its use. Second, they are especially susceptible to imper-
fections in the array.
Any of the above alignments does not suffer from the CMA. It is unaffected by
correlated source issues since it does not use output power minimization to adopt
the array weights. Similarly, to set a constraint, it does not depend on array geom-
etry or benefit functionality and is thus unaffected by array imperfection. Such two
benefits make the CMA an enticing choice for traditional adaptive beamformers.
CMA is gradient-based and operates under the basis that current interference
induces array output amplitude changes that otherwise have constant modules. By
decreasing the price features, it updates the weights:

1
(13)
2
J n E y n y0 2
2

2

Using the following equation,

Study of Various Beamformers and Smart Antenna Adaptive Algorithms for Mobile… 123

s n 1 s n g s n
(14)
where y(n) = sH(n)x(n + 1) is the array output after the nth iteration, y0 is the neces-
sary amplitude in the lack of imperfection, and g(s(n))signifies an estimate of the
cost function gradient. Similar to the LMS algorithm, the CMA uses an estimate of
the gradient by changing the true gradient with an instant value given by

g s n 2 n x n 1
(15)

where
n y n y0 2 y n
2
(16)
The weight update equation of this case suits

s n 1 s n 2 n x n 1
(17)
In appearance, this is similar to the LMS algorithm with reference signal where
ε(n) = r(n) − y(n). CMA suitable for eliminating correlated arrivals is an operative
constant modulated enveloped signal.

4.5  MD Algorithm

For adaptive beamforming in mobile communication, the maximum directivity

(MD) algorithm [62] is used to measure these magnitudes and phase weights.
Beamforming is usually carried out by complicated weighting and combing the
distinct antenna signals. This results in the array element G (𝛳), which defines the
characteristic of the antenna array’s spatial radiation. In this way, it is possible to
adjust the angular distribution of the radiation intensity in the transmit case and the
sensitivity in the receive case to the respective parameters. The yield of the beam-
former is assumed by
M
G sm e
j m 1 sin

m 1 (18)
∗
w
where m is the complex weight that desires to be adjusted to optimize the radia-
tion pattern and M is the number of the antenna components of the array. Generally,
the number of nulls will usually differ from 0 to M-1. Equation (17) effects in the
more general expression:
M
G sm gm
m 1 (19)
124 E. C. Britto et al.

where gm(θ)is the radiation features of array elements. The face of the complex fac-
tor of weight can be written as

j m 1 a
sm bm e
(20)
where Ωa =  − π sin ψis the normalized wave number in azimuth direction and ψ is
the azimuth angle and bm is the magnitude of the signal. In the special case of eight
antenna elements, one look direction θLDand K null directions θ0K1 ≤ k ≤ K with K
between 1 and 7 are given. The linear equation system (LES) can be written as

G LD g1 LD g2 LD . g8 LD s1

. 1

01
G g1 01 g2 01 . . g8 01 s2 0
. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .
G
0 K 8 x 1
g g
1 0K 2 0K . . g8 0 K 8 x 8 s8 8 x1 0 8 x1

(21)
In the corresponding angular direction, each row of the LES defines the constraints.
The LES has a differing number of rows due to the variance of null paths. The built
beam pattern is the best solution for the uplink channel of mobile communication
systems due to optimum directivity. The value of this algorithm is that, simply by
solving an LES, it produces the optimal solution. The complex weights of the
antenna array components are determined using unit response in the direction of the
look in this algorithm, which maximizes the output signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). So
this algorithm steers the peaks of the main lobe in the direction of the look and mini-
mums of the side lobes in the directions of interference while preserving maximum
directivity.

Table 1  LDs and NDs for two simultaneous signals using MD algorithm
Radiation pattern Signal LD ND1 ND2 ND3 ND4 ND5 ND6 ND7
Figure 8a S1 20 37 0 −22 −37 65 48 −70
S2 −20 42 02 78 15 -65 60 −32
Figure 8b S1 37 20 0 −20 −57 63 −38 −72
S2 −40 25 −10 07 10 −65 45 −25
Figure 8c S1 55 04 16 −12 32 35 −55 80
S2 −55 −40 −16 12 −04 32 55 −80
Figure 8d S1 25 50 11 −36 −65 −22 72 −08
S2 03 25 −15 45 −45 −60 60 80
Study of Various Beamformers and Smart Antenna Adaptive Algorithms for Mobile… 125

5  Result and Discussion

Using the MD/SMI algorithm, the beams are steered from +60° to -60°. Thus the
beam steering covers a 120° sector for a cellular base station. A maximum error of
5.5% in the beam direction occurs for look directions beyond +55° and -55°. The
desired look direction (LD) and null direction (ND) are tabulated in Table 1. In these
examples, the antenna’s simultaneous look directions for two beams are chosen as
(20°,−20°), (37°,−40°), (55°,−55°), and (25°, 03°). The gain difference between
the main lobe and the side lobes is found to be −10 dB. For two sets of LDs and
NDs, the radiation patterns are plotted in polar coordinates (Fig. 8a, b) and in rect-
angular coordinates (Fig. 8c, d). From the figures, it is clear that the nulls are found
to be at the exact angles of the given interference.
Table 2 depicts the comparisons between different adaptive beamforming algo-
rithms. The significances of MD algorithm are observed as follows: this algorithm
gives the maximum directivity, which results in a minimum bit error rate for the
reverse link of a CDMA-based mobile communication system. The algorithm pro-
vides an optimum solution for arbitrary spaced constraints while maintaining a
maximum possible directivity and doesn’t require additional reference signal. The

a 90 0.8 b 90 0.8 signal1

120 60 signal1 120 60
signal2 0.6 signal2
0.6

150 0.4 30 150 0.4 30

0.2 0.2
Amplitude
Amplitude

180 0 180 0

210 330 210 330

240 300 240 300

Signal1=(37;20,0,–20,–57,63,–38,–72)
270 Signal1=(20;37,0,–22,–37,65,–48,–70) 270 Signal2=(–40;25,–10,71,0,–65,45,–25)
Signal2=(20;42,02,78,15,–65,60,–32)
Azimuth angle in degree Azimuth angle in degree

c d 0
0 signal1
signal2
–10 –10

–20
Amplitude in dB

–20
Amplitude in dB

–30 –30

–40 –40

–50 –50

–60 –60
signal1 Signal1=(55;04,16,–12,–32,35,–55,70) Signal1=(25;50,11,–36,–65,–22,72,–08)
signal2 Signal2=(–55;35,–16,12,–04,32,55,–70) Signal2=(03;25,–15,45,–45,–60,60,80)
–70 –70
–80 –60 –40 –20 0 20 40 60 80 –80 –60 –40 –20 0 20 40 60 80
Azimuth angle in degree Azimuth angle in degree

Fig. 8  Radiation patterns with different LDs and NDs for two simultaneous signals (a) LD (20,
−20), (b) LD (37, −40), (c) LD (55, −55), and (d) LD (25, 03)
126 E. C. Britto et al.

Table 2  Comparison of beamforming algorithms [61, 63–71]

Reference Scan Convergence rate /

Algorithm Amplitude response signal BER sector (°) computation
VSLMS Interference rejection Required Minimum −60 to Slow convergence
good +60
VS-SLMS Interference rejection Required Normal −60 to Faster
good +60
VS-NLMS High directivity Required Minimum −60 to Less computation
+60
DRLMS Maximum in desired Required Low −50 to 50 Faster
direction and nulling
the interfering signal
LMS Maximum signal Required High −50 to 50 Slow/less
strength in the user computation
direction
MVDR Not available Required High +52 to Faster
−52
RLS Interference rejection Required Low Not Faster/ more
better available computation
CMA Interference rejection Not High −55 to Not available
good required +55
MD Interference rejection Not Minimum −60 to Not available/less
best required +60 computation-­
solving LES
Hybrid Hybrid LMS and SMI Required Minimum −60 to Small time to
LMS/(SMI) +30 converge less
computation

weights can efficiently be calculated solving a set of LES. The approach can easily
be extended to apply for three-dimensional beams as well.

6  Conclusion

In this article, various beamformers and beamforming algorithms are discussed and
are capable of providing 3G/4G/5G wireless mobile applications in areas such as
channel bandwidth (frequency reuse), distortion elimination, power budget linking,
and high-speed networking. The analogy of various beamforming algorithms for
smart antennas was the idea of a fractal sequence of MD algorithms whose perfor-
mance is analyzed. It also decreases memory requirements to a larger degree.
Optical beamformers are known to provide ultrafast multibeam control for smart
antennas with an optimized radio link between the BS and the MS.

Acknowledgment  We are gratefully thankful to the reviewers for their critical comments and
suggestions to improve the quality of the book chapter.
Study of Various Beamformers and Smart Antenna Adaptive Algorithms for Mobile… 127

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Microstrip Patch Antennas: Past
and Present State of the Art

Manish Sharma

1  Introduction

Research for microstrip-fed antennas took an exponential rise when the US Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) in 2002 designated ultra-wideband unlicensed
bandwidth of 3.10 GHz–10.60 GHz. The UWB bandwidth constituted the features
such as application for short-range wireless communication, increase in the transfer
of data with high speed, utilization of very low power of consumption for its opera-
tion, very compact size of the antenna useful for its operation and for UWB applica-
tions, and ease of fabrication of the prototype which is applicable for different
imaging applications [1]. The UWB technology is well suited for applications
including WPAN (wireless personal area networks), WBAN (wireless body area
networks), WUSB (wireless universal serial bus), WSN (wireless sensor networks),
RFID (radio frequency identification), robotics, LTS (location tracking systems),
surveillance system, etc. The near-field and far-field results are well maintained
including stability of radiation patterns, larger bandwidth ratio, very low profile,
and simplest geometry. Generally, radiating patches such as circular-, semicircular-,
square-, rectangular-, triangular-, elliptical-horizontal-/vertical-, crescent-shaped
radiators and fractal geometries (Sierpinski, Minkowski) are few to name them. It
has been observed that the existing wireless communication module does interfere
with the operating bandwidth of UWB, and hence the need for bandstop filters is
required. These interfering bands are worldwide interoperability for microwave
access, wireless local area network, and satellite uplink/downlink frequency bands.
Also, the UWB overall working module requires no power amplifier due to the

M. Sharma (*)
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University,
Punjab, India
e-mail: [Link]@[Link]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 131

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
132 M. Sharma

lower-power requirement features of UWB systems, and the UWB antenna is capa-
bly attaining as high as 20 Mb/s data rate speed. To eliminate the abovesaid interfer-
ence, various technologies have been reported which are discussed in the upcoming
sections. Section 2 addresses various UWB monopole antennas. Sections 3 and 4
discuss single- and dual-band-notched UWB antennas with extended bandwidth.
Section 5 also represents the triple-, quadra-, and penta-band-notched characteris-
tics of UWB antennas. Section 6 represents the characterization of various UWB
antennas in frequency, time, and space domain.

2  UWB Antennas

Microstrip patch antennas have a narrow bandwidth. To enhance the bandwidth

from narrow to wide, two techniques have been reported, i.e., impedance matching
and multiple resonances. Antennas with various radiating shapes along with modi-
fied ground plane to cover UWB bandwidth are studied by researchers on a different
substrate like RT/duroid 5880/5870, FR4, and silicon with a dielectric constant of
2.2, 2.3, 4.4, and 11.9, respectively [2–16].

2.1  Microstrip Feed

Figure 1a–w shows different shape UWB antenna configurations covering FCC-­
specified impedance bandwidth (3.1  GHz–10.6  GHz) with fractional impedance
bandwidth of 109.48%. The shape of the designed radiating patches is square, rect-
angle, triangle, circular, annular ring, elliptical (horizontal and vertical), pentagon,
or hexagon, and the published results show that the UWB antennas maintain a wide
bandwidth (3.08  GHz–12.69  GHz) with an average gain of nearly 2.58 dBi.
Considering guide wavelength (λg in GHz), the dimensions of the radiating patch
are calculated by λg = c/fc√εreff, where c is the velocity of light in free space
(3 × 108 m/s), fc is the center frequency (i.e., 6.85 GHz), and εreff is the effective rela-
tive permittivity [2]. Planar octagonal-shaped patch is modified by etching minimal
distribution area of current so that RCS (RADAR cross-section) is reduced up to 25
dBsm, making it capable for stealth platform RADAR application [3]. Fork-shaped
radiating patch with rectangular ground plane provides dual-band operations cover-
ing 2.40 GHz–2.484 GHz (Bluetooth) and 3.10 GHz–10.6 GHz (UWB) frequency
bands [4]. Vase-shaped radiating patch provides fractional bandwidth of 136%
(3.0 GHz–15.6 GHz) [5]. Integration of the telecommunication system within the
garment and wearable merchandise is fabricated, known as textile antenna [6].
Antenna with a dimension of 40 × 38 mm2 consisting of a regular dodecagon on
each side measuring 5.17 mm [7] is used to reveal breast tumor in the vicinity of
UWB range, and care has also been taken by confining the specific absorption rate
(SAR) within admissible range surrounding tissues and the skin. By joining two
Microstrip Patch Antennas: Past and Present State of the Art 133

a b c d e f g h i j

k l m n o p q r s
Radiating Patch
Ground
Substrate
t u v w
0

–5
2.684GHZ 12.182GHZ
–10
S-parameter

–15

–20
UWB Bandwidth
–25 3.10GHz-10.60GHz

–30
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Frequency (GHz)
x

Fig.1 (a–w) Microstrip-fed UWB monopole antennas and fabricated prototype (x) Simulated
impedance bandwidth of antenna (p)

distinct semi-ellipses through their major axes and triangular-shaped groove at the
ground plane [8], Bluetooth and UWB antenna fabricated and exhibit good omnidi-
rectional pattern in H-plane and dipole-like pattern in E-plane at 2.45  GHz and
3.10 GHz. At higher frequencies, it is also observed that the cross-polarization in
both E- and H-planes increases due to an increase in the area of radiation. Embedding
an elliptical patch with a trapezoid, wide-slot UWB antenna with a compact dimen-
sion of 30  ×  30  mm2 is designed. Furthermore, the microstrip line is tapered for
impedance matching, and the hexagonal slot is etched from a finite ground plane
placed on another side of the substrate, resulting in fractional impedance bandwidth
of 145% (2.90 GHz–18.00 GHz), and thus wide-slot antenna for UWB application
is obtained [9]. Dipole-like radiation pattern in E-plane and the omnidirectional pat-
tern are obtained in H-plane with a dome-topped bowl-shaped radiating patch mea-
sured at 3.40  GHz and 8.00  GHz [10]. An M-shaped radiating patch replacing
134 M. Sharma

conventional monopole antenna with modified cutting rectangular slots in the

ground plane and beak-shaped radiating patch with two rectangular slots on the
radiator along with hexagonal-shape defected ground structure (DGS) are designed
[11, 12] for UWB application. Another MIMO ultra-wideband antenna with dual
monopoles is located side to side at a spacing of 4.0 mm, with a subsequent radiator
placed at 90° with a distance of 1.0 mm to prevent mutual coupling. Polarization
diversity performance was calculated by envelope correlation coefficient (ECC)
resulting below −20 dB [13]. Universal methodologies for designing a UWB diver-
sity antenna by using asymmetrical monopole feed minimize mutual decoupling
between dual radiators by adjusting their distance between radiators and feeding
lines [14]. Bandwidth improvement is achieved by DGS (defected ground struc-
ture), including 11 step slots along with elliptical radiator forming monopole
antenna for diversified applications as autonomous robot communication for disas-
ter recovery, info-station systems communications, e-ward round, and imaging
communications in UWB range [16]. The Federal Communications Commission-­
measured impedance bandwidth should be less than -10 dB. Therefore, it is observed
that the values of impedance bandwidth (S11) are 10.35 GHz, 10.02 GHz, and 8.90
GHz, respectively. The reduction in RCS (RADAR cross-section) for the very sensi-
tive target is very important in stealth (invisible) as well as military applications.
Therefore, the antennas play a very important role as they are the source of electro-
magnetic radiation and are majorly dominant scatters. The design of lower RCS
antennas encounters two major problems: one the reduced RCS for the complete
useable band of the antenna and the other preserving the bandwidth of interest. As
observed in [3], the UWB-designed antenna has a lower RCS with a value of 25
dBsm. Figure (x) shows the simulated impedance bandwidth of the antenna with
values ranging from 2.684  GHz to 12.182  GHz, which is useful for UWB
applications.

2.2  Microstrip/CPW Feed

Figure 2 shows UWB antennas with microstrip/CPW feed-extended bandwidth

including electromagnetic coupling [17–19]. The different parasitic elements are
used in the conductor-backed plane for excitation of higher resonance frequencies,
and the impedance bandwidth of the antenna is increased by introducing two
inverted U-shaped slots in the ground plane. But these results only increase

Radiating Patch
Ground
Substrate
Electromagnetic
a b c d e f g Coupling (ECT)

Fig. 2 (a–g) Microstrip/CPW-fed UWB-simulated antennas

Microstrip Patch Antennas: Past and Present State of the Art 135

bandwidth on the higher side, and there is a deficiency of radiation on the lower
side, and to overcome this problem, a pair of L-shaped elements are added, which
acts as a resonator leading to the coupling of current from the ground structure to
the parasitic element. This modification leads to the improvement of bandwidth, and
two new resonance frequencies at 11.00 GHz and 14.10 GHz are excited [17]. A
quadrangle UWB antenna is designed with a flipped T-shaped slot in the patch and
a flipped T-shaped conductor in the ground plane near the ground conductor, which
leads to a wider usable fractional bandwidth of more than 130% [18]. CPW-fed [20,
21] fractal UWB antennas are presented in [22–24]. Adding small fractal elements
to the polygon shape radiator results in bandwidth enhancement [22]. CPW-fed
antenna with nano-arm fractal results in the wideband (2.55GHz–11.84 GHz) [24].
L-type slots and the parasitic elements in a square patch fed by microstrip line
and consisting of the modified ground are capable of covering bandwidth from
2.950  GHz to 14.270  GHz with 130% bandwidth [25]. Additional resonances at
lower and higher frequency at 2.9 GHz and 10.7 GHz are achieved by horizontal
H-shaped slots in the ground. Further, to extend the bandwidth, a vertically placed
H-shaped element is etched, which resonates at 14.7 GHz and 17.0 GHz, respec-
tively, thereby increasing the overall impedance bandwidth [26]. As observed in
[25], electromagnetic coupling with an inverted T-shaped slot provides larger band-
width of 2.91 GHz–14.1 GHz. CPW monopole antenna with small fractal elements
covers 3.0 GHz–12.0 GHz bandwidth, which is shown in [22]. H-shaped etching in
the ground plane provides useable fractional bandwidth of 150% (2.5 GHz–17.5
GHz) as observed from [26]. The bandwidth beyond covering X-, Ku-, and K-band
applications is useful for applications in satellite and RADAR [27–33].

3  Single Notched Band Characteristics of UWB Antennas

Figure 3a–i shows ultra-wideband monopole antennas with single notched band
function, which are obtained by including filters with L-shaped slot, rectangular
slot, and exciting resonance frequency by electromagnetic coupling theory or by the
introduction of T-shaped stub either to eliminate WiMAX band or WLAN band
[34–41]. Rogers RT/duroid 5870 and Rogers RT/duroid 5880 substrate with low
relative permittivity of 2.33 support features such as wideband characteristics and
stable radiation pattern concerning frequency. Annular ring UWB antenna with the
partial annular slot is embedded at the lower portion of the ring radiator, which leads
to high impedance at notch frequency of 5.5  GHz, removing wireless local area
network (WLAN) and dedicated short-range communication (DSRC) interference
[34]. The S-parameter signifies the matching of impedance. The better the
S-parameter, the better the matched impedance, which also indicates that the maxi-
mum power is absorbed by the load.
Application of particle swarm optimization method (PSOM) for the utmost mode
coupling and better operating frequency for a comparatively smaller tapered length
and a circular band-notched radiating patch with raised cosine-tapered is designed
136 M. Sharma

a b c d e f g h i
0 0
WiMAX:3.38GHz-3.92GHz –5 WLAN:4.43GHz-6.09GHz
–5 19.39GHZ
2.71GHZ
2.74GHZ 19.13GHZ –10

S-Parameter (dB)
S-Parameter (dB)

–10
–15

–15 –20

–25
–20
–30
–25
–35

–30 –40
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Frequency (GHz) Frequency (GHz)
j k

Fig. 3 (a–h) Single notched band-simulated UWB antennas (j–k) S-parameter

for ultra-wideband applications [35]. A T-type stub within the T-type slot in the
radiation patch provides strong notched-band rejection with VSWR=26 and is also
tuned over a wide tunable frequency ranging from 3.56  GHz to 6.81  GHz [37].
Electromagnetic coupling theory either between radiation patch and parasitic ele-
ment or between the ground plane and parasitic element results in single notched-­
band function as represented in [39]. Folded T-type element (FTSE) is capable of
controlling the filtering characteristics, where the tuning of the FTSE plays a major
role. Further, the impedance bandwidth of the designed antenna is increased at a
higher-frequency band side by introducing a pair of rectangular notched filters [41].
Figure 3j–k shows return loss curves for two versions of single notched-band UWB
antennas. Figure 3j shows the elimination of the WiMAX interfering band, while
Figure 3k shows the removal of the WLAN interfering band. This concludes that the
UWB antennas in Fig. 3 have the capability of mitigating interfering bands.

4  Dual Notched-Band Characteristics of UWB Antennas

Figure 4a–y represents UWB antenna with dual notched-band function [41–71].
WiMAX (3.30 GHz–3.80 GHz) and WLAN (5.150 GHz–5.825 GHz) occupy the
UWB bandwidth, and hence they interfere. However, they are eliminated by using
band stop filters in designing microstrip patch antennas. To achieve dual notched-­
bands, a rectangular slot of either C-shaped or U-shaped is removed on the radiation
patch or the 50 Ω microstrip feedline. Moreover, two notched-band functions are
also obtained by SRR (split-ring resonator) or CSRR (complementary split-ring
Microstrip Patch Antennas: Past and Present State of the Art 137

a b c d e f g h i

j k l m n o p q

r s t u v w x y
0

–5 WiMAX & WLAN

2.59GHZ 19.73GHZ
–10
S-Parameter (dB)

–15

–20

–25

–30

–35

–40
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Frequency (GHz)
z

Fig. 4 (a–y) Dual notched-band-simulated UWB antennas and fabricated prototype (z) Impedance
bandwidth of dual notched-band UWB antenna

resonator). The abovesaid techniques are represented by [42–48], which are dis-
cussed below. E-ring-shaped printed monopole antenna is used for UWB applica-
tions with a dual notched-band performance. A trapezoid-shaped radiating patch
with a rectangular ground plane forms UWB antenna with U-T-type stubs inserted
into two trapezoid-geometry slots of the radiating plane [43]. UWB antenna
with two
notched-functions are obtained by C-L-type etched slot/extrude stub in the radia-
tion/ground plane [44]. A hexagon radiating patch with a circular slotted ground
plane with two notched-band functions is represented. The addition of a pair of bent
138 M. Sharma

L-type structures to the symmetric slot ground results in two notched-band func-
tions: one is WiMAX (3.30 GHz–3.70 GHz) and the other is WLAN (5.150
GHz–5.825 GHz) [49]. By using upper and lower SIR on the radiation patch of a
CPW-fed UWB antenna, dual notched-band characteristics are obtained [52]. A
wide frequency range (2.85 GHZ–15.4 GHz) of CPW-fed UWB antenna with ellip-
tical path and chamfered edges across the ground plane at 45 degrees are presented
in [51]. Impedance bandwidth of antenna with radiating patch and ground plane
having the shape of a rectangle covers UWB frequencies from 3.10  GHz to
10.2 GHz. The bandwidth of the antenna is increased by etching a pair of rectangu-
lar ring-type slit in the ground plane, and the new bandwidth covers 2.80
GHz–17.5  GHz. To convert the abovesaid enhanced bandwidth antenna to two
notched functions, a set of inverted T-type and inverted Ω-type slots are removed
from the radiating patch and ground plane, respectively [53]. The antenna with a
square radiating patch along with a V-type embedded strip over a rectangular ground
plane covers enhanced bandwidth from 2.88  GHz to 17.85  GHz. Moreover, two
notched-band antennas result by etching out a pair of L-type and E-type slots on the
radiating patch [54]. Additional resonance is exhibited when an inverted fork-type
slit is introduced in the ground, which in turn produces wider bandwidth. Radiating
patch is embedded with a notched filter where coupled U-type is attached to it [54].
Ultra-wideband antenna with four equal-sided radiating patches beside hook-type
slot along with customized ground plane with an inverted anchor-type slot and two
Γ-type added strips inside the rectangular slot in the ground-plane leads to dual
notched-band function with wider fractional impedance bandwidth of 130.20%
[56]. The dual band-notched characteristics of UWB antennas are presented with
electromagnetic coupling theory (ECT) [58–66]. Wider fractional bandwidth of an
additional 125% is the result of the insertion of rotated T-type ring slot on rectangu-
lar radiation patch, which, in turn, covers C-type slot. To achieve the intended two
notched-band functional antennas, a rotated T-type slot is covered by a C-type slot
on the radiation patch, and by embedding rotated T-type ECT structure within the
rotated T-type slot on the radiation patch, two notched-band functional antennas
with wider bandwidth are resulted [58]. Additional enhanced bandwidth is obtained
by etching out dual notch from the lower corner of the radiation patch, which is the
result of ECT between the radiation patch and the ground plane. Embedding two
T-U-type stubs on the radiating patch and near the microstrip feed, respectively, two
notched-bands centered at 3.60 GHz and 5.50 GHz, respectively, are obtained [60].
Two notched-functions with ECT to increase impedance bandwidth of the antenna
are shown in [61]. A slotted rectangular radiating patch with two rotated L-type
slots and rotated T-type stubs results in a dual notched-band function. UWB antenna
which consists of a modified T-shaped slot and a ground plane with two E-shaped
slots including W-shaped conductor backed plane results in dual notched-band
function [62]. Stepped-shaped patch and dual-rectangular slots over the ground
plane for wider impedance bandwidth of 155% are shown in [63]. Dual notched-­
band characteristics are also obtained by eliminating the U-type slot on the radiating
patch and butterfly-shaped conducting-element backed plane for ECT.  Fractal-
shaped dual notch UWB antennas are reported [67]. The multiple resonance
Microstrip Patch Antennas: Past and Present State of the Art 139

characteristics with Koch fractal geometry and rectangular ground plane from ultra-
wideband antenna and dual notched-band function are obtained by embedding a
pair of C-type slots on the radiation patch. Figure 4z shows the removal of the dual
interfering band, namely, WiMAX and WLAN, which are due to the introduction of
band stop filters. These filters can be in the form of the embedded stub, etched slot,
electromagnetic coupling backed plane, or even electromagnetic bandgap structure.

5  T
riple/Quadra/Quintuple Notched-Band Characteristics
of UWB Antennas

Three, four, and five notched-filter UWB antennas are shown in Fig. 5a–n. Figure 5o
shows the return loss of the triple notched-band UWB antenna. Triple notched-band
function is obtained by removing dual circular-shaped slots corresponding to one-­
half the wavelength on the radiation
patch for 3.30 GHz–3.70 GHz/5.150 GHz–5.85 GHz bands and downlink satel-
lite communication band (7.10  GHz–7.90  GHz); two C-type slots in the ground
plane are etched [72, 73]. By removing dual circular slots on the radiating patch
and a couple of C-type slots over the ground plane, three notched-band functions
are resulted [74, 75]. Triple notched-band characteristics are also obtained by three
pairs of split-ring resonators along with the 50 Ω microstrip feedline [76, 77]. UWB
antenna comprises a rectangle plane as a radiating patch with a set of two steps on
the feed edge, a rotated stair-shaped ground plane, and a CPW feedline. The stair-
case structure increases the impedance bandwidth. By introducing a C-type slot on
the main radiating patch, complementary split-ring resonator (CSRR) at the ground
plane and rotated U-type slot at the middle of the radiating patch result in fine-
band rejection of WiMAX/WLAN/X-band satellite bands [78–84]. Three circular
slots on the radiation patch with etched pair of C-type slots over the ground plane
result in four notches intended for the WiMAX band (3.3 GHz–3.7 GHz), lower
WLAN band (5.150 GHz–5.350 GHz), higher WLAN band (5.725 GHz–5.875
GHz), and X-band downlink satellite communication band (7.10 GHz–7.76 GHz)
[85]. Notched-band filters are achieved with three C-type slots etched on the cir-
cular radiating patch and dual C-type slots etched on the opposite plane in the par-
tial ground [86]. Also, UWB antenna with four, five notched bands are reported
[87, 88] while the operating bandwidth is preserved. Multiband antenna [89, 90] is
designed for applications which includes Bluetooth, LTE offering reconfigurable
characteristics.
140 M. Sharma

a b c d e f g h

i j k l m n o
0
–5 WiMAX, WLAN, DSS
–10
–15
–20
S-Parameter (dB)

–25
19.08GHZ
–30
–35 2.62GHZ
–40
–45
–50
–55
–60
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Frequency (GHz)
p

Fig. 5  Triple/Quadruple notched-band simulated UWB antennas (a–p) Simulated S-parameter

6  Conclusions

This chapter has focused on different UWB antennas with mitigation of interfer-
ence. UWB antennas discussed are useful in wideband wireless applications in
RADARs, different imaging systems, and also wireless sensor networks. All the
potential interferences such as WiMAX (wireless interoperability for microwave
access), WLAN (wireless local area network), and DSS (downlink satellite system)
are mitigated where band stop filters are used in the form of stub, slots, ECT method,
and metamaterial, using EBG structures. Here few UWB antennas have been
reported in terms of their latest developments for applications in UWB, testing of
electromagnetic radiation, and different imaging applications. The final selection of
UWB antennas will always be a trade-off between different requirements.
Microstrip Patch Antennas: Past and Present State of the Art 141

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Part III
Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO)
Antenna Design and Uses
Planar Design, Analysis,
and Characterization of Multiple-Input
Multiple-Output Antenna

Manish Sharma

1  Introduction

Microwave antennas play a major vital role in a modern wireless communication

system. The requirement for speedy wireless communication has become an impor-
tant mode to fulfill the needs, and thus, peer-to-peer wireless link between transmit-
ter and receiver has to fulfill the necessity of wireless applications. The number of
transmitting/receiving antennas plays a major role, and it is a proven fact that a
single antenna transceiver suffers drawbacks like multiple path fading and inter-­
symbol interference which lowers the working capability. To improve the above
factors, a multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) antenna system provided the
solution for an increase in channel capacity, thereby reducing the demerits of the
single antenna system.
This chapter focuses on the design aspects, analysis, and characterization of
MIMO antennas fulfilling the application needs for ultra-wideband (UWB) and
multiband antennas [1–49]. There are various techniques used to develop MIMO
antennas which give solution to the designer, such as obtaining required near-, far-­
field, and diversity performance of the antenna system. While discussing wideband
antennas (ultra-wideband/super-wideband), several geometries, as well as numer-
ous isolation techniques, have been reported [1–17] to obtain MIMO antenna con-
figuration. Geometries such as quarter circular patch [1, 8, 9], modified rectangular
patch [2], circular patch [3, 6, 12], slotted rectangular patch [4], combination of
ellipse and rectangular patch [5, 13, 14, 16, 17], modified elliptical patch [7, 15],
semicircular slotted patch [10], hexagon patch [11], etc. are transformed to MIMO

M. Sharma (*)
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University,
Punjab, India
e-mail: [Link]@[Link]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 149

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
150 M. Sharma

configuration by placing two or more than two radiating elements in adjacent,

orthogonal, or face-to-face orientations. The isolation between the radiating ele-
ments is another important factor to preserve the diversity performance and tech-
niques such as etched slots, embedded stub, and fractal geometries. Further,
super-wideband antennas are used to obtain operating bandwidth beyond ultra-­
wideband bandwidth, having a bandwidth ratio >10:1 [18, 19] to cover the remain-
ing applications. Dual-polarization MIMO antennas are obtained by feeding a
single patch with two ports placed orthogonally [21, 22], leading to either right-­
handed circular polarization or left-handed circular polarization. On the other hand,
there are several MIMO multiband antennas reported either for 2 × 2 or 4 × 4, and
even 8  ×  8 configurations are designed for several narrowband applications
(WiMAX, WLAN, Bluetooth, X-band, etc.) [22–49].

2  2 × 2 UWB/Super-Wideband MIMO Antennas

The Federal Communications Commission (FCC-2002), USA, introduced unli-

censed bandwidth of 3.10 GHz–10.60 GHz. This bandwidth covers large numbers
of wireless applications such as imaginary systems, through-wall imaging systems,
and surveillance systems. The applications beyond UWB are achieved by super-­
wideband antennas with a bandwidth ratio >10:1, which is useful for applications in
satellite as well as RADAR applications. Figure 1a–g represents few UWB 2 × 2
MIMO antenna configurations. Polarization diversity of the quadrant-shaped mono-
pole is achieved by placing the patch orthogonally as shown in Fig. 1a. Integration
of the MIMO antenna is achieved on FR4 substrate with dimensions 21 × 35 mm2.
The antenna is placed in a different orientation, but the transmission coefficient for
the entire operating bandwidth of UWB is achieved in orthogonal orientation. The
stubs and slots used in the design provide an additional current path, thereby improv-
ing the lower and higher frequency resonances. Figure  1b shows a circularly

Fig. 1  UWB 2 × 2 MIMO antenna configuration (a–g)

Planar Design, Analysis, and Characterization of Multiple-Input Multiple-Output Antenna 151

polarized MIMO antenna exhibiting pattern and polarization diversity. Reported

MIMO antenna provides axial ratio bandwidth of 8.11 GHz–10.56 GHz (2.45 GHz)
with the impedance bandwidth of 8.07 GHz–11.59 GHz (3.52 GHz). Five iterations
are performed from basic rectangular patch to final design for X-band applications.
Figure 1c depicts a circular patch 2 × 2 MIMO antenna with the rectangular ground
plane. A pair of rectangular slots are etched for wideband impedance matching.
However, without decoupling structure, the average isolation in the operating band
is around −12 dB, and with the presence of the decoupling structure, excellent isola-
tion of more than −30 dB is achieved. The decoupling structure is also used in the
ground, providing better isolation when compared in the absence as observed in
Fig. 1d. However, WLAN interfering band (5.150 GHz–5.825 GHz) is filtered by
etching a rectangular slot on the radiating patches of 2 × 2 MIMO antenna configu-
ration. Figure  1e–f shows 2  ×  2 MIMO antenna configuration with mitigating
WiMAX and WLAN interfering bands. In both cases, the T-type parasitic stub acts
as the decoupling structure, providing better isolation between the radiating ele-
ments. It is also desired.
to eliminate interfering bands with bandwidth of 3.25  GHz–3.60  GHz,
5.05  GHz–5.48  GHz, 5.60  GHz–6.00  GHz, and 7.80  GHz–8.40  GHz. This is
achieved in 2 × 2 MIMO antenna configuration shown by Fig. 1g, and etched L-type
meandered slot, pair of L-shaped slots, and addition of C-type stub achieve the
objective. Table 1 shows the detailed comparison of the notched-band 2 × 2 MIMO
antenna with near-, far-field, and diversity performance comparison. Table 1 shows
the comparison of the designed UWB/super-wideband monopole 2  ×  2 MIMO
antennas. As per the observations from Table 1, the latest state-of-the-art designed
MIMO antennas are considered for comparison, which includes the size of the
antenna, operating bandwidth, techniques used for isolation, maximum gain, and
the comparison of ECC parameter.
It can be concluded from comparison in Table 1 that these MIMO antennas main-
tain gain variation between 3.00 dBi and 5.00 dBi with ECC ranging between 0.02
and 0.250. Also, isolation technique is applied between the radiating elements or the
ground plane, and in [19], no isolation technique is used because the orthogonal
orientation itself provides better isolation.

3  2 × 2 Dual-Polarization and Multiband MIMO Antennas

Figure 2 shows a 2  ×  2 MIMO antenna configuration with dual-polarization and

multiband applications. In single-polarization antennas, there is a dependency on
the wave being polarized, which can be either horizontal, vertical, or inclined linear
polarizations. However, to overcome the limitations and to receive both horizontal
and vertical polarized waves, dual-polarization MIMO antennas are used, forming
MIMO configuration with one radiating element and two input ports. Figure  2a
shows a dual-polarized MIMO antenna, which consists of an octagonal defected
ground structure and ring-shaped radiator. The MIMO antenna is suitable for
Table 1  Comparison of the work published (2 × 2 MIMO UWB/super-wideband) antennas
152

Operating
Size of antenna bandwidth Year of Isolation Maximum Substrate
Ref. (mm2) (GHz) publication Isolation technique used (dB) gain (dBi) ECC used
[1] 21.0 × 35.0 2.90–11.00 2017 Two L-shaped slots on radiator <−20 4.00 <0.008 FR4
[3] 47.0 × 93.0 3.00–11.00 2018 Modified T-type stub between radiating <−31 – – FR4
elements and etched slit at the center of the
common ground plane
[5] 32.0 × 65.0 3.10–10.60 2020 Meandered line electromagnetic bandgap <−8 4.00 <0.02 FR4
structure
[7] 29.0 × 40.0 3.10–11.00 2020 Vertical stub in the ground <−18 4.90 <0.005 GML
1000
[9] 20.0 × 20.0 1.20–19.40 2019 Parasitic T-stub <−20 4.00 <0.250 FR4
[10] 38.5 × 38.5 3.10–10.60 2020 Parasitic T-stub <−25 5.00 <0.02 FR4
[12] 25.0 × 39.0 2.68–12.50 2020 Addition of two U-shaped branch <−22 5.20 <0.010 FR4
[15] 30.75 × 37.80 2.70–11.22 2020 Hilbert fractal slots in the ground <−15 2.11 <0.50 FR4
[16] 22.0 × 28.0 3.00–11.00 2018 Extruding T-type stub in the ground <−20 3.21 <0.02 Rogers
4003C
[19] 19.0 × 28.0 0.70–18.50 2020 None <−30 4.68 <0.12 FR4
M. Sharma
Planar Design, Analysis, and Characterization of Multiple-Input Multiple-Output Antenna 153

Fig. 2  2 × 2 MIMO antenna configuration (a) Dual polarization (b–d) Multiband antennas

applications including GSM/DCS-1800 and LTE-1900 bands. In this work, the two
orthogonal ports for polarization are exploited for polarization as well as pattern
diversity. Figure 2b–d shows multiband antennas, which provide narrow bandwidth
for more than one band. Figure 2b provides operation for dual band (ISM-2.40GHz,
5.20GHz-unlicensed band). The radiating elements are placed closely with a mini-
mal distance of λ/8, and the mutual coupling is suppressed by using electromagnetic
bandgap (EBG) structures. Figure  2c forms the MIMO antenna where radiating
elements are placed orthogonally and need no additional isolation technique.
Reported MIMO antenna finds applications for 5G at 28 GHz and 38 GHz centered
frequencies. Also, by loading multiple slots in the ground as observed in Fig. 2d,
better isolation is achieved between two orthogonal radiating patches.

4  4  × 4 Multiband/Wideband MIMO Antennas

and Diversity Performance

Figure 3a, b shows 4 × 4 MIMO antenna configuration where Fig. 3a MIMO antenna
is used for multiband applications and Fig. 3b for ultra-wideband applications. It
can be observed in both figures that the single antenna configuration is placed
154 M. Sharma

Fig. 3  4 × 4 MIMO antenna configuration (a–b)

a b c
SMA
Connector W
T3 T1
Ground
L T2
Patch
hSUB
SUBSTRATE C1
C2
C3
W1
g
LSUB Lm
WSUB Ls R W 3 Wg

Fig. 4  1 × 1 MIMO antenna configuration (a) Perspective view (b) UWB antenna (c) Inclusion of
filters in UWB antenna

orthogonally without any additional isolation element. However, good diversity per-
formance is studied without comprising the useable bandwidth, irrespective of the
bandwidth being narrow or wideband.
Understanding of the functional MIMO antenna configuration is carried out by
plotting near-, far-field, and diversity performance, and reference [50] is used to
convey the above characteristics. Figure 4a–c shows 1 × 1 MIMO antenna configu-
ration which is developed on Rogers RT/duroid 5880 substrate with electrical prop-
erties including permittivity of 2.20 and loss.
tangent of 0.0004. Figure 4a shows a perspective view where the patch is printed
on one plane and ground on the opposite plane. The patch is connected to a match
560  Ω transmission line which is fed by an SMA connector for signal input.
Figure 4b shows the UWB antenna with a patch and clotted ground. The overall
volume of the antenna is 15 × 15 × 0.787 mm3. The dimension of the square patch
is 10 × 10 mm2, and a tapered microstrip feed is used to match the needed UWB
Planar Design, Analysis, and Characterization of Multiple-Input Multiple-Output Antenna 155

bandwidth. Also, the modified rectangular ground plane is etched with a semicircu-
lar slot of radius R = 1.00 mm to improve the impedance matching. Two interfering
bands, WiMAX (3.30 GHz–3.80 GHz) and WLAN (5.150 GHz–5.825 GHz), are
eliminated by adding anchor-type stub and C-type slot on the radiating patch as seen
in Fig. 4c. The antenna is useful for UWB applications with mitigating dual interfer-
ing bands. Figure  5a representing the perspective of a 2  ×  2 MIMO antenna is
obtained by transforming the 1  ×  1 MIMO antenna configuration. The radiating
elements are placed orthogonally with a minimal distance between them to ensure
better isolation. Figure  5 also shows S-parameters and MIMO performance with
prototype shown in Fig.  5h, i. Surface current density is shown in Fig.  5b, c for
notched-band filters WiMAX and WLAN. As per the observations, the maximum
surface current density distribution is noted within anchor-shaped stub and around
C-type slot corresponding to 3.58 GHz and 5.51 GHz. This concentration of surface
current within and around stub/slots infers that all the signals are reflected due to a
high mismatch of impedance, thereby resulting in notched filters. Measured
S-parameters are shown in Fig. 5d, where reflection coefficients (S11/S22) and trans-
mission coefficients (S12/S21) are plotted. Measured S11/S22 covers UWB bandwidth

Fig. 5 (a) 2 × 2 MIMO antenna (b) SFD at 3.58GHz (c) 5.51GHz (d) S-Parameters (e) ECC &
DG measured (f) CCL (g) TARC (h) Prototype (Front) (i) Prototype (Ground)
156 M. Sharma

for which the antenna is designed with eliminating WiMAX/WLAN interfering

bands. The MIMO antenna offers better isolation of −25 dB in the operating band-
width shown by measured S12/S21. The MIMO antenna inheriting the property of
diversity performance is analyzed by studying envelope correlation coefficient
(ECC), directive gain (DG), channel capacity loss (CCL), and total active reflection
coefficient (TARC). The MIMO antenna nearly attaining the ideal values is calcu-
lated by the following formulas.
ECC is calculated by either radiation pattern or S-parameters by using the fol-
lowing formulas:

2

F , F ( , ) d
1 2

e 4

F1 , d F2 , d
2 2

4 (1)
2
S11 S12 S21

S22
ECC

(1 S 11
2
S21
2
(1 S 22
2
S12
2
(2)
For the MIMO antenna, the values of ECC  <  0.2. As from Eq.  2, the better the
reflection and transmission coefficients, the better the ECC values. Also, DG, which
is a parameter calculated by using ECC, requires to be >9.95 dB and is calculated by.

DG 10 1 e 2
(3)
The reliability of the signal, when received by the receiver, is signified by CCL,
which is calculated by.

CLoss log 2 M (4)
where

12
R 11
21 22 (5)

where

11 1 S11 S12
2 2

(6)

22 1 S22 S21
2 2

(7)

12 S11 S12 S21 S12

(8)

21 S22 S21 S12 S21

(9)
Planar Design, Analysis, and Characterization of Multiple-Input Multiple-Output Antenna 157

The values of CCL < 0.4 b/s/Hz, indicating the receiving of the non-distorted signal.
The TARC is defined as “the ratio of the square root of the total reflected power
divided by the square root of the total incident power in a multi-port antenna sys-
tem.” The S-parameter is not the only enough parameter for MIMO antenna
characterization.
Hence, a new metric TARC is defined, which is given below:

S11 S12 S21 S 22

2 2

TARC
2 (10)
Ideally the TARC<0 dB in the operating band of interest.
Figure 6 shows a 4 × 4 MIMO antenna configuration with Fig. 6a showing per-
spective view. Further, to increase the speed of transmission and further improve the
multiple path fading effects, a 2 × 2 MIMO antenna is converted to 4 × 4 MIMO
configuration by placing all the four radiating elements orthogonally. As per the
observation, all four radiating patches are fed by a 50 Ω SMA connector. Radiating
patches are placed with minimal distance, maintaining better isolation between all
four input ports. Figure 6b, c is the fabricated prototype developed by the conven-
tional photolithographic PCB fabrication method for better results. Figure 7 shows
the near-, far-field, and diversity performance of the 4 × 4 MIMO antenna. Figure 7a
shows the comparison of VSWR curves obtained from simulated and measured
results. There is a good agreement between both the simulated and measured results,
with a bandwidth corresponding to 2.74 GHz–11.12 GHz and 2.97 GHz–11.28 GHz,
respectively. Also, simulated and measured results ensure filtering of WiMAX and
WLAN interfering bands. Figure 7b compares gain and radiation efficiency with a
variety of gain ranges from 4.05 dBi to 5.32 dBi for antenna without the presence of
filters and 3.89 dBi to 4.96 dBi with filters. It can be also noted that there is a

Fig. 6 (a) 4 × 4 MIMO antenna perspective view (b) Prototype (front) (c) Prototype (ground)
158 M. Sharma

Fig. 7  4 × 4 MIMO antenna (a) VSWR comparison (b) Measured gain and radiation efficiency (c)
S-parameters for all four ports (S11/S22/S33/S44) (d) S-parameters (S21/S31/S41) (e)
S-parameters (S32/S42/S43) (f) SFD at 3.52 GHz (g) SFD at 5.56 GHz (g) VNA measurement (h)
Far-field measurement in anechoic chamber: 20 GHz

decrease in gain at 3.47  GHz with a value corresponding to −12.92 dBi and at
5.39 GHz the value of gain being −9.96 dBi.
Similarly, Fig. 7b also shows stable radiation efficiency between 75% and 90%.
Figure  7c represents reflection and transmission coefficients for all four ports.
Reflection coefficient curves for all four ports show suitability for UWB applica-
tions with WiMAX and WLAN filters. It can be also concluded that all four anten-
nas maintain the impedance bandwidth. Figure  7d, e shows the transmission
coefficient curves for all the possible combinations of any two ports out of the four
input ports. In both curves, the value of the transmission coefficient is well below
−20 dB. Figure 7f, g demonstrates the distribution of surface current for WiMAX
Planar Design, Analysis, and Characterization of Multiple-Input Multiple-Output Antenna 159

and WLAN notched filters. For both the interfering bands, simulation of surface
current density is carried at 3.52 GHz and 5.56 GHz. The maximum concentration
of the surface is observed within the anchor-shaped stub and around the C-type slot
on the radiating patch, suggesting a mismatch of impedance, thereby reflecting the
input signals instead of radiating them. Figure 7h shows the measurement of the
S-parameter where 20 GHz VNA is used, and Fig. 7i shows anechoic chamber mea-
surement for far-field results. Figure 7j represents the diversity performance of the
antenna where ECC is calculated by Eq. 11 and DG by Eq. 12. ECC for the said
MIMO antenna is less than 0.01, whereas DG > 9.95 dB in the UWB bandwidth:
2
S11 S12 S21

S22 S13 S32 S14 S42
e1,2, 4

(1 S
11
2 2 2
S21 S31 S41
2
(1 S
12
2 2 2
S22 S32 S42
2

(11)

DG 1 2 e1,2, 4
(12)

5  Conclusions

This chapter focused on planar antennas for MIMO high-speed wireless applica-
tions. Different aspects such as achieving higher isolation between the ports and
near-field, far-field, and diversity performance of the MIMO antennas were studied.
It was seen that by using stubs/slots either on the ground or radiating patch, Hilbert
fractal, parasitic stubs, and meandered line EBG structures were commonly used to
achieve better isolation. Discussed MIMO antennas also found better in terms of
diversity performance for both wideband and narrowband applications.

