SHAKESPEAREAN SONNETS

Shakespeare's Sonnets
Shakespeare’s Sonnets are often breath-taking, sometimes disturbing and sometimes puzzling and elusive in their
meanings. As sonnets, their main concern is ‘love’, but they also reflect upon time, change, aging, lust, absence,
infidelity and the problematic gap between ideal and reality when it comes to the person you love. Even after 400
years, ‘what are Shakespeare’s sonnets about?’ and ‘how are we to read them?’ are still central and unresolved questions.
The ‘Fair Youth’ sonnets
Sonnets 1 to 126 seem to be addressed to a young man, socially superior to the speaker. The first 17 sonnets
encourage this youth to marry and father children, because otherwise ‘[t]hy end is truth’s and beauty’s doom and date’
(Sonnet 14) – that is, his beauty will die with him. After this, the sonnets diversify in their subjects. Some erotically celebrate
the ‘master mistress of my passion’ (Sonnet 20), while others reflect upon the ‘lovely boy’ (Sonnet 126) as a cause of
anguish, as the speaker desperately wishes for his behavior to be different to the cruelty that it sometimes is. ‘For if you
were by my unkindness shaken, / As I by yours’, laments the speaker of Sonnet 120, ‘you have passed a hell of time’.
The ‘Dark Lady’ sonnets
Sonnets 127 to 152 seem to be addressed to a woman, the so-called ‘Dark Lady’ of Shakespearean legend.
This woman is elusive, often tyrannous, and causes the speaker great pain and shame. Many of these sonnets reflect on the
paradox of the ‘fair’ lady’s ‘dark’ complexion. As Sonnet 127 punningly puts it, ‘black was not counted fair’ in
Shakespeare’s era, which favored fair hair and light complexions. This woman’s eyes and hair are ‘raven black’ – and yet
the speaker finds her most alluring. The two final sonnets (Sonnets 153 and 154) focus on the classical god Cupid, and
playfully detail desire and longing. They do not seem to directly relate to the rest of the collection.
Shakespearean sonnets
Shakespeare’s sonnets are composed of 14 lines, and most are divided into three quatrains and a final,
concluding couplet, rhyming abab cdcd efef gg. This sonnet form and rhyme scheme is known as the ‘English’ sonnet. It
first appeared in the poetry of Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1516/17–1547), who translated Italian sonnets into English
as well as composing his own. Many later Renaissance English writers used this sonnet form, and Shakespeare did so
particularly inventively. His sonnets vary its configurations and effects repeatedly. Shakespearean sonnets use the alternate
rhymes of each quatrain to create powerful oppositions between different lines and different sections, or to develop a sense
of progression across the poem. The final couplet can either provide a decisive, epigrammatic conclusion to the narrative or
argument of the rest of the sonnet, or subvert it. Sonnet 130, for example, builds up a paradoxical picture of the speaker’s
mistress as defective in all the conventional standards of beauty, but the final couplet remarks that, though all this is true,
Sonnet 18
Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?
Thou art more lovely and more temperate:
Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,
And summer’s lease hath all too short a date:
Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,
And often is his gold complexion dimm’d;
And every fair from fair sometime declines,
By chance or nature’s changing course untrimm’d;
But thy eternal summer shall not fade
Nor lose possession of that fair thou owest;
Nor shall Death brag thou wander’st in his shade,
When in eternal lines to time thou growest:
So long as men can breathe or eyes can see,
So long lives this and this gives life to thee.
Translation
Shall I compare you to a summer’s day?
You are lovelier and more moderate:
Harsh winds disturb the delicate buds of May,
and summer doesn’t last long enough.
Sometimes the sun is too hot, and its golden face is often dimmed by clouds.
All beautiful things eventually become less beautiful,
either by the experiences of life or by the passing of time.
But your eternal beauty won’t fade, nor lose any of its quality.
And you will never die, as you will live on in my enduring poetry.
