PACKAGE OF PRACTICES

RECOMMENDATIONS :
CROPS 2016

15th edition

Chief Editor
S. ESTELITTA
Editors
BINOO P. BONNY, S. HELEN,
A. SUMA

DIRECTORATE OF EXTENSION
KERALA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
THRISSUR – 680 651, KERALA, INDIA
English
Package of Practices Recommendations : Crops 2016
First published 1973
Second edition 1974
Third edition 1975
Fourth edition 1976
Fifth edition 1978
Sixth edition 1981
Seventh edition 1983
Eighth edition 1986
Ninth edition 1989
Tenth edition 1993
Eleventh edition 1996
Twelfth edition 2002
Twelfth edition (Reprint) 2003
Thirteenth edition 2007
Thirteenth edition (Reprint) 2008
Fourteenth edition 2011
Fifteenth edition 2016
Fifteenth edition (Reprint) 2017
November 2017
Copies: 1000
January 2018
Copies: 1000

Price: 300/-
Technical guidance
Dr. P. V. Balachandran
Dr. P. B. Pushpalatha
Former Directors of Extension
Published by :
Dr. Jiju P. Alex
Director of Extension
Kerala Agricultural University
Mannuthy, Thrissur – 680 651, India
© Kerala Agricultural University 2016
All Rights Reserved
Cover :
Sri. M. A. Vasudevan
Type set :
Smt. C. B. Deepa
Printed at :
KAU Press, Mannuthy – 680 651
Citation :
Kerala Agricultural University 2016. Package of Practices Recommendations : Crops
15th edition. Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur - 392 p.
Internet edition : www.kau.in
KAUP 262/1000/01/2019
FOREWORD
The Package of Practices: Crops (PoP), published by the
Kerala Agricultural University is widely revered as the most
authentic guide of farmers, scientists, extension officers in line
departments, non-govermental organisations and all other
stakeholders in the field of Agriculture.

This new version of PoP sports not only a fresh look but has
also been substantially updated to cover the latest technologies
and developments. I hope the package of knowledge and
expertise reflected in this compendium will help to enhance the
productivity of our crops and aid to realise the goals of food
security, safety and nutritional security.

Bringing out this voluminous edition, the hallmark of which

is authenticity than popularity, needs great perseverance and
patience. I take this opportunity to congratulate one and all who
have toiled behind this attractive edition of PoP.

I dedicate this repository of valuable information and

recommendations to the farming community of Kerala.

30th June 2016 Prof. (Dr.) P. Rajendran

Vellanikkara Vice-Chancellor
PREFACE

Technology intensive farming that ensure high productivity without

deteriorating the environment is the challenge of the day. Kerala Agricultural
University remains commited to this cause through technology generation and
transfer programmes. In these programmes sustainable food production that
ensure livelihood security of farmers and food safety of society remain the
prime concerns. These commitments are reiterated in the 15th edition of the
Package of Practices Recommendations : Crops 2016 also.
All efforts are made to maintain the long standing credentials of the
publication by including crops suitable for the diverse agro climatic regions of
Kerala. All technical aspects of farming that include high yielding varieties of
crops, use of bioinputs, small farm mechanization, waste management,
precision farming and introduction of under-exploited fruits, vegetables, tubers
and medicinal plants find a place in this. The generated technologies were
presented, deliberated and finalized in a series of workshops attended by
scientists, extension officers, farmers and input dealers.
I am honoured to publish this much appreciated reference document on
the agricultural technological developments of the State. I am sure it will serve
as a guide to the extension personnel and farming community in the
furtherance of agriculture in our state. My appreciation goes to all the
researchers, administrators, extension personnel, farmers and other staff
members who have contributed their expertise, time and energy to bring out
this valuable document. Special thanks are also due to the Directors of ICAR
institutes in Kerala, Chairpersons of all Commodity Boards who contributed in
making this publication worthy. Technical support of Dr. D. Ambikadevi
Professor, RARS, Kumarakom and Dr. Joy M. Associate Professor COA, Vellayani
also deserves special mention.
I wish this edition of the Package of Practices Recommendations: Crops
2016 will be a driving force for the scientific transformation of Kerala’s farming
sector.

30th June 2016 Dr. S. Estelitta

Mannuthy Director of Extension
INTRODUCTION

It is with immense pleasure that I look forward to the release of the

Package of Practices Recommendation : Crops 2016. This is the culmination
of painstaking efforts of research leading to standardization of agro
techniques, proven management of pests and diseases with emphasis on
‘safe to eat food’. These technolgies emanating from actual field experiments,
committed efforts of several scientists, vetting at various levels, interaction
and presentation before eminent scientists of SAU and ICAR, officers of
department of agriculture /development department and commodity boards
had reached its final approval at the POP workshop.
This release of the POP recommendation is the final lap of a relay of
various activities so that this reliable guide for all persons engaged in
agriculture finds meaning and relevance. Besides serving as a ready reckoner
for farmers, field officers and students, this POP is presented in the most
simple understandable form that it is totally farmer centric and the same
can be understood by anyone.
I will be failing in my duties if I do not place on record the tremendous
service rendered by our scientists who have contributed to this final
outcome. My colleagues in the Directorate of Research, Dr. Jim Thomas,
Dr. V. S. Devadas, Dr. Pathummal Beevi and Dr. Sally K. Mathew of the College
of Horticulture have put in strenuous efforts and need to be acknowledged.
Total coverage of all cultivation aspects and problems of crops grown
in the state have been our focus. I hope this objective has been served. But
agriculture being so dynamic can never be complete and the Directorate of
Research welcomes all constructive criticism in the best interest of all
stakeholders and farmers in particular.