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wideband MIMO antenna including mitigation of dual notched bands characteristics designed
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Design of Smooth Curved
Hexagonal-­Shaped Four-Element MIMO
Antenna for WiMAX, Wi-Fi, and 5G
Applications

S. Rekha, G. Shine Let, and Madam Singh

1  Introduction

There is a rapid growth in the fifth-generation (5G) wireless communication due to

its promising performance enhancement in spectral efficiency, data rate, bandwidth,
reliability, area traffic, latency, power consumption, and so on. Multiple-input
multiple-­output (MIMO) technology is one of the solutions to achieve all these
performances in modern wireless systems. MIMO refers to the operation of multi-
ple antennas in the transmitter and receiver end. It provides a better solution to the
problem of non-line-of-sight communication to overcome the effects of multipath.
It also provides minimal data loss by improving the quality of the communication.
There are many challenges in designing multiple antennas in a limited and closed
space. One of the primary challenges is the isolation between the closely spaced
antennas. Many MIMO antennas are developed to improve the performance factors
like isolation factor, diversity gain (DG), total active reflection coefficient (TARC),
channel capacity loss (CCL), and mean effective gain (MEG). To lower the mutual

S. Rekha (*)
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Sreenidhi Institute of Science
and Technology, Hyderabad, India
e-mail: rekhas@[Link]
G. S. Let
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Karunya Institute of Technology
and Sciences, Coimbatore, India
e-mail: shinelet@[Link]
M. Singh
National university of Lesotho, Southern Africa, Rome, Lesotho
e-mail: [Link]@[Link]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 163

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
164 S. Rekha et al.

coupling between radiators, electromagnetic bandgap structures (EBG), resonators,

and defected ground structures are employed. In [1], a mushroom-shaped EBG
structure is kept between the antenna elements to suppress the coupling of surface
waves. This will increase the isolation between the radiators by suppressing the
surface waves. Also, the parasitic structures are used to reduce the mutual coupling.
Placing a patch-shaped meta-surface and a C-shaped parasitic element between the
dipole antennas has increased the isolation as indicated in [2]. But this technique
affects the impedance matching of the design, and it needs an external matching
circuit which increases the design complexity. In [3], differential feeding is used to
reduce the mutual coupling of the microstrip MIMO antenna array. This does not
require any additional structure to be inserted between the antenna elements. There
are various methods to increase the isolation such as decoupling networks [4, 5],
neutralization lines [6, 7], frequency-selective surfaces (FSS) or meta-surfaces [8,
9], ground-plane medications [10], and so on.
Ultra-wideband (UWB) application is one of the efficient wireless communica-
tion schemes. It has advantages such as high data rate, low power consumption, low
complexity, and affordability. The ultra-wideband characteristics are achieved using
gradual geometry, slots, resonant structures, etc. In some applications, band notch-
ing is required. It is achieved by embedding slots and branches, parasitic elements,
split-ring resonators, and EBG structures.
In [11], a rectangular notch band is designed on a CPW-fed UWB antenna. The
notch characteristics are achieved by using a dual mushroom-type EBG structure on
the CPW feeding line. By tuning and merging the resonant frequencies of EBG
structures, a rectangular notch band is achieved at wireless local area network
(5.150–5.825 GHz) and satellite downlink band (7.10–7.76 GHz). In [12], an eight-­
element UWB MIMO is designed, in which defected ground planes are etched at
the back of the antenna elements. Further, closed-loop FSS are introduced to achieve
better isolation between the antenna elements. Moreover, a circular arc-shaped
decoupling structure is used to enhance the isolation among the particular antenna
elements. In spite of various techniques, the proper positioning of the antenna ele-
ments provides good isolation.
In [13], a tree-shaped quad-element MIMO is proposed for 5G communications.
The radiator contains four different arcs to achieve wide bandwidth. They are placed
orthogonally with each other so that it provides a minimum of 20 dB isolation for
the entire frequency range from 23 GHz to 40 GHz. A self-decoupled MIMO having
a shared radiator is designed for 5G smartphone applications in [14]. Two feeding
ports are employed to feed the radiator directly. The ports are isolated easily over a
wide band, not requiring any additional decoupling structures. A mode cancellation
method is developed to study the self-decoupling mechanisms. This antenna oper-
ates in the 5G N77 band having pattern diversity. In [15], isolation is enhanced
between two closely packed radiating elements using a U-shaped resonator. The
coupling behavior is analyzed using a circuit model approach. In [16], a new fractal
loop is obtained by modifying Minkowski loop. Self-similarity is the basic property
of fractal geometry. This permits the designer to increase the length up to infinity
without increasing the area. Repetition of the fundamental structure is known to be
Design of Smooth Curved Hexagonal-Shaped Four-Element MIMO Antenna… 165

iterations. Here, it uses 3 iterations and finds its applications at WiMAX, RADAR,
and ATC applications. Furthermore, wearable MIMO antennas have attracted the
researchers during the past few years. The design is quite challenging because of its
operation close to human anatomy. Many real-time circumstances need to be con-
sidered such as bending, folding, and twisting which may degrade the performance.
In [17], a lightweight wearable UWB MIMO antenna was designed. It consists of
dual rings on the upper part of the jean material. A decoupling structure is intro-
duced at the bottom part of the jean to enhance the isolation. This wearable antenna
operates at WLAN, WiMAX, and C-band.
Similarly, [18] discusses the nature-inspired and wearable substrates which are
flexible. Repeated bending of wearable devices often leads to a decrease in conduc-
tivity. Micro-cracks are formed on the metallic conductor, which is an unwanted
phenomenon in flexible conductors. Hence, nature-inspired and flexible electronics
were proposed. Also, [19] discusses the fabrication of antennas on flexible materials
such as polymer, textile, paper, and fluids. These flexible materials find their appli-
cation depending on various properties such as loss tangent, tensile strength, defor-
mation, thermal stability, fabrication complexity, robustness to wetness, weight, and
stability.
In this chapter, a four-element/port MIMO antenna array is designed on a Rogers
substrate. The overall size of the antenna is 60 * 60 * 1.57 mm3. The radiators are
smooth hexagonal patches having an L-shaped slit at its center to establish imped-
ance matching with the desired frequency ranges. The operating frequency of the
four-element MIMO is from 4.4 GHz to 6.6 GHz. It provides isolation of -13 dB for
the entire frequency range, and the impedance bandwidth is 2.2 GHz. The proposed
antenna is applicable in 5G/WLAN/WiFi applications. To improve the isolation, a
decoupling structure is introduced in the ground player, which improves the isola-
tion parameter appreciably. Section 2 describes the development of the single radia-
tor and its reflection coefficient parameter. Section 3 explains the geometry of
four-element MIMO and its S-parameters. A decoupling structure is introduced in
the ground layer, and its S-performance is also analyzed. The performance metrics
of the MIMO array such as envelope correlation coefficient, diversity gain, total
active reflection coefficient, channel capacity loss, and mean effective gain are dis-
cussed in Sect. 4. Section 5 briefs the comparison of the proposed MIMO with other
works of literature. Finally, the conclusion is dealt with in Sect. 6.

2  Development of Single MIMO Radiator

The geometry of the proposed single radiator with optimized parameters is shown
in Fig. 1. The size of the single element is 30 * 30* 1.57 mm3. It is a hexagonal patch
having smooth and curved edges to provide smooth current distribution. The hex-
agonal radiator has a smaller area/size when compared to a square or a circular
patch for a particular frequency. This is a salient feature required for portable appli-
cations. This is placed at the top layer of the Rogers 5880 substrate having a
166 S. Rekha et al.

30 mm

3.5 mm

0.2 mm 12 mm

30 mm
4 mm Substrate
Radiator
Ground

12 mm 12 mm

X
Z
3 mm

Fig. 1  Geometry of the single MIMO radiator element

thickness of 1.57 mm, the dielectric constant of 2.2, and tangent loss of 0.0009. On
the rear end of the substrate, a partial rectangular ground plane is placed.
It is beneficial to note that a curve is etched in the rectangular plane to enhance
the impedance matching with the operating frequency. Also, an L-shaped slit is cut
on the patch to perform frequency translation. Without the slit, the patch is radiating
from 5.4 GHz to 11.6 GHz. The frequency is lowered by placing the slit and it is
from 4.6 GHz to 6.7 GHz. The simulated reflection coefficient is displayed in Fig. 2.

3  Four-Element MIMO Antenna

3.1  MIMO Antenna Without Decoupling Structure

The single radiator is repeated as four elements and placed orthogonally with each
other at the top of the substrate. Similarly, four ground planes are placed on the bot-
tom plane concerning the position of the radiator. All four individual grounds are
connected as common ground. The overall size of the antenna is 60 * 60 * 1.57 mm3,
and it is built on Rogers 5880 substrate. The schematic is shown in Fig. 3. Each
radiator is separated at a distance of 18 mm, which is approximately equal to 0.4λ,
where “λ” represents the highest operating frequency at 6.6 GHz. This distance of
separation is providing sufficient isolation between the elements.
Design of Smooth Curved Hexagonal-Shaped Four-Element MIMO Antenna… 167

Fig. 2  Simulated reflection coefficient of the single MIMO radiator element

Fig. 3  Geometry of the proposed four-element MIMO antenna

168 S. Rekha et al.

Fig. 4  Simulated reflection coefficients for the four-element MIMO

Fig. 5  Simulated transmission coefficients for the four-element MIMO

The maximum reflection coefficient is -28 dB at 5.3 GHz, and the operating
frequency is from 4.4 GHz to 6.6 GHz. The reflection coefficient characteristics is
depicted in Fig. 4. The transmission coefficients are displayed in Fig. 5 in which Sij
are lesser than -13 dB for the operating frequencies of 4.4–6.6 GHz. The structure
itself provides acceptable isolation, i.e., less than -13 dB. To improve the isolation
Design of Smooth Curved Hexagonal-Shaped Four-Element MIMO Antenna… 169

further, a simple decoupling structure is placed in the ground, and a brief study is
carried.

3.2  MIMO Antenna with Decoupling Structure

The four-element MIMO is provided with a decoupling line at the ground layer,
and the radiators are kept the same as shown in Fig. 6. With the insertion of the
decoupling line, there are considerable changes in the reflection and transmis-
sion coefficients. This antenna is operating from the frequency of 3.2 GHz–6.6
GHz, having a maximum reflection coefficient of -30 dB at 6.2 GHz. The decou-
pling structure has increased the impedance bandwidth, i.e., 3.4 GHz as shown
in Fig. 7.
Figure 8 displays the simulated transmission coefficient of the MIMO antenna
having a decoupling structure. There is a remarkable difference between Figs. 5
and 8. In Fig.  8, there is appreciable isolation between opposite antenna pairs
(2,4) and (3,4) for the frequency range of 3.2 GHz–6.6 GHz. The maximum isola-
tion is -60 dB for antenna pairs 2 and 4. The adjacent antenna pair (1,2) and (3,4)
experiences acceptable isolation of −13  dB for the operating range of 3.2
GHz–6.6 GHz.

Fig. 6  Geometry of four-element MIMO antenna with decoupling structure

170 S. Rekha et al.

Fig. 7  Simulated reflection coefficient with decoupling structure

Fig. 8  Simulated transmission coefficients with decoupling structure

4  Performance Metrics Analysis of Four-Element MIMO

It is significant to calculate and analyze the diversity performance of the MIMO

antenna to justify that it behaves well in a multipath fading surrounding. In the real
scenario, the multiple paths vary in length and hence create a time delay. Because of
time delay, there is considerable signal interference. To avoid this problem, the
Design of Smooth Curved Hexagonal-Shaped Four-Element MIMO Antenna… 171

MIMO antenna needs to be evaluated for performance metrics such as envelope

correlation coefficient (ECC), CCL, DG, MEG, and TARC. The scattering matrix
and far-field parameters are employed to validate the performance of the MIMO
antenna. The description of the parameters is presented in the following sections.

4.1  Envelope Correlation Coefficient (ECC)

ECC is one of the notable performance metrics of the MIMO system. ECC notifies
how two antennas are independent of each other. For example, the correlation
between a horizontally polarized antenna and a vertically polarized antenna is zero.
Similarly, the correlation between two closely placed MIMO antennas should be as
close to zero. This indicates that the mutual coupling between two antennas is near
zero. It can be calculated from the S-parameters using Eq. (1):
2
S11∗ S12 + S22
∗
S21 (1)
ECC =
1 − S + S
 11 (
12
2 2
) 1 − ( S 22
2
+ S21
2
)
However, Eq. (1) is only precise when the efficiency of the antenna is near 100%.
Hence, the far-field radiation of the antenna is preferred to find ECC, which is given
by the Eq. (2):

∫ ∫4π  F1 (θ ,ϕ ) ∗ F2 (θ ,ϕ ) d Ω 
0

ρe =
∫∫ F1 (θ ,ϕ ) d Ω ∫∫ F2 (θ ,ϕ ) d Ω
0 2 0 2

4π 4π (2)
where
Fi(θ, ϕ)is the radiated field of ith antenna
θ is the elevation angle
ϕ is the azimuth angle
“S11” is the “reflection coefficient at port 1”
“S22” is the “reflection coefficient at port 2”
“S12” and “S21” are port isolation between antennas 1 and 2.
From Fig. 9, it is observed that ECC is calculated from S-parameters and far-field
parameters for antennas 1 and 2. The value of ECC is less than 0.007 (close to zero)
for both the S-parameter and far-field parameter. The value indicates that there is an
extremely low mutual coupling between antennas 1 and 2, which is a desired factor
for MIMO antenna system. Similarly, all the other adjacent antenna pairs have ECC
values close to zero.
172 S. Rekha et al.

Fig. 9  Simulated ECC from S-parameters and far-field parameters between antennas 1 and 2

Fig. 10  Simulated diversity gain between antennas 1 and 2

4.2  Diversity Gain (DG)

Diversity gain indicates the reduction in the transmission power when a diversity
scheme is introduced. In other terms, it is the increase in the signal-to-interference
ratio owing to the diversity schemes. It is sometimes called as power ratio. It is cal-
culated from ECC as given in Eq. (3). It is usually expressed in decibels. DG is
calculated using the ECC formula for both S-values and far-field values:
Design of Smooth Curved Hexagonal-Shaped Four-Element MIMO Antenna… 173

(
DG = 10 1 − ρe
2
) (3)
In Fig.10, DG is calculated from S-parameters and far-field parameters for antennas
1 and 2. The DG ranges from 9.9 dB to 10 dB from S-parameter calculation, whereas
it ranges from 9.7 dB to 9.9 dB from far-field calculation over the entire operating
range. These are the desirable range of values, and it confirms the suitability of the
proposed antenna in a MIMO system.

4.3  Total Active Reflection Coefficient (TARC)

TARC is expressed as the ratio of the total incident power to the radiated power.
TARC is computed as the square root of the incident power given by all excita-
tions minus the radiated power. Then, it is divided by the incident power. For
lossy antennas, it can be found using the Eq. (4). Here, θ is the varying input
phase angle of port 1 (from 0֩ to 180֩), and phase of the port 2 is kept constant. In
simple words, it is the reflective coefficient of the MIMO antenna pair. Figure 11
shows TARC plotted between antennas 1 and 2 for varying phase angles, and the
maximum TARC value is -25 dB at 5.2 GHz. The antenna pair 1 and 2 shows
good reflection coefficient (less than -10 dB) for the entire frequency range from
4.4 GHz to 6.6 GHz:

Fig. 11  Simulated TARC for varying phase angle θ of port 1

174 S. Rekha et al.

Γ=
( S +S e )+( S
ii ij
jθ 2
ji + S jj e jθ
2
)
2 (4)
Sii or Sjj represents reflection coefficient in dB.
Sij or Sji represents port isolation in dB.

4.4  Channel Capacity Loss (CCL)

CCL indicates the loss in the transmission during a high data rate transmission. The
acceptable limit of CCL is 0.4 bits/s/Hz. It is calculated using Eqs. (5, 6, 7, 8, and
9). The CCL is plotted between (1,2) and (1,4) antenna pairs in Fig. 12:

Closs = − log 2 det Ψ R ( ) (5)

 Ψ ii Ψ ij 
ΨR =  
 Ψ ji Ψ jj 
(6)

(
Ψ ii = 1 – Sii + Sij
2 2
) (7)
Ψ ij = − ( Sii ∗ Sij + S ji ∗ S jj )
(8)

Fig. 12  Simulated CCL between antenna (1,2) and (1,4) pairs
Design of Smooth Curved Hexagonal-Shaped Four-Element MIMO Antenna… 175

Ψ ji = − ( S jj ∗ S ji + Sij ∗ S jj )
(9)

( 2
Ψ jj = 1 – S jj + S ji
2
) (10)
where ΨR is the correlation matrix of the receiver antenna. It is observed in Fig. 12
that the value of CCL ranges between 0.4 and 0.1 bits/s/Hz for the entire operat-
ing band.

4.5  Mean Effective Gain (MEG)

It is the defined as the ratio of mean received power to the mean incident power in
the multipath fading environment. The MEG is calculated using Eqs. (11, 12, 13,
14, and 15):

 k
2 
MEGi = 0.5 ∗  1 − ∑ Sij 
 j =1  (11)

( 2 2
MEG1 = 0.5 ∗ 1 − S11 − S1 2 − S1 3 − S1 4
2 2
) (12)

( 2
MEG2 = 0.5 ∗ 1 − S21 − S22 − S23 − S24
2 2 2
) (13)

( 2
MEG3 = 0.5 ∗ 1 − S31 − S32 − S33 − S34
2 2 2
) (14)

( 2
MEG4 = 0.5 ∗ 1 − S41 − S42 − S43 − S44
2 2 2
) (15)
Table 1  Mean effective gain ratio for the antenna pair (1,2) and (3,4)
Frequency (in MEG 1 (in MEG 2 (in MEG 3 (in MEG 4 (in MEG 1 / MEG 3/
GHz) dB) dB) dB) dB) MEG 2 MEG 4
4 −7.66 −6.93 −6.52 −7.01 1.1 0.93
4.3 −6.35 −6.68 −7.21 −7.56 0.95 0.95
4.6 −8.61 −8.62 −8.56 −8.67 0.99 0.98
4.9 −7.34 −7.58 −7.63 −7.62 0.96 1.00
5.2 −6.25 −6.75 −6.65 −6.45 0.92 1.03
5.5 −7.27 −7.28 −7.45 −7.56 0.99 0.98
5.8 −6.37 −6.48 −6.89 −6.56 0.96 1.05
6.1 −7.48 −7.57 −7.45 −7.21 0.97 1.03
6.5 −7.93 −7.96 −8.21 −8.45 0.99 0.97
176 S. Rekha et al.

Table 2  Performance analysis of the proposed four-port MIMO antenna with literature
Operating
frequency Antenna Isolation DG
References Techniques (GHz) Ports size (mm2) (dB) ECC (dB)
[20] Dual elliptically 2.3–2.7 4 66 * 66 −17 <0.04 >9
tapered patch
[21] CPW-fed 3.4–4.4 8 150 * 75 −16 <0.005 –
diversity
[22] Monopole 3.4–3.6 8 150 * 75 −15 >0.015 –
[23] Diamond-ring 3.3–3.9 8 150 * 75 −17 < 0.01 –
slot
[24] L-shaped 3.3–4.2, 120 * 65 −18.8 <0.018 –
monopole 3.3–3.8,
4.4–5
[25] Metamaterial 4.55–4.75 24 136 * 68 −10 dB – –
[26] Two dipoles 2.52, 5.73 4 89 * 86 −19 <0.05 9.95
[27] DGS 5.3 2 60 * 50 −41 <0.0072 Near 10
Proposed Hexagonal 4.4–6.6 4 60 * 60 −60dB < 0.007 9.7–10
work radiator (max)
−18dB
(min)

Practically, the MEG values must lie between −3 dB ≤ MEG < −12 dB for a good
diversity antenna. It is observed from Table 1 that all the MEG values are within the
accepted range. Also, the ratio of MEG1/MEG2 and MEG3/MEG4 is approxi-
mately equal to 1. This proves that better diversity is possessed by the proposed
MIMO antenna in a fading environment.

5  P
erformance Comparison of Four-Port MIMO Antennas
with Literature

The performance of the proposed four-port MIMO is compared with literature, and
it is listed in Table 2. The comparison includes operating bands, number of excita-
tion ports, size of the antenna, isolation parameter, envelope correlation coefficient,
and diversity gain.
The proposed antenna is compared with similar literatures, and the performance
is tabulated in Table 2. The proposed system consists of four antenna elements hav-
ing an area of 60*60  mm2. The maximum isolation provided by the proposed
antenna is -60 dB, which is much greater than the other references. The ECC is
much less than the acceptable value, and directive gain is desirable over the operat-
ing frequency range.
Design of Smooth Curved Hexagonal-Shaped Four-Element MIMO Antenna… 177

6  Conclusion

This chapter presents the design of a four-element smooth curved hexagonal MIMO
antenna for WLAN/WiMAX/5G applications. The proposed four-element MIMO
has acceptable isolation of -13 dB. To enhance isolation, decoupling structures are
inserted in the ground plane. The antenna is operating from 3.2 GHz to 6.6 GHz,
possessing a wide bandwidth of 3.4 GHz. The design exhibits excellent isolation
between opposite antenna pairs. High isolation, good reflection coefficient, and
compactness are some of the highlighting features. The MIMO performance met-
rics are simulated. The value of ECC is less than 0.007 for the entire operating band.
Other MIMO performance factors are also satisfactory. This indicates that the pro-
posed antenna is well suitable for MIMO systems.

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advances of wearable antennas in materials, fabrication methods, designs, and their applica-
tions: state-of-the-art. Micromachines. 11(10), 888 (2020)
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Wi-Fi application. AEU Int. J. Electron. Commun. 111, 152893 (2019)
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M., Abd-Alhameed, R.A.: A new CPW-Fed diversity antenna for MIMO 5G smartphones.
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A Quad-Port Orthogonal Wideband
MIMO Antenna Employing Artificial
Magnetic Conductor for 60 GHz
Millimeter-Wave Applications

G. Viswanadh Raviteja

1  Introduction

Ever since there is a technological advancement in the wireless communication

industry, the necessity for high data rates increased at an alarming rate. One way of
addressing this demand for high data rates and effective spectrum efficiency is by
the deployment of multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) antenna systems [1].
These antenna systems are candidates in many of the ongoing research because of
their advantages such as wide coverage, high reliability, and the capability in pro-
ducing high throughput [2]. The transmitted signal from the antennas often under-
goes fading caused by the multipath propagations, which are caused due to the
presence of hills or tall buildings. The MIMO antenna system offers the feature of
evading these unwanted multipath propagations [3, 4]. Also, the MIMO antenna
system is an efficient way to increase the capacity of the channel. The coupling
effect arises between any two antennas that are placed close to each other. This is
because of the effects of the surface waves and the fields associated with the anten-
nas. Therefore, to minimize these unwanted challenges, good isolation is important
between the antennas [5, 6].
Also, nowadays, the space concerning design considerations is very much lim-
ited to portable devices. Therefore, achieving proper isolation is an important design
aspect in these closely packed modern devices. More recently, many studies have
been proposed for millimeter-wave communications that support extremely high
data rates and increased system capacity Microstrip patch antenna array working at
60 GHz frequency range for smart glasses is discussed in [7]. In this work, parasitic
elements are implemented for improving the performance of the antenna. Channel

G. V. Raviteja (*)
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Anil Neerukonda Institute of
Technology and Sciences, Visakhapatnam, Andra Pradesh, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 179

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
180 G. V. Raviteja

characterization for microcellular radio at 60 GHz for fifth-generation applications

is shown in [8]. A simple 2X2 wideband U-slot patch antenna array is designed at a
28 GHz frequency range as discussed in [9]. In particular, millimeter-wave com-
munications utilizing the unlicensed band of 60  GHz (57–64  GHz) have drawn
much attention in recent times as this frequency band is estimated to accommodate
higher data rates possibly more than 1 Gigabit per second. Two electromagnetically
coupled patches operating for dual-frequency (38/60 GHz) proposed for 5G mobile
handset are discussed in [10]. A 60 GHz printed patch antenna employing defected
ground structure is discussed in [11]. In this, a pair of L-shaped folded strip patch is
etched on a printed silicon substrate, and its performance is evaluated. A patch
antenna array with beam-steering capability is proposed in [12]. In this, six U-shaped
patch antenna elements are used, which are spaced half wavelength to cover the
57–63  GHz band. In [13], a multilayered CPW-fed patch antenna is proposed at
60 GHz, in which the top three layers form the antenna and the bottom three layers
form the artificial magnetic conductor (AMC) material. This antenna provided more
in-phase bandwidth. A quasi-Yagi and stacked series planar antenna array is pro-
posed for 5G applications in [14], where reflection coefficient and directional char-
acteristics were studied. An on-chip antenna is fabricated using the CMOS process
as proposed in [15]. This On-chip antenna is supported by an AMC and is proposed
to overcome the losses associated with lossy CMOS substrate. When utilizing an
antenna system that is aimed at 60 GHz operating frequency, the directional beams
may have an impact on the health status of the human body. Therefore, it is vital to
check the characteristics, such as the specific absorption rate (SAR), when using
these antenna systems [16].
To manipulate the electromagnetic behavior of an antenna generally, metamate-
rials are used [17]. Artificial magnetic conductor (AMC) comes under the class of
metamaterials, which usually mimics perfect magnetic conductor characteristics
which involve providing zero-degree phase reflections at the resonant frequencies
[18]. This is shown in Fig. 1. Various antenna designs employing the AMC applica-
tions are discussed in [19–25].
In this research article, a four-element wideband MIMO antenna employing
AMC is presented, which is realized by a high impedance surface (HIS) at 60 GHz

Fig. 1  Radiating element against an AMC and PEC

A Quad-Port Orthogonal Wideband MIMO Antenna Employing Artificial Magnetic… 181

for millimeter-wave applications. The antenna design concerning the AMC is dis-
cussed, and also the important MIMO parameters such as envelope correlation coef-
ficient (ECC), total active reflection coefficient (TARC), diversity gain (DG), and
mean effective gain (MEG) are computed and presented. Also, the specific absorp-
tion rate (SAR) analysis is carried out to find out the compliance level with the
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) set limits. All the simulations and
analyses are carried out using the high-frequency structure simulator (HFSS)
software.

2  The MIMO Antenna Backed by AMC Design Structure

Initially, a single radiating element is designed for 60 GHz frequency. The width
and length are considered using the microstrip antenna design parameters discussed
in [26]. The dimensions of the antenna are taken to be 1738 x 1369 μm (W × L in
(μm)). The patch is etched over a dielectric substrate, Rogers RT/duroid 5880 (tm)
with a dielectric constant of “2.2,” and loss tangent “0.0009.” The height of the
substrate is considered to be 100 μm. The structure is shown in Fig. 2a.

Fig. 2 (a) Single element (b) Four-port MIMO structure (c) Parametric analysis for feedline width
(single element) (d) Parametric analysis of CPW ground length
182 G. V. Raviteja

The parametric for a single element in terms of the feedline width is simulated
and is depicted in Fig. 2c. The impedance matching effect is observed with incre-
mental values “n,” which is the feedline width. At width “n = 80μm – black line”
even though the impedance matching is better, the resonance frequency observed its
shift toward the lower frequency. At the values 100–120 μm of the feedline width,
these three values maintained their center frequency at 60 GHz, but the parametric
line with “n =100μm - green” has better matching in terms of impedance compared
to the feedline width of 110 and 120 μm values. Therefore, the optimum width of
the feedline is considered to be 100 μm. The gain of the single element is found to
be around 2.54 dB; the two-dimensional radiation plot can be seen in the subplot of
Fig. 2c. The antenna is fed by the CPW feeding technique.
Parametric analysis is conducted for the length of the coplanar ground planes
situated beside the feedline. The parameter “p” which constitutes the length is var-
ied on a scale of 10 μm. The resonance frequency saw a shift toward higher frequen-
cies when “p” is increased 370 μm, viz., 380 μm, 390 μm, and 400 μm. And on the
other side, the values behind “p = 370 μm” saw a shift on the resonance frequency
toward the lower frequencies. At length 370 μm only, the resonance frequency is
well maintained at 60 GHz; therefore, the optimum value of the coplanar ground
plane is considered to be 370 μm. This is shown in Fig. 2d.
Once the single-element design is completed, the MIMO design is carried out. A
quad-port MIMO antenna with an orthogonal combination of elements is taken to
address better isolation characteristics. The four-port MIMO antenna end design is
shown in Fig. 2b. It is to be noted that the radiation pattern configuration of the cur-
rent antenna structure is bidirectional as seen in the subplot of Fig. 2c, which is not
useful when implementing for millimeter-wave applications. Therefore, to change
the bidirectional pattern to a unidirectional pattern, a reflector is placed behind the
antenna. Also, for this purpose, the reflector considered is an AMC reflector instead
of a PEC to make sure that a smaller height is realizable between the antenna and
the reflector. This makes the MIMO antenna more compact, and the incorporation
of AMC increases the gain, and a good F/B ratio can be achieved. Four-unit cells are
backed by each antenna element of the MIMO antenna.
The design direction of each unit cell as shown in Fig. 3c is taken along the direc-
tion configuration of the antenna main axis. The AMC is optimized for 60  GHz
frequency using the ANSYS HFSS software, the unit cell dimension being 650 ×
500 μm (width × length).
Arlon DiClad 880 (tm) is taken to be the AMC substrate with a dielectric con-
stant of “2.2” and a loss tangent of “0.0009” to match the properties of the antenna
substrate. The AMC substrate is backed by a metal plane. Figure 3d shows the AMC
unit cell reflection phase of 00 at the operating frequency of 60 GHz and ± 100 varia-
tion in the range of 57–62.5 GHz, indicating the plane wave being almost unaltered
on the influence of the AMC reflector.
A Quad-Port Orthogonal Wideband MIMO Antenna Employing Artificial Magnetic… 183

Fig. 3 (a) Quad-port MIMO antenna (b) AMC configuration (c) Proposed quad-port MIMO
antenna backed by AMC (d) Plot showing AMC unit cell configuration and reflection phase versus
frequency characteristics

3  Simulations and Analysis

The S-parameters for the proposed wideband MIMO antenna backed by AMC is
calculated. Figure 4a represents the reflection coefficient plot for all the four antenna
elements. It is seen from the figure; the |S11| ≤ −10 dB impedance bandwidth is
well maintained for all the antenna elements from 57 to 62.5 GHz frequency band.
When considering the MIMO antenna system, it is extremely important to take
the mutual coupling effect into account. This parameter is analyzed when port 1 is
excited and the rest 3 ports are terminated using characteristic impedances of 50
ohms. Figures 4b, c depict the required information regarding the mutual coupling
effect from port 1 as well as all other ports. The isolation or transmission coeffi-
cients as seen from Figs. 4b, c is well below −20 dB level for the entire operating
bandwidth range of 57–62.5 GHz.
Figure 5 shows the surface current distributions when all four ports are excited
individually for the operating frequency of 60  GHz. The values stand around
101  A/m and 106  A/m when ports 1 and 2 are excited individually and around
147 A/m and 136 A/m when the rest of the two ports 3 and 4 are excited separately.
184 G. V. Raviteja

Fig. 4 (a) S-parameters for the quad-port MIMO antenna: reflection coefficients (b) S-parameters
for the proposed MIMO antenna at port 1 (c) S-parameters for the quad-port MIMO antenna at
other ports

Figure 6 deals with two-dimensional radiation patterns. It can be seen from the
figure; the proposed antenna has good radiation characteristics in the forward direc-
tion in both the principal planes.
A good co-polarization indicates the antenna’s performance in the desired direc-
tion. The patterns in the figure are calculated at the operating frequency of 60 GHz
for different port excitations. The cross-polarization levels shown are well below
−20 dB margin, indicating a good agreement between the co-polarization and cross-­
polarization of the proposed MIMO antenna.
The diversity capabilities for a MIMO antenna are estimated using parameters
such as envelope correlation coefficient (ECC), total active reflection coefficient
(TARC), mean effective gain (MEG), and diversity gain (DG). These are given by
the formulas stated as:
2
S pp S pq S qp Sqq
ECC

1 S pp
2
S pq
2
1 S qp
2
Sqq
2

(1)

S S pq Sqp Sqq
2 2
pp
TARC
2 (2)
A Quad-Port Orthogonal Wideband MIMO Antenna Employing Artificial Magnetic… 185

Fig. 5  Surface current distribution for different port excitations

Figure 7a deals with the ECC versus frequency plot. From the figure, it is evident
that the ECC value is less than 0.04 for the entire impedance bandwidth range of
57–62.5  GHz between any two antenna elements. Also, as seen from the figure,
ECC12 and ECC 14 are similar in characteristics compared to ECC13. This is due
to the fact that antenna elements 2 and 4 are in a similar orientation to element 1
compared to element 3. In general, the ECC value should be less than 0.5 where it
is considered to be satisfactory, and if the level of ECC is less than 0.3, then it is
considered extremely good for the MIMO applications. The proposed wideband
MIMO antenna backed by AMC is well within the mentioned limits, and it is as low
as <0.04. The TARC versus frequency plot is shown in Fig. 7b. The standard limit
is < −10 dB, and the figure shows that the levels are as low as less than −20 dB.
The mean effective gain (MEG) shown in Fig. 7c is calculated using the relation
described in [27]. From the figure, MEG 1 and MEG 2 are confined antenna ele-
ments 1 and 2, and MEG 3 and MEG 4 are confined to elements 1 and 3, and simi-
larly, MEG 5 and MEG 6 relate to elements 1 and 4. As with the case of ECC,
because of the similarity in the orientation of elements 2 and 4 with element 1
compared to element 3, similar characteristic curves are seen for TARC12 and
TARC14 compared to TARC13. As per standards, the difference in MEG should be
less than 3 dB, and it is evident from the figure the difference values are close to
1 dB for the entire impedance bandwidth of 57–62.5 GHz, which is less than the
standard limit of <3 dB. The diversity gain (DG) versus frequency plot shown in
186 G. V. Raviteja

Fig. 6  Two-dimensional radiation pattern plots at different port excitations

Fig. 7d is calculated using the relation described in [28]. The DG levels indicate
values higher than 9.98 for the entire operating range.
The radiation efficiency and gain are simulated as shown in Figs.  8a, b. The
radiation efficiency is found to be more than 80% in the frequency range of
57–62.5 GHz with a peak efficiency of close to 93% at 60 GHz. The gain of the
proposed antenna is found to be over 7 dB in the mentioned range. While consider-
ing the wideband ranges, it is important to calculate the group delay, which should
be constant throughout the mentioned range. From Fig.  8c, it can be seen that a
group delay is almost constant. Even though a small spike is seen at 60 GHz fre-
quency, it constituted less than 250 picoseconds. Overall, good phase linearity is
observed in the group delay plot, which satisfies the demand for wideband ranges.

4  Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) Analysis

The SAR effect on the human body is of prime importance while designing any
antenna. The SAR is estimated using the relation stated as;
2
E
SAR

(3)
A Quad-Port Orthogonal Wideband MIMO Antenna Employing Artificial Magnetic… 187

Fig. 7 (a) Envelope correlation coefficient plot (b) Total active reflection coefficient plot (c) Mean
effective gain plot (d) Diversity gain plot

where “σ” represents conductivity (s/m), E is the electric field (V/m), and “ρ” is
the biological tissue mass density often represented in (kg/m3). In this work, the
proposed MIMO antenna backed by AMC is placed at a distance of 10 mm from the
target tissue. A six-layer homogenous human head model consisting of the skin, fat,
bone, dura, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and brain as shown in Fig.  9 is designed.
Each one of these six layers has a specific permittivity (εr), conductivity (S/m), loss
tangent value, density (kg/m3), and thickness (mm). These specifications are men-
tioned in the references [29, 30].
Figure 10 shows the computed SAR values for different layers. Tables 1 and 2
represent the SAR values using 1 g and 10 g of tissues. Also, SAR values are com-
puted using three different input powers. From Tables 1 and 2, it is seen that the
SAR values for the proposed antenna are within the limits set by the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC), which is 1.6 Watts/kg.
188 G. V. Raviteja

Fig. 8 (a) Radiation efficiency versus frequency plot (b) 2D gain versus frequency plot (c) Group
delay versus frequency plot

Fig. 9  The proposed MIMO antenna placed above the six-layer human head model for SAR
analysis (the six layers are scaled for the purpose of easy understanding/view)
A Quad-Port Orthogonal Wideband MIMO Antenna Employing Artificial Magnetic… 189

Fig. 10  SAR values corresponding to 1 g of tissue

Table 1  SAR values for six-layer human head model (1 g of tissue)
Mass of tissue = 1gram SAR value (w/kg)
Input power Skin Fat Bone Dura CSF Brain
1 mW 0.042 0.00697 0.0040 0.0263 0.0457 0.0188
25 mW 0.9971 0.174 0.102 0.659 0.944 0.472
50 mW 1.142 0.348 0.204 1.318 1.289 0.944

Table 2  SAR values for 6-layer Human head model (10 g of tissue)
Mass of tissue = 10gram SAR value (w/kg)
Input power Skin Fat Bone Dura CSF Brain
1 mW 0.018 0.003 0.002 0.01295 0.022 0.009
25 mW 0.468 0.084 0.021 0.2995 0.442 0.206
50 mW 0.541 0.144 0.072 0.629 0.614 0.442
190 G. V. Raviteja

5  Conclusion

A quad-port wideband MIMO antenna backed by AMC is proposed. The antenna is

targeted to cover the 60 GHz millimeter-wave applications. An orthogonal configu-
ration is maintained between the individual antenna elements to provide better iso-
lation. The S11 plot showed that the proposed antenna showed an impedance
bandwidth (|S11| ≤ −10 dB) of 5.5 GHz covering the range of 57–62.5 GHz. Good
isolation of less than −20 dB is achieved. The MIMO performance in terms of enve-
lope correlation coefficient (ECC), mean effective gain (MEG), total active reflec-
tion coefficient (TARC), and diversity gain (DG) is also computed, which showed
ECC < 0.04, MEG close to 1.0 dB, TARC < −10 dB, and DG over 9.98 for the
mentioned frequency range. The radiation efficiency achieved is over 80% of the
operating range with a peak efficiency close to 93% at 60GHz and a gain of over
7 dB, and a group delay with good phase linearity is observed. Specific absorption
rate (SAR) values are also computed using the designed six-layer human head
model with varying power inputs of 1 mW, 25 mW, and 50 mW for both 1 g and
10 g of tissue. The SAR values show that the proposed MIMO antenna backed by
AMC is well within the FCC recommended standard limit of 1.6 Watts/kg and
therefore is an ideal one for millimeter-wave applications.

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5G Massive MIMO-OFDM System Model:
Existing Channel Estimation Algorithms
and Its Review

Nilofer Shaik and Praveen Kumar Malik

1  Introduction

In recent days, 5G wireless system designers are facing enormous challenges, which
include the availability of spectrum and space-time varying wireless environment.
Some of the other challenges such as increase of demand for high data rates, better
QoS, and huge network capacity have emerged into new promising technologies.
mMIMO has emerged as a promising technology for all these measures. The pres-
ent wireless technologies have to meet the rapidly increasing data rate demand and
also avoid the data traffic crunch. It is also an important task to satisfy the expecta-
tions for the QoS. Users expect the wireless services to be quite efficient and robust.
To keep up with an exponential traffic growth rate and simultaneously provide ubiq-
uitous connectivity, industrial and academic researchers need to turn every stone to
design new revolutionary wireless network technologies. So is the requirement of
efficient mMIMO technology, which is a solution to handle several orders of mag-
nitude of more data traffic than present technologies. mMIMO is the most promis-
ing technology for 5G and beyond the wireless access era.
Definition: mMIMO is an extension of MIMO, which groups several numbers
of antennas at the transmitter and several numbers of antennas at the receiver to
provide better throughput and spectrum efficiency [1].
The main idea behind mMIMO is the signals are sampled in the spatial domain
at the transmitter and at the receiver are grouped in such a way that they create effi-
cient multiple parallel spatial data pipes, which will increase the data rates and add
diversity to improve the quality of wireless communication. It is also called as smart
antennas or space-time wireless communication. Several numbers of array antennas
will improve the spectral efficiency and energy efficiency. Other advantages of

N. Shaik (*) · P. K. Malik

Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 193

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
194 N. Shaik and P. K. Malik

Fig. 1  Illustration of mMIMO systems

mMIMO are that the low power components are used and the cost of the compo-
nents is less. The illustration of mMIMO systems is show in Fig. 1.

2  Massive MIMO System Model

Consider a mMIMO where base station is equipped with tens to hundreds of anten-
nas which communicate with several numbers of users simultaneously using spatial
multiplexing [2, 3]. Figure 2 shows mMIMO system model for a single cell in both
uplink and downlink transmissions.
A base station with M-antenna serves K-single user antennas simultaneously
using spatial multiplexing. An assumption is made on channel reciprocity so that the
channel matrix relation is the matrix response for both uplink and downlink [4]. For
each time-frequency resource, the downlink signal model is given as:

Yl = √ ρ dl Hzl + nl (1)

where Hl is K*M is the propagation channel matrix, zl is the normalized vector

across the M-antennas, y is the receive signal vector at the K-users, and n is the
white noise vector with iid. with CN(0;σ n2), √ρdlcontains the transmit power in the
downlink. Due to reciprocity, the uplink channel matrix is given as:
5G Massive MIMO-OFDM System Model: Existing Channel Estimation Algorithms… 195

Fig. 2  mMIMO system model in the (a) uplink and (b) downlink

Z l = √ ρul HlY yl + nl (2)

Depending on the used power scaling scheme, the total power from all users is
ρdl and ρul. An assumption such as iid Gaussian transmit signals are used with per-
fect CSI is obtained at the receiver; the achievable data rate [5] is expressed as:

  ρ 
C = log 2  det  I + HH H   bps / Hz (3)
 N
  t 
Figure 3 depicts the average gain of the serviceable antennas in Rayleigh channel
and LOS propagation.

3  Massive MIMO-OFDM System Model

Several numbers of antennas combined with multicarrier modulation schemes give

efficacy performance for a 5G wireless communication system. One of the very
kinds that is referred in this paper is the MIMO-OFDM model, which uses different
kinds of FFT algorithms [6]. With improved features, the mMIMO-OFDM model
has become one of the most capable techniques for 5G wireless communication
systems. The combination of mMIMO with OFDM increases throughput because of
mMIMO systems and flat fading. The mathematical expression for frequency-­
selective mMIMO channel is given as:

Z ( t ) = H ( 0 ) s ( t ) + H (1) s ( t − 1)…………+ H ( L − 1) s ( t − L − 1) + n ( t ) (4)

196 N. Shaik and P. K. Malik

Fig. 3  Average array gain vs number of service antennas for massive MIMO systems

where
s (t) = transmitter vector at time t
s (t-1) = transmitter vector at time (t-1)
H(L) = channel matrix corresponding to tap L (NxM matrix)
n ( t ) = noise
IFFT operation is performed for each transmitter antenna in mMIMO-OFDM to
overcome the problem of ISI, which occurs between current and previous transmit-
ted vector symbols. mMIMO frequency-selective channel is converted into a set of
multiple parallel flat fading mMIMO channels using mMIMO-OFDM system [7].
The mathematical expression for N-parallel flat fading mMIMO channels is
given as:

z ( k ) = H ( k ) s ( k ) (5)

where
z ( k ) = Rx1 a receiver vector corresponding to subcarrier k=0 to N-1
H ( k ) = Flat fading channel matrix corresponding to subcarrier k = 0 to M-1
s ( k ) = Tx1 a transmitter vector corresponding to subcarrier k = 0 to M-1
Each of z ( k ) can be processed using different types of detectors at the receiver
with a vector of s ( k ). The schematic diagram of mMIMO-OFDM transmitter and
receiver is shown in Fig. 4 below.
5G Massive MIMO-OFDM System Model: Existing Channel Estimation Algorithms… 197

Fig. 4  Block diagram of mMIMO-OFDM (a) Transmitter (b) Receiver

4  Channel Estimation

The received signal is usually distorted by the channel characteristics. The channel
effect has to be estimated and compensated at the receiver end to recover the trans-
mitted signals [8–10]. So, an efficient channel estimation technique is required to
estimate the channel characteristics. At each subcarrier, the channel response is esti-
mated so that the transmitted signal is recovered efficiently. The block diagram of
channel estimation is shown in Fig. 5.
Channel estimation techniques are mainly classified into three types:
(i) Training symbol-based channel estimation
(ii) Semi-blind channel estimation
(iii) Blind channel estimation
In general, the estimation of channel is done using preamble or pilot symbols,
which are known both at the transmitter and receiver end. This method uses various
interpolation techniques between pilot tones to estimate subcarrier channel response.
While choosing channel estimation technique for any type of multicarrier modula-
tion technique, different aspects of implementations such as computational com-
plexity, performance, and time variation of the channel have to be considered.
198 N. Shaik and P. K. Malik

Fig. 5  Block diagram of channel estimation

Fig. 6  Pilot arrangement St

of block type
Frequency

Time

4.1  Pilot Structure

There are three types of pilot structures considered based on the arrangement of
pilots [11–15]. They are:
(i) Block type
(ii) Comb type
(iii) Lattice type

4.2  Block Type

In this type, the pilot symbols at all subcarriers are periodically transmitted for
channel estimation. The pilot arrangement of block type is shown in Fig. 6.
5G Massive MIMO-OFDM System Model: Existing Channel Estimation Algorithms… 199

Along the time axis, the channel is estimated using these training symbols; a
time-domain interpolation is performed. St denotes the period of training symbols.
The time-varying channel characteristics are recorded continuously. To do so, the
training symbols are placed frequently as a coherence of time. The training symbol
has to satisfy the following inequality where the coherence time is inversely propor-
tional to Doppler frequency.

1
St ″ (6)
fdoppler

For frequency-selective channels, block-type pilot symbol arrangement is used

as the pilot tones are inserted into all subcarriers of training symbols within a period
of time. For fast-fading channel, too much pilot overhead is observed because of
channel variation by reducing the pilot symbol period.

4.3  Comb Type

In comb type, every symbol has pilot tones at the periodically located subcarriers.
Along the frequency axis, the channel is estimated using these training symbols; a
frequency-domain interpolation is performed. The pilot arrangement of comb type
is shown in Fig.  7. In frequency, the period of pilot tones is given by Sf. The
frequency-­selective characteristics are recorded continuously, and to do so, the
training symbols are kept as frequently as coherent bandwidth. The pilot symbol has
to satisfy this condition where the coherence bandwidth is inversely proportional to
the maximum delay spread.

Fig. 7  Pilot arrangement

of comb type
Frequency

Sf

Time
200 N. Shaik and P. K. Malik

1
Sf = (7)
σ max

For fast-fading channels, the comb-type pilot arrangement is used, and it is not
used for frequency-selective channels.

4.4  Lattice Type

Within the given periods along both frequency and time axis, the pilot tones are
inserted. It facilitates time- and frequency-domain interpolations for estimating a
channel as the pilot tones are scattered in both frequency- and time-domain axes.
The lattice-type pilot arrangement is shown in Fig. 8. To record frequency-selective
and time-varying channels, the pilot arrangement should satisfy the following
equations:

1 1
St ≤ and S f = (8)
fdoppler σ max

Fig. 8  Pilot arrangement St

of lattice type
Frequency

Sf

Time
5G Massive MIMO-OFDM System Model: Existing Channel Estimation Algorithms… 201

4.5  Pilot Symbol-Based Channel Estimation

To provide a good performance, pilot symbols are used for estimating a channel.
Because of the pilot tones or the preamble which is transmitted in addition to the
data symbols, pilot overhead is more in turn, which reduces the transmission effi-
ciency. The widely used pilot symbol-based channel estimation techniques are:
(i) Least square
(ii) Minimum mean square estimate
The pilot symbols for N-subcarriers are represented using a diagonal matrix
assuming that all subcarriers are orthogonal and are given below:
 X [0] 0 
 
X=  where X[k] represents pilot tone at kth subcarrier
 0
 X [ N − 1]
with mean 0 and variance σ x2, k=0,1……, N-1.
The received signal is represented as Y and is given as:

Y = XH + Z (9)
where H is the channel vector and is given as:

H = H [ 0 ] ,H [1]…….H [ N − 1] T (10)

And Z is a noise vector with mean zero and variance σ2 and is given as:

Z =  Z [ 0 ] ,Z [1]…….Z [ N − 1] T (11)

4.6  Least Square Channel Estimation

The channel estimate Ĥ is obtained by minimizing the cost function in LS channel

estimation method. The LS channel estimate is given as:

( )
−1
Ĥ = X H X X H Y = X −1Y (12)

The LS estimate of each subcarrier is given as:

Y [k ]
Hˆ [ k ] = k = 0,1, 2,……, N − 1 (13)
X [k ]
The MSE of LS channel estimate is given as:
202 N. Shaik and P. K. Malik

σ z2
MSELS = (14)
σ x2

The MSE is inversely proportional to the SNR, which implies that it is related to
noise enhancement especially when channel is in deep null. LS channel estimation
is widely used because of its simplicity.