As long as there are people still alive to read poems this sonnet will live,
and you will live in it.

Sonnet 18 – by William Shakespeare

Meaning: "Sonnet 18" is perhaps the best known of all of Shakespeare's 154 sonnets, primarily due to the opening
line, "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day," which every true romantic knows by heart. William Shakespeare's sonnets
are world-renowned and are said to have been written for a "fair youth" (1–126) and a "dark lady" (127–54), but no one is
totally certain for whom they were penned, as they include no definite names and no written evidence. Shakespeare may
have been well known in his lifetime, but he was also very good at keeping secrets. The sonnets were first published in
1609, seven years before the Bard's death, and their remarkable quality has kept them in the public eye ever since. Their
depth and range set Shakespeare apart from all other sonneteers.
"Sonnet 18" focuses on the loveliness of a friend or lover, with the speaker initially asking a rhetorical
question about comparing their subject to a summer's day. He then goes on to introduce the pros and cons of the weather,
mentioning both an idyllic English summer's day and the less-welcome dim sun and rough winds of autumn. In the end, it
is insinuated this very piece of poetry will keep the lover—the poem’s subject—alive forever and allow them to defy even
death. (male addressee)\
Line by Line:
Line 1: is almost a tease, reflecting the speaker's uncertainty as he attempts to compare his lover to a summer's day.
The rhetorical question is posed for both speaker and reader, and even the metrical stance of this first line is open to
conjecture. This image of the perfect English summer's day is then surpassed as the second line reveals that the lover is
lovelier and more temperate. Lovely is still quite commonly used in England and carries the same meaning then as it does
now (attractive, nice, and beautiful), while temperate, in Shakespeare's time, meant gentle-natured, restrained, and moderate
and composed.
Line 2: refers directly to the lover with the use of the second-person pronoun Thou, which is now archaic
Lines 3–8: concentrate on the ups and downs of the weather and are distanced, taken along on a steady iambic
rhythm (except for line five as discussed later). Summertime in England is a hit-and-miss affair weather-wise. Winds blow,
rainclouds gather and before you know where you are, summer has come and gone in a week. The season seems all too
short—that's as true today as it was in Shakespeare's time—and people tend to moan when it's too hot and grumble when
it's overcast. The speaker is suggesting that for most people, summer will pass all too quickly, and they will grow old, as is
natural, their beauty fading with the passing of the season.
Lines 9–12: turn the argument for aging on its head. The speaker states with a renewed assurance that "thy eternal
summer shall not fade" and that his lover shall stay fair and even cheat death and time by becoming eternal.
Lines 13 and 14: reinforce the idea that the speaker's (poet's) poem will guarantee that the lover remains young, the
written word becoming their breath and vital energy and ensuring their life continues.

SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMAS
 Shakespeare wrote 37 plays in about 24 years. His plays were written for performance.
 His dramas can be divided into histories, tragedies and comedies.
 His play Hamlet is considered to be the epitome of the Renaissance in which the protagonist achieves his perfection
only after death.
 As the dramatist of the Renaissance Age, Shakespearean plays focus on the man, exploring his weaknesses,
depravities, flows etc.
 All the characters ranging from soldiers to king speak English.
 His plays have been divided into five acts. However, the division was imposed on the Shakespearean play by
Nicholas Rowe; one of the first editors of Shakespeare.
 Most of the Shakespearean plays are problem plays in which the playwright do not provide any solutions and
audience are supposed to decide.
 His final plays move against the wave of Jacobean Theatre that focused on blood tragedy and social comedy.