30th June 2016 Dr. Sajan Kurien

Vellanikkara Director of Research
CONTENTS
Page Page
Cereals and Millets Vegetables
Rice .. 1 Amaranth .. 183
Maize .. 42 Okra .. 184
Sorghum .. 42 Cucurbitaceous vegetables
Ragi .. 43
Bitter gourd .. 186
Pulses Snake gourd .. 187
Black gram .. 44 Cucumber and oriental pickling melon .. 188
Cowpea .. 44 Water melon .. 189
French bean .. 48 Bottle gourd .. 190
Green gram .. 49 Pumpkin .. 190
Green pea .. 49 Ash gourd .. 191
Horse gram .. 50 Solanaceous vegetables
Red gram .. 50
Soybean .. 51 Brinjal .. 192
Chilli .. 193
Tubers Tomato .. 194
Elephant Foot Yam .. 53 Vegetable cowpea .. 195
Xanthosoma .. 54 Cool season vegetables
Colocasia .. 56 Cabbage .. 196
Greater yam .. 57
Cauliflower .. 196
Lesser yam .. 58
Carrot .. 197
White yam .. 59
Beet root .. 198
Sweet potato .. 59
Tapioca .. 62 Radish .. 198
Potato .. 199
Coleus .. 67
Onion .. 199
Commercial crops Garlic .. 200
Cashew .. 68 Minor vegetables .. 201
Cotton .. 80 Tips for vegetable seed production .. 203
Rubber .. 81 Guidelines for Homestead cultivation of
Sugarcane .. 93 Vegetables in Rain shelters .. 207
Oil seeds Fruits
Coconut .. 96 Banana .. 208
Groundnut .. 112 Guava .. 215
Oilpalm .. 113 Indian gooseberry .. 216
Sesame .. 116 Jack .. 216
Spices and Condiments Mandarin orange .. 218
Cardamom .. 118 Mango .. 219
Cinnamon .. 124 Papaya .. 221
Clove .. 126 Pineapple .. 223
Vanilla .. 129 Sapota .. 227
Ginger .. 130 West Indian Cherry .. 227
Mango-ginger .. 133 Apple .. 228
Nutmeg .. 134 Ornamental plants
Black Pepper .. 136 Anthurium .. 230
Turmeric .. 146 Orchids .. 231
Camboge .. 148 Jasmine .. 233
Tamarind .. 151 Gladiolus .. 234
Beverages and Stimulants Tuberose .. 235
Arecanut .. 152 Crossandra .. 236
Betel vine .. 156 Marigold .. 237
Cocoa .. 158 China aster .. 238
Coffee .. 167 Medicinal and Aromatic plants
Tea .. 176 Eucalyptus .. 239
Tobacco .. 181 Kacholam .. 239
Page Page
Lemongrass .. 241 Kampakam .. 288
Palmarosa .. 242 Irul .. 289
Vetiver .. 243 Mahagony .. 290
Chethikoduveli .. 244
Neela amari .. 244 Thembavu .. 291
Chengazhinirkizhangu .. 245 Venga .. 292
Kasthurimanjal .. 246 Chadachi .. 293
Chittaratha .. 247 Punna .. 293
Nilappana .. 249 Agroforestry systems .. 294
Jeevakom .. 250 Others
Adapathiyan .. 251
Asoka .. 252 Agro ecological zones of Kerala .. 295
Kanjiram .. 253 Composting : Vermicompost and coirpith compost .. 308
Thippali .. 254 Biofertilizers .. 311
Neem .. 255 Guidelines for maximizing fertilizer-use efficiency .. 315
Pathimugham .. 255 Beekeeping .. 318
Chittadalotakam .. 256 Sericulture .. 324
Koovalam .. 256
Rodents and their control .. 327
Thulasi .. 257
Karinochi .. 257 Control of Loranthus .. 331
Kattarvazha .. 257 Biocontrol of Salvinia .. 331
Arrow root .. 258 Biocontrol of papaya mealy bug using
Danthappala .. 258 parasitoid .. 332
Brahmi .. 258 Ecofriendly management of water hyacinth
Kurumthotti .. 259 in water bodies .. 332
Medicinal plants as intercrops
Biocontrol agents against plant pathogens .. 333
in Homesteads .. 259
Soil solarisation .. 334
Fodder crops
Mushroom cultivation .. 336
Guinea grass .. 260
Gamba grass .. 261 Tissue culture propagation of crops .. 339
Setaria grass .. 261 Improving the Keeping quality of fruits and
Hybrid napier .. 263 vegetables .. 340
Para grass .. 264 Low cost technology for irrigation and
Congosignal grass .. 265 protected cultivation .. 341
Subabul .. 266 Farm machinery suitable for Kerala .. 343
Hedge lucerne .. 267
Agathi .. 267 Appendices
Shevri .. 268 1. Agroclimatic classification of Kerala .. 350
Fodder cowpea .. 268 2. Average nutrient content of common
Stylo .. 269 manures and fertilizers .. 352
Fodder maize .. 271 3. Neutralising value of liming materials .. 352
Fodder sorghum .. 272
4. Conversion of nutrients (kg ha-1) to
Green manure crops common fertilizers (kg ha-1) .. 353
Sun hemp .. 272 5. Guide for mixing fertilizers .. 353
Daincha .. 272 6. Calculation of insecticide and fungicide
Wild indigo .. 272 .. 354
Indigo .. 272 formulations
7. Home made insecticidal preparations .. 355
Green leaf manure crops
8. Preparation of common fungicides .. 356
Gliricidia .. 273 9. Fumigants and its use .. 357
Subabul .. 273
Cassia .. 273 10. Pesticide guide .. 358
11. Details of pesticides available in
Agroforestry .. 367
the market
Ailanthus or Matti .. 274 12. List of pesticides/pesticide formulations
Casuarina .. 275 .. 380
banned in India
Eucalyptus .. 277
Mangium .. 278 13. Ad hoc Recommendations for the management
of pests and diseases in selected crops .. 383
Teak .. 280
Thorny bamboo .. 282 14. Ad hoc Recommendations for management
Wild jack or Aini .. 284 of secondary and micro nutrients .. 385
Rosewood .. 284 15. Institutions under the Kerala
Sandal .. 286 Agricultural University .. 391
CEREALS AND MILLETS
RICE (Oryza sativa)

Rice can be cultivated under a variety of seasons as shown in Table 1 depending on the
climatic and soil conditions. Rice cultivation is agroclimatic situations.
conditioned by temperature parameters at the During second crop, for higher yield
different phases of growth. The critical mean
in irrigated photosensitive high yielding varieties
temperature for flowering and fertilization
ranges from 16o to 20oC, whereas, during in Palakkad district, the crop commencement
ripening, the range is from 18 o to 32 o C. may be adjusted in such a way that it flowers
Temperature beyond 35oC affects grain filling. only during the second fortnight of December.
Rice comes up well in different soil types. For This facilitates proper integration with the
normal growth, a pH range of 5.0-8.0 is weather, better utilization of applied fertilizers and
suitable. high filling percentage. The rice varieties for
In general, rice can be grown as Kerala and their characteristics are given as
transplanted or direct sown crop during three Table 2 and 3 respectively.

Table 1. Different rice growing seasons of Kerala

Period
Agroclimatic situations Seasons
From To
General Virippu (I crop/autumn) April-May Sept-Oct
Mundakan (II crop/winter) Sept-Oct Dec-Jan
Puncha (III crop/summer) Dec-Jan Mar-Apr
Onattukara Virippu (I crop/autumn) April August
Mundakan (II crop/winter) Aug-Sept Dec-Jan
Third crop (where HYVs come up) Feb-Mar April
Kuttanad Additional Crop May-June Aug-Sept
Puncha Oct-Nov Feb-Mar
Kari soils Additional Crop June-July Sept-Oct
Kole (Single cropped area) Mundakan (Kadumkrishi) Aug-Sept Dec-Jan
Pokkali Virippu (I crop/autumn) May-June Sept-Oct
Oorumundakan Aug-Sept Dec-Jan
Kaipad Virippu (I crop/autumn) April-May Sept-Oct
High ranges Nancha May-June Oct-Nov
Puncha Dec-Jan Apr-May
2 RICE

Table 2. Rice varieties suited for different situations

Region/Type of land Seasons Varieties

Upland (Modan land) First crop PTB 28, PTB 29, PTB 30, Suvarnamodan, Annapoorna,
Purely rainfed Matta Triveni, Swarnaprabha, Rohini, Aiswarya, Vaishak,
Harsha