4.7  Minimum Mean Square Channel Estimation

The MMSE channel estimation is obtained using weight matrix W.  The MMSE
channel estimate is given as:

Ĥ WH (15)

where H is the LS channel estimate and is given as:

H X −1Y = H (16)
LS

The MMSE channel estimate is shown in Fig. 9.

Interpolation is done for pilot subcarriers to estimate data symbols. Most popu-
larly used interpolation methods are linear, second-order polynomial, and cubic
spline interpolation [16, 17].

4.8  DFT-Based Channel Estimation

To eliminate the effect of noise outside the maximum channel delay and to improve
the performance of MMSE or LS, the DFT-based channel estimation technique is
derived. The DFT-based channel estimation block diagram is shown in Fig. 10. It
improves the performance of channel estimation.

Fig. 9  Channel estimation of MMSE

5G Massive MIMO-OFDM System Model: Existing Channel Estimation Algorithms… 203

Fig. 10  Block diagram of DFT-based channel estimation

After obtaining the channel gain of kth subcarrier using either LS or MMSE, the
IDFT of the channel estimate is done and is given as:

{ }
IDFT Hˆ [ k ] = h [ n ] + z [ n ]  hˆ [ n ] n = 0,1,………, N − 1

(17)

where
Ĥ [ k ] = kth subcarrier estimates of channel gain
Z[n] = noise component in time domain
For the maximum channel delay L, the coefficients defined by ignoring the coef-
ficients that contain noise are given as:

 h [ n ] + z [ n ] , n = 0,1, 2 …..L − 1
h
DFT [ n ] =  (18)
0, otherwise

The remaining L elements are again transformed to frequency domain [18, 19]
and are given as:

 [ k ] = DFT h [ n ]
H DFT DFT { } (19)

4.9  Doubly Selective Channel Estimation Technique

Based on frequency and time correlation of pilots that are scattered, the doubly
selective channels are used for estimation [20–22]. At the data and pilot positions to
reduce the interference, iterative interference cancellation method is used. The
204 N. Shaik and P. K. Malik

input-output relationship for the transmitted signal over the doubly selective chan-
nel is given as:

y = Dx + n (20)

where “x” represents transmitted data in terms of vector, y represents received

data in terms of vector, and n is the noise vector. D is a transmission matrix and is
given as:

D = Q H HG (21)

For one-tap channel, the channel estimation is done using LS method; accord-
ingly, its estimation is given as:

ĥpLS = diag { x p } y p
−1
(22)

For more details about doubly selective channel estimation techniques, refer to
[20, 21].

4.10  Sparse Channel Estimation Using Matching Pursuit

The channels which have a greater delay spread but with a smaller number of taps
that are nonzero are experienced in HDTV, underwater acoustics, and mobile com-
munications. For these types of application, an efficient channel estimation with
better equalization is necessary to reduce ISI at the receiver end. So, to overcome
the problem, a matching pursuit (MP) channel estimation algorithm is developed
[23]. There are different types of MP algorithms [24] with a small difference among
the performance of these MP algorithms. Basic MP (BMP) has low complexity
compared to other MP algorithms. The column that best matches the residual till the
completion of the criteria obtained is sequentially chosen. Until the required num-
ber of taps P is chosen or the residual becomes small, the iterations are repeated.
The residual vector is given as:

bp = bp −1 −
(a H
kp bp −1 ak p ) (23)
2
ak p

where
bp − 1 is the (p-1)th iteration residual vector, and
ak p is the element of column matrix A at pth iteration.
The tap value at the kp position is given as:
5G Massive MIMO-OFDM System Model: Existing Channel Estimation Algorithms… 205

c
(a H
kp bp −1 )
kp = 2
(24)
ak p

5  Results and Discussion

Figure 11 shows the comparison between LS, MMSE, and DFT mMIMO-OFDM
channel estimation techniques, and the results show that MMSE-based channel esti-
mation technique holds good compared to LS and DFT. The limitation of this model
is pilot contamination because of several numbers of pilots used for estimating the
channel.
Figure 12 shows the doubly selective channel estimation in OFDM systems. The
advantage of this estimation is it reduces interference and it doesn’t require clus-
tered pilots or basis expansion model. The limitation of this method is the assump-
tion of delay taps that are limited over a period of time and computational complexity.
Figure 13 shows the sparse channel estimation using MP algorithms. The results
prove that the sparse channel estimation performs good compared to the LS channel
estimation algorithm. The limitation of this algorithm is the iterations when using
time-varying channels. As the number of iterations increases, the complexity of the
system increases.

Fig. 11  BER Vs SNR comparison for LS, MMSE, and DFT channel estimation
206 N. Shaik and P. K. Malik

Fig. 12  BER Vs SNR for doubly selective channel estimation

Fig. 13  BER Vs SNR for sparse channel estimation

5G Massive MIMO-OFDM System Model: Existing Channel Estimation Algorithms… 207

Fig. 14  SER Vs SNR channel estimation using deep learning

Figure 14 represents the channel estimation using deep learning, and the com-
parison results are done along with LS and MMSE also [24–26].

6  Conclusion

This paper reviews some of the existing algorithms for 5G mMIMO-OFDM wire-
less communication systems. The performance of the existing algorithms is shown
based on BER and SER with respect to SNR. There are some limitations to these
existing algorithms based on performance of the system, pilot contamination, and
complexity of the system. So, to overcome this, many channel estimation algo-
rithms came in to existence. But the main limitation of all these existing algorithms
is that they are implemented only for OFDM multicarrier system. As a new require-
ment for 5G physical layer, an efficient multicarrier-based channel estimation has to
be developed so that it satisfies the major requirements of 5G mMIMO wireless
communication system.

Acknowledgments  This paper and the research behind it would not have been possible without
the exceptional support of the author’s supervisor, Dr. Praveen Kumar Malik. His enthusiasm,
knowledge, and meticulous attention to detail have been an inspiration and kept her work on track.
This research was partially supported by Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab, India.
The author would also express her deep gratitude to the faculty members of CMR Institute of
Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad, India, for sharing their pearls of wisdom during the
course of this research.
208 N. Shaik and P. K. Malik

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Part IV
Fractal and Defected Ground Structure
Microstrip Antenna
Dual-Band Compact Transparent Fractal
Antenna for Smart WLAN Applications

Minesh Thaker, Ashwin Patani, Arpan Desai, and Trushit Upadhyaya

1  Introduction

Smart devices are now becoming a reality that is intelligent and can connect with
the Internet and form the Internet of things (IoT). The devices form a network where
they can communicate and are powerful even though they may be small. It is not
very far when every single piece of equipment present around us will be linked to
the Internet like lights, TV sets, water heater, stove, washing machine, vacuum
cleaner, and a never-ending list. All these devices can be connected to Wi-Fi, and all
can be controlled through the phone or computer. The antennas incorporated in
these smart devices should also be capable of resonating in the IEEE 802.11n
2.4 GHz and 5 GHz frequency bands for seamless connectivity. As these devices are
regularly used in our day-to-day life, maintaining their aesthetics is also an impor-
tant criterion. An antenna that is visible or protruding out from a device will not
work in such applications.
To overcome this problem, the need for an antenna working in dual band which
covers WLAN frequency and which maintains the aesthetics of the device is very
much in demand. Antenna having wide impedance bandwidth with acceptable val-
ues of gain can cover a wider area with low loss of EM waves. Fractal antennas are
widely known for increasing the impedance bandwidth, which is achieved by intro-
ducing repeated iterations of geometries found in nature or artificially available
shapes [1]. Dual-band fractal antennas for wireless, WLAN, WiMAX [2–6], RFID

M. Thaker (*) · A. Patani

Indus University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
e-mail: [Link]@[Link]; [Link]@[Link]
A. Desai · T. Upadhyaya
Charotar University of Science and Technology, Changa, Gujarat, India
e-mail: [Link]@[Link]; [Link]@[Link]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 213

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
214 M. Thaker et al.

[7, 8], LTE [9, 10], energy harvesting [11], and wireless body area networks [12]
applications are proposed by researchers. The effect of varying the ground plane on
antenna characteristics is carried out, where inclusion of partial ground [13, 14],
slotted ground [15], and defected ground using meta-surfaces [16] is explained.
However, the antennas are made up of conventional materials like copper, which is
visible to the eyes, and it needs extra space for its installation in the devices. To
overcome this problem, transparent antennas are suitable candidates as they are
completely transparent due to the presence of conductive oxides like silver tin
oxide, indium tin oxide, zinc oxide, aluminum-doped tin oxide, and substrate in the
form of glass or Plexiglas [17–22].
In this paper, a compact transparent fractal incorporated dual-band antenna
with the partial ground plane is proposed for smart devices using WLAN fre-
quency bands. The proposed antenna is designed and optimized using finite ele-
ment method (FEM)-based high-frequency structure simulator (HFSS) software.
The approach used for designing the antenna is described after which the antenna
is fabricated to validate the concept. The explanation about antenna geometry
structure and results of the proposed antenna are presented in Sects. 2 and 3,
trailed by the conclusion.

2  Structure of Proposed Antenna

Figure 1 shows the proposed compact transparent antenna geometry. The antenna
consists of a conducting patch made using a fractal geometry approach along with
a substrate and partial ground plane. Conducting layers including patch and ground
are made up of AgHT-8 having a sheet resistance, thickness, and transmittance of
8Ω-sq, 0.177 mm, and 75%, respectively. The completely transparent substrate is
made up of Plexiglas having dielectric constant, loss tangent, thickness, and trans-
mittance values of 2.3, 0.00038, 1.48 mm, and 80%, respectively. For ease of fabri-
cation, the antenna fractal geometry is extended to only two iterations as the AgHT
sheet is hard to pattern.
The fractal geometry in the form of Minkowski is used to improve the imped-
ance bandwidth and return loss of the antenna. The partial ground plane size is
optimized to achieve the proposed frequency bands. The proposed compact trans-
parent antenna has a size of 29  ×  30  ×  1.85  mm3. The fabricated transparent
antenna prototype is shown in Fig. 2, where the transparency of the fractal antenna
is visible. The amalgamation of AgHT-8 sheet and Plexiglas is done using a thin
double-sided adhesive sheet having a thickness of 0.2 mm. A simple microstrip
feed is used as a feeding network, which is interfaced by a 50Ω SMA connector
using conducting glue.
Stage 1 shows the basic transparent structure of the antenna with a full ground
plane. Four simple squares of equal size are added along the side of the basic square
Dual-Band Compact Transparent Fractal Antenna for Smart WLAN Applications 215

Fig. 1  Proposed antenna geometry (a) Top view (b) 3D view

structure in Stage 2. Minkowski fractal geometry is introduced in Stage 3 with the

full ground plane and finally the proposed antenna having Minkowski fractal and
the partial ground plane (Fig. 3).
Effect on S11 due to various stages is depicted in Fig. 4, where it can be realized
that the introduction of Minkowski fractal and partial ground plane helped in achiev-
ing the targeted frequency along with improving the return loss and impedance
bandwidth of the proposed transparent antenna.
216 M. Thaker et al.

Fig. 2  Fabricated prototype

Fig. 3  The evolution process of the dual-band transparent fractal

3  Results and Discussion

The radiation characteristics of the proposed antenna have been computationally and
experimentally validated. The antenna has been simulated in FEM-based full-­wave
simulator and was measured using calibrated vector network analyzer MS2037C in an
anechoic chamber environment of size 15 × 15 × 15 m3. Figure 5 illustrates the simu-
lated and experimentally validated return loss in terms of scattering parameter S11 of
second-order iteration and Stage 4 of the antenna. The reflection coefficient is tuned
for target frequencies, and antenna resonance is well in consonance of WLAN fre-
quency spectrum bands of 2.4  GHz and 5  GHz. All channels of focused ISM fre-
quency bands are covered by the resonances. Due to the fractal nature of the antenna,
the bandwidths are well above the requirement of 2%. The measured voltage standing
wave ratios (VSWR) at first resonance and second resonance are 1.35 and 1.43,
Dual-Band Compact Transparent Fractal Antenna for Smart WLAN Applications 217

Fig. 4  Comparison of iterative fractal stages

Fig. 5 S11 (dB) of the proposed antenna

respectively. This VSWR is fully compliant with the industry requirement of VSWR
less than 1.5. The computationally achieved and measured return loss is in good
agreement. Minor dissimilarity in return loss graphs is due to mechanical inaccuracies
in the fabricated model, especially joining of the connector to the antenna through the
feedline. It is pertinent to note that the simulator assumes the ideal material condi-
tions, which cannot be realized in the synthesized prototype.
For the second iteration of the Minkowski fractal, the surface current densities
for two frequencies are illustrated in Fig. 6. The density increases gradually when it
moves away from blue to red color. The current distribution shows the self-similar
218 M. Thaker et al.

Fig. 6  Current distribution pattern at (a) 2.39 GHz and (b) 5.15 GHz

Fig. 7  Anechoic chamber setup

nature of the fractal. As distinctly noticeable, the surface current densities are quite
higher at the resonator feedline and diminish as they move away from the feed. With
the induction of new engineered slots on the extremes of the fractals and at the cen-
ter of the patch, there shall be significant modifications in the antenna resonance and
radiation characteristics. The path of the current increases with the increase in the
fractal iteration stages as the current shall follow the geometry pattern of the slots.
This causes a considerable reduction in the resonance frequencies and increases in
the antenna bandwidth.
The antenna measurement setup in the anechoic chamber environment is demon-
strated in Fig. 7. The inset picture depicts the enhanced view of the device under
test. High-gain double-ridged horn antenna is receiving antenna in the
Dual-Band Compact Transparent Fractal Antenna for Smart WLAN Applications 219

Fig. 8  Simulated (solid) and measured (dashed) radiation pattern

measurement. The anechoic chamber provides isolation of around 30 dB at the tar-
get frequencies. The E-plane and H-plane radiation patterns at 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz
frequencies are shown in Fig. 8. The antenna has good broadside radiation patterns.
The radiation characteristics of the antenna are analogous to those of the standard
dipole antenna, but due to partial ground plane, antenna also radiates opposite to the
bore sight. At 2.39 GHz, the patterns are of dipole shape in the E-plane, while at
5.15 GHz, directional patterns are observed. Due to the fractal perturbations, the
radiation patterns do have angular variance about the standard dipole. The ground
plane can be further modified to vary the intended directivity of antenna radiation.
Numerically computed and experimentally validated antenna efficiency and gain
are depicted in Fig. 9. As evident, the antenna has adequate levels of gain above 1
dBi for both frequencies. The simulated radiation efficiency is also having accept-
able values of around 80%. The antenna parameters are tabulated in Table 1.
Table 2 shows an evaluation of the proposed dual-band compact transparent frac-
tal antenna with other fractal antennas from literature, where the proposed antenna
220 M. Thaker et al.

Fig. 9  Gain and efficiency of antenna at 2.39 GHz and 5.15 GHz

Table 1  Compact transparent antenna characteristics

Transparent antenna
Characteristics Simulated/measured
Resonance frequency 2.39/2.41 5.15/5.23
(GHz)
Return loss (dB) −23.96/−16.43 −16.98/−14.97
Gain (dBi) 1.16/1.10 1.18/1.06
Impedance bandwidth 2.35–2.43 GHz(3.4)/2.37– 4.92–5.3 GHz (7.7)/4.97–
(%) 2.46 GHz (3.7) 5.30 GHz (6.4)
Efficiency (%) 81/79 85/82

Table 2  Comparison of compact transparent antenna with other fractal antennas from literature
Frequency
References Size (mm2) Material Gain (dBi) Efficiency (%) (GHz)
Proposed antenna 29×30 AgHT-8 1.2, 1.4 79, 82 2.4, 5
[2] 40×40 FR4 3.5, 3 90, 48 2.5, 5.5
[5] 25×25 RO3006 – 70, 72 2.4,3.75
[6] 28.5×33.5 – 2.2, 2.3 85 2.5/5.5
(Simulated) (Simulated)
[9] 33×33 FR4 2~5 50~85 Multiband
Dual-Band Compact Transparent Fractal Antenna for Smart WLAN Applications 221

shows the compact size, transparent nature, and WLAN frequency operation with
acceptable values of gain and efficiency.

4  Conclusion

A compact transparent dual-band fractal antenna is presented. The antenna radiates

directionally at 2.4  GHz and 5  GHz resonance frequencies. Good agreement
between simulated and measured results is observed in terms of return loss, gain,
and radiation pattern. The measured directional gain values of the antenna are 1.10
dBi and1.06 dBi with efficiency values of 79% and 82%, respectively. It can be
observed that the proposed antenna achieves compact operation, acceptable gain,
efficiency, and transparent nature, which make the antenna commercially suitable
for its use in smart devices to maintain aesthetics and space requirement.

References

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and their applications for wireless communication: a survey. In: 2017 International Conference
on Inventive Systems and Control (ICISC), pp. 1–6 (2017)
2. Sedghi, M.S., Naser-Moghadasi, M., Zarrabi, F.B.: A dual band fractal slot antenna loaded
with Jerusalem crosses for wireless and WiMAX communications. Prog. Electromagn. Res.
61, 19–24 (2016)
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for wireless application. Comput. Eng. Appl. J. 5(3), 101–108 (2016)
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antenna for wireless applications. Prog. Electromagn. Res. 74, 125–130 (2018)
5. Harbadji, M., Denidni, T.A., Boufrioua, A.: Miniaturized dual-band fractal antenna with
omnidirectional pattern for WLAN/WiMAX applications. Prog. Electromagn. Res. 70,
31–38 (2017)
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389–392 (2008)
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Sierpinski fractal antenna for next generation satellite communications and wireless body area
networks. Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett. 60(1), 171–178 (2018)
222 M. Thaker et al.

13. Sudeep, B., Goswami, A.K., Yadav, M.V.: Miniaturized dual-band antenna with a rectangular
patch and symmetrically placed circles in the partial ground plane. Prog. Electromagn. Res.
78, 29–37 (2019)
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ground plane for mobile satellite services (MSS). In: 2019 URSI Asia-Pacific Radio Science
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cation systems. Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett. 61(3), 781–786 (2019)
A Tapered Circular CPW-Fed Wideband
Fractal Patch Antenna for IoT Applications

Geeta Kalkhambkar, Rajashri Khanai, Pradeep Chindhi,

and Pradeep Kumar

1  Introduction

In this era of globalization, communication systems are bringing the world

together. Internet of Things is flourishing with the need for more connectivity;
almost every sector, may it be agriculture, industry, or service IoT, is playing an
important role in modernizing every corner of life. Antennas, being the heart of
this connected wireless world, have gone through many stages of development.
Miniaturization of an antenna with improved performance has become a vital area
of research. Specifically, the applications like IoT which need connectivity
between different devices demand wideband and ultra-wideband antennas. Due to
the relation between bandwidth and quality factor of the antenna, gain and band-
width are the compromising factors for each other, which have become a chal-
lenge for researchers. Obtaining a satisfactory radiation performance over a wide
bandwidth without compromising the miniaturization of the device is the main
focus requiring immediate attention. Apart from IoT, RF energy harvesting is one
more field that requires a wideband and high gain of an antenna. Fractal antennas
are suitable candidates for such applications. Impedance matching becomes a cru-
cial factor that directly impacts the performance of the antenna. Tapered struc-
tures in a fractal antenna are a good choice for wideband operations [1]. Increased
number of radiating edges increases the bandwidth in fractal antennas [2]. One of

G. Kalkhambkar (*) · P. Chindhi

S.G.M.C.O.E, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, India
R. Khanai
KLES, Dr. M.S.S.C.E.T, Belagavi, Karnataka, India
P. Kumar
University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
e-mail: kumarp@[Link]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 223

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
224 G. Kalkhambkar et al.

the best ways to improve the bandwidth of the antenna is to work on impedance
matching [3]. Fractal antenna with CPW feed helps in bandwidth enhancement
[4]. CPW feed with partial ground plane combinedly enhances the bandwidth in
an iterative way [5]. Different techniques have been used by many researchers to
enhance the bandwidth of microstrip antenna, such as tapered slots [7] and frac-
tals [8–12]. Fractals are more popular nowadays for their bandwidth-enhancing
ability and size miniaturization. Antenna size is of major concern for many IoT
devices, which demand higher bandwidth for improved data rates. This paper
reports a wideband fractal antenna for IoT applications. A circular CPW feed with
tapered gap to achieve impedance matching in order to improve the S-parameter
characteristics of UWB (ultra-wideband) antenna is the noticeable factor in this
work. The important parameters of antenna, that is, S-parameters, voltage stand-
ing wave ratio, gain, directivity, current distribution, axial ratio, efficiency at
desired frequencies, and impedance plot, are discussed.

2  Experimental Work

Initially, a circular patch antenna with circular CPW feed is designed in a Mentor
Graphics software package. A circular patch with a radius of 14 mm is designed in
order to resonate it approximately at 3.5 GHz. The successive iterations were car-
ried out based on the following design formulas.
Dimensions of a square slot at the alternate iterations are taken as:

Ln = Rn + 4 (1)

The radius of a circle at each stage is determined by:

Ln + 1
Rn = +1 (2)
2
where
Ln = length of the edge of the square slot
Rn = radius of the circle at each stage
n = an integer showing the number of that particular iteration, that is, for the first
iteration n = 1, and so on.
The geometry is iterated till three iterations beyond which no significant
change was observed due to the low current near the center of the circle, con-
tributing almost nothing in the radiation characteristics of the antenna. The pro-
cess of iterative construction of the geometry is given in Figs.  1a–g. The
impedance matching using tapered CPW gap feed is shown in Fig. 1h. A circular
patch with a circular CPW feed is taken as an initiator; CPW feed is chosen in
order to obtain a wide bandwidth in the initiator itself. A tapered reformation or
A Tapered Circular CPW-Fed Wideband Fractal Patch Antenna for IoT Applications 225

Fig. 1 (a–g) Iterative stages of geometry construction. (h) Tapered gap insertion in the CPW feed

Fig. 2 (a) Dimensions of proposed antenna. (b) Dimensions of tapered CPW feed

stepped removal of the metal area near the feedline is incorporated to obtain an
impedance match over a wide bandwidth. Figure 2 shows a final iteration with
tapered or stepped circular CPW feed. And Table 1 shows the dimension details
of the antenna.
226 G. Kalkhambkar et al.

Table 1  Dimensions of the antenna geometry

Notation Particulars Dimensions in mm

r Radius of initiator circle 14
W Width of substrate 50
L Length of substrate 40
fh Length of feed 21
fl Width of feed 1.5
s Spacing between CPW feed 0.17
hs Lower spacing of taper 0.33581
ht Height of taper 7.95074
hsu Upper spacing of taper 0.96

Fig. 3  Iterative improvement in S11-parameters

3  Result and Discussion

The designed fractal antenna shows S-parameters below 10 dB before the imped-
ance matching at iteration 3; due to impedance mismatch, the S-parameters are not
suitable from 4 GHZ to 6 GHZ in the initial iterations; hence, to improve impedance
matching in the entire band, the CPW feedline is tapered, resulting in smooth
impedance change and an increase in bandwidth from 3.2 GHz to 7 GHz as shown
in Figs. 3 and 4a. The impedance plot shows a good impedance match after a tapered
CPW feed is implemented as reflected in Fig. 4c. VSWR is below 2 from 3 GHZ to
7 GHz, which shows a minimum reflected power from an antenna shown in Fig. 4b.
Smith chart in Fig. 5a gives near to 50-ohm impedance match in the desired band.
Gain and directivity in the final iteration of an antenna are above 3 dB with the effi-
ciency of above 90% in the desired band as given in Fig. 4f. The current distribution
at different frequencies in Fig. 6 shows that the tapered shape of the CPW feed is
responsible for the resonance and hence plays a major role in converting this
A Tapered Circular CPW-Fed Wideband Fractal Patch Antenna for IoT Applications 227

Fig. 4 (a) S11 of final iteration. (b) VSWR of final iteration. (c) Impedance of all iterations. (d)
Gain of final iteration. (e) Directivity of final iteration. (f) Efficiency of final iteration
228 G. Kalkhambkar et al.

Fig. 4 (continued)
A Tapered Circular CPW-Fed Wideband Fractal Patch Antenna for IoT Applications 229

Fig. 5 (a) Smith chart of the final iteration (b) Radiation pattern at 3.7 GHz (c) Radiation pattern
at 4.9 GHz Radiation pattern at 6.4 GHz

Fig. 6  Current distribution at different frequencies. (a) 2.17 GHz. (b) 3.79 GHz. (c) 4.96 GHz. (d)
6.31 GHz
230 G. Kalkhambkar et al.

Fig. 7 (a) No taper feed. (b) 5 mm taper feed. (c) 8 mm taper feed

Fig. 8  S11-parameters in comparison with different tapered feed dimensions

dual-band fractal antenna to a wideband antenna. The maximum total field gain is
above 2  dBi, and the directivity is above 3  dBi in the desired band as shown in
Fig. 4d and e, respectively.
Parametric study of the dimensions of tapered feed is carried out to arrive at the
best possible impedance matching; as a result, the S11-parameters are improved as
shown in Fig. 7. Parametric study of S11 with varying tapered feed dimensions are
illustrated in Fig. 8. The final results are compared with the existing literature; the
result of the proposed antenna shows a good performance in terms of its wide band-
width ranging from 3.2 GHz to 7 GHz with a small size of 40 mm × 50 mm with the
added advantage of size miniaturization due to the fractal slots (Table 2).
A Tapered Circular CPW-Fed Wideband Fractal Patch Antenna for IoT Applications 231

Table 2  Comparison with existing literatures

References Antenna size Band (GHz)

[6] 100 × 100 × 1.6 0.94–2.25
[7] 130 × 70 × 1.5 3.8–6
[8] 800 × 800 × 800 1.32–1.60
[9] 91 × 106 × 0.78 0.94
Proposed 40 mm × 50 mm 3.2–7

4  Conclusion

The tapered feed can gradually change the impedance in the desired band and helps
in impedance matching. It can be a good choice while working on wideband geom-
etry. The antenna at its final iteration gives wideband performance and can be used
in different IoT applications in Wi-Fi, WLAN, and ISM band. The wideband behav-
ior of the antenna ensures increased data rate and hence is suitable for IoT
applications.

References

1. Singhal, S., Goel, T., Singh, A.K.: Inner tapered tree-shaped fractal antenna for UWB applica-
tions. Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett. 57(3), 559 (2015 March). [Link]
2. Singhal, S., Singh, P., Singh, A.K.: Asymmetrically CPW-fed octagonal Sierpinski UWB frac-
tal antenna. Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett. 58(7), 1738 (2016). [Link]
3. Singhal, S., Singh, A.K.: CPW-fed octagonal super-wideband fractal antenna with defected
ground structure. IET Microw. Antennas Propag. 11, 370 (2017)
4. Reha, A., El Amri, A., Bouchouirbat, M.: The behavior of CPW-Fed Sierpinski curve frac-
tal antenna. J.  Microw. Optoelectron. Electromagn. Appl. 17(3), 366 (2018). [Link]
org/10.1590/2179-10742018v17i31244
5. Sharma, M.M., Jangid, M., PriyaKaith, Jaiverdhan, Singhal, S.: CPW fed compact wideband
fractal antenna. In: 2019 IEEE Indian Conference on Antennas and Propogation (InCAP),
pp. 1–3 (2019) 978-1-7281-2577-0/19/$31.00 ©2019 IEEE
6. Mukti, P.H., Wibowo, S.H., Setijadi, E.: A compact wideband fractal-based planar antenna
with meandered transmission line for L-band applications. Prog. Electromagn. Res. C. 61,
139–147 (2016)
7. Shao, J., Fang, G., Ji, Y., Tan, K., Yin, H.: A novel compact tapered-slot antenna for GPR appli-
cations. IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett. 12, 972–975 (2013)
8. Romeu, J., Soler, J.: Generalized Sierpinski fractal multiband antenna. IEEE Trans. Antennas
Propag. 49(8), 1237–1239 (2001 August)
9. Kitlinski, M., Kieda, R.: Compact CPW-fed Sierpinski fractal monopole antenna. Electron.
Lett. 28, 1387–1388 (2004)
10. Kalkhambkar, G., Khanai, R., Chindhi, P.: Fractals: a novel method in the miniaturization
of a patch antenna with bandwidth improvement. Inf. Commun. Technol. Intell. Syst. 106,
629–637 (2019)
232 G. Kalkhambkar et al.

11. Kalkhambkar, G., Khanai, R., Chindhi, P.: Design and analysis of wideband polygonal

microstrip fractal patch antenna with three dimensional finite difference time domain method
and UPML boundaries. Int. J. Adv. Res. Eng. Technol. (IJARET), 11(9), 323–336 (2020)
12. Dastranj, A., Ranjbar, F., Bornapour, M.: A new compact circular shape fractal antenna
for broadband wireless communication applications. Prog. Electromagn. Res. C. 93,
19–28 (2019)
A Novel Ultra-Wideband Monopole
Antenna with Defected Ground Structure
for X-Band and WiMAX Applications

T. Poornima and Korhan Cengiz

1  Introduction

Microstrip antenna became very popular and attracted first-rate attention inside the
Wi-Fi global due to their eminent benefits, such as ease of analysis and fabrication,
low cost, first-rate radiation characteristics, and the ability to operate at single-,
dual-, triple-, and various-frequency operation with reduced hardware com-
plexity [1].
With the appearance of new trends going on in the Wi-Fi enterprise, there are a
lot of greater demands for multiband antennas. The antenna which resonates over
more than one frequency is called multiband antenna [2]. A multiband antenna is
designed to function over multiple frequencies as proposed in this chapter. This
form of antennas is widely utilized in RADAR programs, satellite TV for pc com-
munications, and biomedical and aerospace packages. Feedline is the transmission
line which connects the antenna and radio. Generally, antenna feed is the place
where the antenna is attached to the receiver or antenna [3]. The main motive of
feedline is to obtain compatibility with integrated circuits (IC) and to make it more
adaptable in terms of center or resonance frequency, impedance matching, pattern,
and polarization.
An UWB monopole antenna with three primary parameters in problem, consist-
ing of extremely wide band, formation of composite antenna, and excessive fre-
quency of operation, has been defined [1, 4]. The benefits and downsides of

T. Poornima (*)
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
K. Cengiz
Department of Electrical – Electronics Engineering, Trakya University, Edirne, Turkey
e-mail: korhancengiz@[Link]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 233

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
234 T. Poornima and K. Cengiz

microstrip antennas are mentioned on this chapter. To excite a microstrip patch

antenna fed with the aid of a microstrip line to calculate the input impedance and
S-parameter and to compute the radiation pattern with a far-field feature, we can
assign a lumped port on the space between the end of the microstrip line and bottom
ground plane [5]. Even though microstrip antenna has several advantages, low gain,
narrow bandwidth, and large size are its foremost disadvantages. This, in turn, limits
the applications of microstrip antenna in other fields. Great strategies are evolved to
overcome the limitations. The recently used prominent techniques are increasing
the length and width of the dielectric substrate, using various shapes of patch, and
decreasing dielectric constant. Square-, circular-, and rectangular-formed patches
are extensively used in current years [6]. The main purpose of this chapter is to
incorporate the coupling gaps with cross-shaped defected ground structure (CSDGS)
for modern wireless applications. Although there are several shapes, the patch-­
based microstrip antenna with circular slot is designed, introducing coupling gaps
in order to provide higher isolation among the microstrip factors and to make cer-
tain mutual couplings [7, 8]. Other than the traditional periodic structure, defected
ground structure (DGS) has attracted a huge hobby on telecommunication because
of its giant applicability in antennas and microwave circuits. It is introduced in the
ground plane of microstrip patch antenna for improving low gain, cross-­polarization,
and wide bandwidth. CSDGS is mainly adopted to attain the compact size of
microstrip antenna with ultra-wideband [9].
The rectangular microstrip patch antenna has been designed to WLAN applica-
tions. The layout of the antenna is very simple, which can be used for extensive
applications and in big scale [10]. The authors have provided a novel microstrip-fed
ultra-wideband antenna, which is capable of rejecting four bands of interference in
[11]. The authors have used the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) of finding out
the choice of an antenna from the formerly designed antennas or giving significance
to them based on many crucial factors together with size, bandwidth, substrate, and
number of notches. The authors describe how a square patch antenna with the slots
may be designed to acquire numerous resonant frequencies like 3.3 GHz, 3.9 GHz,
4.4four GHz, and 8.8 GHz in [12]. The slots are placed in the sort of way that the
antenna turns into a mild weight structure, which is an added advantage. In [13], the
two main objectives in designing an antenna like the selection of substrate material
among FR4, RO4003, GML1000, and RT/duroid 5880 and the appropriate form
selection among H-shape, E-shape, S-form, and U-shape are described. From the
special overall performance comparison, it is concluded that the substrate with
lower dielectric constant improves the bandwidth and the one with higher dielectric
constant complements the gain and directivity [14, 15].
The designed antenna is simulated for results using Ansys high-frequency struc-
ture simulator (HFSS)–3D electromagnetic (EM) simulation software and is ana-
lyzed based on the S-parameters and return loss in dB. The proposed antenna design
and configuration are presented in Sect. 2. The detailed parameters especially for
substrate and patch are also discussed in Sect. 2. In Sect. 3, simulated and experi-
mental results for the proposed antenna are presented and analyzed. Finally, the
A Novel Ultra-Wideband Monopole Antenna with Defected Ground Structure… 235

conclusion is presented in Sect. 4 along with the comparative result analysis fol-
lowed by the appropriate references.

2  Proposed Antenna Design and Its Configuration

The representation of line feed in conventional antenna is shown in Fig. 1. Figure 2

shows the design and analysis of the proposed microstrip patch antenna with circu-
lar slot. The radiating patch and feeding mechanism are printed on the top side of
the substrate, whereas the ground plane is printed on the bottom side. Lumped port
for line feeding technique is used to achieve 50 Ώ characteristics impedance.

Fig. 1  Representation of line feed in conventional antenna

Fig. 2  Design 1: geometry 30

and configuration of the
proposed antenna 15
(unit, mm)

15
3.4
30

3.9
12
236 T. Poornima and K. Cengiz

UWB Monopole Antenna Design

An ultra-wideband patch-based microstrip antenna is designed and simulated in this
chapter. The design parameters are optimized and detailly investigated. The pro-
posed microstrip antenna is printed with the dimension of 30 × 30 mm2, FR4_epoxy
with the dielectric constant of 4.4, and substrate thickness of 1.6 mm. The width of
the microstrip feed line is fixed at 3.9 mm to achieve 50 Ώ characteristic impedance.
The main objective of the overall work is to enhance bandwidth, return loss, and
cross-polarization to improve radiation characteristics in the operation bands. The
proposed antenna is designed using ANSYS HFSS software. The patch is operated
at different frequencies: 8.46 GHz, 11.63 GHz, and 13.5 GHz, respectively. Figure 3
(Design 1) shows the simulated reflection coefficient of the proposed antenna with
the units measured in mm. The basic schematic configuration of the proposed
microstrip patch antenna is shown in Fig. 2.

2.1  Proposed Antenna Design Equation

The designed parameters are calculated as in [16].

• Width of the patch:

c
Pw
2 f0
r 1
2 (1)

Fig. 3  Design 1: simulated reflection coefficient of the proposed antenna

A Novel Ultra-Wideband Monopole Antenna with Defected Ground Structure… 237

The effective dielectric constant (ɛreff) of the antenna:

1/ 2
1 1 h
reff r r 1 12
2 2 w
(2)
where
ɛreff = effective dielectric constant
ɛr = dielectric constant of the substrate
h = height of the dielectric substrate
Pw = the patch width
Transmission line at infinity (ΔL):

w
0.3 0.264
reff
h
L h 0.412
w
reff 0.258 h 0.8
(3)
The fringing effect is used to enhance the effective electrical length of the patch
longer than its physical length [17, 18]. Thus, the resonance condition depends
on Leff.
• Effective length of the patch:

Leff L p 2L (4)

• The actual length of the patch (Lp):

c
Lp 2 L
2 f0 reff
(5)
• Substrate length (Ls) [19]:

Ls 12h L p (6)

• Width of the substrate (Ws):

Ws 12h W (7)

• Length of slot (Lslot):

Lp
Lslot
reff
(8)
238 T. Poornima and K. Cengiz

• Width of slot (Wslot):

w
= (9)
2

• Gain (G)

4Radiation Intensity Total

G (10)
Input accepted power

Defects or slots incorporated and etched on the ground plane of the microstrip
antenna are merely termed as defected ground structure (DGS) [20, 21]. Apart from
the conventional periodic structures, DGS have attracted great attention to improve
various parameters such as gain, return loss, cross- polarization, and bandwidth
[22–24]. It is mainly adopted to overcome the limitations of microstrip antennas in
terms of single operating frequency, low impedance bandwidth, larger size, and
polarization problems [25]. Also DGS helps to attain band stop characteristics and
to suppress higher-mode harmonics and mutual coupling [26]. The shape of DGS
units, the distance between two DGS units, and the distribution of the different DGS
are the main parameters which affect the periodic DGS. CSDGS is used to broaden
the impedance bandwidth of a conventional microstrip-fed monopole antenna [27,
28]. DGS has been integrated with probe-fed rectangular microstrip patch antenna
to improve polarization (cross-polarized isolation) with enhanced bandwidth
[29, 30].
In Fig. 2, the suggested antenna design is shown with three modifications. The
step-by-step antenna design is illustrated in Designs 1, 2, and 3, respectively.

3  Simulation and Experimental Results

In this section, the square-shaped UWB monopole antenna is constructed with

CSDGS and coupling gaps. This type of simulator is based on finite element method
(FEM) and is used to calculate return loss, bandwidth, and gain. The major advan-
tage of this simulator is to reduce the fabrication cost, because the best antenna is
obtained by internal optimization, and it would be best for further fabrication pro-
cess. The gain of an antenna is termed as the ratio of intensity in a given direction to
the radiation intensity obtained when the power accepted by the antenna was radi-
ated isotopically. The simulation results are presented and discussed. Figure  3
(Design 1) shows the simulated results of the return loss of the proposed antenna. It
can be seen that the proposed antenna is varied from 8.46 GHz to 11.63 GHz. The
return loss obtained is –35.47  dB with the gain of 4.32  dB and bandwidth of
5.38 GHz. Return loss with negative sign shows that the proposed antenna is not
affected by huge lose while transmitting the signals. The square microstrip
A Novel Ultra-Wideband Monopole Antenna with Defected Ground Structure… 239

patch antenna has also radiated at the frequency of 13.50 GHz with the return
loss of –18.64 GHz, gain of 5.96 dB, and bandwidth of 5.32 GHz. The reflection
coefficient, which is the frequency-dependent return loss of the antenna, is presented.
The proposed antenna with circular slot to match the impedance steps is pre-
sented in Fig. 4 (Design 2). The geometry and its corresponding configuration with
mm as unit are also presented. Simulation results are also discussed with the return
loss, gain, and bandwidth in Fig. 5 (Design 2). The main advantage of introducing
CSDGS in square-shaped UWB monopole antenna is to attain a high return loss,
which reduces the transmission losses of signals. Also DGS has its own characteris-
tics and creates good performances of devices with its perfect geometry and size
[31]. The main purpose of DGS is to attain a compact antenna, in turn enhancing the
operating bandwidth and gain. Mutual coupling has been reduced between two net-
works while suppressing the higher-order harmonics and unwanted cross-­
polarization. From the literature survey, CSDGS from the other geometries of
conventional DGS has an advantage of 50% size reduction when compared to
dumbbell-shaped defected ground structure. CSDGS can be used widely in match-
ing network of an amplifier.
The simulated results of the return loss of the proposed antenna with CSDGS are
presented in Fig.  5 (Design 2). The proposed antenna is varied from 8.49  GHz,
11.65 GHz, to 13.50 GHz. The return loss obtained is –12.91 dB with the gain of
5.78  dB and bandwidth of 6.8  GHz at 8.49  GHz. Return loss with negative sign
shows that the proposed antenna is not affected by huge lose while transmitting the
signals. The square patch antenna has also radiated at the frequency of 11.65 GHz

Fig. 4  Design 2: geometry and configuration of the proposed antenna with circular slot (unit, mm)
240 T. Poornima and K. Cengiz

Fig. 5  Design 2: simulated reflection coefficient of the proposed antenna

and 13.50 GHz with the return loss of –35.46 dB and –17.69 dB. The corresponding
gain is calculated as 4.87 dB and bandwidth of 7.05 GHz. These results are obtained
by introducing the coupling gaps to match the impedance steps, and the correspond-
ing results are presented in Fig. 5.
Effective capacitance and powerful inductance of the version are modified via
embedding the slots on the ground plane, ensuing in shifting of resonance frequency
to its decrease side. For this reason, compactness is done by way of using
DGS. Numerous researches have been suggested in this regard [32, 33]. Incorporating
cross-shaped defected ground structure (CSDGS) in the ground plane of the pro-
posed antenna is shown in Fig.  6 (Design 3). The DGS-based UWB monopole
antenna resonates at different frequencies, and it is influenced by the size of the
ground plane. A compactness of 30% is finished by the use of meandering slots
within the ground aircraft [31]. A cross-shaped slot included inside the ground plane
to achieve the miniaturization and compactness of 80% has been executed.
The performance parameter of the UWB monopole antenna is analyzed to
improve gain, bandwidth, and return loss. Figure 7 (Design 3) shows the simulated
results of the return loss of the proposed antenna with CSDGS and coupling gaps to
match the impedance steps. The proposed antenna is varied from 8.46  GHz,
11.63 GHz, to 13.5 GHz. The return loss obtained is –13.46 dB with the gain of
5.48  dB and bandwidth of 8.05  GHz at 8.46  GHz. The square microstrip patch
antenna has also radiated at the frequency of 11.63 GHz and 13.50 GHz with the
return loss of –18.64 dB and –35.47 dB. The corresponding gain is calculated as
6.17 dB and 6.87 dB and bandwidth as 9.6 GHz and 9.8 GHz. The geometry and
configuration of the proposed antenna with CSDGS at the ground plane are shown
A Novel Ultra-Wideband Monopole Antenna with Defected Ground Structure… 241

Fig. 6  Design 3: top view, side view, and bottom view of the proposed antenna with line deed
and CSDGS

Fig. 7  Design 3: simulated reflection coefficient of the proposed antenna

242 T. Poornima and K. Cengiz

Fig. 8  Geometry and configuration of the proposed antenna with CSDGS at ground plane
(unit, mm)

Fig. 9  Simulated gain of 0

the proposed antenna 330 30

300 60

270 90

240 120

210 150
180
A Novel Ultra-Wideband Monopole Antenna with Defected Ground Structure… 243

in Fig. 8. The reflection coefficient results are obtained by tuning the antenna param-
eters, and the corresponding gain results are presented in Fig. 9.

4  Conclusions

The proposed well-known antenna shows ultra-wideband behavior among 8.46 GHz

and 13.50 GHz frequency with improved antenna performance. A comparative anal-
ysis is performed and proven in Table 1 for validation of the proposed antenna in
modern applications for C-/X-/Ku-band, Wi-Fi, and WiMAX applications.
The comparative study is executed in terms of the size of antenna structure, sub-
strate material, impedance bandwidth, and top benefit of the antenna. The imped-
ance bandwidth (11.63 GHz)/9.8 GHz of the proposed antenna is greater than the
impedance bandwidth of the antennas pronounced in [16, 17, 19, 20] via 800 MHz,
750 MHz, 1800 MHz, and 390 MHz, respectively, and lesser than that of the antenna
suggested in [18] by way of 200 MHz. From the comparative assessment of the peak
gain (dB) between the proposed antenna and mentioned antennas, it is able to be
located that peak gain of the proposed patch antenna is extra than that of the anten-
nas mentioned from [16] to [20]. The comparative analysis of the proposed layout
suggests that the proposed antenna is novel in terms of extremely wide bandwidth
functionality 9.8 GHz and applicable gain 6.87 dB. The reflection coefficient of the
proposed antenna simulated using HFSS meets the design requirements. Good per-
formance in terms of return loss and cross-polarization to improve radiation charac-
teristics is obtained in the operation bands. The line feed is introduced to avoid the
surface-wave radiation and also supports for attaining good impedance matching.
Further optimization can make the antenna to work on other applications too.
Therefore, the proposed antenna is anticipated to be a very good candidate in diverse
Wi-Fi systems.

Table 1  Comparative result analysis

Resonant frequency/bandwidth Gain
References Antenna size, mm2(substrate) GHz dB
[16] 30 × 28 = 840 (FR4 epoxy, ɛr = 4.6) (3–11)/8 4.67
[17] 24 × 25 = 600 (FR4 epoxy, ɛr = 4.6) (3.19–11.24)/8.05 2.6
[18] 25 × 25 = 625 (RT/duroid 5880, ɛr = 2.2) (3–12)/9 5
[19] 48 × 50 = 2400 (Glass , PTFE, ɛr = 2.5) (1.5–8.5)/7 4
[20] 3.14 × 202 = 1256.64 (Glass, PTFE, ɛr = (4.34–12.75)/8.41 3.2
2.4)
Proposed 30 × 30 = 900 (FR4 epoxy, ɛr = 4.4) (8.6–14.28)/9.8 6.87
244 T. Poornima and K. Cengiz

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Design and Analysis of DGS-Based Fractal
Antenna for Metrological Satellite

Vimlesh Singh, Amit Kumar, and Mahesh Kumar Aghwariya

1  Introduction

Advancement in wireless technology demands integrated compact size antenna

with high data transmission rate for long-term evolution (LTE) in smart mobile
phone applications [1, 2]. To design the compact and multiband antenna, fractal ring
radiator, and CPW feed monopole, defected ground structure is one of the few pre-
ferred techniques in early research. Defected ground structure in antenna geometry
helps in the reduction of the volume of the antenna element by exciting ground
mode. Naturally, existing geometries have similarities; this concept is used to
achieve multiband characteristics in Minkowski, Koch, Hilbert, and Sierpinski in
the early reported antenna geometry for wireless application [3–6]. In convectional
antenna design, alphabet- and loop-based geometries are used to design the antenna
in current research work [19–20]. In these antenna geometries, defects are intro-
duced in the ground plane for modification of a characteristic parameter of antenna
circuit element to improve bandwidth, miniaturization, harmonic suppression, gain,
and efficiency [20].

V. Singh (*)
Manav Rachna International Institute of Research and Studies, Faridabad, Haryana, India
e-mail: [Link]@[Link]
A. Kumar · M. K. Aghwariya
THDC Institute of Hydropower Engineering and Technology,
Tehri (Garhwal), Uttarakhand, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 247

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
248 V. Singh et al.

2  Defected Ground Structure

Microstrip line antenna designed by conventional techniques had limitations like

single resonance frequency, large size of radiating element, low impedance band-
width, less gain, and polarization-related issues. Various techniques have been
reported early to enhance the characteristic parameters of microstrip line antennas.
This technique includes:
1. Stacking
2. Electromagnetic bandgap (EBG)
3. Frequency-selective surfaces (FSS)
4. Metamaterial
5. Photonic bandgap (PBG) and feeding methods to radiating patch
The introduction of defected ground structure (DGS) in radiating patch improves
characteristic parameter of microstrip line antenna by suppressing the higher har-
monics, cross-polarization, and mutual coupling between the elements of the
antenna structure [7–9].
Introducing slots in the ground surface of the antenna element is referred to as
defected ground structure. This embedded slot in the ground structure changes the
transmission line parameter of the ground surface of the antenna. The slot in the
ground structure modifies the arrangement of passive components like resistor,
capacitor, and inductor in the ground plane of the antenna. Defect in the ground
plane also modifies the line parameter of the antenna, which overall impacts the
effective LC parameter of the microstrip line antenna [18, 21]. Table 1 shows the
advantages and disadvantages of defected ground structure in the early reposted
research work. The top antenna radiating element has an embedded passive compo-
nent in it. Babinet’s principle helps to draw equivalent circuit model of the antenna
in respect to the metallic structure. Any defect in terms of slot created in the ground
plane is reciprocal to the radiating element. The full-wave analysis is one of the
modeling techniques used for defected ground structures, but this fails because the
physical dimensions of the radiating structure and the position of the defect in the

Table 1.  DGS advantages, disadvantage, and application

Reference Shape Advantage Disadvantage Application
[7], 2001 Dumbbell Simple design Only one stop Band stop filter
structure analyses band
[8], 2002 Vertical and Minimize the size Dispersion As matching circuit
horizontal Periodic for amplifier
defects
[9], 2003 Fractal DGS Wideband Sharp cutoff Band stop filter
characteristics
[12], U- and V-slot Q-factor Only one stop Band stop filter
2006 band
[13], Cross-structure UWB and sharp Band pass filter Low pass filter
2006 rejection
Design and Analysis of DGS-Based Fractal Antenna for Metrological Satellite 249

ground plane are not explained. Another finding reported from early geometry also
explains why the current path in rectangular parts of dumbbell-shaped DGS
increases, changing the effective inductance and capacitance of the microstrip line
antenna. The two rectangular slots of dumbbell-shaped DGS are responsible for
adding capacitive effect. The stepwise analysis shows that a thin rectangular
defected slot connecting both rectangular-shaped defects added inductance to the
total impedance of the radiating element. Due to this LC circuit, resonance occurred
at certain frequencies [10, 11].