ROMEO AND JULIET
Romeo and Juliet Summary
(SHORT) An age-old vendetta between two powerful families erupts into bloodshed. A group of masked Montagues
risk further conflict by gatecrashing a Capulet party. A young lovesick Romeo Montague falls instantly in love with Juliet
Capulet, who is due to marry her father’s choice, the County Paris. With the help of Juliet’s nurse, the women arrange for
the couple to marry the next day, but Romeo’s attempt to halt a street fight leads to the death of Juliet’s own cousin, Tybalt,
for which Romeo is banished. In a desperate attempt to be reunited with Romeo, Juliet follows the Friar’s plot and fakes
her own death. The message fails to reach Romeo, and believing Juliet dead, he takes his life in her tomb. Juliet wakes to
find Romeo’s corpse beside her and kills herself. The grieving family agree to end their feud.
(MAIN SUMMARY) Romeo and Juliet begins as the Chorus introduces two feuding families of Verona: the Capulets
and the Montagues. On a hot summer's day, the young men of each faction fight until the Prince of Verona intercedes and
threatens to banish them. Soon after, the head of the Capulet family plans a feast. His goal is to introduce his daughter Juliet
to a Count named Paris who seeks to marry Juliet.
Montague's son Romeo and his friends (Benvolio and Mercutio) hear of the party and resolve to go in disguise.
Romeo hopes to see his beloved Rosaline at the party. Instead, while there, he meets Juliet and falls instantly in love with
her. Juliet's cousin Tybalt recognises the Montague boys and forces them to leave just as Romeo and Juliet discover one
another.
Romeo lingers near the Capulet house to talk with Juliet when she appears in her window. The pair declare their
love for one another and intend to marry the next day. With the help of Juliet's Nurse, the lovers arrange to marry when
Juliet goes for confession at the cell of Friar Laurence. There, they are secretly married (talk about a short engagement).
Following the secret marriage, Juliet's cousin Tybalt sends a challenge to Romeo. Romeo refuses to fight, which
angers his friend Mercutio who then fights with Tybalt. Mercutio is accidentally killed as Romeo intervenes to stop the
fight. In anger, Romeo pursues Tybalt, kills him, and is banished by the Prince.
Juliet is anxious when Romeo is late to meet her and learns of the brawl, Tybalt's death, and Romeo's banishment.
Friar Laurence arranges for Romeo to spend the night with Juliet before he leaves for Mantua. Meanwhile, the Capulet
family grieves for Tybalt, so Lord Capulet moves Juliet's marriage to Paris to the next day. Juliet’s parents are angry when
Juliet doesn't want to marry Paris, but they don't know about her secret marriage to Romeo.
Friar Laurence helps Juliet by providing a sleeping draught that will make her seem dead. When the wedding party
arrives to greet Juliet the next day, they believe she is dead. The Friar sends a messenger to warn Romeo of Juliet's plan and
bids him to come to the Capulet family monument to rescue his sleeping wife.
The vital message to Romeo doesn't arrive in time because the plague is in town (so the messenger cannot leave
Verona). Hearing from his servant that Juliet is dead, Romeo buys poison from an Apothecary in Mantua. He returns to
Verona and goes to the tomb where he surprises and kills the mourning Paris. Romeo takes his poison and dies, while Juliet
awakens from her drugged coma. She learns what has happened from Friar Laurence, but she refuses to leave the tomb and
stabs herself. The Friar returns with the Prince, the Capulets, and Romeo's lately widowed father. The deaths of their children
lead the families to make peace, and they promise to erect a monument in Romeo and Juliet's memory.
CHARACTERS
Romeo. Romeo is the teenage son of the Montague family, who are busy feuding with the Capulets. In the beginning,
Romeo is brooding over his unrequited love for Rosaline. When he sees Juliet at a party, Romeo instantly falls in love with
her instead. They impulsively decide to marry the next day. Romeo initially refuses to fight Juliet’s cousin Tybalt; but when
Tybalt kills Mercutio, Romeo avenges his friend’s death and kills him. He is banished as a result. Later, believing Juliet to
be dead, he kills the mourning Paris, drinks poison and dies.