Palliyals (Myals) First crop Short duration : Rohini, Annapoorna, Matta Triveni, Jyothi,
Single crop terraced Kairali, Kanchana, Harsha, Karthika, Ahalya, Prathyasa
Medium duration : Aswathy, Sabari, Bharathy, Jaya,
Aiswarya, Aathira. Long duration : Mahsuri
Double crop wetlands : First crop Short duration : Matta Triveni, Annapoorna, Jyothi, Aruna,
Makom, Swarnaprabha, Ahalya, Varsha, Rohini, Karthika,
Revathi, Remanika, Krishnanjana, Kanchana, Harsha, Kairali,
a. Semi-dry cultivation Kunjukunju Varna, Kunjukunju Priya, Prathyasa
Medium duration : Aswathy, Sabari, Bharathy, Jaya, Arathy,
Remya, Kanakom, Ranjini, Pavithra, Panchami, Uma, Aathira,
Aiswarya, Pavizham, Bhadra
Long duration : Mahsuri
Second crop Any of the varieties suggested for the first crop season
(Except Rohini)
b. Transplanted First crop Short duration : Annapoorna, Matta Triveni, Jyothi,
Swarnaprabha, Kairali, Kanchana, Karthika, Aruna,
Makom, Revathi, Remanika, Krishnanjana, Varsha,
Rohini, Ahalya, Kunjukunju Varna, Kunjukunju Priya,
Prathyasa
Medium duration : Jaya, Sabari, Bharathy, Aswathy,
Aathira, Aiswarya, Pavizham, Remya,
Kanakom, Ranjini, Pavithra, Panchami, Uma
Long duration : Mangala Mahsuri, Pranava, Mahsuri, Jaiva
Second crop Short duration : Annapoorna, Matta Triveni, Jyothi, Kairali,
Kanchana, Karthika, Makom, Revathi, Remanika,
Krishnanjana, Kunjukunju Varna, Kunjukunju Priya, Prathyasa
Medium duration : Jaya, Sabari, Bharathy, Aswathy,
Aathira, Aiswarya, Pavizham, Remya, Kanakom,
Ranjini, Pavithra, Panchami, Uma, Karishma, Sampada, Jaiva
Long duration : Mangala Mahsuri, Karuna, Rasmi, Nila,
Makaram, Kumbham, Dhanu, Anashwara, Mahsuri
Third crop Short duration : Annapoorna, Matta Triveni, Jyothi, Aruna
Swarnaprabha, Kairali, Kanchana, Karthika, Makom,
Revathi, Remanika, Krishnanjana, Ahalya, Harsha,
Varsha, Prathyasa
Medium duration : Jaya, Sabari, Bharathy, Aathira,
Aiswarya, Pavizham, Remya, Kanakom, Ranjini, Pavithra,
Panchami, Uma, Jaiva
RICE 3

Kuttanad area Puncha Short duration : Karthika, Makom, Jyothi,

Matta Triveni, Annapoorna, Revathi, Remanika,
Krishnanjana, Prathyasa
Medium duration : Kanakom, Jaya, Sabari, Bharathy, Ranjini,
Pavithra, Panchami, Uma, Gouri, Bhadra, Asha, Pavizham, Sreyas
Additional Short duration : Karthika, Makom, Aruna, Jyothi,
crop Matta Triveni, Annapoorna, Revathi, Remanika,
Krishnanjana, Prathyasa, Sreyas

Medium duration : Pavizham, Remya, Kanakom, Jaya,

Sabari, Ranjini, Pavithra, Panchami, Uma

Kari soils Additional Short duration : Krishnanjana, Vyttila 6

Crop Medium duration : Uma, Vyttila 2

Kole area Mundakan Extra short duration : Hraswa

Short duration : Karthika, Makom, Aruna, Jyothi, Onam,
Bhagya, Matta Triveni, Annapoorna, Revathi, Remanika,
Krishnanjana, Ahalya, Varsha, Swarnaprabha, Kanchana,
Kairali, Manupriya, Prathyasa
Medium duration : Pavizham, Remya, Kanakom, Jaya,
Ranjini, Pavithra, Panchami, Uma, Bhadra, Aswathy, Sabari,
Bharathy and Aiswarya

Pokkali area First crop Vyttila-1, Vyttila-2, Vyttila-3, Vyttila-4,Vyttila-5,Vyttila-6,

Vyttila-7, Vyttila-8, Vyttila-9

Kaipad tract First crop Ezhome-1, Ezhome-2, Ezhome-3, Ezhome-4

Deep ill-drained First crop Remya, Arathi, Uma

regions of southern
Second crop Kottarakkara-1, Lakshmi, Nila, Makaram, Kumbham,
Mangala Mahsuri

Waterlogged and First crop IR-5, Pankaj, Jagannath, H4, Mahsuri, Neeraja,
flooded areas Mangala Mahsuri

Oorumundakan Second crop Late duration : Sagara, Amritha

Onattukara and coastal First crop PTB 23

sandy areas
a. Where HYVs do not Second crop PTB 20
come up
4 RICE

First crop Short duration : Annapoorna, Matta Triveni, Jyothi, Chingam

Bhagya, Rohini, Onam, Aruna, Makom, Karthika,
Revathi, Remanika, Krishnanjana, Prathyasa
Medium duration : Jaya, Sabari, Bharathy, Aswathy,
Pavizham, Remya, Kanakom, Arathi, Renjini, Pavithra,
Panchami, Uma

b. Where HYVs Second crop Short duration : Annapoorna, Matta Triveni, Jyothi,
come up well Makom, Karthika, Revathi, Remanika, Krishnanjana

Medium duration : Jaya, Sabari, Bharathy, Aswathy, Bhadra,

Asha, Pavizham, Remya, Kanakom, Dhanya, Anaswara,
Dhanu (season bound), Ranjini, Pavithra, Panchami, Uma

Third crop Short duration : Annapoorna, Matta Triveni, Rohini,

Makom, Revathi, Remanika, Krishnanjana, Prathyasa

Medium duration : Jaya, Sabari, Bharathy, Aswathy,

Pavizham, Remya, Kanakom, Ranjini, Pavithra, Panchami,
Uma, Karishma

Poonthalpadam Neeraja, Swetha, Ponmani

High altitude area : Aswathy, Jaya, Sabari, Mahsuri,

a. Single crop areas Bhadra, IR 8, Aathira,Uma, Deepthi

b. Double crop areas First crop Aswathy, Jaya, Sabari, Bharathy, Bhadra, Deepthi,
Aathira, IR-8, Uma

Second crop Aswathy, Jaya, Sabari, Bharathy, Bhadra, Deepthi,

Aathira, IR-8, Uma

c. Eastern lateritic
regions of Kollam Second crop Lakshmi, Makaram, Kumbham, Thulam
and Alappuzha
districts
Koottumundakan First crop Samyuktha, Swarnapraha, Vaishak, Karthika, Aiswarya
Second crop Makaram, Kumbham

Chittoor black soil First crop ASD 16, ASD 17, Mahsuri, Varsha, ADT 43, Ranjini
Second crop Ponni, Vellaponni, Ponmani, ASD 16, ASD 17, Pranava,
Karuna, Swetha, Bhadra
RICE 5

Table 3. Important characteristics of varieties recommended for cultivation

Sl. Variety Bran colour;
Duration Characteristics
No. (days) grain type
Extra-short duration

1 Hraswa 75-80 Red, medium Ideal as a contingent variety for areas

(Cul 24-20) bold where there is crop loss. Susceptible to
leaf folder. Raised only as direct sown crop

Short duration

1 Kattamodan 110-115 Red, long bold For uplands (modan). Tolerant to drought
(PTB 28)

2 Karutha Modan 105-110 Red, long bold -do- Tall

(PTB 29)

3 Chuvanna Modan 105-110 Red, long bold -do- Tall

(PTB 30)
4 Annapoorna 95-100 Red, short Suitable for direct seeding. Susceptible to
(PTB 35) bold blast, sheath blight and BPH. Suited for
I and III crop seasons

5 Rohini 85-105 White, long Performs well during Virippu season.

(PTB 36) bold Not recommended for mundakan season.
Suitable for direct seeding

6 Triveni 100-105 White, long Tolerant to BPH. Susceptible

(PTB 38) bold to blast and sheath blight

7 Jyothi 110-115 Red, long Moderately tolerant to BPH and blast;

(PTB 39) bold susceptible to sheath blight; suitable for
direct seeding, transplanting and special
systems of Kole and Kuttanad