3  Fractal Structure

Mandelbrot first coined the concept of fractal in 1980 for geometries that exist in
nature. A mathematical model of the complex structure was introduced. It’s a physi-
cal system to define the irregular geometrical shape of nature. This geometry defines
unlimited methods to explain, measure, and evaluate the natural phenomena of bio-
mimicry. The term “fractal” is described by a set “P” such that [7, 14]:
1 . “P” geometry with clear structure deals in minute scale.
2. “P” can be defined by irregular structure which is not represented by orthodox
patterns.
3. “P” is simple, self-copy, and recursive.
4. The size of “P” is larger than its physical dimension.
Fractal geometry can be represented by numerous mathematical dimensions like
self-similarity and Euclidean-Hausdorff and by random function. Fractal Hausdorff
dimension is the fraction of nature’s Euclidean geometry [3, 4, 14].
To define fractal, let “α” be a non-empty subset of Euclidean space of
n-­dimensional; then, the diameter of “α” is represented as [7]:

α = Sup { m − n : m,n  α }

i.e., the furthest distance from point α.

If {α i} is a set of fixed elements at max δ and set P:
∞
P ⊂ ∪α i
i =1
For 0 < αi ≤ δ:

and ( α i ) = δ Cover of P

Let function P be the subset for xn and τ the positive value. Here δ> 0:
250 V. Singh et al.

∞ 
Hτδ ( P ) = inf ∑ α i : {α i} is δ cover of α 
τ

 i =1 

“P” represents the set of diameters for max value of δ to minimize the sum of δth
times of function diameter. The function δ decreases to the P minimum.
So, infimum Hτδ (P) is incremented, which approaches δ → 0.
Hence,

H δ ( P ) = lim Hτδ ( P ) x n limits the value for subset P from 0 to∞.

δ →0
So, P is Hausdorff evaluation of τ dimensional function of Hδ(P).
If β is part of α, then:

H δ ( β ) = H δ ( P )

Assume {αi} is a sample collection of predetermined disjoint Borel set.

 ∞  ∞
Then H δ  ∪Pi  = ∑H δ (α i ) .
 i =1  i =1
Hausdorff method represents 1D, 2D, and 3D geometry, length, area, volume,
etc. For any subset of xn, there is n-dimensional Hausdorff measure:

H n ( P ) = b n volumen ( α )

where

1 
bn = π n / 2 / 2 n  n !
2 
The volume of n-dimensional sphere of diameter is similar for n= q:

H q ( P ) = b q Vol ( P )

P is the m-dimensional sub-main fold for xn.

To define the fractal structure, Hausdorff measure is one technique to represent
random geometry present in nature. To draw fractal by scaling “δ scale measure”
technique, use an irregularity set.
The function A is curve on plane, which is represented as Aδ (P). The number of
steps in division set of length δ for transversal of P:

A δ ( P ) ~ b δm

b & m = constant, A has “dimension” m. The logarithmic of function A is:

Design and Analysis of DGS-Based Fractal Antenna for Metrological Satellite 251

LogA δ ( P ) ≅ Logb – mLogδ

The dimension is defined as:

log Aδ ( P )
m = Lim lim

δ →0 −Logδ

The function defines self-similarity of basic geometry in respect to scaling factor.

The geometry scale if A copies of base geometry are extent down by δ function then
self-similarity will be m. It is useful to take natural and specific object as fractal
antennas. Numerous techniques for measuring fractal are box-counting dimension,
uniform cantor set, mass distribution principle, and Fourier transform method for
scaled down dimension of measuring function.
The shapes occur in nature, so it is not easy to measure fractal geometry. The P
is subset of plane of density P at t is defined as:

lim
(
Area P ∩ Tc ( t )

C →0 Area ( Tc ( t ) )

lim
(
Area t ∩ Tc ( t )
C →0 2
c
π 
2
where Tc(t) is the closed circle of diameter c and t is the center, defined by classical
theorem.
Fractal geometry can be achieved by a product of structure using the product of
Cartesian functions. The product function is formulated by:

Β × A = {( a,b )  xn + m;,a  β;,b  P}

In Cartesian function, the product of β is the subset of xn, and P is subset of βm.
The intersection of two fractals occur often in new fractals. This can be done by
relating the dimension of intersection to the original set of fractals. For this,
Hausdorff dimensions are used for intersection. For this, the function can be repre-
sented as:

dim H ( β ∩ σ ( P ) ≥ dim H β + dim H P − n

where σ = range for group of transformation.
The antenna presented in this chapter is designed by the concept of fractal for the
radiating element, and defects are introduced in the ground plane to analyze the
impact of defect on antenna parameter. To achieve fractal concept, rectangular patch
252 V. Singh et al.

Fig. 1  Different views of the proposed antenna

is taken as base from which parabola shape is subtracted. This process is repeated
for three iterations.

4  Proposed Fractal Antenna

The antenna proposed in this chapter is shown in Figure 1 designed by the fractal
concept of space filling. The antenna is simulated for FR4 substrate with thickness
of 1.6 mm, relative permittivity of 4.4, and tangent loss of substrate of 0.002 by
38micron technology. The proposed geometry is simulated by CST microwave stu-
dio simulator; its results for S11 are shown in Fig. 1a–c[15].
The antenna proposed is designed by fractal concept of space filling. To achieve
the fractal concept, start with a rectangular patch, and then remove the parabola
structure from it. The same process is repeated for three iterations to achieve multi-
band characteristics of fractal antenna. The dimension of each patch and parabola is
shown in Table 2.

5  Result and Discussion

The proposed fractal antenna is simulated for 2 GHz–8 GHz frequency with and
without defected ground structure. The reflection coefficient of the proposed antenna
geometry is shown in Fig.  2a for without DGS and Fig.  2b with DGS.  U- and
Design and Analysis of DGS-Based Fractal Antenna for Metrological Satellite 253

a 0

–5

–10

–15

–20
dB

–25

–30

–35

–40
S11 Without DGS
–45
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Frequency in GHz

b 0

–5

–10

–15

–20
dB

–25

–30

–35 S11 Without DGS

S11 With DGS
–40
S11 with & Without DGS
–45
2 3 4 5 6 7
Frequency in GHz

Fig. 2  S11 with and without defective ground in fractal antenna

T-shaped slots are introduced in the ground plane of the proposed antenna structure
to produce defect in the ground.
Far-field pattern of the proposed antenna is shown in Fig. 3a–e for frequency of
operation of 3.6 GHz, 4.6 GHz, 5.6 GHz, 6.2–6.8 GHz, and 7.7 GHz.
254 V. Singh et al.

Table 2.  Dimensions of the proposed fractalantenna

Antenna
structure Iteration 1 Iteration 2 Iteration 3
Patch Inner parabola Patch Inner Patch Inner
parabola parabola
Dimension 30x22mm2 Xradius=14mmYradius 21x14mm2 Xradius 15x8mm2 Xradius =7mm
=10mm =10mm Yradius =3mm
Yradius
=6mm
Ground Substrate Feed Defected DGS DGS
plane plane ground (U– (T-thickness)
structure thickness)
36x52mm2 36x52mm2 X=4mm & 36x52mm2 2mm 4mm
Y =28mm

Fig. 3  Polar plot graph of the proposed antenna with defected ground structure. (a) 3.7 GHz. (b)
4.5 GHz. (c) 5.6 GHz. (d) 6.2–6.8 GHz. (e) 7.7 GHz

6  Conclusion

The proposed antenna claims multiband characteristics of the fractal antenna.

Defected ground structure with fractal concept resonance appears at a frequency of
3.6 GHz used for fixed satellite communication, 4.5 GHz for space to earth com-
munication, 5.6 GHz for radiolocation and meteorological aids, 6.2 GHz–6.8 GHz
Design and Analysis of DGS-Based Fractal Antenna for Metrological Satellite 255

for fixed satellite communication and radio devices and fixed microwave applica-
tions, and 7.7 GHz for fixed meteorological satellite application [17]. The proposed
antenna is most suited for remote sensing applications. The fractal antenna designed
in the chapter is compact in size; has a wide bandwidth, thanks to the introduction
of defected ground structure; and has multiband characteristics.

References

1. Anguera, J., Andújar, A., Garcia, C.: Multiband and small coplanar antenna system for wire-
less handheld devices. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. 61(7), 3782–3789 (2013)
2. Anguera, J., Andújar, A., Huynh, M.C., Orlenius, C., Picher, C., Puente, C.: Advances in
antenna technology for wireless handheld devices. Int. J Antennas Propag. 838364, 1–25 (2013)
3. Weng, L.H., Guo, Y.C., Shi, X.W., Chen, X.Q.: An overview on defected ground structure.
Prog. Electromagn. Res. B. 7, 173–189 (2008)
4. Ghatak, R., Mishra, R.K., Poddar, D.R.: Perturbed Sierpinski carpet antenna with CPW feed for
IEEE 802.11 a/b WLAN application. IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett. 7, 742–744 (2008)
5. Liu, W.X., Yin, Y.Z., Xu, W.L.: Compact self-similar triple band antenna for WLAN/WiMAX
applications. Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett. 54(4), 1084–1087 (2012)
6. Abutarboush, H.F., Nasif, H., Nilavalan, R., Cheung, W.: Multiband and wideband monopole
antenna for GSM900 and other wireless applications. IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett. 11,
539–554 (2012)
7. Ahn, D., Park, J.S., Kim, C.-S., Kim, J., Qian, Y., Itoh, T.: A design of the low-pass filter using
the novel microstrip defected ground structure. IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech. 49(1),
86–93 (2001)
8. Lim, J.S., Lee, Y.T., Kim, C.S., Ahn, D., Nam, S.: A vertically periodic defected ground
structure and its application in reducing the size of microwave circuits. IEEE Microw. Wirel.
Components Lett. 12(12), 479–481 (2002)
9. Liu, H.W., Li, Z.F., Sun, X.W.: A novel fractal defected ground structure and its application to
the low-pass filter. Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett. 39(6), 453–456 (2003)
10. Webster, J.G. (ed.): Wiley Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, p. 2013.
Wiley, Hoboken (2001)
11. Fujimoto, K., Morishita, H.: Modern Small Antennas, Chapter 8. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge (2013)
12. Woo, D.J., Lee, T.K., Lee, J.W., Pyo, C.-S., Choi, W.-K.: Novel U-slot and V-slot DGSs
for bandstop filter with improved Q factor. IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech. 54(6),
2840–2847 (2006)
13. Chen, H.-J., Huang, T.H., Chang, C.S., et al.: A novel cross shape DGS applied to design ultra-­
wide stopband low-pass filters. IEEE Microw. Wirel. Components Lett. 16(5), 252–254 (2006)
14. Werner, D.H., Ganguly, S.: An overview of fractal antenna engineering research. IEEE

Antennas Propag. Mag. 45, 38–57 (2003)
15. Aghwariya, M.K., Singhal, P.K.: Dual director planar microstrip Yagi-Uda antenna for X-band.
Int. J. Electron. Comput. Commun. Technol. 3, 3–25 (2012)
Part V
Importance and Uses of Microstrip
Antenna in IoT
Applications of Microstrip Antenna in IoT

Amit Kumar, Mahesh Kumar Agwariya, and Vimlesh Singh

1  Introduction

Internet of things (IoT) is a technology that brings together all types of radio mod-
ules, sensors/actuators, batteries, MEMS devices, harvesting technologies, and,
most importantly, the final devices that use antennas. The antenna depends on the
specific application frequency range, transmit power, etc. Unlike wireless networks
such as 5G, IEEE 802.11ax, and WiGig, which use a large amount of continuous
spectrum space, IoT networks transmit small amounts of data across satellites,
meshes, and/or various network topologies. In most cases, the task of establishing
such a link is achieved by some omnidirectional antennas, such as wired antennas,
rubber ducks, patches, whips, PCBs, etc. Many IoT advancement kits such as
Arduino GSM and Qualcomm IoE use similar antenna structures for GPS, Bluetooth,
and Wi-Fi communication. Certain applications, such as medical local area net-
works (MBAN) and wearable electronic devices, also require the device and antenna
surfaces to be small in order to meet the requirements. This persuaded the need to
develop antennas for terminal equipment and meet the requirements of specific
applications.
IoT antennas can be classified according to their operating range or application
range. Table 1 below shows some antennas and their frequency bands frequently
used in IoT applications. Antenna technology has affected the scope of providing
permanent communication media in aerospace markets [1]. Many companies are
using different methods not previously envisaged to develop antenna devices.

A. Kumar (*) · M. K. Agwariya

THDC Institute of Hydropower Engineering and Technology, Tehri, Uttarakhand, India
V. Singh
Manav Rachna International Institute of Research and Studies, Faridabad, Haryana, India
e-mail: [Link]@[Link]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 259

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
260 A. Kumar et al.

Table 1  Frequency bands and IoT applications

Application Technology Frequency band
Smart homes Wi-Fi 2.4 GHz
Bluetooth 2.4 GHz
GPS 1575.42 MHz, 1227.6 MHz,
1176.45 MHz
Zigbee 915 MHz, 2.4 GHz
Z-wave 2.4 GHz
Medical MBAN/WBAN IEEE 400 MHz, 800 MHz, 900 MHz,
802.15.6 2.36 GHz, 2.4 GHz
Smart agriculture, smart LoRa 433 MHz, 868 MHz, 915 MHz
cities Sigfox 868 MHz, 902 MHz

Depending on the different radio frequency bands, there can be many antenna types
to choose from, and each frequency band requires a different type of antenna.
In modern wireless communication systems, printed antennas have been selected
as the first choice. The architecture required to manufacture these printed antennas
is different from the hardware already used in smart phones, laptops, etc.

2  Microstrip Patch Antenna

The microstrip antenna has actually a very simple configuration, consisting of a

ground plane, a dielectric material with a dielectric constant of εr, substrate thick-
ness of h, and a patch printed on the other side. If the shape is rectangular, it is
known as a rectangular microstrip antenna. If the shape is circular, it will be a circu-
lar microstrip antenna, and if it is a triangular shape, it will be a triangular microstrip
antenna. This thing is actually known as substrate. You might have seen a printed
circuit board inside your mobile phone or TV or any electronic gadget; it is very
similar to how we have a printed circuit board with a ground plane or copper on one
side. Then, there is a dielectric material and, on top of that, copper, and in fact, if
you look at some of these microcontrollers, you will see that they have so many
parallel lines going through them, but for a microstrip antenna, it is a very simple
matter. Just keep the ground plane at the bottom as it is, so do not etch it out. So, that
will be the case for the majority of the microstrip antenna, and the top can be circu-
lar, triangular, etc.
Applications of Microstrip Antenna in IoT 261

3  Wearable Gadgets for Remote Health Care

Wearable gadgets play an important role in IoT and biomedical applications.

Nowadays, antennas are most commonly used in wearable devices. Different types
of antennas are used for such gadgets as microstrip antennas, slot antennas, printed
loop antennas, and PIFA.  The electrical performance of these gadgets highly
depends on the compactness of the antennas integrated into them. The most com-
monly used antenna for this purpose is the microstrip antennas. The various charac-
teristics of microstrip antenna make it suitable for 5G communication, medical
systems, and IoT. These features are:
• Flexibility of the structure
• Compactness
• Relatively low cost
• Lightness in weight
Microstrip antennas are part of printed antennas. Etching of this antenna is done
on a dielectric substrate having low losses. This antenna can be integrated with vari-
ous types of wearable devices, such as watches and belts. Wearable technology
provides useful and novel tools for medical centers. Hospitals, medical centers, and
patients are seeing a wireless wearable body area network (WBAN) as one of the
potential choices. The important aspect of wearable devices is that they have
improved the physiological response of patients using them. These devices provide
real-time feedback on the patient’s health condition; hence, it will be easier to use
this technology in making personalized devices according to the need of the patient
[2, 10]. The medical parameters measured by these gadgets are heartbeat, body
temperature, blood pressure, and sweat rate, hence helping in monitoring the patient.
If the patient that is to be monitored is elder, then it is very important to make the
device easily blend with the habits of the patient and not interfere with the daily life
tasks of the patient. Monitoring should be done in such a way that it is not bother-
some to the patient. To realize this, one approach is to integrate the wearable antenna
into fabric that can be worn by patients [3, 4].
Starting with these ideas, the following are two different ways to make wearable
antennas: the first method is to combine a non-woven conductive fabric with a cut-
ting machine to shape the fabric, and the second is to work on how to make an
embroidered thread. Based on the results of extensive research by various research-
ers, it is proven that manufacturing techniques are highly flexible and can be used to
obtain inexpensive wearable antenna designed for particular use in the near future.
As shown in Fig. 1, we can gain a better understanding of the above concept.
262 A. Kumar et al.

Fig. 1  Wearable gadget for remote health care

4  In-Vehicles for Safety

Global positioning system (GPS) technology and multiple modulated signals over
different frequencies are used by autonomous vehicles. These vehicles have sensors
that give a 360-degree field of view that further helps in object detection, collision
damage, and better view. Traffic congestion is one of the biggest problems faced by
people in a metropolitan city; this can turn into a life-threatening situation for emer-
gency vehicles such as ambulances and fire trucks. Since there are no rules or dif-
ferent lanes for emergency vehicles, traffic congestion can lead to an increase in the
number of deaths due to delay in medical aid or any action. For managing this chaos
in any city, a better traffic management system needs to be implemented. The safety
of people depends on the efficiency of the traffic management system, which can
reduce the chances of death. A new approach to solve this problem is using a
microstrip antenna and interfacing it with mobiles of drivers with the help of
IoT. During the designing and development of the antenna, its radiation characteris-
tics should be taken into consideration which best suits the emergency vehicle. An
alert message is sent to the other drivers so that they can be alerted about the coming
emergency vehicle, and a similar message can be sent to the traffic control office so
that the duration of stopping of vehicles can be varied through traffic lights.
Researchers have proposed to design an emergency vehicle alert for the other vehi-
cles. The characteristics of microstrip antennas such as omnidirectional gain, com-
pact size, lightweight, and relatively low cost are taken into consideration and used
as a transmitter that is installed on emergency vehicles [5].
The driver manually operates the transmitter and sends the alert to the drivers of
other vehicles. The receiver antenna which is present on the other vehicles and traf-
fic light detects this alert indication message and acts accordingly. The other vehi-
cles will make a way for the emergency vehicle to pass smoothly, and less traffic
congestion will be made. On the other hand, the traffic signal controller will regu-
late the duration of the signal, leading to less time taken by the emergency vehicle
to cross the signal and reach the destination. We can further modify this prototype
by interfacing it with the mobiles of the drivers who are in the nearby local area of
Applications of Microstrip Antenna in IoT 263

the emergency vehicles. An alert can be sent to their mobile. We can use the global
positioning system (GPS) for the same. The design of this prototype consists of a
microstrip antenna that acts as a transmitter in emergency vehicles and as a receiver
in other vehicles. When the radiation pattern of the transmitting antenna and receiv-
ing antenna coincides, the microcontroller is triggered and is made to perform the
task of sending the alert message to the other vehicles and traffic signal controller,
which further act and operate accordingly.
The high gain of the microstrip antenna is extensively used in this application,
which helps in the transmission of the information to its destination correctly. The
presence of the interfaces will not affect the performance of the antenna. This traffic
management prototype can turn out to be a changing point in handling the traffic
congestion and chaos during the peak hours of the city, which in turn can save pre-
cious time and reduce the risk of deaths (Fig. 2).

5  Sensor Network Antennas

Sensor network antennas are used in monitoring the physical and environmental
conditions such as temperature, pressure, pollutants, motion, and vibration of winds.
Wireless sensor network has thousands of sensor nodes integrated into them. It is
basically a network of sensors. These antennas will analyze the real-time condi-
tions, and these can then be accessed in real time in mobile or computer with the
help of IoT technology.
For monitoring a large area, this system proves to be good, effective, and effi-
cient. Due to extensive research in the field of microstrip antennas, it is now possible

Fig. 2  Network connectivity for vehicle safety

264 A. Kumar et al.

to implement antenna arrays in a very compact space. These are placed on each
node of the wireless sensor network. The use of advanced ratio-time array process-
ing technology combined with wireless sensor networks has proven to significantly
improve the overall network performance [6]. The sensor nodes are installed over an
area, and that area is continuously examined and inspected. When any change takes
place in any parameters such as temperature or pressure, it is noticed and recorded.
This helps in monitoring the area, and authority is continuously updated about all
the parameters. A wireless sensor is basically an emerging area in which a number
of sensor nodes are used to deployed to perform data gathering task; this involves
certain applications like health-related or monitoring applications, battlefield appli-
cations, and various other recent trends involving underwater sensor networks,
social networking with integration with sensor network, etc. Sensor nodes are small
devices that can be collectively used to monitor a large area like a field. This collec-
tion is called the sensor network. The main purpose of the sensor network is to
optimize energy and maximize the lifetime of the network. Communication mod-
ules and sensing modules are the components that together form sensor nodes. In
the case of the sensor network, they are battery-based devices, so the battery is the
source of power. The diverse types of applications can be used for tracking an object
in a particular terrain and can be used for medical purposes, health care, space appli-
cation, agriculture, and so on [7].

6  Smart Home

Smart home is a building in which all the appliances and devices automatically
complete the task without any human intervention. Smart home has all the equip-
ment, which includes a refrigerator, AC, computers, TVs, lighting, washers, and all
other things needed to run a home smoothly. These devices are connected to the
main central unit which can be a mobile unit. The main requirement is the avail-
ability of Internet cloud services (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3  Smart Home

Applications of Microstrip Antenna in IoT 265

A combination of antenna and IoT is used for designing the basic structure of
smart home. A person who has control of the mobile unit can easily operate and
control the appliances from a very faraway place also. For example, whenever a
person will leave the parking lot of the office, the AC of the smart home will be
turned on so that when she will reach home, she will be welcomed to a temperature
suited for her. The following are the advantages provided by the smart home:
• Energy efficiency
• Low cost of operation
• Convenient to use
• Saves time, money, and energy
Due to modernization and low-cost achievement, the smart home concept is
being accepted at a good pace. A smart home is embedded with all the sensors
required for continuously measuring the conditions of the home such as tempera-
ture, humidity, and light, so that a real-time value can be measured at any time. The
data is made available to the user anytime and anywhere. A smart home should have
a smooth-running Internet connection through a Wi-Fi router placed inside the
home. All home appliances are managed by a cloud service, which is hosted on
cloud infrastructure. This service enables the user to control the smart actuators,
which are in turn connected to the home appliances. To activate an actuator, we need
a digital write command. The basic function of smart actuators is to adjust the oper-
ational system on turning things on or off. The other functions of actuators include
modulating the change in flow condition and emergency shutdown.
Access to the smart home is allowed only when a person’s identification attri-
butes match the one present in the database; otherwise, access is denied. Cloud
services collect this data and process it. Some of the techniques are fingerprint, face
recognition systems which are generally present in mobile phones, and RFID. So
the basic components of the smart home include sensors, Wi-Fi facility, cloud ser-
vices, and actuators [8, 9].
In a smart home, other than the appliances, there are other applications as well
such as smoke detector, water leakage, and its prevention. This application can
prove to be one of the most adapted ones in the near future.

Acknowledgments  We are thankful to the Department of Electronics and Communication

Engineering THDC- Institute of Hydropower Engineering and Technology, Tehri, for providing us
the opportunity and necessary help to complete the study of the chapter. We also want to acknowl-
edge Dr. Anamika Kashyap from ICAR- NIPB New Delhi for her help and support during the study.

References

1. Muneer, B., Shaikh, F.K., Zhu, Q.: An RF and microwave aspect of IoT. Chapter 9. In: Antenna
for IoT Application, IGI Global, USA, pp. 180–192 (2020)
2. Murali Krishna, P., Padma Priya, K.: Remote wireless health care monitoring system using
ZigBee. Int. J. Eng. Res. Technol. 1, 1–4 (2012)
266 A. Kumar et al.

3. Majumder, S., Mondal, T., Deen, M.: Wearable sensors for remote health monitoring. Sensors.
17(1), 130 (2017)
4. Osman, M.A.R., Abd Rahim, M.K., Samsuri, N.A., Salim, H.A.M., Ali, M.F.: Embroidered
fully textile wearable antenna for medical monitoring applications. Prog. Electromagn. Res.
117, 321–337 (2011)
5. Abishek, E.B., Raja, A.V.P., Kumar, K.P.C., Stephen, A.C., Raaza, A.: Study and analysis of
conformal antennas for vehicular communication applications. ARPN J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 12(8),
2428–2433 (2017)
6. Aghwariya, M.K., Singhal, P.K.: Dual director planar microstrip Yagi-Uda antenna for X-band.
Int. J. Electron. Comput. Commun. Technol. 3, 3–25 (2012)
7. Nakamura, R., Hadama, H.: Target localization using multi-static UWB sensor for indoor mon-
itoring system. In: 2017 IEEE Topical Conference on Wireless Sensors and Sensor Networks
(WiSNet), Phoenix, AZ, USA, pp. 37–40 (2017 January)
8. Viani, F., Rocca, P., Oliveri, G., Trinchero, D., Massa, A.: Localization, tracking, and imaging
of targets in wireless sensor networks: an invited review. Radio Sci. 46, RS5002 (2011)
9. Chen, M., Wan, J., Li, F.: Machine-to-Machine Communications: KSII Transactions on
Internet and Information Systems, Architectures, Standards and Applications. 6, 480–497
(2012 February)
10. Katoch, S., Jotwani, H., Pani, S., Rajawa, A.: A compact dual band antenna for lOT appli-
cations. In: IEEE Global Conference on Signal and Information Processing (Global SIP)
Symposium on Cognitive Radios and Networks, Atlanta, pp. 1170–1174 (2014 December)
Design of High Gain and Low Side Lobe
Smart Antenna Array for IoT Applications
on Human Monitoring

Mihir Narayan Mohanty, Shaktijeet Mahapatra, Sarmistha Satrusallya,

and Amit Kant Pandit

1  Introduction

The need to monitor human activities and health has led to an increasing number of
devices being owned. With the power and bandwidth continuing to be costly
resources, it becomes imperative that these devices connect to Internet access points
through a smart antenna system. The smart antenna system can enhance the gain by
exploiting the antenna array and direct the beam toward the specific user using a
DSP running adaptive algorithms. Wideband smart antennas for wireless communi-
cation systems can be realized using (1) space-time signal processing, (2) spatial-­
frequency signal processing, and (3) spatial signal processing (beamforming) [1].
A switched beam system or phased beam system has a beam-switching hybrid
coupler with a phase difference in the output of the arms and the antenna array [2].
In this system, highly sensitive multiple fixed beams are formed. After the signal
strength is detected, one from the several fixed beams is chosen, and switching
between beams caters to the changing demands in the sector. Using an adaptive
beamforming technique or adaptive array technique, it becomes possible to direct
maximum radiation toward the desired mobile user and to introduce nulls at inter-
fering positions [3].
The artificial neural networks (ANN) have been extensively used in modeling of
various systems, time series analysis, pattern classification and recognition, signal
processing, and design of control systems. ANNs tend to reduce the errors very fast

M. N. Mohanty (*) · S. Mahapatra · S. Satrusallya

Department of ECE, ITER, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan Deemed to be University,
Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
e-mail: mihirmohanty@[Link]
A. K. Pandit
Department of ECE, Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University, Jammu and Kashmir, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 267

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
268 M. N. Mohanty et al.

by circumventing tedious calculations and modeling the expected behavior of the

system through supervised learning [4].
In this work, we propose a neuro-computational model to predict the optimal
number of antenna elements and the optimal spacing between them in a linear array.
This array can then be used as a part of the smart antenna system at the base station.
The smart antenna directs the beam toward requesting human activity tracking
device so that data transfer may take place without any interference.
The paper is further organized as follows: in Sect. 2, some recent related works
are discussed; in Sect. 3, the system design is discussed; results and discussions are
presented in Sect. 4; Sect. 5 concludes the findings of this work. The works that
have been referred to have been listed in the reference section.

2  Related Works

The use of a variable-step-size normalized least mean square algorithm selection,

to control the antenna array for beamforming, elementand power management is
shown in [5]. A comparative study of the performance of hybrid algorithm-based
techniques for beamforming by the adaptive antenna array is presented in [6]. The
use of chaotic beamforming adaptive algorithm for the synthesis of the radiation
pattern of the antenna array, enabling the antenna array’s radiation pattern to adapt
faster, reduce noise, and improve tracking, is presented in [7]. A spatiotemporal
approach to improve the speed and performance of least mean squares, normalized
least mean squares, and variable step-size least mean squares algorithms is pro-
posed in [8]. The direction of arrival of the source was estimated using the MUSIC
algorithm and selected the beam closest to the desired user by a switched beam
system. The influence of least mean squares, recursive least squares, and normalized
least mean squares algorithms has been discussed and compared in [9]. An adaptive
beamforming algorithm that steered radiation pattern nulls toward interfering signal
directions and achieved the desired side lobe level in [10]. Adaptive beamforming
for the smart antenna uses a normalized constant modulus algorithm and considered
blind processing on 16-point QAM data in [11]. The changes in the least Mean
squares algorithm so that it converges at a faster rate than conventional LMS and
hence becomes suitable for practical applications are proposed in [12]. A robust and
improved null-widening approach combining adaptive variable diagonal loading
and covariance matrix taper is presented in [13]. A Lagrange programming neural
network for a phase-only antenna array beam former is proposed in [14]. It was
found that the array backed by the proposed algorithm had good generalization abil-
ity with a simpler network structure. An approach of synthesis of the concentric
circular antenna array for improving far-field radiation characteristics uses moth
flame optimization and achieved side lobe levels less than −27 dB in [15]. Various
analytical techniques of adaptive beamforming systems, level of system perfor-
mance optimization approaches, and relevant parameters for the deployment of
smart antennas were evaluated in [16]. The adaptive null-introducing algorithm for
Design of High Gain and Low Side Lobe Smart Antenna Array for IoT Applications… 269

digital and non-digital beamforming techniques have been compared and evaluated
in [17]. An approximate l0-norm constrained normalized least mean squares algo-
rithm for introducing sparsity in controlling beamforming by the adaptive antenna
array has been proposed in [18]. The use of space-time-polarization adaptive
antenna arrays in place of conventional RHCP antennas in global navigation satel-
lite systems is presented in [19]. They demonstrated that four-element dual-­polarized
STPA promises to suppress seven broadband interferences. A wideband antenna
array having a low side lobe is designed in [20]. The antenna array had four wide-
band antenna elements that were omnidirectional, along with an uneven power
divider, and achieved a bandwidth of 0.69 GHz and 0.65 GHz and a side lobe in the
E-plane with a level of −19 dB.  A branchline coupler-based beam steering ten-­
element array antenna using meander line and open stubs is proposed in [21]. The
design was a compact and small structure and had an almost 5 GHz bandwidth.
Artificial neural networks (ANN) or multilayer perceptrons (MLP) have been
used by researchers for solving many problems in communications. ANNs have
been used to estimate arrival angles [22, 23] and beamforming [24, 25]. In [26],
MLP was used for joint angle and range estimation of frequency diverse array. In
[27], MLP was for finding the number of targets present in a range-velocity cell of
automotive radar and achieved classification performance comparable to the gener-
alized likelihood ratio test. ANNs have also been used for array synthesis [28],
determination of performance parameters of microstrip antenna [29], optimization
and design of antenna array [30, 31], calculation of antenna phases for radiation
pattern synthesis [32], and development of virtual instruments for diagnosing faults
in a fractal antenna array [33]. Array antennas suitable for body area networks have
been described in [34, 35].
Side lobes, especially the first side lobe, contribute a major part in introducing
interferences in the system. They can be reduced using the method of convolution
[36], amplitude tapering method [37], bio-inspired algorithms [38–40], and LMS
algorithm variants [41].

3  System Design

The antenna array designed for IoT must fulfill the three main requirements – high
gain, highly directional beam, and minimal side lobes – to effectively communicate
with the base station or the modem. The gain enhancement and narrow beamwidth
can be achieved by increasing the number of antenna array elements and the dis-
tance between them. As both cannot be simultaneously increased, a trade-off must
be considered. The side lobes can be minimized using the appropriate windowing
function. For tracking human activities, the activity tracking devices and the antenna
array elements must be placed on a human subject. This puts further constraints on
the design of the antenna array. The back lobes from each element should also be
negligible or zero to reduce the specific absorption rate (SAR).
270 M. N. Mohanty et al.

A MLP-based neuro-computational model (NCM) is used to model the relation-

ship of the gain and the beamwidth with the number of the elements and the spacing
between the elements. The radiation pattern is convolved with the Gaussian window
and quantized. The output pattern of the array antenna is fed to the MLP in the form
of gain and beamwidth values, so that the NCM is able to replicate the behavior of
the array. This helps in predicting the optimal number of the antenna elements and
the spacing between them. The synthesized antenna array can be integrated with a
DSP processor running an adaptive algorithm at the base station. This smart antenna
can then be used to link to requesting IoT device while reducing interference from
other devices.
The system design is shown in Fig. 1. The wearable device records data from the
user activities and is ready to upload data. The device is serviced through the smart
antenna system at the base station and gets highly directed beam for maximal
strength and connectivity. This forms the part of the body area network. The data is
pushed through the access point to the database server through the backbone
network.
Neuro-Computational Model  We propose a neuro-computational model (NCM),
shown in Fig. 2, comprising a multi-layer perceptron network. The model uses a
feed-forward mechanism for function signals and back-propagation mechanism to
reduce errors. The network has a single hidden layer of ten neurons. These neurons
use the log-sigmoid function as the activation function. The input layer is activated
by a linear activation function. No activation function has been used for the output
layer. The model takes the number of antenna array elements and spacing between
the elements as input. The outputs of the network are gain in dB and FNBW in
degrees.
The multilayer perceptron model is given by the following expressions [42].
Assume x(t) as the input vector at tth timestep and d(t) as the desired response vec-
tor. For forward computation, for any neuron j at layer l and timestep t, the interme-
diate output vjl(t) is given by:

Fig. 1  The system setup

Design of High Gain and Low Side Lobe Smart Antenna Array for IoT Applications… 271

Fig. 2  The neuro-computational model to compute gain (dB) and beamwidth (degrees)

v lj t wlji t yil 1 t
i
where w (t) is the weight of the synapse of jth neuron in lth layer connected to the
ij
l

output of the ith neuron from the previous layer and yil-1(t) is the output of the previ-
ous layer at the tth iteration. The activation function is log-sigmoid function. Thus,
the output signal of a jth neuron in a lth layer is given by:

1
y lj j v j t where a 1
1 exp av j t

If the neuron is in the first hidden layer, yj0 will be equal to xj(t), and activation func-
tion is a linear function. If the neuron is in the output layer L, yjL will be equal to oj(t)
with the value of activation function being 1. The error signal is computed by:

ej t d j t oj t

where dj(t) is the jth element of d(t). For backward computation, the local gradients
δs are computed and are defined as:

elj t j v Lj t for neuron j in output layer L

t
l

j

j v l
t
j k kj
l 1
t w l 1
t for neuron j in hidden layer l
k

where φ’(.) is differentiated with respect to the argument. The weights of a lth layer
is updated according to:

wlji t 1 wlji t wlji t 1 lj t yil 1 t

272 M. N. Mohanty et al.

where η is the learning rate between 0 and 1, and α is the momentum constant
greater than 1.
The Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm has been used for training the network and
deciding the stopping criteria. A learning rate of 0.01 has been used. The dataset for
the model has been obtained by repeated simulations. The dataset comprises two
sets: first set consists of gains and beamwidths obtained by varying the number of
elements from 10 to 100, keeping the spacing constant at 0.5λ. Next to it, a set con-
sists of gains and beamwidths obtained by varying the spacing between the ele-
ments, keeping the number of elements as 50. The desired gain is obtained with 50
number of array elements. Though the number of element hike could provide good
result, the gain performance is not satisfied along with the size of the antenna in this
work with 100 array elements. Seventy percent of the data has been used for train-
ing, 15% for training the model, and the rest 15% of the data for testing the model.
The weights are first set randomly and then updated to minimize the error between
the target and the output. The network weights are readjusted to check for errors and
the network is validated. The network is tested using test data. The data is put
through regression analysis to predict the optimal number of elements and the spac-
ing between them to suit the requirements of the application. The mean square error
is computed using:

Oi Predi
2
N
MSE
i 1 N
A smart antenna system shown in Fig. 3 consists of antenna elements on the front
and a processor at the back end. The processor is responsible for introducing the
phase shift for steering the beam toward a particular direction after it has correctly
determined the direction of arrival of an incoming request. The weights can be
updated using adaptive algorithms. The number of the antenna elements and the
optimal spacing between them is found out using the neuro-computational model.

Fig. 3  A smart antenna

system [4]
d
x1(t) x2(t) xN(t)

S1(t) S2(t) SN(t)

s(t) Array
Output

W1 W2 WN

(t)– + r(t)
Feedback
Circuit Error Reference
Signal Signal
Design of High Gain and Low Side Lobe Smart Antenna Array for IoT Applications… 273

Computation of the Gain  For the computation of gain, the power radiated due to
the entire array should be found out. The radiated power can be computed from the
electric field due to the entire array. For the computation of the electric field due to
the entire array, we have to compute the electric field due to a single element and
multiply it with the array factor (AF) (Eq. 7).

Electric field due to array E single element at ref point AF

Electric field due to a single element at the reference point is given by [43]:
jkr
kI e
E a j 0
4 r

The array factor (AF) for n-element linear array with uniform distance, d, and uni-
form excitation amplitude is given by [40]:

n 1 n
AF exp j sin / sin
2 2 2

kd cos

The radiated power, P(θ, φ), can be found out by evaluating the following expres-
sion [43]:

P ,
1
2
Re E E
2 2
r sin d d
2

To compute gain, we make use of the gain function, G (θ, φ) [43], which is given by:

4 P ,
G ,
Pin

where β = 2π/λ, η is the impedance of the free space, k is the wave number, P (θ, φ)
is the actual power radiated in direction (θ, φ), and Pin is the total accepted power.
As can be seen, the gain of an antenna array is a function of the number of ele-
ments and spacing between them.
Computation of the Beamwidth  The beamwidth considered here is the beamwidth
between the first nulls, first-null beamwidth (FNBW). This is also called the major
lobe. This can be obtained by plotting the power pattern vs the angle. The beam-
width of the beam produced by a smart antenna system is a function of the number
of array elements and distance or spacing between the elements. The direction of the
beam can be changed by varying the steering angle or the phase difference of the
input current.
274 M. N. Mohanty et al.

Reduction of Side Lobes  In this work, we have used convolution with Gaussian
window function to keep the side lobes below −25 dB.

4  Results and Discussion

Gain  From Figs. 4 and 6, it is observed that the model performed well and valida-
tion error was limited to 2.81 × 10−7 in case of gain vs the number of antenna ele-
ments and about 0.011 in case of gain vs spacing between antenna elements. From
Figs. 5 and 7, it is observed that the data points are close to the regression line,
indicating that there is a strong, positive, and linear relationship between the target
and output. The gain predicted from the model for 50 elements with 0.5λ spacing is
16.86 dB, and with 0.6λ spacing, it is 16.5 dB.  From Figs.  12 and 13, it can be
observed that the gains obtained through actual computation are 17 dB and 16.6 dB,
respectively.

Beamwidth  From Figs. 8 and10, it can be seen that the validation error was limited
to 0.084 in the case of beamwidth vs the number of antenna elements and 0.48 in the
case of beamwidth vs the spacing between the elements. Figures 9 and 11 indicate
that the proposed neuro-computational model was able to model the relationship of
beamwidth with the number of antenna elements and the spacing between the ele-
ments very closely. The beamwidth predicted from the model for 50-element array
with 0.5λ spacing is 10 degrees, and with 0.6λ spacing, it is 6.7 degrees. Comparing
with Figs. 12 and 13, it can be seen that the beamwidth is 10 degrees for 0.5λ and

Fig 4  Mean squared error plot of performance of the NCM for gain vs the number of the elements
Design of High Gain and Low Side Lobe Smart Antenna Array for IoT Applications… 275

Training: R=1 Validation: R=1

18 Data 18 Data

Output ~= 1*Target + 0.00061

Output ~= 1*Target + 6.3e-06

Fit Fit
Y=T Y=T
16 16

14 14

12 12

10 10

10 12 14 16 18 10 12 14 16 18
Target Target

Test: R=1 All: R=1

18 18
Output ~= 1*Target + –0.00046

Data Data
Output ~= 1*Target + 4.1e-05

Fit Fit
Y=T Y=T
16 16

14 14

12 12

10 10

10 12 14 16 18 10 12 14 16 18
Target Target

Fig. 5   Regression model of the NCM for gain vs number of elements

Fig. 6   Mean Squared Error plot of performance of the NCM for gain vs spacing between the
elements
Training: R=0.99999 Validation: R=0.99931
17 17
Data Data

Output ~= 0.98*Target + 0.23

Output ~= 1*Target + 0.0011
16 Fit 16 Fit
15 Y= T 15 Y= T

14 14
13 13
12 12
11 11
10 10
9 9
10 12 14 16 10 12 14 16
Target Target

Test: R=0.98093 All: R=0.99674

17 17
Data Data
Output ~= 0.93*Target + 0.83

Output ~= 0.98*Target + 0.2

16 Fit 16 Fit
15 Y= T 15 Y= T

14 14
13 13
12 12
11 11
10 10
9 9
10 12 14 16 10 12 14 16
Target Target

Fig. 7  Regression model of the NCM for gain vs spacing between the elements

Fig. 8  Mean squared error plot of performance of the NCM for beamwidth vs the number of
elements
Fig. 9  Regression model of the NCM for the beamwidth vs the number of elements

Fig. 10   Mean Squared Error plot of performance of the NCM for beamwidth vs distance between
the elements 
278 M. N. Mohanty et al.

Fig. 11  Regression model of the NCM for beamwidth vs distance between the elements
Design of High Gain and Low Side Lobe Smart Antenna Array for IoT Applications… 279

Fig. 12  Gain pattern of the linear antenna array with 50 elements and 0.5λ

Fig. 13  Gain pattern of the linear antenna array with 50 elements and 0.6λ
280 M. N. Mohanty et al.

Table 1  Summary of results for 50-element array

Neuro-computational model From actual calculation Error (%)
Spacing Gain (dB) Beamwidth (deg) Gain (dB) Beamwidth (deg) Gain Beamwidth
0.5λ 16.86 10 17 10 0.82 0
0.6λ 16.5 6.7 16.6 6.49 0.60 3.2

Table 2  Comparison with some related works

Technique
Reference used Purpose MSE
[28] ANN Performance analysis of beamforming of 538.5
N-element uniform circular array and concentric
circular array for smart antenna
[29] ANN Estimation of all performance parameters of 10−6
circular microstrip antenna
[30] ANN Antenna element optimization of a 2×2 antenna Not given
array
[33] ANN Virtual instrument for predicting faults in fractal 10−3
antenna array
Proposed MLP Prediction of gain and beamwidth of a linear 10−7 for gain vs
work array number of
elements

6.49 degrees for 0.6λ spacing. Table 1 summarizes and compares the data. Table 2
shows some related works
It was observed that a 50-element array is the best possible case when the trade-­
off between the maximum number of elements that can be put in a limited space,
and the gain or beamwidth is considered. As most of the human activity tracking
devices work around 2.4 GHz, the distance between any two adjacent elements will
be 12.5 cm. As such in any setting, an antenna array of more than 50 elements would
be cumbersome to handle.

5  Conclusion

In this work, a neuro-computational model is proposed to predict the optimal num-

ber of elements that are spaced linearly in the smart antenna system for body area
network. The proposed neuro-computational model is used for agreement of pre-
dicted gain and the beamwidth with the number of antenna elements and the spacing
between them with a high level of accuracy. The smart antenna system, hence syn-
thesized, can cater to IoT devices that track human activities. As the tracking devices
Design of High Gain and Low Side Lobe Smart Antenna Array for IoT Applications… 281

need to connect to the Internet through an access point, the antenna system at the
access point needs to direct the beam toward the user. From the neuro-­computational
model, it was found that a pin-pointed beam with a beamwidth of 10 degrees with a
gain of 16.86 dB can be generated using 50 elements with a spacing of 0.5λ. The
error between predicted value from the model and the calculated value is less than
1%. An array of more than 50 elements is unsuitable for body area networks as it
will be unmanageable. The issue of modeling arrays with nonuniform spacing
between the elements is a big challenge and remains an open issue to the research-
ers. Modeling of many electromagnetic problems still remains a big challenge to the
researchers.