Juliet. Juliet Capulet, on the cusp of 14 years old, falls in love with Romeo, the son of her family’s enemy. She subsequently
proposes marriage. With the help of Nurse, her guardian, they are secretly married. However, in the wake of Tybalt’s death
(and ignorant of her marriage to Romeo) Lord Capulet arranges for Juliet to marry Count Paris the next day. Cut off from
all support except for that of Friar Laurence, she takes a sleeping draught to fake her own death, hoping to reunite with
Romeo. When she wakes to find him dead beside her, she stabs herself.
Friar Laurence. Friar Laurence is a Franciscan friar and a mentor to Romeo and Juliet. He secretly marries them, hoping
to broker peace between the two families. The Friar later arranges for a banished Romeo to spend the night with Juliet before
he leaves. He prepares a potion for Juliet in order to fake her death, avoid marriage to Paris, and reunite with Romeo, but
his warning message to Romeo never reaches him. When Juliet finds Romeo dead, the Friar fruitlessly tries to convince her
to leave the tomb. He is initially suspected of her murder but soon freed.
The Nurse. The widowed Nurse is a loyal companion to Juliet, having cared for her since she was a baby. Her long-winded
stories, raunchy comments, and distaste for men generally serve as comic relief throughout the play. She helps to arrange
Juliet and Romeo’s secret marriage and often acts as an intermediary between them. The Nurse tries to stand up for Juliet
when her family cuts her off; however she later advises Juliet to marry Count Paris—which is ultimately the cause of the
falling out between the two. She deeply grieves over Juliet’s death.
Mercutio. Mercutio is a relative of the Prince of Verona and a close friend to Romeo. His volatile nature, quick wit, and
saucy wordplay serve as comic relief throughout the play. At the beginning of the play, he attends the Capulets’ party with
Romeo and Benvolio. When Tybalt challenges Romeo and the latter refuses to fight back, Mercutio immediately attacks
Tybalt. Finally, when Romeo tries to intervene, Mercutio is wounded and dies after cursing both families for their futile
feuding. His death is a catalyst for the tragedies that follow.
Tybalt. Tybalt is the nephew of Lady Capulet and Juliet’s cousin. The Nurse also considers him her best friend. Hot-headed
and proud, Tybalt is always a troublemaker. Mercutio mockingly calls him 'the prince of cats'! Discovering the Montague
boys at the Capulets’ party, he is eager to fight but is restrained by Lord Capulet. He later formally challenges Romeo, but
Romeo refuses to fight. Mercutio fights Tybalt instead and is mortally wounded. Tybalt escapes the scene pursued by a
vengeful Romeo and is slayed by his hand. His death is the cause of Romeo’s banishment.
Romeo and Juliet Minor  Abram  Servant
Characters  Balthasar  Servingmen
 Escalus, Prince of Capulets Other
Verona  Capulet  Friar John
 Paris  Lady Capulet  The Apothecary
 Page  Follower  Fiddler and Musician's
Montagues  Cousin Capulet  The Watch
 Montague  Peter  Citizens
 Lady Montague  Sampson  The Chorus
 Benvolio  Gregory

Troilus and Cressida

Troilus and Cressida Summary
Trojan prince Troilus falls in love with Cressida, as war rages around them. After vowing to be faithful, Cressida
is traded to the Greek camp, where she then agrees to see another man. Troilus witnesses Cressida's unfaithfulness and
vows to put more effort into the war. The play ends after further deaths on both sides, and with no resolution in sight.
Troilus, the youngest son of Trojan king Priam, is in love with Cressida, the niece of Pandarus, through
whom he is hoping to arrange a meeting. While Cressida watches the nobles and soldiers pass by, Pandarus draws
her attention to Troilus, and she is attracted to him. Pandarus begins to liaise between the two.
The Greek commander Agamemnon discusses the unsatisfactory military situation with Ulysses, Nestor
and other leaders, noting especially the way Achilles has become proud and temperamental, along with Ajax,
who spends time exchanging insults with Thersites, a hanger-on at the camp and observer of events. Aeneas
arrives with a challenge from Hector to fight any Greek in single combat. They recognize that the challenge is
aimed at Achilles, but they put Ajax forward as their champion. Agamemnon and the other lords visit Achilles’
tent, but Achilles refuses to speak to them. The lords heap praises on Ajax instead.