8 Swarnaprabha 105-110 White, long Suited for upland (modan) and for all the
(PTB 43) bold three seasons in the wet-lands. Susceptible
to sheath blight and bacterial blight.
Moderately resistant to stem borer. A good
first crop component in Koottumundakan

9 Matta Triveni 100-105 Red, medium Tolerant to BPH, susceptible to

(PTB 45) bold blast and sheath blight. Suitable for
I and III crop

10 Kairali 110-115 Red, long Moderately resistant to blast, blight, gall

(PTB 49) bold midge and leaf folder. Can be cultivated in
all the three seasons
6 RICE

11 Kanchana 105-110 Red, long Suitable for Kole and Kuttanad regions.
(PTB 50) bold Resistant to blight, blast, stem borer and
gall midge. Suitable for all seasons

12 Karthika 105-110 Red, long Suitable for growing in all the three
(MO 7) bold seasons. Moderate resistance to sheath
blight, sheath rot and BPH. A good first
crop component in Koottumundakan
13 Aruna 100-110 Red, medium Tolerant to BPH and stem borer,
(MO 8) bold moderately resistant to gall midge,
sheath rot. Dormancy up to one month.
Specifically suited to wet season
14 Makom 100-110 Red, short Moderately resistant to pests like BPH,
(MO 9) bold stem borer, gall midge, leaf folder and
diseases like sheath blight and sheath rot.
Dormancy up to one month. Specifically
suited for wet season. Can be cultivated in
all the three seasons
15 Remanika 100-105 Red, short Dwarf, medium tillering, resistant to BPH
(MO 15) bold and moderately resistant to gall midge
16 Revathi 105-110 Red, medium Dwarf, medium tillering, resistant to BPH
(MO 17) bold and moderately resistant to gall midge.
Dormancy upto 3 weeks. Suited to all the
three seasons especially to additional crop
of Kuttanad
17 Krishnanjana 105-110 Red, medium Medium tillering, resistant to BPH and
(MO 19) bold dormancy upto 3 weeks, suited to all
seasons especially to kari lands of
Kuttanad, tolerant to iron toxicity
18 Bhagya 100 Red Suitable for first crop season in Onattukara
(Kayamkulam 2) and eastern lateritic region. Drought
resistant in the early growth phases.
Moderately tolerant to blight, stem borer,
leaf roller and case worm
19 Onam 95 Red Drought tolerant in the early growth
(Kayamkulam 3) phases. Moderately resistant to blight,
sheath blight and blast. Suited for dry
sowing in the first crop season of
Onattukara region
20 ASD 17 100-105 White, short Good grain quality and high yielding
bold
RICE 7

21 Ahalya 90-100 Red Good cooking quality, tolerant to leaf

folder and moisture stress in the early
growth phase

22 Harsha 105-110 Red, long Suitable for direct seeding in rainfed

(PTB 55) bold lowlands. Moderate resistance to blast
and moisture stress
23 Varsha 110-115 Red, long Suitable for direct seeding and
(PTB 56) bold transplanting in irrigated lowlands.
Moderate resistance to blue beetle
24 Kunjukunju 110-115 Red, short Photo-insensitive, moderately tolerant to
Varna (VK-1) bold major pests like gall fly, leaf folder, whorl
maggot and stem borer. Adapted for
double cropped areas of Palakkad, Thrissur
and Ernakulam districts as direct seeded or
transplanted crop. Leaf sheath and
apicules are purple pigmented
25 Kunjukunju 105-110 Red, short Photo-insensitive, moderately tolerant
Priya (VK-2) bold to major pests like gall fly, leaf folder,
whorl maggot and stem borer. Adapted for
double cropped areas of Palakkad, Thrissur
and Ernakulam districts as direct seeded or
transplanted crop. This is a non-pigmented
variety
26 Chingam 95-100 Red, short Photo-insensitive semi-tall variety suitable
bold for first crop season in Onattukara.
Moderately resistant to sheath blight and
brown leaf spot
27 Manupriya 105-110 Red, long Suitable for Kole lands. Tolerant to sheath
bold blight, brown spot, blast, stem borer and
gall midge. Suitable for all seasons
28 Prathyasa 100-110 Red, long Non-lodging, Photoinsensitive, semi-tall
(MO-21) bold variety, suitable for Kuttanad. Moderately
resistant to gall midge. BPH, sheath blight
and sheath rot
29 Samyuktha 112-117 Red, short Suitable for Koottumundakan system of
(PTB 59) bold cultivation with Makaram in Central zone
30 ASD 16 110-115 White, short Good grain quality, high yield
bold

Medium duration

1 Jaya 120-125 White, long Very high yield potential, highly susceptible
bold to BPH and other pests
8 RICE

2 Aswathy 120-125 White, long Suitable for dry sowing in the first crop
(PTB 37) bold season
3 Sabari (PTB 40) 130-135 Red, long bold Susceptible to sheath blight
4 Bharathy 120-125 Red, long bold Tolerant to BPH, moderately resistant to
(PTB 41) blast, suitable for dry sowing
5 Suvarnamodan 110-115 White Suitable for dry sown conditions, medium tall,
(PTB 42) moderately resistant to pests and diseases
6 Jayathi 120-125 White Resistant to BPH, green leaf hopper, leaf folder,
(PTB 46) blast and bacterial leaf streak, non-lodging,
semi-tall, suitable for all the three seasons
7 Aathira 120-130 Red, short Semi-tall, non-lodging, moderate resistance
(PTB 51) bold to blast and blight diseases and BPH. Suited
for I and II crop seasons and also for hilly tracts
8 Aiswarya 120-125 Red, long Suitable for modan. Resistant to blast and
(PTB 52) bold blight diseases. Resistant to BPH. Suited
for first and second crop seasons
9 Anashwara 125-130 Red, medium Photosensitive, semi-tall variety, suitable
(PTB- 58) bold only for Mundakan season showing
reduced lodging nature. Moderate resistant
to blast, sheath blight, leaf folder, stem
borer and gall fly
10 Bhadra 120-125 Red, short Suitable for puncha season in Kuttanad
(MO 4) (125-135 for bold region. Low susceptibility to pests and
addl. crop) diseases. Tolerant to BPH. Weakly
photosensitive
11 Asha 115-120 Red, medium Suitable for both seasons of Kuttanad.
(MO 5) bold Moderately resistant to pests and diseases.
Tolerant to BPH
12 Pavizham 115-120 Red, short Easy to thresh. Fairly resistant to BPH.
(MO 6) bold Moderately resistant to stack burn and sheath
rot and fairly resistant to sheath blight
13 Remya 110-120 Red, long Moderately resistant to BPH, gall midge,
(MO 10) bold sheath blight and sheath rot, semi-tall
variety. Suitable for all the three seasons.
Seed dormancy upto one month
14 Kanakom 120-125 Red, medium Resistant to BPH and moderately resistant
(MO 11) bold to stem borer. Resistant to diseases like rice
tungro virus and blast. Moderately resistant
to bacterial blight. Semi-tall variety suitable
for all the three seasons
RICE 9

15 Ranjini 115-120 Red, medium Dwarf, resistant to blast and BPH

(MO 12) bold

16 Pavithra 115-120 Red, medium Dwarf, medium tillering, resistant to

(MO 13) bold BPH and GM Biotype-5

17 Panchami 115-120 Red, medium Dwarf, medium tillering, resistant to BPH

(MO 14) bold and GM Biotype-5

18 Uma 115-120 Red, medium Non lodging, resistant to BPH and GM

(MO 16) Punja bold bold Biotype-5. Dormancy upto 3 weeks.
120-135 Suited to three seasons especially to additional
Virippu crop season of Kuttanad