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Planar Multiband Smart Antenna
for Wireless Communication Applications

B. Elizabeth Caroline, B. Neeththi Aadithiya, J. Jeyarani,

and Abdul Rahim Sadiq Batcha

1  Introduction

Drastic development in the field of communication and technology necessitates data

transfer at superior speeds, improved quality of service (QoS) requirements, and
efficient spectrum usage. Plenty of researches were done with the above require-
ment, and one solution obtained through the wide research is smart antennas.
In literature [1], smart radiating elements are the one which consists of multiple
antennas or array of antennas along with digital signal processing capabilities to
transfer the data at higher data rates. At present, smart antennas are an array of
antennas but do not necessarily operate like array antennas. In some contexts, smart
antennas can also be coined as cognitive antennas. Some major advantage that lies
with smart antennas is a reduction in the amount of power required, reduced inter-
ference in the communication channel, and improvement in power efficiencies.
Nowadays, smart antennas possess beamforming to self-healing algorithms
inbuilt to support the current technological requirements. Self-healing algorithms
imparted with radiating elements allow the alteration in the overall antenna perfor-
mance at times of loss of data, interference, and high SNR values. Smart antennas

B. E. Caroline
Department of ECE, IFET College of Engineering, Viluppuram, Tamil Nadu, India
B. N. Aadithiya (*)
Department of ECE, M. Kumarasamy College of Engineering, Karur, Tamil Nadu, India
J. Jeyarani
Department of ECE, CARE College of Engineering, Trichy, Tamil Nadu, India
A. R. S. Batcha
Department of EEE, Faculty of Engineering & Built Environment, Mahsa University,
Petaling Jaya, Malaysia
e-mail: abdulrahim.b@[Link]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 285

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
286 B. E. Caroline et al.

are employed with algorithms to have improved QoS. Two major functions involved
with smart antennas are:
• Direction of arrival
• Beamforming
The direction of arrival (DOA) in smart antennas is the process of identifying the
signal arrival direction. The DOA of the signal in smart antennas is predicted with
the use of associated algorithms, namely, multiple signal classification. One such
efficient algorithm used in real time is the matrix pencil algorithm. Beamforming is
a process of adding the radiation pattern of the individual radiating elements along
the required direction, and it also nullifies the unwanted direction radiation. The
most commonly deployed algorithm in beamforming is least mean square (LMS).
Smart antennas can be broadly classified into two categories, which are switched
beam and adaptive array antennas. The switched beam antennas are the one which
is capable of detecting the best signal beams, and it switches to the beam effectively.
Adaptive array elements are the most recent, and it is capable of employing
N-algorithms and adjusts accordingly to have reduced interference in the operating
environment. Smart antennas can be realized in the following three forms, namely,
single-input multiple-output (SIMO), multiple-input single-output (MISO), and
multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO). The use of MIMO-based smart antennas is
essential for satisfying the abovementioned requirements.
The fundamental idea which lies behind MIMO [2] technology is the possibility
of employing multiple antennas at transmitter and receiver sides. With the use of
multiple antennas, the rate and amount of data transfer through the channel can be
improved. To highlight, the signaling freedom is available in MIMO antennas,
which is not a characteristic of a single radiating element. Signaling freedom is
coined as diversity in MIMO antennas. Integration of the MIMO antennas alongside
the wireless technologies leads to superior speed data.
Two forms are used to realize the diversity in MIMO antennas, namely, mul-
tipath and space-time coding techniques. Multipath is the process of transferring the
same information or data sequences through N-different channels at different time
intervals as there are multiple antennas. The data or information transferred at dif-
ferent times through different channels arrives at the receiver end at different times;
thus, data reliability is high in the case of multipath data transfer.
Secondly, the MIMO antennas make use of the space-time coding technique to
achieve data reliability. In space-time coding, codes are assigned for the data, and
then the data, as well as the code, is sent to the receiver through various channels to
achieve the reliability of data at the receiver end. Therefore, at the receiver end,
there will be an original message as well as the coded information which may help
when the signal received contains added noise. This increased data transfer may
result in additional bandwidth usage, but in turn, it offers the advantage of reducing
the SNR values. In the past, this type of data transfer may result in interference
between the channels, but it is reduced with the use of efficient MIMO multipath
antennas.
Planar Multiband Smart Antenna for Wireless Communication Applications 287

When the number of antennas deployed for information transfer increases, it will
directly impact the overall throughput of the transmission-reception system. So the
throughput involved with the MIMO antennas is high when compared to the single
radiating element transmission-reception systems. This particular advantage of
throughput improvement can be deployed along with wireless technologies.
The abovementioned advantages of the MIMO antennas can be attained with the
proper selection of radiating element design and location of multiple antennas. Now
the major focus of research in the MIMO antenna area is the efficient design for the
multi-antenna environment at low cost. While selecting the design for the MIMO
environment, coupling between the elements and radiation correlation should be
considered.
The most used radiating element which opts for the requirements of the MIMO
environment is the microstrip antenna elements. Microstrip antennas find better
application in the MIMO environment because of their less space occupation,
weight, and cost of fabrication. The advantage of patch [3] antenna goes well with
the advantage of MIMO antennas and makes it the most preferable structure for the
MIMO environment. The range of UWB spectrum ranges from 3.1 to 10 GHz fre-
quencies, which are designated to have higher speed data delivery.
The advancement in the technology allows the researchers to have an N-number
of multiband UWB MIMO antennas in literature. The multiband operation is
achieved using the placement of slots [4, 5], resonators [6, 7] of different shapes
most commonly square-shaped resonators [8], dual-band antennas [9, 10], triple-­
band antennas [11, 12], and non-natural material structures like double negative
materials (DNG), CRLH structures, and metamaterials [13–18], which are studied
in the literature.
In this work, a simple inset feed rectangular planar antenna offering multiband
operation is suggested. With the use of two vertical slots on the patch and the rect-
angular cut at the edges, the number of operating bands is increased, i.e., single
band to quad band. A simple structure is the advantage of the antenna despite the
antenna reported in the literature has complex design structures to achieve dual-­
band operation. Furthermore, 1  ×  2 MIMO antennas and 1  ×  4 MIMO antenna
arrays based on the suggested rectangular planar antenna are offered with the neces-
sary diversity parameters. The suggested rectangular patch antenna is designed to
operate over 2.39–2.44 GHz, 3.1–3.18 GHz, 4.15–4.17 GHz, and 4.47–4.54 GHz
frequencies. Multiband antenna designed is applicable for satellite communication
(X-band) over 4.15–4.17 GHz, and 2.39–2.44 GHz band can be employed for baby
monitors, Zigbee, and Wi-Fi applications. 3.1–3.18  GHz frequency range can be
employed for S-band radars. 4.47–4.54 GHz frequency is now used for point-to-­
point communication in the US Military services, and 4.5  GHz is now deployed
commonly for 5G mobile communication in China.
288 B. E. Caroline et al.

2  Antenna Design

Multiband smart antenna proposed is a rectangular patch antenna fed by a microstrip

feed line of 50 ohms. Substrate material preferred for a multiband antenna is FR4
with 4.4 as its permittivity index, and the elevation of dielectric from the ground is
chosen as 1.6 mm.
The proposed antenna simulations are performed with CST software. Notations
denoting the dimension of the suggested antenna are shown in Fig. 1. The multiband
antenna dimensions are listed in Table 1.

2.1  Progression of Antenna Design

The progression in the design starting from simple patch to multiband antenna is
detailed in Fig. 2. The antenna dimensions [19–22] are calculated for the operating
frequency f = 2.4 GHz.

2.2  Effect of Rectangular Cut and Slot on Antenna Performance

Radiating element is made to radiate with the help of acceleration or deceleration of

the charges, which can also be defined as time-varying current over the patch. Those
accelerating charges in turn create the current. Thus, the current on the surface of

Fig. 1  Multiband antenna geometry (a) Top view (b) Radiating element
Planar Multiband Smart Antenna for Wireless Communication Applications 289

Table 1  Multiband antenna dimensions

Parameters W L GW GL
Value (mm) 66.06 58.86 66.06 58.86
Parameters AX AY FX FY
Value (mm) 38.03 29.43 3.03 17.12
Parameters g R SW SL
Value (mm) 1 9 2 24
Parameters r1 × r2 D Z ax
Value (mm) 8.1 × 5 2 3.015 2.715

Fig. 2  Evolution of multiband antenna

the patch should be altered to have different radiating bands. Accumulation of cur-
rent over the patch should be observed clearly for altering the currents’ flow pattern
over the face of the radiating element. As per the theory, planar antennas have a high
current flow around the center of the radiating element at resonating frequency.
Evidently, the initial rectangular patch antenna shows higher current density at the
center of a patch at an operating frequency of 2.4 GHz, which is shown in Fig. 3a.
The regular rectangular patch operates at the desired 2.4  GHz frequency with a
return loss of around −12.2 dB. Further, to improve the return loss and multiband
operating nature of radiating element, a cut and slots are introduced.
The current distribution over the patch can be altered with the creation of cut at
the edges as the current is zero and voltage is high at the edges. Thus, in step 2, the
rectangular cut is made at the top-left corner, and thus, the high currents are accu-
mulated at the right corner of the patch, and this, in turn, results in dual-band opera-
tion. Band 1 is seen over 2.42–2.46 GHz frequencies with the return loss value of
−16 dB. And the second band is around 4.4–4.6 GHz frequencies with a return loss
value of −17 dB. Figure 3b shows the surface current distribution across the edges
and also the altered current accumulation toward the right corner of the patch with
the rectangular cut.
Usually, the introduction of slots in the patch antenna is to have multiple reso-
nant frequencies, and thus, to increase the operating bands, a vertical slot 1 is
inserted at the higher current accumulated location. This vertical slot inserted as
shown in step 3 of Fig. 2 offers an improved return loss value of −18.8 dB over
290 B. E. Caroline et al.

Fig. 3  Multiband antenna surface currents (a) Simple patch antenna surface current at f = 2.4 GHz
(b) Surface current of step 2 antenna at f = 2.4 GHz (c) Surface current of an antenna with one
vertical slot at f = 2.4 GHz (d) Suggested multiband antenna surface current at f = 2.4 GHz

2.42–2.46 GHz frequencies and a new narrow band of operation around 3.1 GHz.

Step 3 again results in dual-band operation. Thus, to improve the number of operat-
ing bands and to cover the bands obtained in steps 2 and 3, a vertical slot 2 is made
over the patch. Addition of slot 2 along with slot 1 results in quad-band operation
over 2.39–2.44 GHz, 3.1–3.18 GHz, 4.15–4.17 GHz, and 4.47–4.54 GHz frequen-
cies. The current at the surface of the suggested patch is evenly distributed with the
addition of slots and is shown in Fig. 3d.

3  Results and Discussion

Radiating element performance can be analyzed using the following parameters:

S-parameter values, voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR), gain, maximum radiation
directional reliance pattern, radiating efficiency, and total efficiency. Return loss
plot is used to determine the amount of power reflected, and power reflected should
be as less as possible to have improved power transfer between the transmitter and
receiver.
In general, the return loss value should be less than −10 dB. Suggested multi-
band antenna shows around −28.04 dB, −19.74 dB, −11.6 dB, and −40.81 dB
Planar Multiband Smart Antenna for Wireless Communication Applications 291

return loss values over 2.39–2.44  GHz, 3.1–3.18  GHz, 4.15–4.17  GHz, and
4.47–4.54 GHz frequencies, respectively. The return loss plot is shown in Fig. 4a.
Voltage standing wave ratio is the parameter that numerically defines the match-
ing between the radiating element and the transmission medium to which it is con-
nected. VSWR is related to the return loss value, and it describes the efficiency of
power transferred by measuring the amount of reflected power, i.e., return loss. By
theory, VSWR values should be less than 2. The VSWR value obtained for the mul-
tiband antenna is less than 2 over the operating frequencies. A plot of antenna gain
of the suggested multiband antenna is visualized in Fig. 4b, and the gain values are
6.5 dB, 4.7 dB, 6.5 dB, and 6.67 dB over 2.39–2.44  GHz, 3.1–3.18  GHz,
4.15–4.17 GHz, and 4.47–4.54 GHz frequencies, respectively.
The overall efficiency of the antenna’s radiating ability is above 80% over the
operating frequencies and is shown in Fig. 5a. A plot of S-parameters of the four
stages of design is compared to have a clear view of suggested antenna performance
and is shown in Fig. 5b.
The radiation pattern defines the direction of the maximum radiation from the
antenna. Radiation patterns along with XZ (E-field)-plane and YZ (H-field)-plane
are obtained and show that the antenna has an almost omnidirectional radiation pat-
tern over the frequency of operation.

4  MIMO Antenna Design

With the proposed multiband patch antenna 1 × 2 and 1 × 4 MIMO antennas are
designed. In a 1 × 2 MIMO antenna design, the antennas are separated by a distance
of D1 = 28.55 mm along the X-direction. The separation between radiating element
corresponds to the reduction of interference losses and improved SNR values in the
MIMO antennas. The coupling losses can also be reduced with the proper isolation

S11 (dB)
a 5 b Gain
8
0
–5
–10
S11 (dB) (dB)

6
Gain (dB)

–15
–20
–25
–30 4
–35
–40
–45 2
2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
Frequency (GHz) Frequency (GHz)

Fig. 4  Results of suggested multiband antenna (a) Return loss plot (b) Gain of the radiating ele-
ment over frequencies
292 B. E. Caroline et al.

Step1
a Radiation Efficiency b Step2
1.0 5 Step3
0 Step4
Radiation Efficiency (%)

–5
0.8 –10

Return loss (dB)

–15
–20
0.6
–25
–30
–35
0.4
–40
–45
2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
Frequency (GHz) Frequency (GHz)

Fig. 5  Results of suggested multiband antenna (a) Radiation efficiency (b) Comparison plot of
S-parameter values of four steps of design evolution

between the radiating elements. Thus, two different separation dimensions are used
for the proposed structures.
As the separation between antennas plays a major role in deciding the coupling
characteristics of MIMO antenna, optimal distances are preferred. The major fac-
tors used for determining the performance of MIMO antennas are diversity gain
(DG) and envelope correlation coefficient (ECC). The mathematical expression
[23] which defines the relationship between the scattering matrix and ECC is given
in Eq. (1):
2
Sii Sij S ji S jj
Envelope correlation coefficient e
1 S ii
2
S ji
2
1 S jj
2
Sij
2
(1)
As MIMO multiband antenna consists of two radiating elements, Eq. (1) is rear-
ranged accordingly in Eq. (2):
2
S11 S12 S21

S22
Envelope correlation coefficient
1 S 11
2
S21
2
1 S 22
2
S12
2
(2)
The value of ECC should lie within 0.3 for the optimal operation of a MIMO
antenna, and the measured ECC values for 1 × 2 MIMO are within 0.16 for all four
bands. Diversity gain and ECC are related mathematically and are given in Eq. (3).
Diversity gain value is nearly about DG = 9.8 dB for the 1 × 2 MIMO antenna. ECC
and diversity gain of the suggested multiband 1 × 2 MIMO antennas are shown in
Fig. 6a, b.
Planar Multiband Smart Antenna for Wireless Communication Applications 293

Diversity gain DG 10 1 ECC

(3)
Another factor used to measure the performance of MIMO antennas is the value of
TARC. When N-radiating elements with N-ports are used, the total Active reflection
coefficient should be analyzed, and by theory, it should have a value which is lower
than 0 dB.
The mathematical relation between the TARC and scattering matrix is given in
Eq. (4). Simulated TARC values over the multiband frequencies are less than −10 dB.

S11 S12 S21 S22

2 2

TARC
2 (4)
Mean effective gain values can be calculated for the MIMO antennas using the
mathematical relation [24] given in Eq. (5). The gain values of the MIMO antenna
are improved when compared with the single radiating element. Equations (6) and
(7) are used for the calculation of MEG of the suggested 1 × 2 MIMO antenna.

N
2
Mean effective gain MEG i 0.5 1 Sij
j 1 (5)

MEG i 0.5 1 S11 S12

2 2

(6)

MEG j 0.5 1 S21 S22

2 2

(7)

a b
0.15
10.0

0.10 9.8
DG (dB)
ECC

9.6
0.05
9.4

0.00
9.2

2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
FREQUENCY (GHz) FREQUENCY (GHz)

Fig. 6  Results of 1 × 2 MIMO antenna (a) Envelope correlation coefficient (ECC) (b) Diversity
gain (DG)
294 B. E. Caroline et al.

The results of 1 × 2 MIMO antennas are visualized in Fig. 7. Return loss values of
the antennas are achieved like the single radiating element, and they are −28.04 dB,
−19.74 dB, −11.6 dB, and −40.81 dB return loss values over 2.39–2.44  GHz,
3.1–3.18 GHz, 4.15–4.17 GHz, and 4.47–4.54 GHz frequencies, respectively. The
VSWR value of the 1 × 2 MIMO antennas is less than 2 over the operating
frequencies.
The results of 1 × 4 MIMO antennas are visualized in Fig. 8. Return loss values
of the antennas are achieved like the single radiating element, and they are −28.04
dB, −19.74 dB, −11.6 dB, and −40.81 dB over 2.39–2.44  GHz, 3.1–3.18  GHz,
4.15–4.17 GHz, and 4.47–4.54 GHz frequencies, respectively.
The VSWR value of the 1 × 4 MIMO antennas is less than 2 over the operating
frequencies. A gain of the 1 × 4 MIMO is improved to an average value of 11 dB for
the operating frequency bands. The measured ECC values for 1 × 4 MIMO are
within 0.15 for all four bands. Diversity gain value is nearly about DG = 9.9 dB for
the 1 × 4 MIMO antenna. Diversity gain and ECC of the suggested multiband 1 × 4
MIMO antennas are shown in Fig. 8c, d.
The simulated isolation values of 1 × 2 MIMO antenna and 1 × 4 MIMO antenna
are greater than −21 dB over the quad bands of operation and is shown in Fig. 9.

Return loss of Ant 1

a 5
Return loss of Ant 2 b
0
–5
–10 2.0
Return loss (dB)

–15
–20
VSWR

–25 1.5
–30
–35
–40 1.0
–45
2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
Frequency (GHz) Frequency (GHz)

Fig. 7  Results of 1 × 2 MIMO antennas (a) Return loss (S11) (b) Voltage standing wave
ratio (VSWR)
Planar Multiband Smart Antenna for Wireless Communication Applications 295

a Radiating Element 1 b
Radiating Element 2
5 Radiating Element 3
Radiating Element 4 Gain
0
11.0
–5
–10
Return loss (dB)

–15 10.8

Gain(dB)
–20
–25
–30 10.6
–35
–40
–45 10.4
–50
2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
Frequency (GHz) Frequency (GHz)

c ECC
d Diversity Gain
0.15
10.0
Diversity Gain(dB)

0.10 9.8
ECC

9.6
0.05
9.4
0.00 9.2
2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
Frequency (GHz) Frequency (GHz)

Fig. 8  Results of 1 × 4 MIMO antenna (a) Return loss (b) Gain of the radiating elements over
frequencies (c) Envelope correlation coefficient (ECC) (d) Diversity gain (DG)

a –10
b
–15 –20
–25
–20 –30
–25 –35
–30 –40
–45
S21 (dB)

S21 (dB)

–35 –50
–40 –55
–45 –60
–50 –65
–55 –70
–75
–60 –80
–65 –85
–70 –90
–95
–75
2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
FREQUENCY FREQUENCY

Fig. 9  Isolation results of (a) 1 × 2 MIMO antenna (b) 1 × 4 MIMO antenna

5  C
omparison of Other MIMO Antennas with Multiband
Planar MIMO Antenna

The proposed planar quad-band MIMO antenna is compared with other MIMO
designs reported earlier in Table 2. From the evaluation, it is found that the proposed
planar antenna shows a better trade-off over the state-of-the-art requirements of
MIMO antenna, except the compact size.
296

Table 2  Comparison with other MIMO antennas with multiband planar MIMO antenna
Reference number [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [23] Proposed antenna
Size of the radiating element (mm) 95 × 49.7 × 1.6 58 × 44 × 1.2 50 × 70 × 1.6 30 × 40 × 0.8 20 × 20 × 1.6 40 × 40 × 1.52 66.06 × 58.86 × 1.6
Number of band 1 2 3 2 1 3 4
Envelope correlation coefficient Less than 0.03 Less than Less than Less than Less than 0.1 Less than Less than 0.1
(ECC) 0.013 0.15 0.15 0.015
Distance between antennas 27 22 20 – – 15.2 28.5
Isolation −26 dB −42 dB −31 dB −20 dB −15 dB −20 dB −23 dB
Gain 7.5 dB – 8 dB – 4.1 dBi – 4 dBi 4.1 dBi 10 dB –10.8 dB
Diversity gain (DG) 9.8 – 9.9 – – 9.9 9.8
B. E. Caroline et al.
Planar Multiband Smart Antenna for Wireless Communication Applications 297

6  Conclusion

The proposed multiband smart antenna operates over 2.39–2.44  GHz,

3.1–3.18 GHz, 4.15–4.17 GHz, and 4.47–4.54 GHz bands with (VSWR ≤ 2), and
return loss values are around  –28.08 dB,  –19.74 dB, –11.6 dB, and –40.81 dB,
respectively. The proposed 1 × 2 and 1 × 4 MIMO antennas offer ECC values less
than 0.2 over all the operating bands. The radiation efficiency of the design is
above 80%.

7  Future Work

In the future, defected ground structures can be integrated with the proposed struc-
ture to have the improved impedance bandwidth. Secondly, the stub can be added to
the proposed patch to increase the number of operating bands, and the multiband
antenna can also be placed in orthogonal directions to have better efficiency and
operating conditions.

References

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Part VI
Ultra-Wide-Band Antenna Design for
Wearable Applications
A Low-Profile Compact EBG Integrated
Circular Monopole Antenna for Wearable
Medical Application

Prasad Jones Christydass Sam, U. Surendar, Unwana M. Ekpe,

M. Saravanan, and P. Satheesh Kumar

1  Introduction

Antennas have been utilized for establishing communication links between termi-
nals and are used in many applications like satellite, broadcasting, mobile/smart-
phone, and telemetry. Quite recently, considerable interest has been paid to
telemedicine and mobile healthcare systems, which establish communication
between humans and things. This technology promotes continuous patient monitor-
ing and treating, which gained interest among researchers. This network is distrib-
uted wirelessly around humans and is called wireless body area networks (WBAN).
Essentially, WBAN can create personalized communication between the patient and
patient monitoring sector. WBAN detects and transmits the physiological data like

P. J. C. Sam (*)
Electronics and Communication Engineering, K. Ramakrishnan College of Technology,
Trichy, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: [Link]@[Link]
U. Surendar
Electronics and Communication Engineering, [Link] College of Engineering,
Trichy, Tamil Nadu, India
U. M. Ekpe
Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Akwa Ibom State University, Mkpat-Enin, Nigeria
e-mail: unwanaekpe@[Link]
M. Saravanan
Electronics and Communication Engineering, Annamalai University,
Cuddalore, Tamil Nadu, India
P. Satheesh Kumar
Electronics and Communication Engineering, Coimbatore Institute of Technology,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: satheeshkumar.p@[Link]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 301

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
302 P. J. C. Sam et al.

blood pressure, blood sugar content, temperature, weight, and heartbeat rate
obtained from various sensors [1–3] of users at regular intervals by integrating them
into the network [1, 4–7]. Current research on healthcare systems are focused on
wearable antennas, which is a crucial component in establishing on- or off-body
communication [8–11]. The design and implementation of wearable antennas are
facing many challenges, like the coupling of antenna EM field with the human body
[12, 13], a key limitation in achieving wideband and multiband characteristics [12],
and low-profile characteristics like lightweight, compactness, robustness, and lim-
ited availability of fabrication facility [14, 15]. In recent years, few researchers have
proposed advanced methods for developing compact, low-profile, multiband anten-
nas like embroidered fabric, woven, printed textile, and chemically treated materials
[9]. The challenges, like miniaturization, multiband/wideband characteristics, and
SAR reduction for a wearable antenna, are to be addressed. The miniaturization can
be achieved by additional loading of inductors/capacitors in a wearable antenna,
PIFA, and metamaterials [16–20]. The multiband/wideband can be achieved by
employing metamaterial structures in the wearable antenna system [21–24].
Achieving wideband characteristics in a wearable antenna is a crucial and critical
parameter for a wearable antenna. For satisfying the challenge, ultra-wideband
(UWB) communication was deployed in telemedicine applications [25]. In real-
time patient monitoring systems, textile-based UWB antennas can be used for low-
power high-­speed communication [26–29]. The UWB communication is widely
preferred due to its unique features, like small price, least power ingestion, and
high-speed data transfer [30]. Apart from these unique features, UWB possesses
few distinguishable features like less interference due to its less power spectral den-
sity [31], with good radiation effects on the human body. Hence, this UWB technol-
ogy with all these unique features is the best solution for wearable applications [32].
In this chapter, a compact, low-profile circular antenna integrated with EBG
structure is proposed for UWB healthcare application. The entire proposed wear-
able antenna dimension is 30 × 30 × 1.4 mm3 (along with EBG). EBG is used to
suppress the surface waves, improving the gain and reducing the SAR. In Sect. 2,
the antenna and EBG design and characterization are presented; in Sect. 3, the inte-
gration of the EBG array to the antenna is presented; in Sect. 4, the proposed antenna
is analyzed along with human tissue, and the results are presented. Finally, in Sect.
5, the conclusion is presented.

2  Antenna and EBG Design

2.1  Design of Low-Profile Circular Monopole Textile Antenna

The designed wearable antenna comprises a circular patch as its radiating element.
The patch has a radius of 8.1 mm. The structure is fed with the microstrip feed on
length LF and width WF. The structure is mounted on a denim material of 0.7 mm
thickness. The dielectric constant and loss tangent of the denim material used as the
substrate for the designed antenna are 1.7 and 0.02, respectively. On the denim side,
A Low-Profile Compact EBG Integrated Circular Monopole Antenna for Wearable… 303

the ground is mounted with WF as its width and LF (13 mm) as its length. A slot
is created in order to match the impedance precisely at the center of the ground.
The slot dimension is equal to W1 × L1 mm. The projected antenna is used for the
wearable healthcare application; therefore, the SAR should be within the limit. To
reduce the SAR, the EBG structure is introduced at the back of the antenna with
dimensions of 30 × 30 × 0.7 mm3. In Fig. 1, the projected antenna is presented with
and without the EBG structure. The simulation model for the SAR analysis in CST
is also presented in Fig. 1. In Fig. 2, the reflection coefficient of the circular wear-
able antenna is presented. In Fig. 3, the antenna with its parameters and EBG struc-
ture with its parameters are presented. The parameter values of both the proposed
wearable antenna and EBG structure are presented in Table 1.

Fig. 1  Proposed antenna structure with and without human tissue

Fig. 2  S11 of the proposed circular textile antenna

304 P. J. C. Sam et al.

Fig. 3  Circular textile antenna and EBG parameters

2.2  EBG Design

The EBG structure chooses crossed dipole-shaped Jerusalem cross, which has
major merits like meek manufacturing complexity, stable frequency response, and
smaller size. The geometry of the proposed JC EBG with its parameter is presented
in Fig.  3, and its values are tabulated in Table  1. The overall size of the EBG is
30 mm × 30 mm × 0.7 mm. It is also made up on a denim textile material. The length
of the JC arms is increased to improve the resonance path. The, 2 × 2 EBG array is
used, which has a −180-to +180-degree phase variation when it is capable of sup-
pressing the surface wave. Under such conditions, the proposed 2 × 2 JC EBG array
acts as an artificial magnetic conductor (AMC).
A Low-Profile Compact EBG Integrated Circular Monopole Antenna for Wearable… 305

Table 1  Circular textile antenna and EBG parameter value (in mm)
LS WS R WF LF W1 L1
30 30 8.1 3.1 15 3 3.5
LE WE S LC WC H T
30 30 1 10 10 1.6 0.035

Proposed Circular Proposed Circular Proposed Circular

monopole monopole + Human monopole + Human
Tissue Tissue + EBG

Fig. 4  Design stages of the proposed antenna

3  J erusalem Cross-Based EBG Array Integrated Circular

Monopole Antenna

The proposed circular textile antenna is placed above the 2 × 2 EBG array as shown
in Fig. 4. In Fig. 4, the design stages of the textile circular monopole with 2 × 2 EBC
array are presented. The proposed antenna is a circular monopole designed on a
denim substrate. The other side of the denim is printed with the defective ground
structure. Then, the EBG is also printed on the denim substrate. The foam with
length and width equal to the substrate is used to prevent mismatches. The 1-mm
gap between the antenna and EBG is filled with foam to prevent short circuits and
other mismatches. The foam used is Rocacell, which is flexible enough to have the
surrounding material shape. The proposed circular wearable antenna is operating
from 3.1 to 14.89 GHz in the entire UWB.
In Fig. 5, the radiation characteristic pattern of the proposed circular monopole
wearable textile antenna along with EBG and human tissue is presented. The pro-
jected antenna and EBG and human tissue are operating in the entire UWB with
three resonant frequencies at 3.78 GHz, 9.72 GHz, and 13.02 GHz. When the pro-
jected antenna is operated in the presence of lossy human tissue, the performance of
the antenna is degraded, and the SAR value is also very high. The JC-based 2 × 2
EBG array is placed below the antennathat eliminates the above mentioned issue.
The JC-based 2 × 2 EBG array reduces the surface wave, which in turn reduces the
electric field intensity and the SAR. The three-dimensional radiation pattern and
E-plane and H-plane pattern for each resonant frequency are presented in Fig. 5.
The H-plane has an omnidirectional radiation pattern, and the E-plane has a stable
dipole pattern in all the resonant frequencies. The E-plane pattern is deteriorated
due to the increase in radiating area at the higher frequency.
306 P. J. C. Sam et al.

Fig. 5  3D, radiation pattern, E- and H-plane (simulated and measured)

4  P
erformance of the Designed Circular Monopole Textile
Antenna with the Human Body

The designed wearable textile antenna operates UWB, which can be utilized for
healthcare application; therefore, the antenna has to work nearer to the human tis-
sue. Since the human tissue is the lossy medium, the antenna performance will be
degraded. To maintain performance, the 2 × 2 EBG array is introduced.
A Low-Profile Compact EBG Integrated Circular Monopole Antenna for Wearable… 307

antenna only antenna only

antenna with human tissue
8 antenna with human tissue
0 antenna with human tissue and EBG
7 antenna with human tissue and EBG

–10 6
–20 5
s11 (dB)

VSWR
–30 4
–40 3
–50 2
–60 1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Frequency (GHz) Frequency (GHz)

Fig. 6  S11 and VSWR comparison

Table 2  Properties of the human tissue [31]

Conductivity Density
Layer Relative dielectric constant 𝜎 (S/m) (kg/m3)
Skin 37.95 1.49 1001
Fat 5.27 0.11 900
Muscle 52.67 1.77 1006

4.1  Reflection Coefficient

The S11 and VSWR of the designed antenna in various situations are presented in
Fig. 6. It is performed to analyze the lossy human tissue effect on the antenna per-
formance. A multilayer simulation fragmented model of human tissue is designed in
the CST studio as shown in Fig. 1. The air gap of 10 mm, skin of 0.5 mm, fat of
6 mm, and muscle of 10 mm are the four layers in the fragmented human tissue
model. The properties of the various human tissues are presented in Table 2. The
designed circular monopole textile wearable antenna is placed on the fragmented
model and simulated.
The simulation results presented in Fig.  6 clearly depict that for the antenna
without EBG structure, the reflection coefficient degrades because of the human
tissue’s high dielectric nature. To compensate the loss, the EBG structure is intro-
duced, which is capable of maintaining the desired frequency band and good imped-
ance matching. The good impedance matching is the EBG structure provides very
high isolation between the antenna and human tissue.

4.2  Bending

The antenna, along with EBG structure performance, is analyzed for deformation.
In order to analyze the deformation, the bending of the antenna along with the EBG
structure over a vacuum cylinder is simulated. The diameter of the cylinder is varied
308 P. J. C. Sam et al.

to bend the antenna. The diameter is varied to create 0-, 30-, and 60-degree bending
value. The S11 performance with respect to the different amounts of bending is
analyzed. The simulated return loss performance for various diameters is depicted
in Fig. 7. It is observed that the bandwidth and the impedance are maintained in
various degrees of deformation.

4.3  SAR

The antenna presented is used in the healthcare application. Therefore, the SAR
should be maintained well below the standard given by the FCC and CNIRP. The
CNIRP SAR safety limit is 1.6 W/Kg over 1 g human tissue. The FCC standard is
less than 2 W/Kg averaged over 10 g human tissue. The SAR, with and without the
EBG assembly, is studied to justify the integration of EBG array for reducing the
SAR, and it is presented in Fig. 8. The numerical values are presented in Table 3. In
Fig. 9, the graphical comparison of SAR (with and without EBG) concerning fre-
quency is presented. Using IEEE C95.1, the SAR value is calculated (standard
available in the CST studio).
In Fig. 10, the surface current distribution of the proposed antenna is presented.
From the figure, we can observe that the current is distributed over the entire radiat-
ing element. In Fig. 11, the gain of the circular wearable antenna with and without
EBG array is presented. It is observed that the gain is improved with EBG.  The
maximum gain is 4.85 dBi without EBG and 7.58 dBi with EBG.
Similarly, the directivity of the circular wearable antenna with and without EBG
is presented in Fig. 12. The maximum directivity is 8.78 dBi with EBG achieved by
the proposed antenna. The measured result is compared with the simulated result in

0 degree
30 degree
0 60 degree

–5

–10
s11 (dB)

–15

–20

–25

–30

–35

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Frequency (GHz)

Fig. 7  Reflection coefficient of the antenna with different bending diameters

A Low-Profile Compact EBG Integrated Circular Monopole Antenna for Wearable… 309

Fig. 8  SAR analysis

Table 3  SAR analysis

Frequency 3.78 GHz 9.72 GHz 13.02 GHz
SAR without SAR with SAR without SAR with SAR without SAR with
Averaged EBG EBG EBG EBG EBG EBG
value (W/Kg) (W/Kg) (W/Kg) (W/Kg) (W/Kg) (W/Kg)
1 g 6.19 1.28 9.87 1.12 7.56 1.58
10 g 4.75 0.16 8.96 0.97 6.52 1.01

Fig. 9  SAR comparison

310 P. J. C. Sam et al.

Fig. 10  Surface current distribution

Fig. 11  Gain vs frequency plot

Fig. 13. The devion between the results is due to fabrication and SMA connection
error. The fabricated prototype of the antenna is presented in Fig. 14.

5  Conclusion

A low-profile wearable textile antenna with EBG structure is designed for UWB
healthcare applications. The structure is a simple circular patch with a defective
ground structure, which is mounted on a denim textile material of 0.7 mm thickness.
A Low-Profile Compact EBG Integrated Circular Monopole Antenna for Wearable… 311

Fig. 12  Directivity vs frequency plot

Fig. 13  Measured Vs simulated return loss

312 P. J. C. Sam et al.

Fig. 14  Front and back view of the fabricated antenna

The length and width of the proposed structure equal to 30 mm. When the projected
antenna is operated in the presence of lossy human tissue, the antenna’s perfor-
mance is degraded, and the SAR value is also very high. To overcome the above-
mentioned issues, the JC-based 2 × 2 EBG array is placed below the antenna, which
reduces the surface wave, which in turn reduces the electric field intensity and the
SAR.  The EBG array placement improves the antenna performance in terms of
impedance matching and gain and directivity enhancement. The calculated SAR
value comes under the limit proposed by the FCC and CNIRP. The antenna perfor-
mance is also maintained under bending condition. The results presented clearly
show the proposed compact EBG integrated circular monopole antenna for wear-
able medical application.

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Slot-Based Miniaturized Textile Antenna
for Wearable Application

Pranita Manish Potey, Kushal Tuckley, and Anjali Thakare

1  Introduction

Worldwide admirations of compact flexible wearable antennas have been growing

faster. A simple planer structure load with textile antennas offers great flexibility
and comfort. For wearable application, the antenna design should be flexible, com-
pact, and simple in structure. As per complicated antenna designs are concerns, it is
not possible to prove and attempt all flexible antenna properties. Moreover, the con-
temporary wireless body area network (WBAN) application demands simple and
compact structures; these necessitate the various miniaturization methods. To
address the same, this research proposes a simplistic design of miniaturized fully
textile antenna with slot techniques for wearable applications at 2.5 GHz. The utili-
zation of a full ground plane in this design provides good isolation among antenna
and user, which results in increase radiation performance and also lowers on-body
radiation. For substrate material, denim fabric is used; the choice of denim is owing
to its reasonable thickness, flexibility, tear resistance, permittivity value, and

P. M. Potey (*)
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication, LTCOE,
Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
e-mail: [Link]@[Link]
K. Tuckley
Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay,
Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
e-mail: kushal@[Link]
A. Thakare
Principal Solution Architect, Bullhorn International Bishopsgate, London, UK
e-mail: [Link]@[Link]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 315

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
316 P. M. Potey et al.

worldwide fabric popularity, whereas fabric used for radiating patch and ground
plane is known as Coatex conductive fabric.
Initiating with classical rectangular patch antenna, some sagacious modification
is done by the introduction of the slot at an appropriate position to achieve a reason-
able size reduction. For this simulation of the proposed design, CADFEKO soft-
ware is used. The final prototype is fabricated, and its performance parameter is
compared with basic rectangular patch and related recent literature. When com-
pared to recent literature, the proposed patch offers a simple miniaturized structure
without the use of metamaterial, SIW, EBG, or any complicated structure. SIW
techniques are used to reduce the size of an antenna at a high-frequency cavity, by
reducing antenna resonance frequency without changing its physical size. The rea-
son of reducing antenna resonant frequency is to attain a cavity volume reduction;
for this, the technique of stored energy in a perturbed cavity is castoff.

2  Literature Survey

This paper [1] introduces a novel ultraminiaturized metamaterial-inspired, cavity-­

backed substrate and substrate integrated waveguide and wearable textile antenna
for wearable applications. This antenna is designed using flexible and wearable fab-
ric materials, conductive fabrics, and wool felt. Fabricated antenna design is 80%
smaller in size than existing antenna designs. Decent matching was perceived
among the simulated and measured results when tested on VNA. By using the phan-
tom effect of the human body on antenna, parameters are measured and investi-
gated. The maximum numerically calculated specific absorption rate in the human
body model over 10 g of tissue was 0.38 W/kg, on average, for 500 mw of input
power, which is less than the 2 W/kg European limit. The design and configuration
of the antenna make it a suitable choice for off-body applications.
The effect of bending on wearable textile antenna performance operating at a
2.4-GHz industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band is examined [2]. This rectan-
gular patch is designed with denim textile and copper- and nickel-plated polyester
fabric. Denim for substrate and polyester for conductive part is used. To determine
the effect of the antenna bending around its width and length, it is fixed on different
body parts like leg, wrist, hand, and chest. As a result, shown in [2], bending has a
noteworthy effect on parameters like radiation pattern and gain, as compared to a
flat structure. This paper [3] presents the compact monopole which is backed with
2 × 1 array of electromagnetic bandgap planar structure for body area network. The
electromagnetic bandgap (EBG) array in the proposed structure not only serves to
isolate the antenna from the human body but also contributes toward enhanced radi-
ation efficiency. Parameters like the figure of the electromagnetic bandgap one cell
and break between the ground and the electromagnetic bandgap layer are arranged
to achieve resonance at 2.45  GHz. This design when subjected to human body
exhibits bandwidth of 5% and gain of 6.88 dBi, maintaining impedance matching.
This antenna is fabricated with semi-flexible 5880 substrate RT-duroid with
Slot-Based Miniaturized Textile Antenna for Wearable Application 317

dielectric constant of 2.2 and loss tan of 0.0009. This antenna maintains good per-
formance when subjected to bending and exposed to human skin. Abbasi claims it
has robust and compact structure, high gain, and low specific absorption rate.
Bending and on-arm effects on a wearable antenna for 2.45-GHz body area net-
work are done in [4]. Comparisons of the three flexible wearable textile antennas at
a frequency of 2.45 GHz are done. For fabrication of conductive part, copper foil
with thickness 0.05 mm and Shieldex 0.05 mm thickness is used and insulation part
felt substrate having relative permittivity 1.2 and 2 mm thickness is used. To avoid
a shift in resonance frequency when placed on the human body, radiating patch and
ground plane are connected with two shorting probes. When this structure is com-
pared with other structure without probe, the size of the antenna is reduced.
Moreover, on the basis of two designs, smallest-size antenna is designed, and its
performance on human arm is investigated.
A single-band two-mode wearable antenna design is fabricated and tested on and
off body for BAN applications at ISM band [5, 6]. For on-body mode of operation,
microstrip ring structure is used, and off-body mode is achieved by placing small
meandered microstrip patch inside the ring. This design shares a common ground
plane, but these two antennas are fed separately. Better impedance matching and
good mutual coupling at a given frequency, as well as minor effect of exposure to
skin mimic on the antenna’s return loss, are found. Antenna also maintains a decent
performance toward structural deformation within the limits permitted by its rigid-
ity. Extension to similar design, Mendes further investigates the transmission per-
formance of on- and off-body wearable antenna in the presence of a human phantom
model with the shape and physical properties similar to a human chest. Both numer-
ical simulations and experimental results are presented.
One more method used for designing compact antenna is by using magneto-­
dielectric materials, also popularly known as MD materials, which have permeabil-
ity and permittivity greater than unity and have shown to provide performance
advantages [7].
A technique to reduce the volume of a planar substrate integrated waveguide
(SIW) cavity-backed antenna is presented [8]. The volume reduction is done by
incorporating a capacitive element with the purpose of reducing the resonance fre-
quency of the cavity. The cavity design process is examined by providing external
coupling, antenna arrangement, and, finally, the process employed to modify the
operational frequency of the system, accomplishing the volume reduction. This
compact antenna design was manufactured and measured successfully with good
gain and front-to-back ratio. This proposed method is well-matched with standard
PCB manufacturing processes and can be replicated for wearable antenna design-
ing, getting up to 50% less in the volume, without disturbing the performance of an
antenna.
318 P. M. Potey et al.

3  Textile Material Investigation

Some investigators have reviewed and studied textiles’ dielectric properties [9].
Textiles are anisotropic in nature; thus, material characterization depends on the
orientation of the electric field. This anisotropy property is completely defined with
a permittivity tensor in useful operations. A particular factor of a tensor is sufficient
to describe the performance of fabric material for a particular use. Therefore, the
performance of the material is described by the relative permittivity. The dielectric
constant of fabric material is governed by the property of fiber component [10] and
fiber filling density. The exact calculation of dielectric properties of fabric material
is difficult, and various investigation methods have been proposed. Different inves-
tigators used different methods, such as resonance method [11], method of moment
(MoM), non-line behavior resonance method, free-space method, and transmission
line method. Among these methods, the most acceptable and capable is the one that
is built on the calculation of transmission used.
Methods of determining the dielectric properties of the textile material are cate-
gorized by [12] as non-resonant methods and resonance methods. Non-resonant
methods are based on the use of reflection and transmission techniques. To measure
the value of the fabric’s relative permeability, the reflection technique uses reflec-
tion information of the free-space electromagnetic wave to the sample material
which is under test. The method used to extract the exact value of dielectric proper-
ties of any material at one particular frequency or at distinct frequencies is resonant
method. Materials having a substrate dielectric constant with low values are used
because it lessens surface-wave losses. Low surface-wave losses are useful to direct
the propagation of waves inside the substrate.
The properties of fabric material used in this research are measured with the
dielectric broadband spectrometer at 2.5 GHz as shown in Fig. 1. For testing pur-
poses, a sample material with a diameter of 4.11 mm and a thickness of 0.08 mm is
considered. After line calibration of the instrument, calibration of the sample holder
under short and open conditions using air and Teflon as a dielectric is done. Then,
the sample is properly loaded between sample holders of a spectrometer. An appro-
priate value of frequency is chosen to run the measurement. Table 1 indicates the
measured substrate material properties used to design the antenna at 2.5 GHz.
Minimizing the value of the dielectric constant maximizes spatial waves that
tend to increase antenna impedance bandwidth. This permits antenna improvement
in the form of efficiency and gain [11]. Normally, textiles are holey and exhibit a
low value of dielectric constant [13]. Due to the presence of air molecules in its
hole, the value of relative permittivity equals unity. Deviation in the value of dielec-
tric constant with the presence of moisture inside the textile substrate affects the
bandwidth of an antenna [14]. The change in the value of relative permittivity lies
within a specific range. Nevertheless, the variation in permittivity is out of the scope
of this paper. Substrate material thickness and dielectric constant determine the per-
formance in terms of bandwidth and efficiency of the antenna. In fabric materials,
permittivity values are narrow in range, and their thickness has more variations,
Slot-Based Miniaturized Textile Antenna for Wearable Application 319

Fig. 1  Broadband spectrometer used for the measurement of fabric properties

Table 1  Substrate material properties used for designing the antenna at 2.5 GHz
Material properties Values
ε′ 6.06
ε″ 1.59e 02
|ε| 6.06
Loss tangent 2.62e-03
Modulus′ 1.64e-01
Modulus″ 4.32e-03

which will decide the bandwidth and input impedance. Thus, in the design of fully
textile antennas, fabric thickness plays an important role [14]. For a certain value of
relative permittivity, a thick substrate may increase the bandwidth of the antenna,
but this will not improve efficiency. Therefore, one can conclude that the selection
of material thickness is a negotiation between two antenna parameters, that is, band-
width and efficiency.

4  Design Procedure of Antenna

Initially, antenna is designed with basic rectangular patch structure. Three important
parameters for designing textile antennas are substrate relative permittivity, conduc-
tivity of radiating material, and resonance frequency. Normally, according to appli-
cation, for which antenna is to be designed, selection of frequency is done. For this
research and design of an antenna, ISM band is selected as it is a license-free band,
320 P. M. Potey et al.

and therefore it can be used for industrial, scientific, and medical applications. Thus,
these design antennas are operating at a frequency of 2.5  GHz. Denim fabric is
chosen because it is most popular and is commonly used by male and female as
well. Used denim has values of relative permittivity and loss tangent equal to 1.6
and 0.02, respectively, at 2.5 GHz. Due to the selection of low-value fabric substrate
dielectric constant, surface-­wave losses are reduced, and bandwidth is increased.
Textile used as a substrate is very thin; hence, two to three layers are stacked together
to achieve the desired height. Therefore, the material becomes heterogeneous due to
the occurrence of extra air layers between two materials of fabrics. Substrate height
1.6 mm is considered to minimize losses. Normal scissors are used for cutting fab-
rics, and a special small-distance stitch with analogous kind of thread is used to
attach the pieces of fabric together. For measurement and feeding purpose of an
antenna, SMA connector of 50 Ω is attached with a low-power soldering gun and
superior glue. This carefully designed basic rectangular patch antenna can be used
as embroidery on garment sleeves, collars, or pockets or in some special applica-
tions. Dimensions for designing basic antenna are shown in Table 2, and Fig. 2a
shows the design geometry.
Simulation of basic rectangular patch designs is carried out using CADFEKO
software. The simulated results, return loss −19.81, gain 6.6, and efficiency 68% are
obtained.
For further improvement in gain, return loss, and efficiency, slight modification
is done in existing basic fully textile patch with insertion of slots. This revised wear-
able antenna design exhibits two similar slots, both showing a self-symmetry pat-
tern. This modification in antenna structure with slots is done through determination
of surface current density. The philosophy behind creating this slot is that the slot
emphasizes the restriction on the flow path of the electrical current and then ulti-
mately the current has to flow around the slot. This results in increase of equivalent
path length of current on patch. Figure  2b depicts modified geometry of revised
wearable fully textile antenna.
Thus, traditional rectangular patch design (Antenna #1) is simulated and
designed; successively, some alteration with the introduction of two symmetrical
slots on either side of the patch (Antenna #2) in order to improve size reduction and
overall performance of an antenna is done. Later, four similar slits at each one

Table 2  Basic antenna design dimensions

Antenna parameter Design dimension (mm)
Material type Denim + conductive fabric
Length (L) × width (W) 52.6 × 46.2
Ground plane 70 × 75
Substrate height (h) 1.6
Feedline width (Wf) 2.8
Dielectric constant (εr) 1.6
Loss tangent 0.002
Total feed length 36.2
Slot-Based Miniaturized Textile Antenna for Wearable Application 321

Fig. 2  Evolution of antenna (a) Antenna #1 basic structure (b) Antenna #2 slot structure (c)
Antenna #3 slot and slit structure

corner are introduced (Antenna #3) for further size reduction. Figure 2 depicts the
geometry of all three versions of the design.
The proposed fully wearable textile antenna (Antenna #3) is designed on a
1.6 mm-thick denim substrate with a relative permittivity of 1.6 and loss tangent of
0.002. Coatex conductive fabric with conductivity of 3.5 × 107 s/m is used. The
miniaturized structure has a substrate dimension of about 70(L) mm × 75(W) mm
attached to the textile radiating patch of dimensions 0.34λ0  ×  0.24λ0. Two sym-
metrical slot structures on either side of the patch are introduced with the total width
of the slot (2 × W2 + W1) as 13 mm, whereas the total length of the slot is similar
to the width due to symmetry.
For the reduction of overall antenna size, four similar slits, one at each corner, are
introduced with length L3 and width W3 as 1.5 mm and 3.8 mm, respectively.
The total feed length of the antenna F1 is 36.2 mm and the width 2.8 mm. By
creating slits at all four corners efficiently, size reduction is possible, as well as an
increase in return loss, whereas other parameters of the antenna, like gain and effi-
ciency, do not change much. Figure 3 shows the antenna schematic with two slots
and four-corner slit designs with all dimension nomenclature. All dimensions of the
proposed design are shown in Table 3. For the fabrication process of prototype sub-
strate and conductive materials, pure textile was chose as it provides better flexibil-
ity and comfort. Also, for the measurement of electromagnetic properties, the denim
broadband spectrometer is used. Before the fabrication process, the denim material
is washed and then dried for at least 24 h in temperatures 38–400 C to minimize the
shrinking effect of fabric.
To achieve substrate thickness as per the design dimensions, three layers of
denim material are stitched together with the help of a normal sewing machine.
After that, conductive textiles are attached at the top and bottom of the denim-­
layered substrate as per the design. Conductive glue is used for fabric layer attach-
ment, and special care is taken for the alignment of the fabric layers. Finally, the
sub-miniature version (SMA) connector is attached to its appropriate position by
using silver conductive glue. Figure 4 specifies the fabricated model of a fully tex-
tile antenna with a front and rear view. Due to the addition of two symmetrical slots
322 P. M. Potey et al.