The Trojans consider the conditions of a Greek proposal for peace, which involves the return of Helen,
whose abduction began the war. They reject the proposal, ignoring Cassandra’s prophecies of doom. Pandarus
visits Paris to ask him to present Troilus’ apologies if Priam should ask for him at supper. Paris and Helen suspect
a liaison between Troilus and Cressida, though Pandarus denies it. He then brings Cressida to a secret meeting
with Troilus, and they declare their mutual love, promising fidelity.
Calchas, Cressida’s father, visits Agamemnon, and persuades him to release Antenor, recently taken
prisoner, in exchange for Cressida. Agamemnon and the other lords treat Achilles with disdain as they pass him
standing at the entrance to his tent. Ulysses explains their attitude, and makes Achilles see that his reputation is
at stake. Achilles invites the Trojans to his tent after the combat next day.
Diomedes is sent to conduct Cressida to Troy. Aeneas arrives at Cressida’s house with the news, where
Troilus has spent the night. Accepting the inevitable, Troilus delivers her to Diomedes, after they exchange tokens
and promise to be faithful. Cressida arrives at the Greek camp, where she is warmly welcomed.
Hector and Ajax fight, but agree a draw, and Ajax invites the Trojan lords to the Greek tents.
When Achilles and Hector meet, they insult each other, promising to fight next day. Troilus asks Ulysses
to take him to Calchas’ tent, where Cressida is staying. They observe Cressida’s meeting with Diomedes, and see
her become increasingly drawn to him, then giving him Troilus’ token. Troilus is enraged.
The next day, Hector prepares to fight, disregarding warnings from Andromache, Cassandra, and Priam.
Troilus goes to the battle with the intention of killing Diomedes, but fails. Hector kills Patroclus. Achilles and his
Myrmidons find Hector resting, and kill him. Troilus reports Hector’s fall, and responds to an approach from
Pandarus with an abrupt dismissal. Pandarus reflects gloomily on the way he has been treated, and curses the
audience.
CHARACTERS
The Trojans
Priam: King of Troy. Margarelon: A bastard son of King Priam.
Hector: Son of King Priam and brother of Troilus, Aeneas: A Trojan commander and friend of Troilus.
Paris, Deiphobus, Helenus, and Cassandra. Antenor: Another Trojan commander.
Troilus: The youngest son of King Priam and brother Calchas: A Trojan priest and father of Cressida.
of Hector, Paris, Deiphobus, Helenus, and Pandarus: Cressida’s uncle.
Cassandra. Alexander: A servant of Cressida.
Paris: The son of King Priam and brother of Hector, Andromache: The wife of Hector.
Troilus, Deiphobus, Helenus, and Cassandra. Cassandra: The daughter of King Priam and sister
Deiphobus: The son of King Priam and brother of of Hector, Troilus, Paris, Deiphobus, and Helenus,
Hector, Troilus, Paris, Helenus, and Cassandra, Cassandra is a prophetess.
Deiphobus. Cressida: Daughter of Calchus and niece of
Helenus: The son of King Priam and brother of Pandarus.
Hector, Troilus, Paris, Deiphobus, and Cassandra.
The Greeks
Agamemnon: Commander-in-chief of the Grecian
forces and brother of Menelaus.
Menelaus: Brother of Agamemnon and husband of
Helen.
Achilles: A Grecian commander.
Ajax: A Grecian champion.
Ulysses: A Grecian commander.
Nestor: A Grecian commander.
Diomedes: A Grecian commander.
Patroclus: A Grecian commander.
Thersites: An officer in the Greek camp.
The Myrmidons: Ruthless subjects of Achilles.
Helen: Wife of Menelaus.