19 Karishma 115-120 Red, medium Dwarf, medium tillering, resistant to BPH

(MO 18) bold and medium resistant to GM. Suited to three
seasons especially to kari lands of Kuttanad;
tolerant to iron toxicity

20 Gouri (MO 20) 115-120 Red, medium Medium tall, non-lodging, moderately
bold resistant to sheath blight. Suitable for
Punja and additional crop seasons of
Kuttanad, Mundakan season of Kole
lands, first and second crop seasons in
double cropped wet lands

21 Sreyas (MO 22) 115-120 Red Moderately resistant to sheath blight,

sheath rot, BLB and false smut; grain yield
7-7.5 t ha-1

22 Vyttila – 1 115 Red Suitable for Pokkali areas

(Chootupokali-Tall

23 Vyttila – 2 125-130 Red, bold Suitable for Virippu season in the saline
(Cheruvirippu Tall) areas of Ernakulam and Alappuzha districts

24 Vyttila – 3 110-115 Red Suitable for Virippu season in the coastal

saline areas of Ernakulam and Alappuzha
districts

25 Vyttila – 4 120-125 Red Suitable for Virippu season in the coastal

saline areas (Pokkali ecosystem) and other
flood prone areas and deep water situations

26 Vyttila – 5 115-120 Red Tall, moderately lodging, tolerant to major

diseases and pests except BLB, leaf scald,
stem borer, leaf folder and rice bug
10 RICE

27 Vyttila – 6 105-110 Red, medium Semi tall, non-lodging, tolerant to salinity,

bold acidity and submergence. Suitable for
Virippu season in the coastal saline areas
(Pokkali ecosystem)
28 Vyttila-7 110-115 White long Semi tall, non-lodging, high yielding.
slender saline tolerant, suitable for coastal saline
ecosystem of Kerala
29 Vyttila-8 115-120 Red, medium Medium tall, non-lodging, high yielding
bold saline tolerant, suitable for coastal saline
ecosystem of Kerala
30 Vyttila-9 110-115 Red, medium Suitable for Kharif season in the high
saline coastal areas. It is a high yielding
saline tolerant variety having submergence
tolerance also
31 Ezhome-2 125-130 Red, medium Suitable for virippu season in the saline
bold coastal Kaipad areas of North Kerala. Non
lodging with medium height, non
shattering awn-less grains with good
cooking qualities. No pest and disease
incidence at Kaipad field condition
32 Ezhome - 3 120-125 Red Medium duration variety tolerant to medium
salinity suited to Kaipad and Pokkali soils
during Kharif and Rabi seasons
33 Aarathi 120-135 Red Seed dormancy upto one month. Recommended
(ACV-1) for southern region for Virippu season for
delayed sowing and for situations where over-
aged seedling may have to be planted. Modera-
tely resistant to sheath blight, sheath rot and BPH

34 Vaishak 117-125 Red, short Suitable for direct seeding during Kharif
(PTB 60) bold season in the uplands. Tolerant to moisture
stress, resistant to blue beetle, moderate resis
tance to stem borer and whorl maggot

35 Sampada 130-135 White Semi dwarf, Non lodging, high yielding

medium slender white kernel rice variety suita-
able for export with good cooking quality, high
milling percentage (72.7%) and head rice reco-
very - 70.1%. Tolerant to Blast, RTD and WBPH
Long duration

1 Lakshmi 175-180 Red Suitable for second crop season. Moderately

(Kayamkulam 1) resistant to leaf roller, blast, blight and
sheath blight, fairly resistant to stem borer
RICE 11

2 Dhanya 160-165 Red Photosensitive, moderately resistant to stem

(Kayamkulam 4) borer, gall midge, sheath blight and blast.
3 Rashmi 150-160 Red Suitable for growing in the second crop as the
(PTB 44) mundakan for Koottumundakan system.
Resistant to leaf folder and tolerant to gall
midge
4 Neeraja 140-150 White Moderately resistant to leaf folder, resistant
(PTB 47) to blast and moderately susceptible to
sheath blight, non-lodging, photosensitive,
dormant, suited to flood prone and water
logged areas and poonthal padams

5 Nila 160-180 Red, short Photosensitive, capable of producing good

(PTB 48) bold grain and straw yields under low fertilizer
application. Suitable for Karinkora cultivation.
Highly resistant to thrips, BPH and moderately
resistant to gall midge, stem borer and sheath
blight. Can be cultivated in areas where water
supply is assured till the middle of January

6 Mangala 140-145 Red, medium Multiple resistant, tolerant to iron toxicity and
Mahsuri (PTB 53) slender waterlogging. Good response to low fertilizer
regimes

7 Karuna 140-145 Red, long Multiple resistant, tolerant to iron toxicity,

(PTB 54) bold good response to low fertilizer regimes,
susceptible to brown spot. Specific to II crop
season
8 Kottarakara-1 140-145 Red For waterlogged deep soils
(Cheradi)

9 Makaram 160-165 Red, short Photosensitive; suitable for eastern lateritic

(KTR 2) bold region; II crop component in Kootumundakan
system
10 Kumbham 165-175 Red, short Photosensitive, tolerant to lodging;
(KTR 3) bold suitable for eastern lateritic region; II crop
component in Kootumundakan system

11 Pankaj 135-140 White For ill-drained deep soils, susceptible to

(Semi tall) leaf blight

12 H4 (Tall) 125-145 Red, bold For ill-drained deep soils

13 Mahsuri (Tall) 125-145 White, fine Excessive shedding of grains at maturity,

rice susceptible to blast
12 RICE

14 Sagara 180-190 Red Photosensitive

15 Amritha 165 Red HY long duration salt tolerant paddy

variety suited for Oru mundakan tract

16 Deepthi 150-160 Red Semi-tall, photo-insensitive, moderately

resistant to blast, leaf folder and stem borer,
moderately resistant to drought

17 Ponni 140-145 White, medium Fine grain quality rice

slender

18 White Ponni 135-140 White, medium Fine grain quality rice

slender

19 Ponmani 160-165 White, short Resistant to BPH; high yield potential

bold

20 Pranava 130-135 White, medium Multiple resistant. Suitable for the black
slender cotton soils of Chittoor

21 Swetha 135-140 White, short Suitable for black cotton soils of Chittoor
(PTB-57) bold taluk as a transplanted II crop

22 Dhanu 150-160 Red, short Photosensitive variety suitable for the second
bold crop in Onattukara. Tolerant to sheath
blight, brown leaf spot and stem borer

23 Thulam 150 Red, short Semi-tall, photosensitive, non-lodging,

bold non-shattering, tolerant to stem borer, leaf
roller and flooding, suitable for eastern
lateritic region during second crop season

24 Ezhome-1 135-145 Red, bold Suitable for virippu season in the saline
medium coastal Kaipad areas of North Kerala. Non
lodging with large number of sturdy culm
of medium height and with purple coloured
base. Non shattering awn-less grains with
purple coloured apiculus. Good cooking
qualities. There is no pest and disease
incidence at Kaipad field condition