Fig. 3  Geometry of proposed fully textile antenna

Fig. 4  Photographs of the fabricated prototype (a) Top view (b) Rear view

Table 3  Proposed antenna parameter (units are in mm)

L W LS WS L1 W1
45.5 32.2 70 75 5 5
L2 W2 L3 W3 F1 Y
4 4 1.5 3.8 36.2 11.4
Slot-Based Miniaturized Textile Antenna for Wearable Application 323

with appropriate dimensions, size reduction compared to the basic rectangular patch
antenna structure from 52.6(L) mm x 46.2(W) mm to 41.5(L) mm x 29.2(W) mm is
achieved. This modification in the antenna structure is done through the determina-
tion of surface current density. Normally slot dimensions are considered 20λ–100λ;
large slot results in more frequency variation and vice versa; in this case, 30λ is
chosen for final optimization. Also change by creating a slit at each corner of the
radiating patch further reduces the electrical area by increasing the current path,
which will result in efficiency enlargement. Finally, the coaxial line is matched and
positioned at an optimized offset point from the center.
Thus, the advantages of this slot and slit geometry method claimed for size
reduction over other complicated methods like EBG [3], SIW [1], MD [7], and
metamaterials used in recent literatures are that these methods require supplemen-
tary materials, which are needed to form some special kind of structure. However,
slit and slot method needs few modifications in the existing geometry. Secondly, it
increases the design complexity along with the manufacturing and production cost.
Due to the complexity of the EBG structures, it is usually difficult to characterize
them through purely analytical methods. Now and then, it suffers from problems
such as narrow bandwidth, low gain, and excitation of surface waves. For SIW
method, due to the use of dielectric into the antenna structure, dielectric losses will
occur, which may result in a decrease in antenna efficiency.

5  Performance Analysis

For experimental analysis of antenna performance, the measurement of an antenna

is carried out on the vector network analyzer. The investigational outcome regarding
the measured reflection coefficient represents minor variation as compared to the
simulated one as shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5  Comparison of simulated and measured return loss of proposed fully textile antenna
324 P. M. Potey et al.

This discrepancy is due to various factors like manual construction and assembly
of an antenna, presence of an air cavity due to the attachment, fabric wrinkle ten-
dency, etc. Also, owing to the porous nature of the fabric, while stacking its layers
to achieve the desired thickness, there is a possibility of change in its original value
of relative permittivity. To endorse the precise reflection coefficient characteristics,
it is suggested that appropriate care must be taken during the construction of the
textile antenna to minimize shift in frequency. The measurement for return loss and
other parameters of the proposed fully textile antenna and their comparisons with
the simulated results are shown in Table 4.
Also, the comparison of the final design with the previous two designs is carried
out, which are formulated in Table 5. By insertion of two symmetrical slots and one
slit at each corner of the radiating patch, miniaturized antenna is achieved. Size
reduction with less modification is the main achievement of the research. Apart
from this, improvement in SAR, gain, and efficiency is also achieved. In conclusion,
results have been obtained with the lowest value of S11 and with reasonable
improvement in efficiency, that is, 70%.
A measured and simulated result of the radiation pattern also shows a decent
settlement with minor deviation. Figure 6 indicates measured and simulation plots
of the radiation pattern. One notable observation is that this miniaturized design has
approximately 80% radiation in the forward direction and less radiation in the back-
ward direction.
Back radiation indicates energy absorbed by the human tissue when placed on
the human body. Thus, low SAR value is a noteworthy parameter. The simulated
value of a specific absorption rate at operating frequency reaches 0.26 W/kg for 10 g
of tissues. As per FCC norms, the SAR level limit for public exposure is 1.6 W/kg.
However, the proposed antenna shows very less values as compared to the limit
given by the FCC due to its unique structure and a full ground plane. Thus, this is
beneficial to increase input power in case of transmitting mode.
This antenna provides an excellent solution for body-worn applications where
compact design is a demand. The literature on recent miniaturized structures of
wearable antennas in this field is compared with the proposed work shown in
Table 6. Therefore, it is concluded that the proposed antenna is the smallest textile
antenna among the compared ones with reasonable gain and efficiency. This antenna
is also compared with a compact inflexible antenna [15] design with FR4, which has
dimensions of 50.9 × 33 × 0.8 mm3. The proposed antenna is compact.
Thus, it is comprehended; the proposed antenna design has a miniaturized
dimension with good gain and reasonable efficiency. This is thus achieved just by
creating appropriate slots in the antenna structure without the usage of SIW tech-
nique, EBG, or any complicated structure like the one used in [1–6].

Table 4  Measured and simulated results of the final design

Results Freq. (GHz) Return loss (dB) VSWR Gain (dB) Efficiency (%)
Simulated 2.50 −42.10 1.01 6.5 70.6
Measured 2.52 −23.46 1.13 6.0 69.6
Slot-Based Miniaturized Textile Antenna for Wearable Application 325

Table 5  Comparative analysis of all three antennas (stepwise modified) designs

S11 SAR Gain η Area
Antenna type (dB) (W/kg) (dB) (%) (mm2)
Antenna #1 −19.81 0.01 6.6 67.9 2350
Antenna #2 −26.69 0.5 6.3 70.1 1720
Antenna #3 −42.10 0.26 6.5 70.6 1500

Fig. 6  Comparison of 0
simulated and measured 330 5 30
radiation plot of proposed 0
fully textile antenna –5
300 –10 60
–15
–20
–25

270 90

240 120

210 150
180

Simulated Measured

6  Bending and Human Body Analysis

Conferring to the application requirements, these antennas are used on the human
body at different positions, and thus the antenna faces bending as per the wearer’s
body posture. Analysis of the human body is a bit challenging as the human body
material property changes according to frequency. To simulate the bending and
human body analysis scenario of two small sections (curved and flat), four-layer
skin models are considered, which consist of skin, fat, muscle, and bone. The curved
model depicts structural deformation of an antenna in the presence of the human
body. Thus, these models are useful for analyzing both the scenario of human body
presence and bending.
Antenna bending results are compared to those obtained without bending, since
the antenna is placed on a flat skin model and then on a circular skin model. Both
flat skin model and curved skin model are designed at 2.5 GHz as shown in Figs. 7a
and b. The skin, fat, muscle, and bone thickness are considered as 2, 5, 20, and
13  mm, respectively. Material parameters of the human body at a frequency of
2.5  GHz are shown in Table  7 [16]. Table  8 displays comparisons of simulated
326 P. M. Potey et al.

Table 6  Comparison of proposed antenna with other wearable antennas from literature

Reference/Year Size (mm3) Freq. (GHz) ɛr S11 (dB) Gain (dBi) η (%)
[1] 2017 74.5 × 48 × 3.34 2.45 1.4 −48 5.35 74.3
[2] 2017 51 × 46 × 2 2.45 1.6 −16 4.0 NP
[3] 2017 68 × 38 × 1.57 2.45 2.2 −34 6.88 76
[4] 2016 46 × 25 × 2 2.45 1.2 −33 4.48 NP
[5, 6] 64.9 × 64.9 × 8.6 2.45 1.17 −21 5.9 61.4
2017–2018
This work 41.5 × 29.2 × 2 2.5 1.6 −40 6.5 70.0
NP is not provided
*

Fig. 7  Antenna on-body (a) Flat skin model and (b) curved skin model with antenna

antenna parameters in the presence of biological tissues with and without bending.
Dielectric properties of the human body disturb the overall performance of an
antenna, but still, readings are below the threshold level.
Specific absorption rate (SAR) is a measure of power absorbed per unit mass,
e.g., in the human body tissue. It may be spatially averaged over the total mass of an
exposed body or its parts, and it is calculated from the root-mean-square electric
field strength, i.e., E (in volts per meter) inside the human body; the conductivity,
i.e., σ (in Siemens per meter); and the mass density, i.e., ρ (in kilograms per cubic
meter) of the biological tissue. The SAR describes the initial rate of temperature rise
as a function of the specific heat capacity of the tissue. In this case, the value of SAR
is 0.518 W/Kg for 2.5 GHz, which is shown in Fig. 8.

7  Parametric Analysis and Variations

In this work, the experimental results of the antenna are observed under various
parametric changes. To completely comprehend the effect of these factors based on
frequency variability, just by changing the sloth length, the parametric study is
Slot-Based Miniaturized Textile Antenna for Wearable Application 327

Table 7  Material properties of human body at 2.5 GHz

Properties Skin Fat Muscle Bone
Permittivity 37.95 5.27 52.67 18.49
Conductivity (S/m) 1.49 0.11 1.77 0.82
Density (kg/m3) 1001 900 1006 1008

Table 8  Bending and on-body analysis

Type of antenna Freq. (GHz) S11 (dB) SAR Gain (dB) ηrad (%)
On-body without bending 2.46 −24 0.11 6.3 67.0
On-body with bending 2.42 −23 0.23 6.1 65.0

carried out. However, the remaining parameters are considered constant at opti-
mum values.
To fulfill the requirement of refining the overall performance of antenna param-
eters, this slot and slit geometry of wearable antenna design has undergone three
iterations. In the first iteration, the width of the outer segment of the slot W2 is
considered as 3 mm, and simulation is run for the same. However, the second itera-
tion and the third iteration W2 end at 4 mm and 5 mm, respectively. Moreover, an
important element for efficiency and size reduction are W3 and L3; W1 is the inden-
tation width. For all three iterations, the finest return loss is found at a 4-mm slot.
Figure 9 presents simulated return loss for the first iteration, second iteration, and
third iteration of the final design.
Therefore, it is observed that by changing the slots’ length of the radiating patch
from 3 mm to 5 mm, the proposed design can operate at three different frequencies:
2.2 GHz, 2.5 GHz, and 2.7 GHz. In this way, just changing the slot length frequency
variability can be achieved, which may be useful in various frequency changeability
wearable applications. To locate the feed point position, a microstrip feedline feed-
ing method is used. Theoretically, the position of the feed point is located at such a
point where the input impedance value is 50 Ω. Generally, it is considered as length
divided by six, since it will not result in return loss as most negative.
Therefore, a pilot method is applied for the various positions of the feed point,
and finally, the location chooses where the S11 is most negative. For inset fedline,
the proposed antenna consists of three iterations. Feed slots with 8 mm, 10 mm, and
12  mm are tried, and the outcomes of all dimensions are displayed as shown in
Fig. 10. Here, in this analysis, scarcer variation in frequency is observed by chang-
ing a feed inner slot.
328 P. M. Potey et al.

Fig. 8  Simulated specific absorption rate verses frequency graph

Fig. 9  Simulated return loss graph for three different iterations (with variations in the inner
slot length)

8  Conclusions and Future Scope

To boost the efficiency and overall antenna performance, few alterations are done in
the antenna design. The investigated patch is reasonably smaller in size than the
recent antennas in the literature. The use of fabric material in designing makes this
antenna different from the regular rigid antenna. This proposed and investigated
design not only increases the overall performance but can be easily extended to vari-
able frequency antennas just by changing the slot length. Thus, the simulated and
Slot-Based Miniaturized Textile Antenna for Wearable Application 329

Fig. 10  Simulated S11 with variation in feed slot length (8 mm, 10 mm, and 12 mm)

measured results of the proposed design indicate this miniaturized antenna as an

appropriate candidate for various wearable applications. This compact antenna can
be used in all leisurewear, security, and biomedical wireless wearable applications,
which demand compact wearable antenna design.

References

1. Lajevardi, M.E., Kamyab, M.: Ultraminiaturized metamaterial-inspired SIW textile antenna

for off-body applications. IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett. 16, 3155–3158 (2017)
2. Ferreira, D., Pires, P., Rodrigues, R., Caldeirinha, R.F.S.: Wearable textile antennas: examining
the effect of bending on their performance. IEEE Antennas Propag. Mag. 59, 54–59 (2017)
3. Abbasi, M.A.B., Nikolaou, S.S., Antoniades, M.A., Nikolic Stevanovic, M., Vryonides, P.:
Compact EBG-backed planar monopole for BAN wearable applications. IEEE Trans. Antennas
Propag. 65, 453–463 (2017)
4. Hu, B., Gao, G., He, L., Cong, X., Zhao, J.: Bending and on-arm effects on a wearable antenna
for 2.45 GHz body area network. IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett. 15, 378–381 (2016)
5. Mendes, C., Peixeiro, C.: On-body transmission performance of a novel dual-mode wearable
microstrip antenna. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. 66, 4872–4877 (2018)
6. Mendes, C., Peixeiro, C.: A dual-mode single-band wearable microstrip antenna for body area
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Taylor & Francis IETE J. Res., 1–11 (2019). [Link]
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J. Microw. Power. 15, 19–25 (1980)
Terahertz Antenna Technology
for Detection of Explosives and Weapons:
A Concise Review

A. Praveena, V. A. Sankar Ponnapalli, and G. Umamaheswari

1  Introduction

In recent times, wireless prompt data transmission has grown exponentially as a

result of changes in the way of information usage in the modern society. This change
is accompanied by a growing need for wireless communication at very high speeds
anywhere at any time [1]. Thus, to accelerate data being transferred, a possible
interpretation is to establish a distinct frequency band, which signifies a terahertz
electromagnetic wave (EMW) in an empty space in the middle microwaves and
infrared region [2]. The THz region is a spectrum band which extends a frequency
curve within 0.1–10 THz. Although the frequency region below is microwave and
the band above is far infrared, this region is enormously researched; however, it
remains as the undetermined frequency spectral bands utilized in the field of com-
munication [3]. But more recently, this band region attracted the attention of
researchers and also is being utilized in a few real-time fields. There are several
aspects that contribute against the increased attention toward terahertz waves as
mentioned below [4]:
• Terahertz waves (T-waves) can enter across hidden objects, in particular packing,
book bags, corrugated cardboard, clothing, shoes, etc., to find harmful objects
kept inside.

A. Praveena (*) · V. A. S. Ponnapalli

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Sreyas Institute of Engineering
and Technology, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
G. Umamaheswari
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, PSG College of Technology,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: [Link]@[Link]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 331

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
332 A. Praveena et al.

• Several of the objects of interest in terms of safety, including harmful explosives

and natural chemicals, contain spectra features of the terahertz region that can be
utilized to take fingerprints and identify the hidden objects.
• No damage to the terahertz system could be suspected when it was filmed under
terahertz radiation.
• As terahertz region is located in the middle of microwaves and infrared, THz
radiation possesses properties of these areas [5]. This region is non-harmful and
non-ionizing living organisms. However, the effects of T-waves on human spe-
cifically keratinocyte can be noted from [6–9] (Fig. 1).
This region has various advantages over infrared and microwave region [10].
• The microwave band is being used for a variety of services, where the bandwidth
is limited. Instead, terahertz can provide wider bandwidth.
• The T-wave diffraction is less compared to millimeter wave and microwave,
which is actually a leading point in the line-of-sight (LOS) signaling link.
• The rated frequency of 250 GHz and beyond is not licensed in the latest pro-
posal made.
• This region is relatively safe, importantly in the technology of broadcast fre-
quency spectrum.
• Compared with infrared, THz has a lower signal loss in specific atmospheric
situations like foggy atmosphere.
• A dynamic atmospheric index escalates the scintillation effect on the given infra-
red link and can be decreased to the T-wave network connection.
• Notable improvements in data transmission in the field of infrared wireless com-
munication are slowing because of the need for modern modulation patterns such
as orthogonal.

ELECTRONIQUE PHOTONIQUE
Gap
THz
Radio Microondes IR Visible UV

ν 300 MHz 3 GHz 30 GHz 300 GHz 3 THz 30 THz 300 THz

λ 1m 10 cm 1 cm 1 mm 100 µm 10 µm 1 µm

E (meV) 1,2.10–3 12,4.10–3 0,124 1,24 12,4 124 1240

Fig. 1  Electromagnetic spectrum illustrating terahertz region [11]

Terahertz Antenna Technology for Detection of Explosives and Weapons: A Concise… 333

1.1  Sources of Terahertz Frequencies [12]

Terahertz frequencies are generated either naturally or artificially. Natural terahertz

radiation is emitted as part of a dark body radiation from anything with tempera-
tures above 10 K. While these thermal emissions are very weak, exposure to these
bumps is important in defining 10–20 K of cold dust in the Milky Way galaxy and
in distant galaxies – starburst. On other hand, terahertz frequencies can be generated
using gyrotron, far-infrared laser, backward-wave oscillator, free-electron lasers,
quantum cascade laser, photo-mixing sources, gas lasers, photoconductive anten-
nas, etc.

1.2  Detectors of Terahertz Frequencies [13]

The detection of terahertz frequency by the conventional electronic means can only
reach the lower end of the terahertz region. Therefore, various other methods of
obtaining terahertz have been developed. Some of them involve the use of photon-
ics. Photoconductive antennas can be used for both the generation and detection of
terahertz frequencies and detection with nonlinear crystal materials, bolometer.
Further, this chapter is organized as follows: Sect. 2 demonstrates various appli-
cations of terahertz frequencies, Sect. 3. analyzes the terahertz properties of materi-
als, Sect. 4 discusses the various types of terahertz antenna, and Sect. 5 explains the
challenges involved in the design and development of terahertz antennas and pos-
sible solutions. Finally, the conclusion is discussed.

2  Applications of Terahertz Frequencies

Wireless connections to T-wave bands are anticipated to create the origination of

more approaches in the near future. More-or-less technology that is missing is likely
to be achieved due to their higher data rate requirements and can be applied with a
wide range of bandwidth in the T-wave region. Anyway with shorter distance,
higher-performance data rate field becomes a possible THz connection. Nevertheless,
nanodevices will also be the same capable of operating at T-wave frequencies
because those waves have very short wavelengths when compared to millimeter
(mm) wavelengths and nanodevices containing small antennas that will be allowed
to communicate under such conditions. The wireless nanodevices will bring about
several distinct applications [14] (Table 1).
Terahertz radiation finds ample applications. In many situations, these use not all
but few of the special features of T-waves [13]. It has applications in wireless
advanced sensing systems, explosives and biohazards, imaging and communication,
etc. [16]. Terahertz radiation has applications at macro-scales as well as nanoscales
334 A. Praveena et al.

Table 1  Timeline of terahertz application [15]

Field/Year 2007 2010 2015
Communications 10 Gbps 40 Gbps 100 Gbps
Medical Cancer imaging On site diagnosis Fibre coupled
Food Inspection system Food quality
Security Imaging Explosives Aiports Mobile

Applications of Terahertz (THz)

Macro-scale Nano-scale
applications Applications

Indoor
Indoor Outdoor On-body Outdoor
Applications
Applications Applications Applications Applications

Nano sensors
Information Precise Internet of in Agricultural
Imaging/
Shower Medicine Nano things Applications
scanning

Terahertz Terahertz 5G Nano Sensors

local area On-chip in Defence
Sensing cellular Nano sensors Communication
network network
Nano sensors
Tera-bit Tera-bit Minimally
in industry 4.0
wireless Wireless wireless local invasive Software
personal area Communication area network surgical defined Meta-
network procedures Materials

Tera-bit Within the

Communication living (VIVO) Mobile Access
procedures

Fig. 2  Broad classification of terahertz applications [19]

[17]. Terahertz application at macrolevel includes 5G cellular networks, terabit

wireless LAN, terabit wireless PAN, and secure terabit wireless communication. A
few major applications of terahertz frequencies at nanoscale are health monitoring
systems, advanced sensing for defense applications, the Internet of nanothings, and
ultra-high-speed on-chip communication [17, 18]. Few other important applications
of terahertz radiation include terahertz spectroscopy and safety aspects [13] (Fig. 2).

3  Material Properties at Terahertz Radiation

It is important to know the metal and dielectric properties at terahertz radiation. In

the design of terahertz systems, it is necessary to have an accurate model for detect-
ing metal-dependent metal conductivity and dielectric characteristics at these fre-
quencies. Modeling THZ objects such as antennas, filters, and waveguides using
computer-aided design tools require precise design of the material because the
Terahertz Antenna Technology for Detection of Explosives and Weapons: A Concise… 335

smallest error can affect all systems. Suffice it to say that the standard of the Drude
model is sufficient to predict the operation of the copper metal terahertz at room
temperature. The dielectric constant and tangent losses can be calculated from the
refraction index and extinction coefficient found in the terahertz radiation. Using
Fourier transform techniques on THz-TDS samples, the complex refractive index
values of the material [20] were calculated.

4  Types of Terahertz Antenna

The typical terahertz antennas include terahertz photoconductive antennas, MEMS-­

based antennas, THz antennas with artificial dielectric substrate, terahertz horn
antennas, photonic bandgap-based antennas, graphene-based antennas, terahertz
lens antennas, terahertz microstrip antennas, substrate integrated antennas, and tera-
hertz on-chip antennas [2, 21]. This section mainly concentrates on terahertz
microstrip antennas for various applications.

4.1  Overview of Microstrip Antennas

A microstrip antenna is known for their low profile, light weight, low cost, and their
ease of integration into devices [22].
Microstrip patch antennas, as illustrated in Fig. 3, consist of a very fine radiating
metallic patch and a ground plane, which are separated by a dielectric substrate
sheet [23]. There are various dielectric materials used in microstrip/planar antennas.

patch

W
L

h dielectric (r)

ground

Fig. 3  A basic structural view of microstrip/planar antenna

336 A. Praveena et al.

Fig. 4  Typical patch

shapes for microstrip/
planar antenna
Square Rectangular Circular

Annualr Ring Eliptical Triangle

Patches are usually made by conductive radiating materials including gold, cop-
per, etc. [3]. Radiating metallic patches can theoretically form any shape, but most
preferably, the traditional shapes are round and rectangles. Figure 4 represents vari-
ous typical/common shapes used for microstrip patch antennas.
Patch and probe feed lines are commonly photo-etched on a dielectric substrate.
In a microstrip/planar antenna, the radiation occurs due to the fringing fields occur-
ring at the edges of the patch and the ground surface. The fringing field is illustrated
in Fig.  5 [13]. The resonance frequency of a microstrip patch is defined by the
length and width of the patch.

4.1.1  Terahertz Microstrip Antenna and Design Calculations

Before designing any microstrip antenna, one should know the application (or) fre-
quency at which antenna has to radiate and the dielectric constant (εr) of the chosen
dielectric substrate material.
Example: Let us design a microstrip antenna with a rectangular patch which radi-
ates at 5 terahertz frequency using a dielectric substrate with dielectric constant of
4.4 and thickness of 0.7.
Solution: Known values from the question
Resonance frequency (fr) = 5 terahertz = > 5 × 1012
Dielectric constant (εr) = 4.4
Velocity of light in free space (Vo) = 3 × 108
Height of the substrate (h) = 0.7 mm
Design Steps
Step 1: Calculate the width using Eq. (1):

Vo 2
W=
2 fr εr + 1
(1)
Substituting the known values in Eq. (1),we get:
Terahertz Antenna Technology for Detection of Explosives and Weapons: A Concise… 337

Z
A B
Fringe field

Probe feed
Electrical field
Feed line

Fig. 5  Illustration of fringing field effect microstrip/planar antenna

W = 18.2 µ m

Step 1: Calculate the length using Eq. (2):

Vo
L= − 2 ∆L
2 fr ε eff
(2)
where εeff denotes the effective dielectric constant and ΔLis the extra length
changed owing to the fringing field effect.
Resonance frequency (fr) of an antenna is determined by the definite length of the
radiating patch and represented by L:

εr + 1 εr −1 1
ε eff = +
2 2 h
1 + 12
w (3)

Substituting the values of εr, h, and w in Eq. (3), we get εeff= 4.106.
Now on substituting the value of εeff in Eq. (4), we get ΔL = 0.3236.

w 
(ε eff + 0.3 )  + 0.264 
h 
∆L = 0.412h
 w 
(ε eff − 0.258 )  + 0.8 
h  (4)

Substituting the values of ΔL and εeff in Eq. (2), the value of L is obtained.
We get L = 14.15 μm.
After finding all the values of the geometric antenna parameters, a microstrip/
planar antenna can be built into the available antenna simulation tools (Fig. 6).
338 A. Praveena et al.

Fig. 6  The flow graph for

antenna simulation in START
HFSS [24]

Select substrate Material

Create Substrate and Ground

Create Patch and Feed line

Assign Excitation and Boundary

No
Verify Design
Model and its
parameters

Yes

HFSS Simulation

Results

END

4.2  T
erahertz Microstrip/Planar Antenna for Wireless
Detection of Explosives and Weapons

Generally, terahertz microstrip antennas find applications in the areas of detection

of explosive materials, 5G cellular communications, terabit WLAN and WPAN
applications, Internet of nanothings, and RF energy harvesting. This book chapter
has concentrated on the detection of explosives and weapons using terahertz
microstrip antennas. Explosives are the most powerful material when discharged
into the environment, polluting it by placing toxic hazards to the environment and
biota. Globally, the soil is polluted by such pollution due to production activities,
military operations, and conflicts of varying degrees, open fire (OF), disposal of
construction equipment, and more. Among the various types of chemical explo-
sives, octahydro-1,3,5,7- tetranitro- 1,3,5,7- tetrazocine (HMX), hexahydro-1,3,5-­
trinitro-­
1,3,5-triazine (RDX), and 2,4, 6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) are the most
typical [25].
Terahertz Antenna Technology for Detection of Explosives and Weapons: A Concise… 339

Fig. 7 (a) Geometric view, (b) return loss plot, and (c) gain terahertz antenna, respectively [27]

In [26], a textile terahertz microstrip patch antenna was designed and modeled
using CST Microwave Studio 2014. Denim materials with dielectric constant (εr)
1.6 are used as a dielectric substrate and obtained 7.002 dBi directivity, achieving a
7.359 dB gain at a resonance frequency of 8.208 THz. The 50.07 Ω of impedance
was achieved with an operating frequency (fo) range of 8.0841 THz–8.3321 THz
(247 GHz), which is suitable for applications such as detection of trinitrotoluene
(TNT) explosive materials. In [27], the antenna has a resonance frequency of 9.108
340 A. Praveena et al.

THz. The antenna has the operating range of 0.4303 THz (8.8919 THz–9.3225
THz) and impedance of 50.06 Ω. The gain of the simulated terahertz antenna is
7.357 dB, and the directivity obtained is 7.127 dBi, which is suitable for detection
of TNT explosive materials. Fig. 7a illustrates the terahertz antenna designed, and
Figs. 7b and c illustrate the return loss and gain of the antenna.
A novel terahertz microstrip patch antenna employing polyimide with photonic
crystals as dielectric material for detection of explosives is discussed in [28]. The
radiating element that has been placed on polyimide with photonic crystals achieved
a high gain of 7.934 dB at a resonance frequency (fr) of 0.6398 THz and width of
36.25 GHz and directivity of 8.612 dBi. The performance of the projected antenna
is analyzed and compared for various photonic crystal hole radii, cylindrical dis-
tance, and different dielectric material heights.
Thus, with the advancements in nanostructures and contemporary materials,
antenna technology can achieve miniaturization while maintaining the required
parametric levels.

5  Design and Testing Challenges in Terahertz Antennas

While simulation tools offer a variety of effective designs and features for customiz-
able functionality, the practical accomplishment of printed antennas above 0.9 THz
remains questionable without the availability of appropriate and low-tech technol-
ogy. Hard research on this aspect of the practical fulfillment of printed antennas on
terahertz waves holds the potential for great wireless communication in the
future [29].
There are various challenges in designing and testing challenges in employing
antennas, which resonates at terahertz frequencies. These challenges include size of
the antenna, fabrication and testing, low gain, connectivity, etc.
There is a need to test the determining components, such as bandwidth, orienta-
tion, etc., with different antennas depending on the requirement of the applications.
The major developments in the design as well as the suitability of the antenna ele-
ments and antenna design are important to meet the desired properties. Terahertz
antenna specifications for impedance, bandwidth, polarization, etc. have not
methodically modeled. It is one of the major challenges in the field of terahertz
antenna technology [15] and these antennas find applications in various advanced
wireless applications [30–33].

6  Conclusions

The rapid development of various advanced wireless applications in diversified

fields makes the microwave spectrum congested, thereby demanding higher fre-
quency bands (terahertz) with high transmission data rates for next-generation
Terahertz Antenna Technology for Detection of Explosives and Weapons: A Concise… 341

wireless systems. Terahertz antennas are important devices for transreceiving tera-
hertz frequencies in wireless communication systems. The performance of terahertz
has a major impact on the quality of the communication system. This chapter has
done an analysis on terahertz antennas, including the basic concepts, types of tera-
hertz antennas, and application fields. By analysis, it can be found that terahertz
antenna is currently facing a low gain, high cost, and precise fabrication challenges.
There is much scope of research in the field of terahertz antennas as most of the
terahertz antenna research is at theory stage, and due to the fabrication challenges,
these are manufactured very rarely.

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Part VII
Microstrip Antenna Design for Various
and Miscellaneous Applications
Determination of Moisture Content
from Microstrip Moisture Sensor
with Minimum Mean Relative Error

Sweety Jain

1  Introduction

The increasing population across the world is a phenomenon of discussion in terms

of their changing food habits. With the rise of their different eating habits, it is nec-
essary to fulfill their daily needs. It is possible only when food security is main-
tained [1–2].
Cereals and grains are very essential part of human life. Without grains, nobody
can survive in the world because it provides necessary nutrition [3–6]. Hence, it is
inevitable to store and to protect the grains from the moisture content (MC) for a
long time. The microstrip moisture sensor (MMS) plays an essential role in detect-
ing the moisture content [7–10].
To achieve this, microstrip moisture sensor is designed, whose aim will be to
detect the moisture content (mc) in stored grains accurately. While designing a sen-
sor, the first preference is given to its accuracy. Earlier, various designs have been
proposed: one that was based on a single-frequency sensor [11], one that had MRE
of 6% printed on RT/duroid 5880 [12], one that had MRE of 2.32% [13], one that
had MRE of 17.5% printed on RT/duroid 5880 [14], and one that had MRE of 3%.
Similarly, the proposed dual-frequency sensor [15] had MRE of 0.85% [16]
and 0.49%.
It is necessary that the presence of mc in grains should be as minimum as pos-
sible. So, the sensor which is about to be designed should have least MRE to main-
tain accuracy. By study, it was also found that with the increase in frequency, MRE
was also reduced. By keeping this in mind, during study, four-frequency sensor is

S. Jain (*)
Department of Electronics and Communication, Samrat Ashok Technological Institute,
Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 345

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
346 S. Jain

proposed over triple-frequency sensor with the aim that MRE will be further reduced
to 0% or near 0.
Here, it is indicated that in the result and discussion section (discussed below),
both designs are discussed simultaneously, but actually triple-frequency sensor is
designed first and then the four-frequency sensor. The reason behind the design of
four-frequency sensor is not having zero (or near zero) accuracy in the former sensor.

2  Results and Discussions

2.1  Design and Analysis of Microstrip Moisture Sensor

The microstrip moisture sensor is designed and analyzed with the help of CST soft-
ware [17]. The schematic view of the proposed microstrip sensor optimized dimen-
sions listed in Table 1.
Sensor is designed for 4.9 GHz, 6.7 GHz, and 8 GHz (triple-frequency sensor);
the motive behind the design of the sensor at this frequency is the lowest reflection
coefficient (simulated) of −15.72  dB, −37.58  dB, and −35.99  dB at 4.9  GHz,
6.7 GHz, and 8 GHz, respectively, among the range of frequencies (3 GHz–9 GHz)
determined with the help of CST software, and the same phenomenon can be seen
for measured reflection coefficient obtained from the VNA, which is also the lowest
among the range of frequencies, i.e., −14.16  dB, −35.98  dB, and −33.75  dB,
respectively, as shown in Fig. 1a.
Similarly, sensor is designed for these four frequencies (3.7  GHz, 5.8  GHz,
6.9 GHz, 8.4 GHz) because during simulation, the reflection coefficients are lowest
for these frequencies ranging from 3  GHz to 9  GHz: −  18.50  dB, −17.50  dB,
−22.27 dB, and −27.97 dB respectively. During measurement, the reflection coef-
ficients obtained are −17.28 dB, −15.97 dB, −20.35 dB, and −25.58 dB for these
four frequencies, as shown in Fig. 1b.

Table 1  Optimized dimensions of microstrip moisture sensor

Parameter Triple-frequency Four-frequency
Length of the ground 20 mm 60 mm
Width of the ground 20 mm 50 mm
Length of the substrate 20 mm 60 mm
Width of the substrate 20 mm 50 mm
Relative permittivity 4.4 4.4
Thickness (h) 1.676 mm 1.676 mm
Loss tangent (tanδ) 0.001 0.001
Outer radius of circle 2.1 mm 8 mm
Inner radius of circle 1 mm 4 mm
Determination of Moisture Content from Microstrip Moisture Sensor with Minimum… 347

Fig. 1 Reflection coefficient of the proposed (a) triple-frequency sensor and (b) four-­
frequency sensor

2.2  Obtained Calibration Equation and Regression Coefficient

To further check whether the triple-frequency sensor will actually work at 4.9 GHz,
6.7 GHz, and 8 GHz or not, regression coefficient and sensitivity need to be ana-
lyzed. For accuracy of the sensor, regression coefficient and sensitivity at 4.9 GHz,
6.7 GHz, and 8 GHz are determined, and it is found that regression coefficient is
highest among the range of frequencies (3 GHz–9 GHz) at 4.9 GHz, 6.7 GHz, and
8 GHz: 0.995, 0.975, and 0.992, respectively. In the same way, sensitivity is also
found highest at 4.9 GHz, 6.7 GHz, and 8 GHz: 2.418, 0.995, and 1.075, as shown
348 S. Jain

Table 2  Parameters of microstrip moisture sensor

Simulated Measured
Sensor reflection reflection Regression
parameters Frequency coefficient coefficient coefficient Sensitivity
Triple-­ 4.9 GHz, −15.72 dB, −14.16 dB, 0.995, 0.975, 2.418, 0.995,
frequency 6.7 GHz, and −37.58 dB, −35.98 dB, and 0.992 and 1.075
sensor 8 GHz −35.99 dB −33.75 dB
Four-­ 3.7 GHz, −18.50 dB, −17.28 dB, 0.999, 0.990, 1.307, 2.030,
frequency 5.8 GHz, −17.50 dB, −15.97 dB, 0.996, and 1.465, and
sensor 6.9 GHz, 22.27 dB, −20.35 dB, 0.998 1.387
8.4 GHz 27.97 dB −25.58 dB

in Table 2. Hence, it can be said that sensor at 4.9 GHz, 6.7 GHz, and 8 GHz is
accurate.
Similarly, to check the accuracy of the four-frequency sensor (3.7 GHz/5.8 GHz/
6.9 GHz/8.4 GHz), regression coefficient and sensitivity are analyzed. It is found
that this sensor is accurate in terms of both parameters as shown in Table  2.
Reflection coefficient is obtained from the VNA for samples having different water
contents: 30  ml, 40  ml, 50  ml, 60  ml, and 70  ml for triple-frequency and four-­
frequency sensors. Now, the graph is plotted between reflection coefficient, AMC,
and PMC for both sensors (triple-frequency and four-frequency sensors) as shown
in Figs. 2 and 3.
AMC, by MODW method, is calculated with the help of the following formula:

mwet − mdry
MC ( % ) =
mwet
where
mwet = mass of the samples before drying,
mdry = mass of samples after drying in microwave oven.
PMC at different water contents is calculated with the help of calibration equa-
tion, in which reflection coefficient is obtained from the VNA.
After obtaining PMC, MRE is calculated with the help of the formula:

[Link] − [Link]
MRE =
[Link]
By analysis, it is found that reflection coefficient variation depends upon the state
of rice (dry or wet). It is concluded that with the increase in water content, reflection
coefficient is also increased for both sensors as shown in Figs. 4a and 4b, which
means that even if there are only small percentages of water present in rice, the sen-
sor will be able to detect it accurately because reflection coefficient showed instant
variation at small quantity of water. The reflection coefficient measured by vector
network analyzer is shown in Fig. 4c.
Determination of Moisture Content from Microstrip Moisture Sensor with Minimum… 349

Fig. 2  Relationship between reflection coefficient; (a) graph is plotted between AMC and reflec-
tion coefficient for 4.9 GHz and determined the equation with regression coefficient; (b) graph is
plotted between AMC and reflection coefficient for 6.7 GHz; (c) graph is plotted between AMC
and reflection coefficient for 8 GHz; (d) graph is plotted between PMC and reflection coefficient
for 4.9 GHz; (e) graph is plotted between PMC and reflection coefficient for 6.7 GHz; (f) graph is
plotted between AMC and reflection coefficient for 8 GHz
350 S. Jain

Fig. 26.2 (continued)
Determination of Moisture Content from Microstrip Moisture Sensor with Minimum… 351

Fig. 3  Relationship between reflection coefficient; (a) graph is plotted between AMC and reflec-
tion coefficient for 3.7 GHz, and calibration and regression coefficient is obtained; (b) graph is
plotted between AMC and reflection coefficient for 5.8 GHz; (c) graph is plotted between AMC
and reflection coefficient for 6.9 GHz; (d) graph is plotted between AMC and reflection coefficient
for 8.4 GHz; (e) graph is plotted between PMC and reflection coefficient for 3.7 GHz; (f) graph is
plotted between PMC and reflection coefficient for 5.8 GHz; (g) graph is plotted between PMC
and reflection coefficient for 6.9 GHz; (h) graph is plotted between PMC and reflection coefficient
for 8.4 GHz
352 S. Jain

Fig. 26.3 (continued)
Determination of Moisture Content from Microstrip Moisture Sensor with Minimum… 353

Fig. 26.3 (continued)

Practically, when the above observation is analyzed, the same phenomenon is

observed, i.e., at free space, the reflection coefficient is very low, but when water is
added, the reflection coefficient suddenly increased for both sensors (triple- and
four-frequency), as shown in Figs. 5a and b.
For triple-frequency microstrip sensor, MRE of 0.16% is obtained between PMC
and AMC.  Similarly, for four-frequency microstrip sensor, MRE is 0.073%. The
variation between AMC and PMC is shown in Figs. 6a and 6b. The comparison of
the proposed microstrip moisture sensor is shown in Table 3.
354 S. Jain

Fig. 4 Reflection
coefficient of proposed
microstrip moisture sensor
with dry rice and wet rice
for (a) triple-frequency
sensor and (b) four-­
frequency sensor. (c)
Measured reflection
coefficient by VNA
Determination of Moisture Content from Microstrip Moisture Sensor with Minimum… 355

Fig. 5  Relationship between the reflection coefficients with frequency for different percentages
(%) of mc for (a) triple-frequency sensor and (b) four-frequency sensor

3  Conclusion

The proposed triple- and four-frequency sensors show the thorough analysis of
designing a sensor, in which MRE is found to be 0.16% and 0.073% for triple- and
four-frequency sensors, respectively. Further, it is also proved that the working effi-
ciency of the triple-frequency sensor is 99.84% and the four-frequency sensor is
99.927% with compact size and low cost. It can be concluded that MRE of the four-­
frequency sensor is minimum, almost zero, in comparison with the triple-frequency
sensor. So, it would be more preferable to adopt four-frequency sensor where accu-
racy is required. Otherwise, any of the sensors can be adopted. Both sensors have
applications in various fields such as agriculture, horticulture, textile industries, etc.
356 S. Jain

Fig. 6  Predicted MC against actual MC (a) Triple-frequency sensor (b) Four-frequency sensor

Table 3  Comparison of the proposed microstrip moisture sensor

Substrate
and Regression MC MRE
Sensors Dimension Frequency economy coefficient (%) (%)
Triple 20 × 20 mm2 4.9 GHz, FR4 and 0.995, 0.975, 10.69% – 0.16
frequency 6.7 GHz, and low cost and 0.992 21.84%
8 GHz
Four 60 × 50 mm2 3.7 GHz, 0.999, 0.990, 10.70% – 0.073
frequency 5.8 GHz, 0.996, and 21.85%
6.9 GHz, and 0.998
8.4 GHz
Determination of Moisture Content from Microstrip Moisture Sensor with Minimum… 357

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ICSPCom.2015.7150629
Configurable OPFET-Based Photodetector
for 5G Smart Antenna Applications

Jaya V. Gaitonde and Rajesh B. Lohani

1  Introduction

The emerging 5G and 6G communication technologies are known for their high-­
speed wireless mobile and other related telecommunications. 5G spectrums span
the 450  MHz–6  GHz, 24.250  GHz–52.600  GHz, 5925–7150  MHz, and
64 GHz–86 GHz ranges [1]. 6G and higher variants may employ the 95 GHz–3 THz
bands [2]. These high-frequency RF bands are gradually getting exhausted. Thus,
the communication technology is shifting toward the optical domain, which can
accommodate much higher bandwidth with optical spectrum ranging from 385 THz
to 800 THz [3]. Antennas are an integral part of many communication systems [4,
5, 6]. Conventional antennas employed FDMA (frequency division multiple access),
TDMA (time division multiple access), or CDMA (code division multiple access)
technologies. FDMA shared the frequency or bandwidth among the users in the
entire communication duration. TDMA provided fixed time slots to different users
in an orderly manner in the entire bandwidth, whereas in the case of CDMA, a
unique code was assigned to each user. In this manner, the entire bandwidth could
be used by all the users for the total duration of the call. To further increase the
capacity of the system, SDMA (space division multiple access) technology was
introduced [7]. In this case, the large geographical area was divided into cells, and
frequency was reused in each cell. Further, the capacity could be enhanced by

J. V. Gaitonde (*)
Electronics and Telecommunication Department, Goa Engineering College (Goa University/
Government of Goa), Ponda, Goa, India
e-mail: [Link]@[Link]
R. B. Lohani
Goa Engineering College (Government of Goa), Ponda, Goa, India
e-mail: rblohani@[Link]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 359

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
360 J. V. Gaitonde and R. B. Lohani

spatially directing the main beam toward the intended users. Thus, the transmission
can be carried out at a single-carrier frequency simultaneously by various users.
Either switched beam or tracking beam array of antennas can accomplish the spatial
transmission. The individual antenna elements are called the phased arrays and
operate through an adaptive feedback loop. The adaptive antenna functions by
direction of arrival estimation and accordingly adjusting the weights applied to each
of the antenna elements whose output combination gives the desired signal to be
sent in the preferred direction. The weights induce the desired signal by varying the
amplitude and phase of the voltages applied to each of the antenna elements. The
so-formed beam can either be continuously steered or be switched to certain pre-
fixed directions using a set of priori weights. As opposed to mechanical beam steer-
ing antenna, which is prone to acceleration, vibration, and momentum effects due to
movement, the dynamically steering phased array is insensitive and robust to such
external constraints [8, 9]. Decreased co-channel interference, enhanced robustness
to multipath, high security, and capability to handle path loss while keeping the
emitted power low are the characteristics of phased array antennas [10].
The control of adaptive antennas can be achieved either electronically or opti-
cally. The optical control has the advantages of higher bandwidth and lower losses
as compared to electronic control [11]. Further, electrical beam-forming requires
bulky devices [10]. Optical phased arrays allow fast, stable, and precise beam
steering [8].
Integration of photonics with electronics leads to low-cost, compact, and light-
weight solutions with immunity toward electromagnetic interference [12]. Further,
optical control provides additional degrees of freedom as compared to electronic
control, such as optical power, wavelength, and the way in which the device is illu-
minated (illumination model). This increases the given data and helps in greater and
efficient control of the dynamically steered phased array antenna.
The optical control is possible with the help of lasers, modulators, and photode-
tectors. Among these components, the photodetectors play a major role since these
are the ones which directly control the voltages to be applied to the phased arrays.
Photodetectors convert the intensity-modulated continuous-wave optical signal into
microwave signal, which is directly fed into the antenna. Depending upon the rela-
tive amplitudes and phases of the photodetector output current, the main beam will
be directed in a specific direction, and the nulls will be set to other directions. This
adaptive control is accomplished by various signal processing algorithms such as
maximum signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) algorithm, minimum variance distortionless
response (MVDR), sample matrix inversion (SMI) technique, least mean squares
(LMS) error algorithm, and direct data domain algorithm [7]. Among all the above
algorithms, the direct data domain algorithm is very simple and computationally
fast and employs FFT (fast Fourier transform) and conjugate gradient method to
generate the desired weights. Alternatively or additionally, the adaptive control is
also possible using a predefined or calibrated lookup table which records the output
for each and every change in the input.
There exist several kinds of photodetectors such as MSM (metal-semiconductor-­
metal) diodes, Schottky photodiodes, PIN diodes, p-n junction diodes, avalanche
photodiodes (APDs), HBTs (heterojunction bipolar transistors), HEMTs (high
Configurable OPFET-Based Photodetector for 5G Smart Antenna Applications 361

electron mobility transistors), MESFETs (metal-semiconductor field effect transis-

tors) also known as OPFETs (optical field effect transistors), and so on. The photo-
diodes can act as fast photodetectors but do not record any gain except the APDs. In
contrast, the transistor-based detectors are known for their inherently high gain-­
bandwidth product. Specifically, the OPFET device has been investigated in the past
several years for its operation as a photodetector, optically controlled oscillator,
mixer, switch, and amplifier [13–23]. In this chapter, the authors investigate and
analyze the extent to which the gain, phase, and bandwidth of the GaAs’ OPFET-­
based photodetector can be varied by varying the drain bias, gate bias, optical power,
and modulation frequency, as well as by choosing different illumination models and
different structural dimensions. From these investigations, the optimum signal-to-­
noise+interference ratio in the desired direction can be derived. This work involving
adaptive signal processing and the complete implementation of the optical phase
array antenna system will be considered for future work.

2  OPFET Model

The surface-gate and buried-gate front-illuminated OPFETs are represented in

Figs.  1 and 2, respectively. In these figures, “M” is for metal contact, and “SI”
denotes semi-insulating. The simulations consider the active layer to be n-type and
the substrate region to be p-type both uniformly, moderately doped. The substrate

Fig. 1  The schematic of the surface-gated front-illuminated OPFET [15]

362 J. V. Gaitonde and R. B. Lohani

Fig. 2  The schematic of the buried-gate front-illuminated OPFET [16]

behaves as semi-insulating due to doping with deep level impurity, Cr (chromium).

A transparent gate is considered for the surface-gate device, whereas the gate is
opaque for the buried-gate OPFET. In the case of surface-gate OPFET, the transpar-
ent gate allows the radiation to enter and get absorbed in the channel and substrate
regions, creating electron-hole pairs. On the other hand, the buried-gate device is
illuminated from the active-layer side. The holes are attracted toward the junctions,
whereas the electrons move toward the channel. The electrons contribute to the
channel’s conductivity by drifting across the two electrodes upon the application of
drain bias, thus generating enhanced drain-to-source current (photoconductive
effect). The holes contribute to photovoltage upon crossing the Schottky junction,
which narrows the depletion width and boosts the drain-to-source current (external
photovoltaic effect). The internal photovoltaic effect at the active layer-substrate
junction ceases to exist in the case of surface-gate OPFET. This is due to the mod-
erately doped channel and semi-insulating substrate, which renders the depletion
width to zero on the channel side and causes total depletion of the substrate side.
With the gate being opaque, there is no substrate effect in the buried-gate OPFET. The
device structures are the same for the back-illuminated counterparts of the above
discussed models. But, in the case of surface-gate OPFET, illumination enters the
channel through the substrate by inserting a fiber up to the substrate-active layer
interface. In the case of the buried-gate OPFET, the gate is considered as transpar-
ent, and radiation is allowed to pass through the transparent gate by inserting a fiber
up to the substrate-gate interface.
Configurable OPFET-Based Photodetector for 5G Smart Antenna Applications 363

2.1  Device Modeling

We present below the analytical solutions of the electron and hole continuity equa-
tions in various regions [17, 19–21].

2.1.1  P
hotogenerated Hole Density in the Gate Junction Region
in Front-Illuminated Devices

 1   y 
p ( y ) = A1 + αΦτ ω p B1 1 −  exp  −  ,
 (1 − α vyτ ω p )  
 vyτ ω p 
(1)

 αΦτ ω p exp ( −α y ) 
A1 =  ,
 (1 − α vyτ ω p ) 

  1  
B1 = exp  −  α −  ydg  .
  v τ

y ωp  

In Eq. (1), vy is the saturated hole velocity, α is the absorption coefficient of the
semiconductor, Φ is the photon flux density, τωp is the lifetime of holes under ac
condition, ydg is the gate junction extension of the depletion region measured from
the surface, and y is the distance from the surface toward the substrate. Drift and
recombination are the transport phenomena in this region.
In Eq. (1), the term (1–αvyτωp) is to be considered as it is if (αvyτωp) < 1 and is to be
substituted with a maximum value closer to 1 when it exceeds or equals 1.

2.1.2  P
hotogenerated Hole Density in the Gate Junction Region
in Back-Illuminated Devices

 αΦτ ω p exp ( −α ( t sm − y ) ) 
p ( y) =  

 (1 + α vyτ ω p ) 
(2)
where tsm is the active layer thickness.
364 J. V. Gaitonde and R. B. Lohani

2.1.3  P
hoto-Induced Channel Electron Density
in the Front-Illuminated OPFETs

 y 
n ( y ) = αΦτ ω n A2 exp  −  − B2
 Lnω  (3)
 1  αΦτ ω n exp ( −α y )
where A2 = 1 + 2 2  and B2 = ;

 ( )
α Lnω − 1  (
α 2 Lnω 2 − 1 )
τωn is the electron lifetime under ac condition; Lnω is the ac electron diffusion
length, given by Lnω = (Dnτωn)1/2; and Dn is the electron diffusion coefficient. The
carrier transport in this region is governed by diffusion and recombination.