25 Ezhome- 4 135-140 White HY long duration paddy suitable

for Kaipad lands and non-saline flooded tracts

26 Jaiva 130-135 White HY photo insensitive rice variety

developed for organic farming in ordinary
non-saline wet lands
RICE 13

Tips on quality seed production in rice Seeds may be stored in damp-proof

and maintenance of viability of stored situations for avoiding absorption of moisture
seeds from atmosphere thereby losing viability early.
Ensure that the seeds for further Polythene bags of 700 gauge or double
multiplication are either from a research station gunny bags may be preferred for storing.
or government farm or recognized seed
producers. Polythene bags of 400 gauge density may
be preferred for storing paddy seeds dried to
The land used for seed production should 10 per cent moisture content or less.
be free from volunteer plants of other varieties
grown previously. Never stack seed bags in open floors. Store
on pallets or wooden benches. The benches
To ensure genetic purity, a minimum
should be 30 cm away from wall and floor for
isolation distance of 3 m from other varieties
proper aeration.
may be given in the field. Harvesting for seed
purpose can also be done leaving a border row Never pile more than eight bags in a stack.
of 3 m within the field. This should be limited to three bags if the seeds
Rogue diseased plants, weeds and off-types require further drying.
in time. Avoid storing plant protection chemicals,
Line planting facilitates roguing and giving herbicides, fertilizers etc. in seed store.
alleyways of 30 cm after every 3 m helps in Fill up the cracks and crevices of storeroom
manuring, plant protection operations and by cementing to make it rat proof.
supervision.
Spray 2 per cent malathion solution in the
Drain water at least one week before
godown before storing seeds to check insect
harvesting to ensure that the plants attain
uniform maturity at harvesting. Harvest the pests.
crop when 80 per cent of the grains in a panicle Place pieces of cloth dipped in neem oil
are mature (at physiological maturity). between stacked bags or neem oil cake
During summer months, ensure that the covered in cloth bags inside seed bags to ward-
plants get sufficient water at dough stage till off pests.
maturity.
Test seed germination at monthly intervals
Thresh the sheaves on the same day of if the seeds are to be stored for more than
harvest, as seeds of heaped sheaves may not eight months.
perform well.
The viability of short duration varieties can
Dry seeds properly and ensure that
be extended for a further period of 2-3 months
the moisture content is not more than
at 80 per cent level if the seeds are soaked for
13 per cent.
four hours in water and re-dried in shade, back
Avoid excess drying in summer months to original weight at 13 per cent moisture
especially for short duration varieties as it content. Seeds of short duration varieties like
reduces the period of viability. Jyothi and Triveni of virippu crop reach this
While drying and storing, avoid level of germination 9-10 months after harvest
contamination from yards or through baskets and that of mundakan 8-9 months after harvest
or bags. when stored under ambient conditions.
14 RICE

To keep sprouted pokkali seeds viable for 24 hours. Drain and keep for sprouting. For
two weeks, the seeds are to be kept in baskets soaking 1 kg of seed, 1 litre of micronutrient
made of plaited coconut leaves lined with solution would be needed.
koova, banana, karingotta or teak leaves. Nursery
Seed rate For transplanting, healthy seedlings have
Transplanting 60-85 kg ha-1 to be raised in seedbed. Healthy seedlings can
Broadcasting 80-100 kg ha-1 cope up better with the field conditions that
Dibbling 80-90 kg ha-1 affect the growth of young rice plants. Adopt
The above seed rates are specified for wet or dry method for raising seedlings. The
farmers’ field on the basis of minimum choice depends primarily on the availability of
germination of 80 per cent. In pokkali water.
cultivation, for Vyttila varieties, 100 kg ha-1 may Wet method
be sown on the beds or mounds formed in the The wet method can be adopted in areas
field. where water is available as in the second crop
Seed rate may be enhanced from season. Seedlings raised by the wet bed
80-100 kg ha-1 to 125 kg ha-1 for Kuttanad, method can be harvested one week earlier.
provided excess plants are removed in order The seedbed should be prepared in advance,
to maintain optimum plant population. so that the pre-germinated seeds can be sown
Seed treatment in time. As far as possible, fertile lands with
Dry seed treatment irrigation and drainage facilities should be
Dress seeds with P. fluorescenes selected for raising the nurseries. Such lands
@ 10 g/kg of seeds before sowing or with the should be suitably located to receive full
following fungicides on the previous day of sunlight. The following are the steps in raising
sowing (12 to 16 hours ahead) at dosage given wet nursery.
below: Plough and harrow the fields two or three
Carbendazim 2g per kg of seed times until the soil is thoroughly puddled and
Wet seed treatment levelled. Prepare raised beds 5 to 10 cm height
Soak seed for 12 to 16 hours in a solution 1 to 1.5 m width and of convenient length with
of P. fluorescenes @ 10 g/litre of water drainage channels between the beds. The total
per kg of seed or Carbendazim 2 g/kg of seed seedbed area should be 1000 m 2 for each
per litre of water and drain to induce hectare of the field to be transplanted.
germination.
Apply compost or cattle manure @ 1.0
Treatment with Carbendazim will protect
kgm-2 of the nursery bed and mix well with
the seedlings from blast disease up to 30 to 60
the soil at the time of preparation of the field.
days after sowing.
Treat the seeds by wet method. Drain and
The above seed treatment can also be used
incubate in warm moist place for sprouting.
for protection from seedling blast in endemic
Never allow the seeds to dry up. Moisten them
areas.
occasionally. Sow germinated seeds on the
Soak paddy seeds in CuSO4 (0.25 per third day. Delay will result in poor seedling
cent) and ZnSO4 (1 per cent) solution for stand.
RICE 15

Irrigation may be commenced on the days after sowing in the case of short duration
5th day after sowing and continued up to the varieties and 20-25 days after sowing in the
7th day, to a depth of about 5 cm. After this case of medium duration varieties. Under ill
period, irrigate the seedbed continuously to a drained conditions, long duration varieties may
depth of about 5 cm in order to control weeds. be planted 30 days after sowing. Seedlings
Drain occasionally to encourage production more than 30 days old when transplanted in
of vigorous seedlings with short roots. Flooding the field recover slower than younger
the soil with too much water for long periods seedlings, especially, if they suffer stem and
produces tall and weak seedlings, which do root injury. However, during the virippu season,
not readily recover during transplanting. age of seedlings can go up to 35 days in case
If symptoms of nitrogen deficiency are of medium duration varieties and 25 days for
observed, broadcast urea @ 1 kg for 100 m2 short duration varieties. If the seedlings are
as top dressing about 10 days prior to pulling over aged, plant at a closer spacing with 3 or
out of seedlings, depending upon the duration 4 seedlings per hill and apply extra dose of
of variety. nitrogen @ 5 kg/ha as basal dressing.
Dry method Irrigate seed beds a day before pulling out
the seedlings to soften the soil and to facilitate
This method is practised in areas where
washing of roots. Wash off mud and soil from
sufficient water is not available and the time
the roots carefully and tie the seedlings into
of planting is uncertain. During first crop
bundles of convenient size for transplanting.
season, wherever transplanting is done
depending upon receipt of rainfall, it is safer Pruning of the top portion and root is not
to adopt this method since growth of the recommended as it inflicts wounds through
seedlings can be controlled. which disease causing organisms may
subsequently enter.
Plough the nursery area to a fine tilth.
Prepare raised beds of 1 to 1.5 m width, Preparation of land
15 cm in height and of convenient length. Apply General
compost or cattle manure at the rate of 1 kg/m2 Plough the field thoroughly to incorporate
of the nursery bed and mix well with the soil the weeds and straw into the soil. Ensure a
at the time of preparation of the field. smooth, level field for transplanting the
Sow the seeds treated as described under seedlings. It would be better to transplant
dry seed treatment method evenly over the 10-15 days after incorporating organic manure.
bed and cover with fine sand or soil. Before transplanting or sowing, apply manures
Water the nursery as and when required and fertilizers at the rates specified for the
depending upon the receipt of rains. region and varieties as indicated in Table 4.
Apply fertilizers on the drained soil at the time
Note: Rice seedlings from solarised nursery
of final ploughing and levelling and thoroughly
beds show high initial growth, early
maturity and resistance to leaf blast mix into the soil.
disease. Kuttanad
Age of seedlings Drain out standing water from the main
Seedlings are ready to be pulled out when field. Plough the field thoroughly to incorporate
they attain the stage of 4-5 leaves, about 18 the weeds in the field. Ensure a smooth and
16 RICE