2.1.4  P
hoto-Induced Channel Electron Density
in the Back-Illuminated OPFETs

Surface-Gate OPFET

 
 (
1
n ( y ) = αΦτ ω n 1 + 2 2
α Lnω − 1 ) 
(
 exp −α ( t sm − ydg ) )
 
 ( ydg − y )  αΦτ ω n exp ( −α ( t sm − y ) )
exp  − −

 Lnω 
 (
α 2 Lnω 2 − 1 ) (4)

Buried-Gate OPFET

 α 2L 2 
n ( y ) = αΦτ ω n  2 n2ω  exp ( −α t sm )
 (
 α Lnω − 1 ) 

 y  αΦτ ω n exp ( −α ( t sm − y ) )
exp  −

 Lnω  (
α 2 Lnω 2 − 1 ) (5)

2.1.5  P
hoto-Induced Depletion Region Electron Density
in the Front-Illuminated OPFETs

αΦτ ω n exp ( −α y )
n ( y) = ,

(1 + α v τ
y1 ω n ) (6)
Configurable OPFET-Based Photodetector for 5G Smart Antenna Applications 365

where vy1 is the electron saturation velocity. Drift and recombination are the
transport phenomena in this region.

2.1.6  P
hoto-Induced Depletion Region Electron Density
in the Back-Illuminated OPFETs

αΦτ ω n exp ( −α ( t sm − y ) )
n ( y) = .

(1 − α v τ
y1 ω n ) (7)
For detailed modeling including the continuity equations, the reader is advised to
refer to [17, 19–21].
The individual contributions from the doping-induced charge under illumination,
the photo-induced channel electron charge, and the gate and substrate depletion
charges constitute the total drain-to-source current.

2.1.7  Drain Current

The drain current is calculated by [24]:

I ds = I dss tan h (ηVDS ) + VDS / Rsh ,

(8)
where η is the ratio of drain-to-source conductance computed at VDS = 0 to the satu-
ration current, VDS is the drain voltage, Rsh is the drain-to-source shunt resistance,
and Idss is the drain-to-source saturation current. Refer to [25] for the modelling of
series resistances.
Some parameters depicted in Figs.  1 and 2, such as d and a, do not directly
appear in the above equations; however, they have their own significance. The
parameter d refers to the surface to substrate thickness and is relevant only in the
case of surface-gate front-illuminated OPFET since the photogeneration takes place
in the substrate region also (d = 1 μm). This parameter will affect the total current
depending upon the electron density in the substrate depletion region. In other cases,
since either the device is illuminated from the surface with gate made opaque or the
fiber is inserted up to the active layer-substrate interface or the fiber is inserted up to
the gate-substrate interface, the substrate effect is ruled out. Thus, the choice of
dimensions in the case of buried-gate front-illuminated OPFET for structural opti-
mization is irrespective of the surface-to-substrate thickness. The parameter a is
relevant only in the case of buried-gate OPFETs, denoting the active layer thickness
which is different from the effective layer thickness (tsm) by an amount equal to the
gate thickness. The value of this parameter is chosen proportional to that given in
[16]. This parameter will affect the current through the series resistances since the
series resistances are calculated based upon the charge available in the gate-to-­
source and gate-to-drain spacings, which have a thickness of a.
366 J. V. Gaitonde and R. B. Lohani

2.1.8  S Parameters

The common source OPFET equivalent circuit is depicted in Fig. 3, where the sym-
bols represented there have their usual meaning.
From the equivalent circuit, the Y-parameters of the intrinsic device have been
obtained [26].

jωCgs
Y11 = jωCgd +

(1 + jωC gs Ri )
(9)
Y12 = − jωCgd
(10)
gm exp ( − jωτ )
Y21 = − jωCgd
1 + jωCgs Ri
(11)

Y22 = jω ( Cgd + Cds ) + 1 / Rds

(12)
The intrinsic Y-parameters are converted to intrinsic ABCD-parameters [27].
The intrinsic ABCD-parameter matrix is multiplied by the ABCD representation of
the gate and drain leads as given in [26]. The resultant matrix is converted to
Z-parameters [27]. The resulting matrix is added to the Z-matrix of the source to
give the complete Z-parameters of the OPFET [26]. Finally, the Z-parameters are
converted to complete S-parameters under suitable source/load impedances [27].
One important factor which is necessary but not sufficient for unconditional stabil-
ity [28] is the Rollett’s stability factor (K-factor). It should be greater than unity for
all frequencies under consideration. It is given by:

Fig. 3  Equivalent circuit of OPFET

Configurable OPFET-Based Photodetector for 5G Smart Antenna Applications 367

2 2 2
1 − S11 − S22 + ∆
K= ,
2 S12 S21
(13)
where Δ = S11S22 − S12S21. This parameter should be less than 1 for all operating
frequencies. One more additional criterion is that there should be no RHP poles in
network terminated with defining impedances.
In case the K-factor is less than 1, then the device is conditionally stable at a
particular set of load and source impedances. This can be ensured if the following
conditions are satisfied [28]:
No RHP poles in network terminated with defining impedances,

S22 < 1 forallfrequencies,

(14)
Γin < 1forallfrequencies,
(15)
S12 S21Γ L Z − Z0
Γin = S11 + ΓL = L
where 1 − S22 Γ L is the input reflection coefficient, Z L + Z 0 is the
reflection coefficient of the load, and ZL is the load impedance. Z0 is the characteris-
tic impedance of 50 ohms.

3  Results and Discussion

The simulation results have been obtained in MATLAB. The wavelength of optical
source is considered to be 600 nm. The drain bias is varied between 0 and 10 V,
whereas gate bias is set between −2 V and 0 V. The radiation flux densities of 1015,
1017, 1019, 1021, and 1023 /m2-s used in the simulations correspond to the optical
power densities of 0.033  μW/cm2, 3.3  μW/cm2, 0.33  mW/cm2, 33  mW/cm2, and
3.3 W/cm2, respectively. The transparent gate (wherever applicable) is assumed to
be made up of ITO (Indium-Tin-Oxide). The parameters utilized in calculations are
listed in Table  1. The device dimensions chosen for structural optimization are

Table 1  Parameters used in the calculation

Symbol Parameter Value References Unit
ΦB Schottky barrier height (ITO-GaAs) (0.98) [29] (eV)
μ Low field electron mobility ~(0.52) [30] (m2/V.s)
vy1 Saturated electron velocity ~1.2 × 105 [18] (m/s)
vy Saturated hole velocity in the y- direction ~0.9 × 105 (m/s)
τp Lifetime of holes 10−8 [18] (s)
τn Lifetime of electrons 10−6 [18] (s)
ε Permittivity 1.14 × 10−10 [30] (F/m)
α Absorption coefficient 4 × 106 [31] (/m)
368 J. V. Gaitonde and R. B. Lohani

obtained from scaling rules [32] spanning from medium to long gate lengths. Only
the four most relevant sets are shown for comparison. The source/load impedances
being considered are (300 Ω + j2πω (19.7 nH))/ (300 Ω + j2πω (73 nH)).
At first, we estimate the 3-dB bandwidth performance of the OPFET detector
with respect to the different illumination models as well as the different dimensions,
as this parameter will decide the maximum frequency of operation of the individual
antenna elements. The bandwidth performance is tabulated in Table 2. Referring to
Table 2, it is observed that the bandwidth increases with optical power at the lower
flux densities due to enhancement of the photovoltaic effect with the hole lifetime
in GaAs being of the order of nanoseconds. It falls at the higher intensities due to
additional contribution from the photoconductive effect with the electron lifetime of
the order of microseconds. It is also observed that the bandwidth is high at the lower
intensities in all the cases (greater than 1 GHz) suitable for 5G applications. This is
attributed to the extra amplification factor of (αvyτωp) in the hole density Eq. (1)
over the primary hole density and the decreasing denominator term (1−αvyτωp) by
one order magnitude in the front-illuminated devices. In addition, the absorption
coefficient at 600  nm (4  ×  106 /m) with an absorption depth of 0.25  μm is large
enough to create a significant number of electron-hole pairs in the depletion region,
which eventually cross the Schottky junction. In the back-illuminated devices, the
photovoltages developed are lower since the additional factor ceases to exist, the
constant of integration being zero from the physical condition [18]. Nevertheless,

Table 2  Bandwidth performance of GaAs’ OPFET illumination models

Bandwidth (Hz) at the gate length (L = 4 μm), gate width (Z = 150 μm), active layer
Photon thickness (tsm = 0.3 μm), and doping concentration (Ndr = 4 × 1022 /m3), VDS ~ 0.42 V
flux and vgs ~ −1 V
density Surface-gate Buried-gate Surface-gate Buried-gate
(/m2-s) front-illuminated front-illuminated back-illuminated back-illuminated
1015 3.1 GHz 2.62 GHz 4.57 GHz 6.81 GHz
1017 5.8 GHz 8.64 GHz 17.7 GHz 39.2 GHz
1019 12.87 GHz 13.9 GHz 53.9 GHz 129.3 GHz
1021 3.1 GHz 3.326 GHz 45.2 MHz 2.031 MHz
1023 13.71 MHz 5.71 MHz 4.156 MHz 23.93 MHz
Photon Bandwidth (Hz) of buried-gate front-illuminated OPFET at VDS ~ 0.42 V and
flux vgs ~ −1 V
density (L = 3 μm, Z = 100 μm, (L = 4 μm, (L = 5 μm, (L = 8 μm,
(/m2-s) tsm = 0.27 μm, Z = 150 μm, Z = 200 μm, Z = 350 μm,
Ndr = 5.33 × 1022 /m3) tsm = 0.3 μm, tsm = 0.4 μm, tsm = 0.45 μm,
Ndr = 4 × 1022 / Ndr = 3.2 × 1022 / Ndr = 2 × 1022 /
m3) m3) m3)
1015 3.6 GHz 2.62 GHz 3.326 GHz 4.22 GHz
1017 7.98 GHz 8.64 GHz 5.8 GHz 8.64 GHz
1019 11.88 GHz 13.9 GHz 11.88 GHz 17.7 GHz
1021 3.326 GHz 3.326 GHz 0.62 GHz 0.53 GHz
1023 4.5 MHz 5.71 MHz 5.71 MHz 7.25 MHz
Configurable OPFET-Based Photodetector for 5G Smart Antenna Applications 369

the bandwidths are considerably higher than the front-illuminated OPFETs. This
feature can be explained by the difference in photo-induced hole density roll-off
rates between the two sets of devices, the roll-off rate being proportional to
(α2 × Φ × vy × τωp2) in the front-illuminated devices as compared to (α × Φ × τωp)
in the back-illuminated OPFETs. The squared lifetime term in the former case as
opposed to the non-­squared lifetime term in the latter case results in wider roll-off
rate in the back-­illuminated devices. The buried-gate devices exhibit in overall
higher bandwidths than the surface-gate devices since the former structures have
lower series resistances [23]. The difference is large in the case of back-illuminated
OPFETs since the currents involved are comparatively of lesser magnitude due to
the lower photovoltages, which incur lower voltage drops across the series resis-
tances and allow full exploitation of the difference in series resistances. In the front-
illuminated OPFETs, due to higher photovoltages, the currents involved are of
greater magnitude, which limit the sensitivity. Since we are restricting our domain
to 5G applications, we neglect the bandwidth response at the higher intensities
where there is an overall fall in the bandwidth. Switching to the structural optimiza-
tion of the bandwidth response of the buried-gate front-illuminated OPFET, we
know from previous analysis [19, 20] that at constant photovoltage, and gate-to-
source voltage, the depletion width variation with applied illumination is larger in
the device having lower doping concentration. Since from scaling rules, with the
increase in gate length, there is a proportional decrease in doping concentration, the
bandwidth which is directly proportional to the depletion width variation tends to
enhance with gate length. This feature is verified on the whole from the results pre-
sented in Table 2. The exception is at the gate length of 5 μm where the series resis-
tance limiting effects are large due to large active layer thickness which increases
the drain-to-­source current. We extend this discussion by commenting on the sensi-
tivity of device parameters on various dimensions. The gate length elongation
induces a proportional increase in the longitudinal area producing more charge but
also tends to reduce the current through the inverse dependence of the drain current
on gate length. According to scaling rules, with the increase in gate length, there is
a proportionate increase in other dimensions such as active layer thickness (tsm) and
a reduction in the doping concentration (Ndr). The gate width is unconstrained since
no scaling rules exist, which relate the scaling rules presented in [32] to the gate
width. The structural optimization takes into account the entire range of device
dimensions with gate length varying from 3 μm to 8 μm, but only the four relevant
sets are provided here for analysis. The optimization reveals that the device perfor-
mance increases with respect to the 3-dB bandwidth as discussed earlier for higher
gate lengths and widths. The photocurrent and the drain-to-source current also
increase with device dimensions. There is no excessive dark current even with the
device possessing the highest dimensions, since the drain bias voltage is in the lower
range (less than 4 V). The transconductances and gate-to-source capacitances are
also boosted with the increase in dimensions due to the enhanced depletion width
sensitivity to applied gate-to-source voltage at lower doping concentrations similar
to the case of 3-dB bandwidth. But, the slope of transconductance increase is lower
than that of the capacitance, resulting in decreased gain and phase. Thus, there is a
370 J. V. Gaitonde and R. B. Lohani

trade-off between bandwidth and gain-phase relationship, which can be optimized

by properly choosing the dimensions.
We now discuss the extent of the gain and phase variation with respect to the
control parameters, such as the drain bias, gate bias, modulating frequency, and
optical power, the choice of illumination model, as well as the device dimensions.
Figure 4a and b, respectively, show the simulated gain and phase of the different
illumination models as a function of drain bias at a gate-to-source voltage of −1 V,
a modulation frequency of 1 GHz, and an optical flux density of 1015 /m2-s. The
entire analysis can be carried out based on the relative contributions of the transcon-
ductances and the gate-to-source, gate-to-drain, and drain-to-source capacitances
under the influence of the various control parameters since these parameters domi-
nate the contributions to the intrinsic Y-parameters. The analysis will also be assisted
by the contribution from the photovoltaic effect. The gain increases with drain bias
in all the cases and eventually saturates at the higher drain voltages. This is ascribed
to the fact that at lower drain voltages, as the voltage increases, the transconduc-
tance increases due to the boosting of the drain-to-source current, whereas all the
capacitances decrease due to the increase in the depletion width. Since the transcon-
ductance is directly related to the real part of the Y21- and hence the S21-parameter,
whereas the reduction in capacitances suppresses the imaginary parts of Y-parameters
and hence boosts the imaginary part of the S21-parameter, the gain increases. The
saturation of the gain at higher voltages is due to the saturation of transconductance
following the saturation of the drain-to-source current. The differences observed in
the gains of different illumination models are owing to the differences in photo-
voltages which affect both the transconductances and the capacitances along with
the differences in series resistances between surface-gate and buried-gate devices.
At a considerable drain bias of 0.6  V, the surface-gate front-illuminated OPFET
shows the least gain due to the high photovoltage, which although boosts the

Fig. 4  Gain (a) and phase (b) versus drain bias for different illumination models at a gate voltage
of −1 V, modulation frequency of 1 GHz, and flux density of 1015 /m2-s
Configurable OPFET-Based Photodetector for 5G Smart Antenna Applications 371

transconductance also simultaneously boosts the capacitances, and along with the
contribution from the higher series resistances. The next lowest gain is exhibited by
the surface-gate back-illuminated OPFET on account of its low photovoltage, which
suppresses the transconductance along with series resistance effects. The buried-­
gate front-illuminated device shows higher gain due to the high photovoltage and
lower series resistances. The highest gain is exhibited by the buried-gate back-­
illuminated OPFET on account of the lower photovoltage, which suppresses the
capacitances and also due to lesser series resistances. Though there is variation in
gain among these illumination models at this drain voltage of 0.6 V, for practical
purposes, it can be considered as constant, and as such at low drain voltages, the
device functions as a constant gain detector. At higher drain voltages, there is sig-
nificant variation in gain since the capacitances are suppressed to a large extent,
which means the gain is highly amplified by the combination of high transconduc-
tances and suppressed capacitances. At these voltages, the device behaves as a vari-
able gain detector. Also, the gain can be varied between −15 dB and +14 dB by
varying the drain bias from 0.2 V to 3.8 V.
On the other hand, the phase also shows significant increase as the drain bias
increases. This can be explained by the fact that with the increase in voltage, the
transconductance is enhanced while the capacitances decrease. This increases the
real part of the S21-parameter so also the imaginary part, but the rate of rise of imagi-
nary part is higher than that of the real part, increasing the phase. The back-­
illuminated devices show higher phases than the front-illuminated OPFETs on
account of the lower transconductances and suppressed capacitances. There is
around 5-degree variation in phase with the change in the illumination model at a
particular drain bias so that the total variation is around 15–20 degrees. The phase
can be varied between 20 degrees and 142 degrees with a change in bias from 0.2 V
to 3.8 V.
Figure 5a and b are the gain and phase plots obtained at the same set of control
parameters as that in Figs. 3 and 4 but at a higher modulation frequency of ~5 GHz.
The consequence of higher modulation frequency is the significant reduction in the
transconductance due to roll-off of photovoltage with frequency. Also, the higher
frequency increases the imaginary components of the Y-parameters, although the
capacitances decrease with the modulation of photovoltage with frequency. Thus,
both the real and imaginary parts of the S21-parameter are reduced, resulting in
degraded gain. The gain also reduces through the transconductance delay compo-
nent at high frequencies. The phase also shifts toward negative directions, mainly
because of the significant boost of the imaginary components of Y-parameters along
with the transconductance delay. It is observed that at high frequencies, both the
gain and phase can be controlled to a larger extent with the change in illumination
model. The increase in gain and phase with drain bias remained almost the same as
that with low frequencies.
Figure 6a and b represent the gain and phase responses versus drain bias of the
buried-gate front-illuminated OPFETs with different dimensions at a gate voltage of
−1 V, modulation frequency of 1 GHz, and flux density of 1015 /m2-s. It can be seen
from the above plots that the gain reduces with the increase in dimensions at the
372 J. V. Gaitonde and R. B. Lohani

Fig. 5  Gain (a) and phase (b) versus drain bias for different illumination models at a gate voltage
of −1 V, modulation frequency of ~5 GHz, and flux density of 1015 /m2-s

Fig. 6  Gain (a) and phase (b) versus drain bias for different dimensions of buried-gate front-­
illuminated OPFET at a gate voltage of −1 V, modulation frequency of 1 GHz, and flux density of
1015 /m2-s

lower drain biases and tends to increase at higher voltages. This can be explained by
the fact that at the lower voltages, both the transconductances and capacitances
increase with dimensions (depletion width sensitivity being larger at lower doping
concentrations), but the rate of increase of capacitances is higher than that of the
transconductances. At larger voltages, the gain tends to increase, attributed to the
significant boost of transconductances and suppression of capacitances. The phase
reduces with the increase in dimensions. At the lower voltages, this is ascribed to the
same reason as that for the gain response. At higher voltages, the boost of transcon-
ductances is higher than that of the suppression of capacitances, thus reducing the
Configurable OPFET-Based Photodetector for 5G Smart Antenna Applications 373

phase. It is also observed that the gain and phase can be controlled to a large extent
by varying the dimensions. The phase range that can be controlled with the increase
in dimensions is 52–150 degrees and 20–130 degrees for gate lengths of 3 μm and
4 μm, respectively, as the drain bias is varied between 0.2 and 3.8 V, 0–97 degrees
for gate length of 5 μm with drain bias variation from 0.2 to 5.1 V and −25 to 70
degrees for 8 μm gate length with change in bias from 0.2 to 6.5 V. This shows the
versatility of the choice of dimensions on the phase responses; the dimensions
should be carefully chosen along with the consideration of the dependence of 3-dB
bandwidth and gain on gate length to give optimum results for a particular
application.
Figure 7a and b show the gain and phase plots as a function of drain bias for
buried-gate front-illuminated OPFET with a gate length of 8 μm at different gate
voltages, modulation frequency of 1 GHz, and flux density of 1015 /m2-s. The plots
clearly show that the gain and phase can be controlled to a large extent with gate
bias. The gain is lowered with the increase in gate voltages at the lower drain bias
since both transconductance and capacitances increase with gate voltage, but the
slope of increase of capacitances is larger than that of the transconductances. The
transconductances are low at low drain biases due to the smaller magnitude of drain-­
to-­source currents, whereas the capacitances being independent of drain-to-source
currents show large values. At higher drain bias, the gain increases with gate voltage
due to the significant boost of transconductances and suppression of capacitances.
The phase response shows a decrease with gate voltage at all drain biases due to the
same reasons as mentioned above.
Figure 8a and b depict the gain and phase plots of the buried-gate front-­
illuminated OPFET with a gate length of 4 μm at different flux densities, modula-
tion frequency of 1 GHz, and gate bias of −1 V. It is observed that the gain slightly

Fig. 7  Gain (a) and phase (b) versus drain bias for buried-gate front-illuminated OPFET with a
gate length of 8 μm at different gate voltages, modulation frequency of 1 GHz, and flux density of
1015 /m2-s
374 J. V. Gaitonde and R. B. Lohani

Fig. 8  Gain (a) and phase (b) versus drain bias for buried-gate front-illuminated OPFET with a
gate length of 4 μm at different flux densities, modulation frequency of 1 GHz, and gate bias of −1 V

reduces with the increase in optical power at the lower drain voltages since the rate
of increase in capacitances is slightly larger than that of the transconductances.
Almost equal gains are recorded at the higher drain voltages, the reason still being
investigated. For practical purposes, the gain can be considered constant with opti-
cal power. The phase responses are shown to reduce by 5 degrees with a step increase
in optical power with a total variation of 10 degrees due to the same reasons as
mentioned above.
In the plots represented in Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, the x-y plots were used to depict
individually the gain and phase responses since the comparative analysis using three
or more values for control parameters was better represented using x-y plots. Polar
plots, on the other hand, give superior pictorial depiction when the number of values
for control parameters is less as in the case of Fig. 9a and b. Through these figures,
we demonstrate that positive phase responses are also possible at high frequencies
through optimization. Specifically, using higher value of gate voltage (0 V) and a
source/load impedance value comparable to the frequency of operation would serve
the purpose. Also, larger gains are achieved at higher drain voltages. The source/
load impedances used for this purpose were (300 Ω + j2πω (1 nH)).
In all the above plots, the stability analysis has been done, and it is found in over-
all that the device will produce unconditional stable response at the low-to-mid
drain voltages. The unconditional stable response can be achieved at all drain volt-
ages with further optimization. Nevertheless, the device produces conditional stable
responses at the source and load impedances under consideration at all drain
voltages.
Configurable OPFET-Based Photodetector for 5G Smart Antenna Applications 375

Fig. 9  Polar plots (a) as a function of frequency (1.7 GHz to 13.2 GHz) for buried-gate front-­
illuminated OPFET with a gate length of 4 μm at a gate bias of 0 V, a drain bias of 0.63 V, and an
optical intensity of 1017 /m2-s, and (b) as a function of drain bias (0.2 V to 3.8 V) at a frequency of
~5 GHz with other control parameters maintained the same

4  Conclusion

We presented the potential of GaAs’ OPFET illumination models to function as

configurable photodetector elements for 5G phased array smart antenna applica-
tions. The simulations revealed that the device acts as almost constant gain variable
phase detector when the optical power is varied or by the choice of different illumi-
nation models, but the extent of variation is of smaller magnitude within 10–20
degrees. On the other hand, the device can be configured as a variable gain variable
phase shift detector by varying the drain bias or gate bias or by the choice of differ-
ent dimensions, and the extent of variation is large. At higher frequencies, the gain
is significantly reduced, and phase is shifted to negative directions. By proper opti-
mization, positive phase shifts were achieved also at higher frequencies. Further, the
structural optimization of the buried-gate front-illuminated device showed that the
3-dB bandwidth increases with the increase in device dimensions, however with
some exceptions. Specifically the device with the longest gate length under consid-
eration of 8  μm exhibited the highest bandwidths of 4.22  GHz, 8.64  GHz, and
17.7 GHz at the flux densities of 1015, 1017, and 1019 /m2-s, respectively. Also, it was
found that the back-illuminated devices exhibit higher bandwidths than the front-­
illuminated devices and that the bandwidth increases with the increase in optical
power under photovoltaic conditions. In addition, it was noticed that the gain and
phase decreased with device dimensions as well as the gate voltages, except the gain
which tends to increase at higher drain voltages. The gain and phase significantly
increased with the increase in the drain voltage, whereas they decreased with the
increase in optical power except at higher drain voltages where there is a slight
increase in gain. The frequency range of operation of these devices shows that they
will serve better purpose in 5G Internet of things (IoT) [33, 34]or optical wireless
376 J. V. Gaitonde and R. B. Lohani

communication (OWC)-based smart applications such as smart home, airport, train

station and railway, smart shopping, plant and industry, smart healthcare, smart
automobiles, etc. The complete implementation of the optical phased array antenna
system will be considered in the future work.

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Bandwidth Optimization of a Novel Slotted
Fractal Antenna Using Modified Lightning
Attachment Procedure Optimization

Rohit Anand and Paras Chawla

1  Introduction

The fractal term was originated by Mandelbrot in 1975 [1]. In fractal geometries,
each segment is a diminished part of the whole object. Fractal geometries are very
important in designing the multiband antennas [2] that are very much useful for the
high-speed wireless applications like wireless local area network, satellite commu-
nication, mobile communication, military applications, and many others [3]. Fractal
antenna [4, 5] is an antenna having self-affine geometry. It is designed to transmit or
receive over the multiband frequencies. One more advantage of designing the frac-
tal antennas is that their electrical size is much greater than the physical size [6].
Due to their multiband behavior and larger electrical length, the novel shapes of the
fractal antennas are being developed by various researchers. The most commonly
used generators for designing the fractal antennas are square, rectangle, triangle,
polygon, circle, and many others as they are the basic geometries for designing vari-
ous fractal antennas like Minkowski, Sierpinski, Hilbert, and Koch geometries. A
novel slotted fractal geometry is the basic geometry of the proposed antenna in
this work.
The main aim of applying the optimization is to achieve the most acceptable
result for any objective function [7]. This acceptable result may be achieved by
applying either the maximization or minimization operating function. To achieve
the accurate results in antenna design, one or other optimization technique must be
applied. But to obtain the most optimum result, any optimization technique must be

R. Anand (*)
G.B. Pant Engineering College, New Delhi, India
P. Chawla
University Institute of Engineering, Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab, India
e-mail: [Link]@[Link]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 379

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
380 R. Anand and P. Chawla

applied, so it undergoes a lot of iterations [8]. The various traditional optimization

techniques are very much prolonged. Besides, their sensitivity is also not so good
[9]. Hence, some evolutionary optimization techniques known as meta-heuristic
techniques are being applied since the last few years as they are very much sophis-
ticated and are applicable to all the convex as well as non-convex problems [10].
The optimization technique may be based on a single solution or population-based
solution [11, 12]. Most of the population-based techniques are influenced by nature
and hence are referred to as the nature-based optimization techniques [13]. Some of
the most commonly used nature-inspired optimization techniques are ant colony
optimization (ACO) [14], genetic algorithm (GA) [15], brain storm optimization
(BSO) [16], bat algorithm (BA) [17], firefly algorithm (FA) [18], particle swarm
optimization (PSO) [19], invasive weed optimization (IWO) [20], bacterial foraging
optimization (BFO) [21], etc.
In the past, various antennas have been found to be designed and optimized using
any of the nature-inspired techniques. The parameters that may be used for the opti-
mization are size, gain, bandwidth, reflection coefficient, side lobe level, imped-
ance, etc. Some of the optimization techniques exhibit fine diversification to get the
global optimum value, while others exhibit nice intensification around the neighbor-
hood to get the local optimum value. A very few techniques exhibit a good fairness
between diversification and intensification [22]. Some optimization techniques are
able to converge slowly, while others are not able to do so. The optimization tech-
nique, which is best in all respects, is applied to a novel fractal antenna in the pro-
posed work.
The contribution of this chapter is to design a novel fractal antenna using high-­
frequency structure simulator (HFSS) version 17.0, followed by its optimization
using a very recent nature-inspired technique known as modified lightning attach-
ment procedure optimization (modified LAPO). The modified LAPO is used along
with the curve fitting technique. The modified LAPO is applied as it converges
quickly and has right equilibrium between the exploration and exploitation, so the
algorithm gives the best possible optimized value. The optimized antenna has been
found to be enhanced in terms of bandwidth. Further, the proposed antenna also
provides appreciable amount of peak gain.

2  Related Work

Since the last few years, various antennas have been optimized using many nature-­
inspired evolutionary meta-heuristic techniques.
The authors in [23] developed a wire antenna and used genetic algorithm to opti-
mize its bandwidth and efficiency so that it may be used for various high-speed
applications. In [24], the authors proposed a novel prefractal antenna and then opti-
mized using particle swarm optimization to shrink the antenna size and to minimize
the standing wave ratio. The designed antenna is applicable for WiMAX applica-
tions. Further, the authors in [25] suggested a fine optimization method known as
Bandwidth Optimization of a Novel Slotted Fractal Antenna Using Modified Lightning… 381

space mapping for optimizing the scattering parameter in a double annular ring
antenna. A linear antenna array has been designed and optimized using Tabu search
technique to minimize the side lobe level (SLL) in the antenna [26]. The optimiza-
tion technique has been very fine, but its convergence speed is poor. In [27], the
authors used harmony search (HS) method for optimizing the side lobes in the
antenna array. The HS technique has been observed to be very good in convergence
speed. The developed antenna may be used in the applications where nulling is
required in the radiation pattern.
The authors in [28] developed a Yagi-Uda antenna and then optimized the gain
and VSWR of the antenna using differential evolution (DE) technique. The opti-
mized antenna may be used for GSM and wireless LAN applications. In [29], the
authors optimized the pattern and gain of a particular patch antenna using invasive
weed optimization (IWO). The convergence speed of the technique has been
observed to be very fast. A firefly algorithm (FA) has been used for the optimization
of the radiation pattern of the receiving antenna to optimize the side lobe level
(SLL) [30]. The firefly algorithm has been proved to be good from global and local
search point of view. The authors in [31] optimized the gain of a circular antenna
array using bat algorithm (BA). The advantage of this optimization technique is that
it converges very fast with a very few iterations. The proposed antenna may be used
for various direction-finding applications. Further, the authors in [32] proposed a
novel technique based on grey wolf optimization (GWO) for an antenna to avoid the
local optima trapping. This algorithm has been proved to be very efficient. It may be
used for various real-world optimization problems.
In [33], the authors designed a slotted patch antenna and optimized it using adap-
tive bacterial foraging optimization (ABFO) technique to improve the speed of con-
vergence. An array antenna has been optimized in terms of side lobes using moth
flame optimization (MFO). The MFO technique has been found to be very good in
convergence and accuracy. In [34], the authors optimized the bandwidth of a square
fractal antenna by combining bacterial foraging optimization (BFO) with particle
swarm optimization. The designed antenna may be used for S-band and C-band
applications. The authors in [35] optimized an E-shaped microstrip antenna by
using evolutionary monarch butterfly optimization (MBO) technique. The gain of
the optimized antenna has been observed to be quite appreciable. A technique called
brain storm optimization (BSO) has been used to optimize the antenna in [16]. The
technique has been very effective than many of the traditional techniques.
In the proposed chapter, a very recent optimization technique called modified
LAPO has been applied to optimize the bandwidth of a novel fractal antenna as this
technique is very fast in convergence and balances the exploration and exploitation.
382 R. Anand and P. Chawla

3  Antenna Geometry

The proposed antenna design is shown in Fig.  1. The green section refers to the
conducting part, while the white section indicates the substrate part as well as
etched part.
The proposed antenna is a rectangular patch antenna with the inner geometry
made up of a slotted geometry, having a combination of distorted square shape (or
“plus” shape) and “circular” shape with the four similar scalable shapes (each of
which is shrunk to half of the central initiator geometry). The proposed antenna is
having a substrate area equal to L × W mm2, with the ground plane having exactly
same dimensions as the substrate. The material FR4 with thickness of 1.6 mm, rela-
tive permittivity of 4.4, and loss tangent of 0.01 is used as a substrate. The rectangu-
lar microstrip feedline is used because it is easy to design [6]. The slotted structure
is used to increase the bandwidth [2] of the structure. This bandwidth will further be
increased using an optimization technique that will be discussed in the next section.
The different dimensions of the proposed antenna design are shown in Table 1.

Fig. 1  Geometry of the proposed antenna

Bandwidth Optimization of a Novel Slotted Fractal Antenna Using Modified Lightning… 383

Table 1  Dimensions of the proposed antenna

Notation Dimension (mm)
L 34
W 34
L1 20
W1 20
L2 7
W2 3
X1 6
X2 6
S 5
S1 1.5
S2 1.5
D 5
X3 2
X4 2
S3 2.5
S4 0.75
S5 0.75
D1 2.5

The geometrical parameters that will be used for the bandwidth optimization in
MATLAB are width of the feedline (W2), diameter of the central circular conduct-
ing element (D), and diameter of the smaller circular conducting element (D1).

4  Bandwidth Optimization

As discussed earlier, the modified LAPO technique based on lightning phenomenon

is used for the bandwidth optimization in the proposed work.
Lightning in the clouds is a natural phenomenon [36] that involves the follow-
ing steps:
(i) The breakdown of air within the clouds occurs due to the large potential differ-
ence between the upper and lower portion of the cloud.
(ii) Due to the huge breakdown, the light starts moving toward the Earth with each
step having higher electric field than the preceding one. All these steps are sto-
chastic in nature. This process is repeated at each random path followed from
the clouds to the Earth.
Let i correspond to any of the test points for the entire population and j be the test
point that will contribute to the formation of steps toward the ground. Let ti be the
electric field for a particular ith test point, tj be the electric field for a particular jth
test point, and f(tj) be the fitness value for a jth point. Let tavg be the average value of
384 R. Anand and P. Chawla

the electric field for the test points and f(tavg) be the fitness value for this average
electric field.
If f(tj) > f(tavg),

then ti new ti rand tavg rand t j

else ti new ti rand tavg rand t j

(1)
where rand is a uniformly distributed random number in the interval [0,1].
(iii) Simultaneously, there is also the corresponding upward movement from the
Earth to the clouds due to the large difference in the electric field.
Let step count be represented by:

count
count Iter
SC 1 exp
Iter (2)
where Iter indicates the upper bound of the number of iterations and count indicates
the present count.
(iv) When both upward and downward movements meet at a point, the charge
within the clouds is neutralized.
All the steps mentioned above correspond to the lightning attachment procedure
optimization (LAPO). Further, the “fitness” of the objective function in this optimi-
zation corresponds to the electric field at all the test points, which are nothing but
the “individual points” considered in this optimization technique. Although the
LAPO technique balances the exploration and exploitation, its solution may move
sometimes toward the worst point in some situations as the process is random in
nature. So, the modified LAPO is used in the proposed work, so that the solution
always moves away from the worst point (i.e., tworst) and toward the best point (i.e.,
tbest). This is illustrated in Eq. (3):

ti new ti rand t best rand t worst . (3)

The dimensions shown in Table 1 have been considered after using the manual
optimization, which is very much time-consuming. The modified LAPO technique
discussed above is automatic in the respect that it considers all the local and global
points at each iteration by itself.
The various steps to optimize the antenna are shown in Fig. 2.
(i) First of all, the population is created by varying the parameters W2, D, and D1
with the parametric variation in HFSS. The population corresponds to the val-
ues of reflection coefficient at the various values of W2, D, and D1. W2 is
varied by 0.1 mm within the bounds (lower bound as 2.6 mm and upper bound
as 3.4 mm), D is varied by 0.1 mm within the bounds (lower bound as 4.7 mm
Bandwidth Optimization of a Novel Slotted Fractal Antenna Using Modified Lightning… 385

Creaon of Populaon

Processing of Test points

Implementaon of Curve Fit-

ng to design the Equaons

Implementaon of Modified LAPO

Antenna Dimensions aer Opmizaon

Fig. 2  Steps involved in the proposed optimization

and upper bund as 5.3 mm), and D1 is varied by 0.1 mm within the bounds
(lower bound as 2.3 mm and upper bound as 2.7 mm). So, the variations for all
the three parameters at 1001 values of frequency from 8 GHz to 18 GHz cor-
respond to the 21,021 test points obtained in the population.
(ii) All the test points obtained are processed thereafter. The reflection coefficient
values less than −10 dB are truncated to −10 dB, while those having values
more than −10 dB are taken as unchanged. Subsequently, the mean of all the
frequencies is taken for all the parametric variations resulting into 9 points, 7
points, and 5 points for W2, D, and D1, respectively.
(iii) The points obtained in step (ii) are undergone to the curve fitting using
MATLAB. This generates Eqs. (4), (5), and (6) of degree 3:

R1 24.4 W 23 1012 W 2 2 2048.1W 4779 (4)

R2 123.5 D3 1049.8 D2 667.5 D 119.8 (5)

R3 199.3 D13 593.4 D12 577.4 D1 5792.3 (6)

Equations (4), (5), and (6) represent the relation of reflection coefficient (R1/R2/R3)
with W2, D, and D1 values.
386 R. Anand and P. Chawla

Table 2  Optimized geometrical dimensions of the proposed design

Optimized dimension Value (mm)
W2 3.2
D 5.2
D1 2.4

(iv) The modified LAPO as described earlier is applied thereafter by using the fit-
ness function based on minimization as the reflection coefficient is to be mini-
mized to obtain the high bandwidth.
(v) The optimized geometrical parameters are obtained after applying the modified
LAPO. The optimized parameters obtained are shown in Table 2.
The rest of the geometrical parameters in the optimized design remains the same as
shown in Table 1.

5  Results and Discussion

Since bandwidth of the antenna is optimized after minimizing the reflection coeffi-
cient, in this section, the reflection coefficient of the unoptimized antenna is plotted
followed by the plot of the reflection coefficient of the optimized antenna. Then, the
radiation pattern is plotted at the most important resonance frequency (i.e., the fre-
quency at which the reflection coefficient is minimum) for the optimized antenna.
Subsequently, the peak gain of the optimized antenna is plotted with respect to the
frequency. Since the focus is on X-band and Ku-band, frequency axis is taken from
8 GHz to 18 GHz that covers both bands.

5.1  Reflection Coefficient

The reflection coefficient for the unoptimized design is plotted in Fig. 3 and that for
the optimized design is plotted in Fig. 4.
It may be observed that the unoptimized structure has three frequency bands,
while the optimized design yields a single band having a very wide bandwidth. The
comparison is also shown in Table 3.
It is observed from Table  3 that the reflection coefficient for the unoptimized
design is −30.68  dB while that for the optimized geometry is −43.34  dB that is
quite fantastic. Also, the bandwidth for the unoptimized design is 4970 MHz (i.e.,
230 MHz + 980 MHz + 3760 MHz), while the bandwidth for the optimized design
is 9140 MHz. So, the bandwidth for the optimized design is increased by 83.9%,
which is excellent.
Bandwidth Optimization of a Novel Slotted Fractal Antenna Using Modified Lightning… 387

Fig. 3  Reflection coefficient for the unoptimized design

Fig. 4  Reflection coefficient for the optimized design

388 R. Anand and P. Chawla

Table 3  Reflection coefficient for the unoptimized and optimized design

Design Minimum reflection coefficient Frequency band Bandwidth
Unoptimized −30.68 dB (at 16.24 GHz) 9.54–9.77 GHz 230 MHz
12.01–12.99 GHz 980 MHz
14.24–18.00 GHz 3760 MHz
(Total 4970 MHz)
Optimized −43.34 dB (at 11.34 GHz) 8.86–18.00 GHz 9140 MHz

Fig. 5  Radiation pattern at 11.34 GHz for the optimized antenna in (a) E-plane (b) H-plane

The huge increase in the bandwidth is due to the fair amount of intensification
and diversification exhibited by the modified LAPO technique.

5.2  Radiation Pattern

The radiation pattern drawn in the form of normalized curve for the resonant fre-
quency of 11.34 GHz is shown in Fig. 5 for the optimized antenna. The radiation
pattern is plotted in terms of gain plotted with respect to the elevation angle for
E-plane (XZ-plane) and H-plane (YZ-plane).
Bandwidth Optimization of a Novel Slotted Fractal Antenna Using Modified Lightning… 389

The graph shows that the optimized antenna is distorted omnidirectional or

deteriorated for the H-plane while it is somewhat more directive for the E-plane.
The deterioration is due to the formation of some side lobes in the radiation
pattern.

5.3  Gain

To know the directivity of the antenna at all the frequencies, the gain of the opti-
mized antenna is plotted in the form of peak gain with respect to frequency in
X-band and Ku-band as shown in Fig. 6. It is evident from the graph that peak gain
is observed to be the highest at 17.54 GHz and the value of this gain is 8.50 dB,
which is great for this antenna having small size.

6  Comparison

Table 4 shows the comparison of the proposed optimized antenna with various other
optimized antennas of the existing literature in terms of increased bandwidth (in
%age) and the type of optimization technique used.

Fig. 6  Graph of the peak gain for the optimized antenna

390 R. Anand and P. Chawla

Table 4  Comparison with other optimized designs in terms of enhanced bandwidth

Increase in
References bandwidth Optimization technique
[33] 51.6% Adaptive bacterial foraging optimization (ABFO)
[37] 23.5% Genetic algorithm(GA)
[38] 48% Particle swarm optimization (PSO)
Proposed 83.9% Modified lightning attachment procedure optimization
(MLAPO)

7  Conclusion

This chapter developed a new slotted fractal antenna followed by its optimization
using modified lightning attachment procedure optimization and curve fitting
method. The antenna after undergoing the optimization has been found to be very
much enhanced in bandwidth than that of the actual design. The proposed antenna
works in X-band and Ku-band. Various other parameters like radiation pattern and
gain of the optimized antenna are also analyzed. The gain of the optimized antenna
has also been found to be quite appreciable. Lastly, the bandwidth of the optimized
antenna has also been compared with the optimized bandwidth in the existing work
based on other nature-inspired techniques.

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Design and Fabrication of Axially
Corrugated Gaussian Profiled Horn
Antenna

Prashant D. Sachaniya, Jagdishkumar M. Rathod, and Utkal Mehta

1  Introduction

It is now well-established that corrugated horns have desirable radiation character-

istics such as pattern symmetry, low cross-polarization, and low side lobe levels.
These horns are widely used as feed antenna in high-performance and low noise
reflector antenna systems. It is also used in high-performance microwave communi-
cation, radar application, and remote sensing system. A reflector antenna consists of
a paraboloid reflector antenna and a horn antenna as a feed of reflector. In a trans-
mitting antenna, the feed horn must match the microwave signals from the source to
the reflector antenna and illuminate the reflector with minimum energy and maxi-
mum efficiency. There are various possible designs for this horn, but presently, the
corrugated horn is the preferred choice.
There is one efficient structure of the horn antenna, and it is the corrugated horn
antenna. The inside wall of the corrugated horn is manufactured in a succession of
“slots” and “teeth” [2]. Corrugated horn antenna can propagate through hybrid
modes (combination of TE and TM modes) to produce radiation patterns with
extremely good beam symmetry with low cross-polarization levels, high beam effi-
ciency with very low side lobes, and the potential for wide-bandwidth performance

P. D. Sachaniya (*)
Electronics & Communication Engineering Department, Gujarat Technological University,
Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
J. M. Rathod
Department of Electronics, Birla Vishvakarma Mahavidyalaya, Anand, Gujarat, India
e-mail: jmrathod@[Link]
U. Mehta
Electrical and Electronics Engineering at the University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji
e-mail: [Link]@[Link]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 393

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
394 P. D. Sachaniya et al.

[2–3]. Corrugated horn antenna is used as a direct feed antenna for moderate gain
applications and is used with a parabolic reflector antenna for achieving high-gain
applications. Corrugated horn antenna is called a gold antenna among all feed
antennas [2]. Corrugated horn antennas are used in radar surveying, satellite com-
munications, target detection, radio astronomy, national security, microwave remote
sensing, weather radar, and the feed for reflector antenna [1–3].

2  Design Parameters

In this section, design theory and equations of two different profiles of corrugation
and the design dimensions of proposed corrugated horn are presented.

2.1  Axial Profiled Corrugated Horn Antenna

Axial profiled corrugated horn antenna is designed for the lower-gain application of
10–12 dBi. The axial profile of corrugated horn antenna has the advantage of a
broad radiation pattern with size compactness. It has numerous disadvantages like
less gain, an acceptable level of cross-polarization, and beam asymmetry. The radius
and depth of each slot are calculated from Eqs. (1) and (2) [13]:

a j = ai + j ρ for1 ≤ j ≤ Nslots (1)

 
 
λ  1 
d j = exp  1.134 
(2)
4  2.114  2π a j  
   
  λ  

where aj = radius of jth slot, dj = depth of jth slot, and Nslots = no. of slots.

2.2  Gaussian Profiled Corrugated Horn Antenna

The Gaussian profiled corrugated horn antenna has a distinguish advantage of high
directive gain, lower cross-polarization value, and beam symmetry. However, this
has a common demerit of larger size and overall dimension. The Gaussian profiled
horn antenna can be designed using the following expression [13]:
2
 2x 
R ( x ) = ro 1 +  2 2  (3)
 kα ro 
Design and Fabrication of Axially Corrugated Gaussian Profiled Horn Antenna 395

ro is the input radius and the output radius of the mode converter. α is an essential
parameter for miniaturization, and its value is chosen to 1. x = 1,2,3…..Nslots. The
radius of each slot and depth of each slot is calculated from Eqs. (4) and (5) [13]:
2
 ρλ ( x − 1) 
a x = ao 1+   for 1 ≤ x ≤ N (4)
 π ao 
2

 
 
 1 
 1.134 
  2 π a x  
 2.114   
 λ 
d x = 0.25λ e  
for N MC + 1 ≤ x ≤ N (5)

where Nslots  =  no. of slots, NMC = no. of slots in mode converter, and ao  =  out-
put radius.

2.3  A
xially Corrugated Gaussian Profiled Horn
Antenna (ACGPHA)

The axially corrugated Gaussian profiled horn antenna is a dual profiled corrugated
horn antenna. It consists of an axial profile and a Gaussian profile of corrugation.
The axial profile of corrugation has the advantage of size compactness and directive
radiation pattern. In contrast, the Gaussian profile of corrugation has an advantage
of a lower value of cross-polarization and a good value of beam symmetry and
directive gain. The advantages of these two profiles are used for the proposed design
of the corrugated horn antenna, i.e., axially corrugated Gaussian profiled horn
antenna. These two profiles of corrugations are shown in Fig. 1.
The design dimensions of axially corrugated Gaussian profiled horn antenna are
shown in Table 1.

3  Result Summary

In this section, the result summary of axially corrugated Gaussian profiled corru-
gated horn antenna is presented in terms of simulated result and measured result.

3.1  Simulation Design

The proposed axially corrugated Gaussian profiled horn antenna is designed at

2.48 GHz in the HFSS software, and it is shown in Fig. 2. The S11-parameter of axi-
ally corrugated Gaussian profiled horn antenna is shown in Fig. 3. It is −26.1751 dB
396 P. D. Sachaniya et al.

Fig. 1  Axial and Gaussian profile of corrugation

Table 1  Design dimension of axially corrugated Gaussian profiled corrugated horn antenna
Sr. no. Parameters Dimensions
1 Design frequency (fc) 2.48 GHz
2 Frequency band 2–4 GHz (S-band)
3 Wavelength (λ) 121.90 mm
4 Gain (G) 15 dBi
5 Input radius (ai) –WG 451 57.29 mm
6 Output radius (ao) 158.4 mm
7 Horn flare angel(𝟁c) 45°(axial) and 30°(Gaussian)
9 No. of slots (Nslots) 15
10 Slot pitch-to-width ratio (δ) 0.72
11 Slot pitch (ρ) 15.1 mm
12 Slot width (w) 10.9 mm
13 Width of the slot teeth (t) 4.2 mm
14 Length of horn (L) 323.5 mm
15 Corrugation profile Dual (axial and Gaussian)

at 2.48 GHz and below −20 dB for the entire S-band. The gain, cross-polarization,
and beam symmetry of the proposed axially corrugated Gaussian profiled horn
antenna are 14.2743 dBi, −35.8704 dB, and ± 50 degrees (100 degrees) at 2.48 GHz,
as shown in Fig. 4. The 3D radiation pattern of axially corrugated Gaussian profiled
horn antenna is shown in Fig. 5, and there is a lower value of side and back lobes.
The proposed design of The corrugated horn is 2.6 λ long with an aperture radius of
1.3 λ only. The proposed corrugated horn antenna has only 15 corrugations in the
antenna structure.
Design and Fabrication of Axially Corrugated Gaussian Profiled Horn Antenna 397

Fig. 2  Side, top, and 3D view of the proposed axially corrugated Gaussian profiled corrugated
horn antenna

3.2  Fabricated Design

The proposed corrugated horn antenna is tested using the vector network analyzer
for return loss measurement, as shown in Fig. 6. An anechoic chamber is used to test
the gain, radiation pattern, and cross-polarization of the corrugated horn antenna, as
shown in Fig. 7.
The simulated and measured value of the S11-parameter for the proposed corru-
gated horn antenna is shown in Fig. 8. The S11-parameter remains −20 dB down for
the frequency range of 2.15 GHz–4 GHz (1.85 GHz) in the simulated result and the
frequency range of 2.35 GHz–4 GHz (1.65 GHz) in the measured result.
The simulated and measured value of gain for the whole S-band at the designed
frequency is shown in Fig. 9. The proposed corrugated horn antenna is designed for
the gain of 15 dBi. The simulated result of the gain of the proposed corrugated horn
398 P. D. Sachaniya et al.

Fig. 3 S11-parameter of the proposed axially corrugated Gaussian profiled horn antenna

Fig. 4  Gain, cross-polarization, and 3D radiation pattern of the proposed axially corrugated
Gaussian profiled horn antenna

antenna remains in the range of 14 dBi for the whole S-band. The measured result of
gain is slightly increased than the designed and simulated value due to input wave-
guide converter and waveguide transition. The overall length of the horn increased
due to the transition structure, which causes an improvement in the gain (Fig. 10).
The comparison of the simulated and measured value of cross-polarization at
2.48 GHz is shown in Fig. 11. The simulated result of cross-polarization remains
below −20 dB for the entire S-band, while the measured value of cross-polarization
remains below −18 dB for the whole S-band, as shown in Fig. 11.
Design and Fabrication of Axially Corrugated Gaussian Profiled Horn Antenna 399

Fig. 5  3D radiation pattern of the proposed axially corrugated Gaussian profiled horn antenna

Fig. 6  Testing of axially corrugated Gaussian profiled horn antenna using vector network analyzer
400 P. D. Sachaniya et al.

Fig. 7  Testing of axially corrugated Gaussian profiled horn antenna in anechoic chamber

Fig. 8  Simulated and measured value of S11-parameters for axially corrugated Gaussian profiled
horn antenna between 2 and 4 GHz
Design and Fabrication of Axially Corrugated Gaussian Profiled Horn Antenna 401

Fig. 9  Simulated and measured value of gain for axially corrugated Gaussian profiled horn
antenna between 2 and 4 GHz

Fig. 10  Simulated and measured Gain of axially corrugated gaussian profiled horn antenna at
2.48 GHz
402 P. D. Sachaniya et al.

Fig. 11  Simulated and measured value of cross-polarization for axially corrugated Gaussian pro-
filed horn antenna between 2 and 4 GHz

4  Conclusion

The novel corrugated horn is designed at 2.48 GHz. The value of gain at designed
frequency is 16.28 dBi, S11 of -21.37 dB, and cross-polarization of -30.34 dB is
obtained with the good value of beam symmetry. The value of S11 & cross-polar-
ization remains -20 dB down while the value of gain remains nearer to 15 dBi for
the whole S-Band. The novel design of corrugated horn is 2.6 λ long with an aper-
ture radius of 1.3 λ only. The novel design of corrugated horn is compact in size
with a wide bandwidth performance.

References

1. Sachaniya, P.D., Dhandhukia, H., Rathod, J.M.: Review and analyze low cross polarized feed
for offset parabolic reflector antenna for S-band application. J.  Commun. Eng. Syst. 8(3),
30–36 (2018)
2. Prashant, S., Shah, S., Rathod, J.: Hybrid feed horn for S-band application. In: 2019 IEEE
Indian Conference on Antennas and Propagation (InCAP), pp. 1–5. IEEE (2019)
3. Sachaniya, P.D., Rathod, J.M.: Miniaturization of asymmetrical gaussian profiled corrugated
horn. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 1070(1), 012078. IOP Publishing (2021)
4. Alexander, H., Markus, P., Simon, A.: Design of wide-band corrugated feed horn for reflector
antenna in radar applications. In: 2016 German Microwave Conference (GeMiC). IEEE (2016)
5. Wang, L., Lei, L., Wang, S.: The design of a new H plane corrugated horn antenna in THz
frequency. In: 2016 2nd IEEE International Conference on Computer and Communications
(ICCC). IEEE (2016)
Design and Fabrication of Axially Corrugated Gaussian Profiled Horn Antenna 403

6. Makwana, B.J., Sharma, S.B., Parikh, K.: A multimode feed for compact offset parabolic
reflector antenna system. In: 2016 IEEE Indian Antenna Week (IAW 2016). IEEE (2016)
7. McKay, J.E., Robertson, D.A., Speirs, P.J., Hunter, R.I., Wylde, R.J., Smith, G.M.: Compact
corrugated feed horns with high Gaussian coupling efficiency and −60 dB sidelobes. IEEE
Trans. Antennas Propag. 64(6), 2518–2522 (2016)
8. Moy-Li, H.C., Ferrando-Bataller, M., Sánchez-Escuderos, D., Baquero-Escudero, M.: Band-­
pass unit cell for extended low-profile lens over radially-corrugated circular horn. In: 2016
IEEE International Symposium on Antennas and Propagation (APSURSI). IEEE (2016)
9. Vishnu, G.J., Jani, G., Pujara, D.: Design and optimization of a Ku-band compact axial cor-
rugated horn antenna using ANFIS.  In: 2016 International Symposium on Antennas and
Propagation (APSYM). IEEE (2016)
10. Wang, J., Yao, Y., Cheng, Y., Liu, X., Qi, L., Chen, Z., Yu, J., Chen, X.: Design of a 94 GHz
compact corrugated horn with ultra-low sidelobe. In: 2016 IEEE International Symposium on
Antennas and Propagation (APSURSI). IEEE (2016)
11. Wu, Y., Xie, L., Zhou, J., Biao, D.: Wideband wide flared corrugated horns designed for the
square kilometre Array. In: 2016 IEEE International Conference on Microwave and Millimeter
Wave Technology (ICMMT), vol. 1. IEEE (2016)
12. Zhang, P., Qi, J., Qiu, J.: Modal-matching-based analysis for axially corrugated dielectric-rod-­
loaded horn. Radio Sci. 51(7), 895–904 (2016)
13. Granet, C., James, G.L.: Design of corrugated horns: a primer. IEEE Antennas Propag. Mag.
47(2), 76–84 (2005)
Antipodal Vivaldi Antennas Arranged
in Circular Array for RADAR

Sasmita Mohapatra

1  Introduction

Since the mid-1960s, automotive RADAR has been under development for various
applications. The basic use of any RADAR system is to detect and track any object/
vehicle. The positioning of the target with respect to range, velocity, and angle is of
prime importance, which is applicable for both stationary and moving targets. For
this, the main constraint for any RADAR system is that the RADAR has to operate
effectively in very adverse climatic conditions; also at the same time, the complete
RADAR system must be compact and should be able to produce consistent perfor-
mance over a wide frequency range.
Array-based UWB microwave antenna system has greater efficiency in perform-
ing better in various short-range applications such as RADAR system, wireless
communication, covered weapon discovery, ground entering, clinical analysis, RCS
imaging, and so on. By consolidating with beam-forming, such framework can pos-
sibly accomplish improved execution regarding high three-dimensional goal, can-
tering, and electronic-beam controlling abilities.
The main challenge of designing an array antenna for any RADAR system is that
the individual antenna element should be designed with small dimension so that
many antennas can be accommodated within an imaging device and large fractional
bandwidth should be carried by individual antenna for a wider coverage of operat-
ing bandwidth. Analyzation has been carried out, and results have been found for
various types of small UWB antennas, such as stacked patch antenna [1], tapered
slot antennas [2], resistively loaded pyramidal horn antenna [3], and leaky lens
antenna [4].

S. Mohapatra (*)
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Sir M. Visvesvaraya Institute of
Technology, Bengaluru, Visvesvaraya Technological University, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 405

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
406 S. Mohapatra

Among all these antennas, the Vivaldi antenna is one of the best solutions, which
has got very high gain, simple design, and compact structure with constant perfor-
mance over a very high operating bandwidth.
In the previous work [5], an array of Vivaldi antenna has been proposed with a
radome, which can be used mainly for MTI RADAR system where the performance
of the complete array antenna is dependent on the individual antenna characteris-
tics, the pattern the antennas are arranged in an array, the spacing between the
antennas, the characteristics (dielectric constant and thickness) of the radome, etc.
In the present work, an array antenna has been proposed where antipodal Vivaldi
antennas are arranged in spherical fashion with proper intra-antenna spacing for
minimum interference between individual antenna coverage and improvement of
overall coverage of the array. Again, the antenna array has been covered by a radome
of certain permittivity and thickness to make it suitable to be used for RADAR sys-
tems in any adverse climatic conditions and achieve maximum efficiency of radia-
tion with high directivity and coverage.

2  D
esigning and Characteristics of Individual Antipodal
Vivaldi Antenna

The proposed antenna array consists of antipodal Vivaldi antennas arranged in a

circular fashion to gain maximum coverage. Here each one of the antipodal Vivaldi
antennas comprises tapered slot etched on a metal film of very low thickness. It
works as an end-fire antenna with very high directivity and ultra-wideband opera-
tion. So most suitably the antipodal antenna has been selected to be used in the array
for efficient and wide operations.
The feeding of antenna is a great challenge, which can improve the impedance
matching and in turn can improve the power radiation by the antenna. The proposed
antipodal Vivaldi antenna is a properly balanced structure which has got a balun
which provides a match between 50 Ω microstrip feedline and antenna. This balun
consists of a 50 Ω microstrip to parallel plate transmission line which is tapered to
a slot line configuration, and subsequently the antenna is fed by the slot line
structure.
In the proposed work, a low-profile tapered slot antipodal Vivaldi antenna has
been designed. The designed antipodal Vivaldi antenna has been simulated using
Ansys HFSS to find its different characteristics. The antenna’s performance with
respect to different parameters is excellent over a wide frequency range of
2.0 GHz–20 GHz.
Figure 1 shows the geometry of the proposed antipodal Vivaldi antenna. Three
important parts play a significant role in the construction of the antenna. The first
section signifies the main transition from microstrip line to the double-sided parallel
stripline, which is the circularly flared tapered part. The second part is the main car-
rier of the signal to antenna at the feeding end, which is a parallel stripline. This is
Antipodal Vivaldi Antennas Arranged in Circular Array for RADAR 407

Fig. 1  Prototype diagram of the antipodal Vivaldi antenna

a balanced structure which provides transitions over a wide frequency band. The
third part of the overall construction is the radiation flare which mainly converts the
guided wave to a free wave or radiation. This radiation part mainly has three curves,
which include the inner and outer edges which are well defined by exponential
equations. The outside lines which are tapered consist of 1/4 elliptical arcs of differ-
ent axis ratio, which can reduce the reflections if there is any impedance mismatch
with its continuous structure. The designing equations for the antipodal antenna are
given as:

V = C1 eα u + C2 (1)

V 2 − V1
whereC1 =
eα u 2 − eα u1 (2)

V 1eα u 2 − V 2 eα u1
and C2 =
eα u 2 − eα u1 (3)
where α = axis ratio of the tapered line
(u1, v1) = starting point of the tapered line.
(u2, v2) = ending point of the tapered line.
The main challenge in designing the proposed antipodal antenna is in its transi-
tion region from microstrip to parallel stripline and again from parallel stripline to
slot line. The transition regions must be designed very smooth as it can lead to dis-
continuities during the high-frequency performance of the antenna. As the designed
antipodal antennas are arranged in an array which can be used as RADAR antenna,
408 S. Mohapatra

Return Loss
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
–10
–20
S11 in dB

–30
–40
–50
–60
–70
Frequency (GHz)
Simulated Results

Fig. 2  Simulated and measured results of return loss

care has been taken to reduce the overall size of the antenna array. For these, the
individual antipodal Vivaldi antenna is designed to be very compact.
According to the formula and approximation, the antenna is optimized to have
the dimension of 60  mm  ×  25  mm. The different designing parameters are
w = 3.00 mm, L = 35 mm, ε =2.0, and h = 1 mm.
The simulated results of the return loss are shown in Fig. 2. It can be seen that the
return loss is less than −10 dB from nearer to 2.0 GHz–20 GHz, which shows that
the antenna performance is almost stable over a wide frequency band (Fig. 3).
The 3D radiation pattern for the antenna has been observed at different frequen-
cies. The radiation pattern shows that the antenna performance is stable and similar
over a wide frequency range (Fig. 4).
The above figure shows the simulated gain of the individual antipodal Vivaldi
antenna, which shows that the antenna has a high gain over the overall frequency
range. The gain of the antenna is found to be 8.4 dB at 12 GHz.

3  Array of Antipodal Vivaldi Antenna

Array of antennas always plays a crucial role in many wireless applications, which
mainly helps in increasing the coverage area. The antenna array mainly helps in
increasing the signal strength, so very high directivity in a particular direction can
be achieved. By the use of array antenna, minor lobes of the radiation are reduced,
thus increasing signal-to-noise ratio. Overall, the array structure can achieve a very
high gain, which is dependent on the number of antennas used in the array structure.
Thus, a better performance can be achieved by reducing power wastage (Fig. 5).
As discussed in [5], there are many challenges in arranging antennas in an array.
The main challenge in designing the array antenna is feeding of the array as the
phase difference between the feeding point matters a lot in gaining the overall gain
Antipodal Vivaldi Antennas Arranged in Circular Array for RADAR 409

Fig. 3  3D radiation pattern of designed Vivaldi Antenna

Gain in dB
8.4 dB
9
8
7
6
Gain in dB

5
4
3
2
1
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Frequency (GHz)

Gain in dB

Fig. 4  Gain with respect to frequency of designed Vivaldi Antenna

of the antenna array. Again, the cross-coupling between antennas is another chal-
lenge. For this reason, the side lobes should be significantly reduced, and the indi-
vidual element gain should be made as high as possible. To overcome these
problems, in the present, the architecture of microstrip array antennas has been done
under corporate feed techniques and series feed techniques for excitation.
In the previous section, the characteristics of the individual antenna has been
analyzed with respect to the S-parameter and gain of the antenna. In the present sec-
tion, the simulation has been done for the array of antipodal Vivaldi antennas kept
in a spherical structure. The characteristics of the array structure have been analyzed
with respect to VSWR of the complete structure, which is a key to decide the overall
gain and power loss of the antenna structure (Fig. 6).
As shown in the above figure, the overall radiation beam of the antenna array is
expected to be a combination of the individual beam of each active element where
the total angular sweep in the broad side direction is expected to be more than 60°,
410 S. Mohapatra

Fig. 5  Array of Vivaldi Antennas placed in a circular fashion

Fig. 6  Collimated radiation beam of Vivaldi antenna array

which increases the total area of coverage for scanning by the array of antenna
(Fig. 7).
The above figure shows the performance in terms of VSWR for the array of
antipodal Vivaldi antenna array. The VSWR is predicted for infinite array by using
PB-FDTD analysis [6]. One polarization is fed and scanned to broadside, 60°
E-plane, and 60° H-plane. The other polarization is terminated in 50 Ohms.

4  Array of Antipodal Vivaldi Antenna with Radome

The proposed antenna can have vast application in the RADAR system, because of
which a radome is used as a shield for the complete antenna array to protect the
antenna system.
Usually for any antenna system, low profiling of antenna is a major issue in the
present researches. In the case of antipodal Vivaldi antenna [7], if the antenna length
of Vivaldi antenna is reduced, then the performance of the antenna deteriorates. It is
observed that using single- or multilayer of dielectric around the antenna array in
close proximity improves the impedance matching over a wide bandwidth. Even
Antipodal Vivaldi Antennas Arranged in Circular Array for RADAR 411

VSWR for antenna array

2.5

1.5
Broad side values
VSWR

1 60° E-plane
60° H-plane

0.5

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Frequency in GHz

Fig. 7  VSWR of the designed Vivaldi antenna array

Fig. 8  Array of Vivaldi antennas covered by a radome

this improvement is present for relatively short antipodal Vivaldi antennas also
(Fig. 8).
In the above figure, the basic configuration of a dielectric cover used as radome
is shown. Here, a single sheet is used for thickness t and permittivity εr. The dielec-
tric is placed flush against the array surface. The thickness of sheet and its dielectric
constant plays a major role in deciding the overall performance of the antenna array
as the covering radome can work as a reflecting agent, thus reducing the efficiency
of the overall antenna array by increasing VSWR (Fig. 9).
The above figure shows the performance of the antenna array in terms of its
VSWR while covered by radome of different dielectric constant materials. The
graph shows that as required for ideal VSWR characteristics, the value is very close
to unity when a material of εr = 3.3 is used. This analysis is done over a frequency
412 S. Mohapatra

VSWR (Broadside) for cover of different εr

3.5
3
2.5
2
VSWR

1.5
1
0.5
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Frequency in GHz

εr=3.3 εr=5 εr=6

Fig. 9  VSWR of the Vivaldi antenna array with radomes of materials of different dielectric constant

VSWR (Broadside) for cover of different

thickness with εr=3.3
4
3.5
3
2.5
VSWR

2
1.5
1
0.5
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Freqency in GHz

No Cover t=0.2 cm t=0.4 cm t=0.6cm t=0.8cm t=1.0cm

Fig. 10  VSWR for the Vivaldi antenna array with radomes of different thickness at εr = 3.3

range from 2.0 GHz to 20.0 GHz. And the improvement happens as the frequency
increases. So, the covering material is selected for εr = 3.3 (Fig. 10).
The above figure shows the performance of the array with material of εr = 3.3
with different thickness. The performance is seen to be very good for materials with
thickness varying from t = 0.5 cm to t = 1.0 cm. Anyway, for the present, designing
the material with thickness = 0.8 cm is considered to be the best (Fig. 11).
The above figure shows the performance of the antenna array with radome of
material of εr = 3.3 and thickness t = 0.8 cm, which shows that the antenna array
system behaves almost uniformly over a very wide scanning area.
Antipodal Vivaldi Antennas Arranged in Circular Array for RADAR 413

VSWR for chosen cover

6

4
VSWR

0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Frequency in GHz

Broad side 60° E-plane 60° H-plane

Fig. 11  VSWR for broadside, 60° E-plane, and 60° H-plane for array of Vivaldi antennas with
selected radome

5  Conclusion and Future Scope

In the proposed antenna system for RADARs, the simulations of phased array sys-
tem containing antipodal Vivaldi antennas arranged in a circular fashion show that
the array transmits the signal with maximum efficiency, almost constant amplitude
over wide frequency band, and very low delay dispersion over operation bandwidth.
The results are very good with respect to VSWR over a wide frequency range,
which shows that power loss is very less. It is also observed that the array while
covered by the radome of particular thickness and directivity performs better with
respect to impedance matching and better amplitude bandwidth. But the dispersion
of the group delay increases slightly.
Further, the performance of the antenna system can still be improved if the indi-
vidual active elements of the antenna system can be replaced by any other individ-
ual antenna which has high directivity.

References

1. Nilavalan, R., Craddock, I.J., Preece, A., Leendertz, J., Benjamin, R.: Wideband microstrip
patch antenna design for breast cancer tumour detection. IET Microw. Antennas Propag. 1(2),
277–281 (2007)
2. Khor, W.C., Bialkowski, M.E., Abbosh, A., Seman, N., Crozier, S.: An ultra-wideband micro-
wave imaging system for breast cancer tumour detection. IET Microw. Antennas Propag. 1(2),
277–281 (2007)
3. Li, X., Hagness, S.C., Choi, M.K., van der Weide, D.W.: Numerical and experimental inves-
tigation of an ultra-wideband ridged pyramidal horn antenna with curved launching plane for
pulse radiation. IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett. 2, 259–262 (2003)
414 S. Mohapatra

4. Bruni, S., Neto, A., Marliani, F.: UWB leaky lens antenna. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag.
55(10), 2642 (2007 October)
5. Sasmita, M.: Array of Vivaldi antenna arranged in circular fashion for MTI RADAR. J. Xidian
Univ. 14(8), 685–693 (2020)
6. Turner, G.M., Christodoulou, C.: FDTD analysis of phased array antennas. IEEE Trans.
Antennas Propag. 47(4), 661–667 (1999 April)
7. Hood, A.Z., Karacolak, T., Topsakal, E.: A small antipodal vivaldi antenna for ultrawide-band
applications. IEEE Antennas Wirel. Propag. Lett. 7, 656–660 (2008)
Index

A Axially corrugated Gaussian profiled horn

Adaptive algorithms, 120 antenna, 394
Adaptive array elements, 286 fabricated design, 397, 398, 401, 402
Adaptive bacterial foraging optimization simulation design, 395, 396, 399
(ABFO), 381 Axially corrugated Gaussian profiled horn
Adaptive beamformer, 113 antenna (ACGPHA)
Analytical hierarchy process (AHP), 234 design parameters, 395, 396
Ant colony optimization (ACO), 380 Axial profiled corrugated horn antenna
Antenna, 3, 359 design parameters, 394
Antenna efficiency, 9
Antenna optimization
antenna performance, 70 B
microstrip patch antenna, 70, 71 Back-illuminated devices
parametric variations, 70 gate junction region, photogenerated hole
rectangular patch antenna, Taguchi’s density in, 363
method, 72–77, 80 Back-illuminated OPFETs
flexible antenna and implementation, photo-induced channel electron
76, 77, 79, 81–83 density in, 364
Taguchi’s optimization method, 72, 73 photo-induced depletion region electron
wireless communication, density in, 365
requirements for, 69 Bacterial foraging optimization (BFO), 380, 381
Antipodal Vivaldi antennas, 406 Bandwidth (BW) enhancement, 33, 45, 46
array of, 408–410 Bandwidth (BW) of microstrip antenna, 45
designing and characteristics, 406–408 Bandwidth (BW) optimization
with radome, array of, 411, 412 novel slotted fractal antenna, 383–386
Aperture coupled microstrip patch antenna Base station (BS), 113
(ACMPA), 10 Basic MP (BMP), 204
Array factor (AF), 273 Bat algorithm (BA), 380, 381
Artificial magnetic conductor (AMC), 180 Beamforming algorithm, 119, 120
quad-port orthogonal wideband MIMO CMA, 122, 123
antenna, 181, 182 LMS, 120, 121
Artificial neural networks (ANN), 267, 269 MD algorithm, 123, 124
Autonomous underwater vehicle MVDR, 121
(AUV), 35 RLS, 121, 122

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 415

Switzerland AG 2022
P. K. Malik et al. (eds.), Smart Antennas, EAI/Springer Innovations in
Communication and Computing, [Link]
416 Index

Beamforming networks (BFN), 115, 116 Compact dual-fed self-diplexing antenna

Beamforming technology, 114 for wireless communication
beamforming networks, 115, 116 application, 15, 16
digital beamforming method, 117 hardware realization, 17, 20
existing OSPBFN, 119 parametric analysis, 19, 21, 22
optical signal processing beamforming realization of, 16, 18
network, 117, 118 Compactness, 70, 79
phased array antenna, 114, 115 Complementary split-ring resonator
RF beamforming method, 116 (CSRR), 139
Bending Conductive glue, 321
low-profile compact EBG integrated Co-planner feed, 5
circular monopole antenna, Co-pole radiation pattern, 48
307, 308 Corrugated horn antenna, 393, 394
slot-based miniaturized textile Coverage, 406
antenna, 325 CPW feed, 224
Biconvex shape, 97 CPW-fed UWB antenna, 164
Brain storm optimization (BSO), 380, 381 CPW-fed UWB-simulated antennas, 134
Buried-gate OPFET, 364 Cross-shaped defected ground structure
(CSDGS), 234
Curved skin model, 326
C Cylindrical coordinate system (CCS), 98
CADFEKO simulator, 35
CADFEKO software, 316
Calibration equation, 347–349, 351, 353, 356 D
Cavity-backed slot antenna, 15 Data transmission, 331
CDMA-based mobile communication DC-controlled varactor-based matching
system, 125 network, 86
Channel capacity loss (CCL), 155, 156 Decision tree
four-element MIMO antenna, 174, 175 maximum arc-to-arc length, optimization
Channel estimation techniques, 197 for, 104
block type, 198, 199 Defected ground structure (DGS), 134, 234,
comb type, 199 238, 239, 248, 254
DFT-based channel estimation, 202, 203 advantages and disadvantages, 248
doubly selective channel estimation application, 248
technique, 203, 204 full-wave analysis, 248
lattice type, 200 stepwise analysis, 249
least square channel estimation, 201, 202 technique, 248
minimum mean square channel Delrin, 36
estimation, 202 Dependable oceanic communications, 35
pilot structure, 198 Device modeling, 363
pilot symbol-based channel estimation, 201 back -illuminated devices
sparse channel estimation, 204 gate junction region, 363
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD), 10 back-illuminated OPFETs
Circular disc cavity, 98, 99 photo-induced channel electron
Circular textile antenna, 303 density in, 364
Cloud services, 265 photo-induced depletion region electron
CMA algorithm, 122, 123 density in, 365
Coaxial feed, 5 drain current, 365
Cognitive radio (CR), 85 front-illuminated devices
Collimated radiation beam, 410 gate junction region, 363
Commission-measured impedance front-illuminated OPFETs
bandwidth, 134 photo-induced channel electron
Communication modules, 264 density in, 364
Index 417

photo-induced depletion region electron E-plane polarization, 108

density in, 365 E-plane radiation, 219
parameters, 366–375 Existing OSPBFN, 119
DFT-based channel estimation, 202, 203 Explosives
DGS-based fractal antenna detection of, 338, 340
dimensions, 254 wireless detection of, 338–340
fractal structure, 249–252
S11 with and without defective
ground, 253 F
Dielectric resonating antenna Fabricated antenna, 59
circular polarization and the Fabrication method, 69
revitalization of, 97 Fast Fourier transform (FFT), 360
Differential evolution (DE) technique, 381 F/B ratio, 58
Digital beamforming method, 117 Feeding techniques, 5–7
Direct coupling, 47 FEM-based high-frequency structure
Direction of arrival (DOA), 286 simulator (HFSS) software, 214
Directive gain (DG), 156, 159, 292 Fifth-generation (5G), 50, 359
four-element MIMO antenna, 172, 173 applications, 97
Doppler frequency, 199 massive MIMO-OFDM system model, 193
Doubly selective channel estimation mobile communication, 287
technique, 203, 204 mobile handset, 180
Drain current, 365 wireless communication, 163
Drain-to-source currents, 373 WLAN/WiFi applications, 165
DRLMS adaptive algorithm, 121 Finite element method (FEM), 238
Drude model, 335 Firefly algorithm (FA), 380, 381
DSP processor, 270 First generation (1G), 111
Dual-band compact transparent fractal First-null beamwidth (FNBW), 273
antenna, 213, 214 Flat skin model, 326
anechoic chamber setup, 218, 219 Folded T-type element (FTSE), 136
gain and efficiency, 220 Food security, 345
radiation characteristics, 216 Four-element MIMO antenna
structure of, 214, 215 channel capacity loss, 173–175
transparent antenna characteristics, 220 with decoupling structure, 169, 170
voltage standing wave ratios, 217 without decoupling structure, 166–168
Dual-band microstrip patch antenna, 25–26 diversity gain, 172
Dual notched band of UWB envelope correlation coefficient, 171, 172
antennas, 137–139 mean effective gain, 175, 176
Dual polarization, 153 performance comparison, 176
and multiband MIMO antennas, 153 performance metrics analysis, 170, 171
total active reflection coefficient, 173, 174
Four-element/port MIMO antenna array, 165
E Four-frequency sensor, 346, 348, 355, 356
E-field polarizations, 106 Fourth generation (4G), 111
Electromagnetically coupled feed, 6 framework, 111
Electromagnetic bandgap (EBG), 139, 316 internet networks, 23
Electromagnetic coupling theory (ECT), 138 and 5G handheld devices, 119
Electromagnetic spectrum, 332 and 5G technology, 111
Electromagnetic wave (EMW), 331 FR4, 24, 29, 31, 32, 356
Electronically steerable passive array radiators Fractal antenna, 254, 379
(ESPARs), 49, 50 Fractal structure, 249–252
Envelope correlation coefficient (ECC), 156, Front-illuminated devices
184, 292 gate junction region, photogenerated
four-element MIMO antenna, 171, 172 hole density in, 363
418 Index

Front-illuminated OPFETs J
photo-induced channel electron Jerusalem cross-based EBG array integrated
density in, 364 circular monopole antenna, 305
photo-induced depletion region electron
density in, 365
Full-wave analysis, 248 K
Keysight technologies, 75
Koch fractal geometry, 139
G Ku-band, 390
Gain
novel slotted fractal antenna, 389
Gap coupling, 47 L
Gaussian profiled corrugated horn antenna Least square channel estimation, 201, 202
design parameters, 394, 395 Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm, 272
Genetic algorithm (GA), 380 Lightning attachment procedure optimization
Global positioning system (GPS), 262, 263 (LAPO), 381, 384
Grey wolf optimization (GWO), 381 Linear antenna array, 381
Linear equation system (LES), 124
Linear regression
H remodeled circular patch, 101, 102
Half-mode SIW (HMSIW), 15 Line feeding technique, 235
Hardware realization LMS algorithm, 120, 121
self-diplexing antenna, 17, 20 Logistic regression
Harmony search (HS), 381 remodeled circular patch, 102, 103
Hausdorff measure, 250 Long-term evolution (LTE), 247
Hausdorff method, 250 Low-profile circular monopole textile antenna
Hexagonal radiator, 165 design of, 302, 303
H-field polarizations, 106 Low-profile compact EBG integrated circular
High-frequency RF bands, 359 monopole antenna
High-frequency structure simulator (HFSS), for wearable medical application, 301
16, 22, 25, 105, 234, 380 bending, 307, 308
High-gain dual-fed self-diplexing antenna, 22 design and implementation, 302
High impedance surface (HIS), 180 EBG design, 304, 305
High transmission data rates, 340 Jerusalem cross-based EBG array
H-plane polarization, 108 integrated circular monopole
H-plane radiation, 219 antenna, 305
Human body analysis low-profile circular monopole textile
slot-based miniaturized textile antenna, design of, 302, 303
antenna, 325 reflection coefficient, 307
Hydex, 37 SAR, 308–312
UWB healthcare application, 302
wideband characteristics, 302
I LTE/WWAN application-based tablet
Infrared and microwave region, 332 devices, 56
Internet of things (IoT), 213, 223 L-type slots, 135
microstrip antenna, 259, 260
in-vehicles for safety, 262, 263
sensor network antennas, 263, 264 M
smart home, 264, 265 Massive MIMO-OFDM system model,
wearable gadgets, 261 195, 196
Invasive weed optimization (IWO), 380, 381 BER Vs SNR, 206
Inverted HE-shaped microstrip patch channel estimation, 197
antenna, 26 block type, 198, 199
Index 419

comb type, 199 calibration equation and regression

DFT-based channel estimation, coefficient, 347–349, 353–356
202, 203 design and analysis of, 346, 347
doubly selective channel estimation Microstrip patch antenna, 131, 179
technique, 203, 204 antenna optimization, 70, 71
lattice type, 200 UWB antennas, 132
least square channel estimation, dual notched-band characteristics
201, 202 of, 137–139
minimum mean square channel microstrip/CPW feed, 134, 135
estimation, 202 microstrip feed, 132–134
pilot structure, 198 single notched band characteristics of,
pilot symbol-based channel 135, 136
estimation, 201 triple/quadra/quintuple notched-band
sparse channel estimation, 204 characteristics of, 139, 140
limitation, 205 Microwave antenna, 149
Massive MIMO system model, 194, 195 Microwave oven drying technique, 348
Matching pursuit, 204 Millimeter-wave communications, 179
MATLAB, 367 Miniaturization, 223
Maximum arc-to-arc length, optimization for Minimum mean square channel estimation
remodeled circular patch, 101 (MMSE), 202
decision tree, 104 MLP-based neuro-computational model, 270
linear regression, 101, 102 mMIMO, 193, 194
logistic regression, 102, 103 Mobile communication
naive Bayes classifier, 104 beamforming algorithm, 119, 120
polynomial regression, 103 CMA, 122, 123
Maximum directivity (MD) algorithm, comparison of, 126
123, 124 LMS, 120, 121
Mean absolute error (MAE), 105 MD algorithm, 123, 124
Mean effective gain (MEG), 185 MVDR, 121
four-element MIMO antenna, 175, 176 RLS, 121, 122
Mean squared error (MSE), 105 beamforming technology, 114
Medical local area networks (MBAN), 259 beamforming networks, 115, 116
MEMS devices, 259 digital beamforming method, 117
Mentor Graphics software package, 224 existing OSPBFN, 119
Microelectromechanical system-spatial light optical signal processing beamforming
modulation (MEMS-SLM), 119 network, 117, 118
Microstrip antenna, 3, 4, 233, 335, 336 phased array antenna, 114, 115
design and performance parameters, 4, 5 RF beamforming method, 116
directivity and gain, 7, 8 4G/5G technology, 111, 112
feeding techniques, 5–7 multiple-input multiple-output, 112, 113
radiating pattern and efficiency, 8, 9 polar coordinates, 125
return loss, 8 radiation patterns, 125
topologies, 9, 10 rectangular coordinates, 125
design parameters of, 10–12 smart antenna system, 113, 114
internet of things, 259, 260 Modified LAPO, 380, 386
in-vehicles for safety, 262, 263 Moisture content (MC), 345
sensor network antennas, 263, 264 Monarch butterfly optimization, 381
smart home, 264, 265 Monolithic microwave integrated chip
wearable gadgets, 261 (MMIC) methods, 119
Microstrip-fed patch antenna with RF Monopole antenna
switch, 48 antenna design, 37
Microstrip line antenna, 248 gain vs frequency simulation, 38, 39, 41
Microstrip moisture sensor (MMS), 345 structure, 38
420 Index

Moth flame optimization (MFO), 381 Neuro-computational model (NCM), 268, 270,
MRE, 345, 355 271, 275, 277, 278, 280
Multiband antenna, 233, 247, 254 Next-generation communication design, 49–51
Multiband laptop antenna, 56, 57 Next-generation wireless systems, 340–341
bandwidth spans, 59 Novel compact frequency and polarization
characteristics, 64 reconfigurable slot antenna, 85, 86
design configuration, 57, 58 axial ratio, 95
gain and efficiency, 63 design, 86, 87
ground length variation, 59 equations, 88, 89
maximum current distribution, 59 dimensional parameters, 89
parameters, 58 four switching states
performance analysis of antenna, 58 S11 plot for, 89
radiation pattern measurement setup, 63 VSWR, 90
reflection coefficient, 60 minimum return loss, 90
structure and parametric variation, 57 parameters, comparison of, 91
2D radiation patterns, 59, 62 radiation pattern, 91
Multiband slot microstrip antenna, 23, 24 reconfiguration, 94
design considerations, 26 switch state, axial ratio plot for, 93
existing techniques, 24–26 3D gain plot, 92
return loss, 29, 30 Novel slotted fractal antenna
structure, 26, 28 adaptive bacterial foraging
VSWR, 30, 32, 33 optimization, 381
Multilayer perceptron (MLP), 269, 270 antenna geometry, 382, 383
Multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) bacterial foraging optimization, 381
antenna, 112, 113, 149, 150, 163, bandwidth optimization, 383–386
179, 287 brain storm optimization, 381
configuration, 154 enhanced bandwidth, optimized
design, 292–295 designs in, 390
and diversity performance, 153–157, 159 gain, 389
2×2 dual-polarization and multiband genetic algorithm, 380
MIMO antennas, 153 grey wolf optimization, 381
gain and radiation efficiency, 158 LAPO, 381
2×2 UWB/super-wideband MIMO linear antenna array, 381
antennas, 150, 151 monarch butterfly optimization, 381
smart antennas, 286 moth flame optimization, 381
technology, 49 radiation pattern, 388
ultra-wideband antenna, 134 reflection coefficient, 386, 388
VSWR comparison, 158 Novel slotted fractal geometry, 379
wireless systems, 113 Novel ultra-wideband monopole
Multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT)- antenna, 233–235
based microstrip patch antenna, 10 comparative analysis, 243
MUSIC algorithm, 268 design and configuration, 235
Mutual coupling, 239 simulation and experimental aspect, 238,
MVDR algorithm, 121 239, 241, 243
UWB monopole antenna design, 236
design equation, 236–238
N
Naive Bayes classifier
maximum arc-to-arc length, O
optimization, 104 On-chip antenna, 180
Nano-fillers, 10 OPFET device, 361
Narrow bandwidth (BW), 7 OPFET model, 361, 362
N-coaxial connector, 5 device modeling, 363
Index 421

back-illuminated devices Photo-induced channel electron density

back-illuminated OPFETs, photo-­ in back-illuminated OPFETs, 364
induced channel electron in front-illuminated OPFETs, 364
density in, 364 Photo-induced depletion region
front-illuminated OPFETs, photo-­ electron density
induced channel electron back-illuminated OPFETs in, 365
density in, 364 front-illuminated OPFETs in, 365
gate junction region, 363 Physical vapor deposition (PVD), 10
back-illuminated OPFETs, photo-­ Pilot symbol-based channel estimation, 201
induced depletion region electron Planar antennas, 56
density in, 365 Planar multiband smart antenna
drain current, 365 for wireless communication
front-illuminated devices applications, 285–287
gate junction region, 363 design, 288, 289
front-illuminated OPFETs, photo-­ design, progression of, 288, 289
induced depletion region electron other MIMO antennas, 295, 296
density in, 365 radiating element performance, 290
parameters, 366–375 radiation efficiency, 292
Optical beamformers, 126 radiation pattern, 291
Optical control, 360 rectangular cut and slot, 289, 290
Optical equivalent carrier, 118 return loss value, 291
Optical signal processing (OSP), 117 S-parameter values, 292
Optical signal processing beamforming Polarization diversity, 134
network (OSPBFN), 117, 118 Polarization reconfiguration, 49
Optimization technique, 380 Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), 37
Orthogonal array, 70, 72, 77 Polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG), 37
Polynomial regression, 103
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 37
P Printed circuit board (PCB), 3
Parasitic antennas, 43–45
next-generation communication design and
passive radiator, 49–51 Q
performance enhancement Quad-band antenna, 290
arrays with steerable radiation Quad-band flat-plate antenna, 63
pattern, 46, 47 Quad-port orthogonal wideband
bandwidth enhancement, 45, 46 MIMO antenna
parasitic element-based reconfigurable AMC design structure, 181, 182
antenna, 48, 49 MEG, 185
Parasitic block-based microstrip antennas, 45 radiation efficiency, 186, 188
Parasitic coupling for broad BW, 47 simulations and analysis, 183–187
Parasitic element-based microstrip antenna specific absorption rate analysis, 186,
design, 51 187, 189
Parasitic element-based reconfigurable Quality of service (QoS), 285
antenna, 48, 49 Quasi-Yagi and stacked series planar antenna
Particle swarm optimization (PSO), 380 array, 180
Particle swarm optimization method
(PSOM), 135
Patch metallization, 99 R
Patch resonator, 58 RADAR, 233, 405, 413
Perturbed circular patch, 97 Radiating patch, 138
Phased array antenna (PAA), 114, 115 Radiation, 25, 43
Phased beam system, 267 novel slotted fractal antenna, 388
Photodetectors, 360 parasitic antennas, 46, 47
422 Index

Radio frequency (RF), 56 Rice, 348, 354

Radome RLS algorithm, 121, 122
array, antipodal Vivaldi antenna Root mean squared error (RMSE), 105
with, 410–412
RCS (RADAR cross-section), 132, 134
Reconfigurability, 86 S
Reconfigurable intelligent surface SAR value, 324
(RIS), 49, 51 Satellite communications, 394
Reconfiguration, 86 S-band, 396
Rectangular microstrip patch antenna, 5 Scaling “δ scale measure” technique, 250
Rectangular patch antenna, 70 Second-generation wireless mobile
Taguchi’s method for, 72–74, 76 infrastructure, 111
flexible antenna and implementation, Self-decoupled MIMO, 164
76, 77, 79, 81–83 Self-diplexer antenna, 15
minimum fitness function and Self-healing algorithms, 285
maximum S/N ratio, 77, 80 Self-similarity, 164
simulated and fabricated Sensor network antennas, 263, 264
antenna, 75, 79 Side lobe level (SLL), 381
width of feed, 75 Signal-to-noise ratio, 77
width of patch, 75 Silver nanoparticles, 10
width of slot, 75 Simple 2X2 wideband U-slot patch antenna
Reflection coefficient, 354 array, 180
low-profile compact EBG integrated Simple coaxial feed microstrip antenna, 46
circular monopole antenna, Simple microstrip patch antenna, 44
306, 307 Single-input and single-output (SISO)
novel slotted fractal antenna, 386, 388 systems, 112
Reflector antenna, 393 Single notched band of UWB antennas,
Reflector element, 44 135, 136
Regression coefficient, 347–349, 353–356 SIW-based self-triplexer antenna, 15
Remodeled circular patch, 97 SIW cavity-backed antenna, 317
E-plane polarization, 108 6G, 359
28 GHz application, 107 60 GHz frequency, 179, 181, 186
H-plane polarization, 108 Slot and slit geometry method, 323
mathematical analysis of Slot antenna, 25
circular disc cavity, 98, 99 Slot-based miniaturized textile antenna
proposed design and boundary for wearable application, 315
conditions, geometry of, 99 bending, 316
resonance frequency, 100, 101 bending and human body
wave equation, solution of, 100 analysis, 325–328
maximum arc-to-arc length, optimization design procedure, 319–323
for, 101 electromagnetic bandgap (EBG)
decision tree, 104 array, 316
linear regression, 101, 102 literature survey, 316
logistic regression, 102, 103 parametric analysis and variations,
naive Bayes classifier, 104 327, 329
polynomial regression, 103 performance analysis, 324, 325
performance evaluation, 102, 105, 106 single-band two-mode wearable
S-parameter, 106 antenna design, 317
Remote health care, 261 textile material investigation, 318, 319
Resonance frequency, 100, 101 Smart antenna system, 113, 114, 267
Return loss adaptive beamforming systems, analytical
microstrip antenna, 8 techniques of, 268
multiband slot microstrip antenna, 29, 30 ANNs, 269
RF beamforming method, 116 beamwidth, 274, 280
Index 423

four-element dual-polarized STPA, 269 Tapered circular CPW-fed wideband fractal

gain, 274 patch antenna, 223, 224
neuro-computational model, 275, 277, dimensions, 225, 226
278, 280 geometry construction, stages of, 225
side lobes, 269 Mentor Graphics software package, 224
system design, 269–273 S-parameters, 226
variable-step-size normalized least mean S11-parameters, 226
square algorithm, 268 Tecaform, 37
Smart devices, 213, 214 Terahertz antenna technology, 331, 332
Smart home, 264, 265 design and testing challenges, 340
Smooth curved hexagonal-shaped four-­ and design calculations, 336, 337
element MIMO antenna, 164 explosives and weapons, wireless detection
channel capacity loss, 173–175 of, 338–340
with decoupling structure, 169, 170 terahertz frequencies
without decoupling structure, 166–168 applications of, 333, 334
development, 165, 166 detectors of, 333
diversity gain, 172 sources of, 333
envelope correlation coefficient, 171, 172 terahertz radiation, material properties at,
mean effective gain, 175, 176 334, 335
performance comparison, 176 types of, 335
performance metrics analysis, 170, 171 microstrip antennas, 335, 336
total active reflection coefficient, 173, 174 Terahertz electromagnetic wave, 331
Spacecraft interface association, 36 Terahertz frequencies
Space division multiple access (SDMA) applications of, 333, 334
technology, 359 detectors of, 333
S-parameters, 106, 156, 183 sources of, 333
Sparse channel estimation, 204 Terahertz radiation
Spatial diversity (SD), 113 material properties at, 334, 335
Spatial multiplexing(SM), 113 Terahertz waves (T-waves), 331
Specific absorption rate (SAR), 69, 132, Textile polyester material, 76
180, 326 Third-generation system, 111
low-profile compact EBG integrated Time division multiple access (TDMA), 359
circular monopole antenna, 308, Total active reflection coefficient (TARC),
309, 312 156, 157, 184
quad-port orthogonal wideband MIMO four-element MIMO antenna, 173, 174
antenna, 186, 187, 189 Tree-shaped quad-element MIMO, 164
Sub-miniature version (SMA) connector, 321 Triple/quadra/quintuple notched-band
Substrate integrated waveguide (SIW), of UWB antennas, 139, 140
316, 323 Tunable self-diplexing patch antenna, 15
Surface-gate OPFET, 364 2D radiation patterns, 59, 62
Surface-mountable antenna, 58
Switched beam system, 267
Switched beamforming, 113 U
Switched parasitic array (SPAs), 49 ULTEM, 37
Switch parasitic antenna (SPA), 45 Ultrathin inverted E-shaped novel antenna, 56
Ultra-wideband (UWB), 164
Ultra-wideband (UWB) communication, 302
T Underwater communication
Taguchi’s optimization method, 70, 72, 73 antenna encapsulating materials, 37
rectangular patch antenna monopole antenna
flexible antenna and implementation, antenna design, 37
76, 77, 79, 81–83 gain vs. frequency simulation,
rectangular patch antenna, 38, 39, 41
implementations, 72–77, 80 structure, 38
424 Index

Unidirectional dual-layer microstrip patch textile material investigation, 318, 319

antenna, 7–8 Wearable body area network (WBAN), 261
Uniplanar eight-band antenna, 56 Wearable gadgets
UWB antenna, 132, 138 for remote health care, 261
dual notched-band characteristics Wearable medical application
of, 137–139 low-profile compact EBG integrated
microstrip/CPW feed, 134, 135 circular monopole antenna for, 301
microstrip feed, 132–134 bending, 307, 308
single notched band characteristics of, design and implementation, 302
135, 136 EBG design, 304, 305
triple/quadra/quintuple notched-band Jerusalem cross-based EBG array
characteristics of, 139, 140 integrated circular monopole
UWB healthcare applications, 310 antenna, 305
UWB MIMO antenna, 165 low-profile circular monopole textile
UWB monopole antenna, 233 antenna, design of, 302, 303
novel ultra-wideband monopole antenna, 236 reflection coefficient, 307
design equation, 236–238 SAR, 308–312
UWB/super-wideband MIMO antennas, UWB healthcare application, 302
150, 151 wideband characteristics, 302
UWB technology, 131 Wideband antenna, 24
Wi-Fi, 233, 243
WiMAX, 25, 55, 380
V Wireless body area networks (WBAN),
Variable step-size LMS (VS-LMS), 120–121 301, 315
Variable step-size normalized LMS Wireless communication, 23, 69
(VS-NLMS), 121, 268 compact dual-fed self-diplexing antenna
Variable step-size sign LMS (VS-SLMS), 121 for, 15, 16
Voltage standing wave ratios (VSWR), 26, 33, hardware realization, 17, 20
46, 216, 411, 413 parametric analysis, 19, 21, 22
multiband slot microstrip antenna, realization of, 16, 18
30, 32, 33 planar multiband smart antenna
for, 285–287
design, progression of, 288, 289
W radiating element performance, 290
Wave equation, solution of, 100 radiation efficiency, 292
Wearable application radiation pattern, 291
slot-based miniaturized textile antenna rectangular cut and slot, 289, 290
for, 315 return loss value, 291
bending, 316 S-parameter values, 292
bending and human body Wireless communication systems, 15, 55, 267
analysis, 325–328 WLAN, 55
design procedure, 319–323 WLAN/WiMAX/5G applications, 177
electromagnetic bandgap (EBG)
array, 316
literature survey, 316 X
parametric analysis and variations, X-band, 390
327, 329
performance analysis, 324, 325
single-band two-mode wearable Y
antenna design, 317 Yagi-Uda antenna, 44, 381