-1
Table 4. Fertilizer recommendation for rice, kg ha
Kind of land / region Variety N P2O5 K2O

Uplands (modan) Upland local varieties 40 20 30

-do- High yielding short duration varieties 60 30 30
Wetlands (All regions) -do- 70 35 35
-do- High yielding medium duration varieties 90 45 45
-do- Local varieties 40 20 20
-do- H4 70 45 45
-do- Mahsuri 50 25 25
Kole lands *Short duration varieties 90 35 45
*Medium duration high yielding varieties 110 45 45
Kattukampal and
*Medium duration high yielding varieties 110 45 55
Ponnani kole lands
Wetland (Kuttanad)** Medium duration high yielding varieties 90 45 15
Onattukkara Dhanya 60 30 30
Koottumundakan Photo in sensitive varieties for first crop 40 20 20
Photosensitive varieties for second crop 20 10 10

* Location specific recommendations. Strict surveillance of pests and diseases is a must under such
situations.
** Wherever the soil K status is medium to high based on soil test data and also where incorporation
of straw is a practice and tidal contribution of the nutrient is significant.
Phosphorus can be skipped for six seasons without any significant reduction in grain yield in
riverine alluvium soils medium to high in available P.

levelled field. Maintain a thin film of water to Kole

facilitate sowing so that the germinated seeds For the first crop in Kole, after the cessation
do not get covered with clayey soil, which of the heavy monsoon, dewatering is effected
affects seedling establishment. by petti and para or centrifugal pump and
rarely by chakkram. Land is ploughed
In Kari soils, avoid cracking of soils by thoroughly and transplanting is done.
prolonged drying since it will lead to severe For the second crop, land is prepared
acidity. Provide surface drains of 20 cm width thoroughly and direct sowing of sprouted seeds
and depth within the field at 10-20 m interval or transplanting is done.
or running diagonally (kachals) and join them Onattukara
with surface drain of 30 cm width and depth With the onset of pre-monsoon showers,
taken along the perimeter of the field (vachals). land is ploughed thoroughly. Dibbling of
RICE 17

unsprouted seeds behind the country plough is a height of 40-45 cm (in 30-35 days), the mounds
the common practice. are cut into pieces with a few seedlings,
Pokkali and Kaipad which are uniformly spread in the field.

By April, the bunds are being strengthened Koottumundakan

and sluices repaired for regulating water level. In this system of rice cultivation, a mixture
Fields are then drained during low tide and the of seeds of a non-photosensitive (virippu)
sluices are closed. When the soil in the field variety and a photosensitive (mundakan)
becomes dry, mounds of 1 m base and 0.5 m variety of rice in the proportion 70:30 (w/w) is
height are formed. This facilitates the washing sown during virippu season. This system is
down of the dissolved salts from the surface practiced in areas where sowing / planting of
of the mounds with the onset of monsoon, mundakan crop is not possible due to excess
which are ultimately removed from the field water in the field. Hence, mixture of the two
by tidal action. The mounds act as elevated varieties is sown in the first crop season (April-
in situ nursery and protect the seedlings from May). The first crop variety will be ready for
flash floods. harvest in August-September and the second
A special method is adopted for sprouting crop variety can be harvested in December-
the seeds. The seeds are tightly packed in January. No cultivation is practised after the
baskets made of plaited coconut leaves, the harvest of first crop season variety. But both
inside of which is lined by banana or teak organic and inorganic manures are applied and
leaves. These baskets are then immersed in incorporated. Though the yield will be less than
fresh water ponds for 12 to 15 hours. They that of the two independent crops, this type of
are then taken out and stored in shade. The cultivation is taken up in view of the special
radicle just sprouts and remains quiescent circumstances prevailing in such areas.
under this condition for more than 30 days.
Transplanting
When the soil and weather conditions
become favourable for sowing, the baskets Transplant seedlings of appropriate age for
containing the seeds are re-soaked for 3 to 6 the variety @ 2-3 seedlings per hill in rows, at
hours before sowing. The mounds in the field spacing as shown in Table 5. Leave wider row
are then raked and top levelled. The sprouted of 30 cm after every 3 m to facilitate spraying
seeds are sown on the top of mounds, which act and other cultural operations. Transplant
as an in situ nursery. When the seedlings reach seedlings at a depth of 3-4 cm.

Table 5. Spacing for rice transplantation

Season Duration Spacing No. of hills/m2
First crop Medium 20 cm x 15 cm 33
Short 15 cm x 10 cm 67
Second crop Medium 20 cm x 10 cm 50
Short 15 cm x 10 cm 67
Third crop Medium 20 cm x 10 cm 50
Short 15 cm x 10 cm 67
18 RICE

Wet seeding by seed drums and weed Concurrent growing of cowpea/daincha

control by cono weeder A. Dry seeded rice
• Drum seeding and cono weeding can be safely When there is an undue delay in the onset
adopted. of monsoon, concurrently grown cowpea in
• It is suitable for areas where efficient water rice fields can be incorporated by spraying
management is possible (especially during 2,4 –D @ 1.0 kg ha-1 at 30-40 days after sowing
rabi) and during kharif in areas where without affecting the yield with a substantial
torrential rains are absent. reduction on weed incidence.
• For short duration varieties 15cm spaced B. Wet seeded rice
and for medium duration varieties 20cm In wet seeded rice, daincha can be raised
spaced seed drum is recommended. as an intercrop by sowing 20 kg seed of
• SRI (System of Rice Intensification) is a daincha ha-1 along with rice (seed rate 60 kg
method of rice cultivation introduced by ha-1) to serve as a source of green manure.
French priest Fr. Henry D Laulanie in 1983 Daincha can be incorporated by spraying
in Madagascar and the technology was 2, 4–D @ 1.0 kg ha-1 at 30 days after sowing
spread in other countries by Dr. Norman thereby adding substantial quantity of green
Uphoff of Cornell University, USA. manure. System of concurrent growing of
(Principles of SRI given as Annexure XV). daincha can also reduce the weed pressure in
Manuring wet seeded rice.
Organic manuring Fertilizer application
Apply organic manure in the form of The rates of N, P 2 O 5 and K 2 O
farmyard manure or compost or green leaf recommended as fertilizers are given in Table
@ 5 t ha-1 and incorporate into the soil while 4 and stages of application in Table 6.
ploughing. Vermicompost or coirpith compost For modan cultivation (upland crop) and
@ 2.5 t ha-1 can be substituted for 5 t ha-1 direct seeded crop in wet lands, apply nitrogen
FYM in Onattukara region. The entire quantity in three equal split doses, first as basal dressing,
of phosphatic fertilizers may be applied along second at tillering stage (three weeks after
with the organic manures.
seeding) and the third at panicle initiation stage
Use of biofertilizers is recommended (See
(about thirty days before flowering). Apply the
chapter on biofertilizers).
full dose of phosphorus at the time of land
Green crop manuring
preparation as basal dressing. Apply potash
Cowpea may be raised as an intercrop in
either in a single dose as basal or in two split
dry seeded low land (semi-dry) rice by sowing
12.5 kg/ha seed along with rice to serve as a doses half as basal and half at the panicle
source of green manure. When the rice field initiation stage.
gets submerged with the onset of south west In Kuttanad region, wherever wet
monsoon, cowpea at the age of about six weeks broadcasting (direct seeding) is adopted,
and at active vegetative stage decays and gets
give the first basal application of the nitrogen
self-incorporated in the soil adding substantial
quantity of green manure. Such a system of at the time of letting in water after drying the
concurrent growing of cowpea also reduces field. Water-soluble phosphorus can be
weed pressure in semi-dry rice. recommended for application in two split doses
RICE 19

Table 6. Stages of fertilizer application in rice

Stages of Application Remarks

Kind of
Variety N P K
land/
BA BA **For direct seeded crop, one week
region AT API BA AT API AT API
** ** after sowing

Uplands PTB 28, 1/3 1/3 1/3 Full 1/2* 1/2 * Full dose as basal is also
29,30 recommended
HYshort 1/3 1/3 1/3 Full 1/2* 1/2 * Full dose as basal is also
duration recommended

Wet land, General 1/3* 1/3 1/3 Full 1/2* 1/2 *For wet seeded, the first dose to
direct be given 1 week after sowing. For
seeded dry seeded, first application to be
given after establishment of the
seedlings
Mahsuri 1/3 1/3* 1/3** Full 1/2 1/2 ** *45 DAS, **85 DAS
Wet land, HY short 2/3 1/3* Full 1/2 1/2 *5-7 days before PI
trans- duration
planted
HY, 1/2 1/2* Full 1/2 1/2* *5-7 days before PI
medium
duration
Mahsuri 1/2 1/4* 1/4 ** Full 1/2 1/2 ** *40 DAP, ** 60 DAP
Onattu- General 1/2 1/4 1/4 Full 1/2 1/2 In very coarse soils, N & K may
kara be given in five equal splits
Wayanad Long dura- 1/2 1/2 Full* 1/2 1/2 *Along with first application of
and hilly tion trans- N&K
region planted

Direct 1/2* 1/2 Full** 1/2* 1/2 *45 days after seeding,
seeded **With first application of N & K
Koottu- First crop 1/2 1/2 Full 1/2 1/2
mundakan Second Full* Full* Full* *Entire quantity as single dose
crop immediately after the harvest
of first crop

BA=Basal application; AT = At tillering; PI = At panicle initiation; HY = High yielding; DAP = Days after planting;
DAS = Days after seeding

in Kuttanad region, as basal and at maximum problem, apply 5 tonnes of organic matter or
tillering stage. vermicompost 2.5 t and 67.5 kg K2O ha-1.

The general principle to be followed is that During the first crop season, when basal
in light soils as well as in soils with high application of nitrogen is not possible due to
leaching, nitrogen may be applied in three or incessant rains, basal dose can be shifted to
four split doses according to the duration of 15 days after transplanting.
the variety. In coarse sandy loam soils with high
For typical Onattukara region, where percolation as in Onattukara region, nitrogen
soil is sandy loam and with iron toxicity and potash fertilizers may be applied in five
20 RICE

equal splits at planting, 15th, 38th, 53rd and 70th K2O may be applied in two equal parts for the
day for medium duration varieties which first crop, one as basal and other at panicle
coincide with the stages of early tillering, neck initiation stage. P2O5 may be applied fully as
node differentiation, early reduction division basal. The fertilizer for second crop may be
and heading stages respectively in the case of applied as a single dose immediately after
medium duration varieties. the harvest of the first crop (ad hoc
recommendation).
For Thiruvananthapuram and Malappuram
districts, phosphorus application is essential for Fertilizers (N:P2O5:K2O) @ 40:20:20 kg ha-1
increasing rice yields. Rock phosphate may for virippu and 20:10:10 kg ha -1 for the
be substituted for superphosphate. photosensitive mundakan crop are
recommended as economic dose for the
Basal dose of nitrogen may be postponed northern region under Koottumundakan
to initial tillering phase of rice crop, especially practice.
during the rainy season. Split application of
potash @ 50 per cent basal, 25 per cent at Methods of fertilizer application
tillering and 25per cent at panicle initiation
For pre-planting application, apply the
stage is recommended for this region. fertilizers at the final ploughing. In areas where
In sequential cropping of rice, application availability of water is assured, temporarily
of 50 per cent of the nutrient requirement (on draining the field one day prior to application
nitrogen equivalent basis) as organics (FYM, and re-flooding after twelve hours is
rice straw, green manure) and 50 per cent as recommended for top dressing of fertilizer.
fertilizers during kharif season and the entire For increasing the efficiency of urea for
dose of nutrients as fertilizers in rabi season top dressing, mix urea with six times its weight
enhances the grain and straw yield. The of slightly moist soil and apply to the field 24-
organics may be incorporated 3 weeks before 28 hours after mixing. Oil seed cakes such as
transplanting. punna and neem cakes can also be mixed with
Application of 25 per cent of the nutrient urea (1 part of oil cake + 5 parts of urea by
weight) for increasing fertilizer use efficiency.
requirement as organics and 75 per cent as
This method is particularly useful for basal
fertilizers during kharif season and reducing
application of nitrogen. Under special
the fertilizer dose of rabi by 25 per cent
conditions of drought and water-logging, apply
gives comparable yield with full POP
nitrogen as foliar spray. Urea may be applied
recommendation during both seasons.
as a low volume spray at 15 per cent
Specific dose of fertilizer for concentration using power sprayer or at 5 per
Koottumundakan system cent concentration using a high volume sprayer,
the quantity applied in one application being
A fertilizer dose of N:P2O5:K2O 20:10:10
limited to 15 kg ha-1.
kg ha-1 for the first crop and 30:15:15 kg
ha-1 for the second crop is recommended for When zinc deficiency is noticed, apply zinc
high yield in Koottumundakan system. N and sulphate @ 20 kg ha-1. Early stages of zinc
RICE 21

deficiency are evidenced by interveinal Application of magnesium as basal

chlorosis, bleaching of midribs and light yellow dose in the form of magnesium sulphate
colouration of the leaf. Older leaves develop (16 per cent MgO) or magnesite (40 per cent
brown rusty spots and are extremely brittle. MgO) or dolomite (10 per cent MgO)
Zinc sulphate and potash should not be applied @ 20 kg MgO/ha is effective in giving a
on the same day. significant increase in grain and straw yield
of rice in magnesium deficient soils. In non-
In Kari soils of Kuttanad, apply Dolomite
deficient soils, a marginal increase in grain and
@ 450Kg/ha as two splits, half at the time of
straw yield is also obtained. On per unit MgO
initial ploughing and half as top dressing one
basis, magnesite is more concentrated and
week prior to the application of fertilizers at
cheaper than magnesium sulphate.
the PI stage.
In iron toxic laterite soils of Kerala,
The effect of zinc application can persist
application of 120 kg potash ha-1 + lime 150
upto five years depending on the soil and
kg ha-1 + silica 100 kg ha-1 (as sodium silicate
cropping pattern. Hence soil application is not
250 kg ha-1 or fine silica 100 kg ha-1 or rice
required for every season. Soil zinc status
should be monitored before application to avoid husk ash 500 kg ha-1) is recommended for
accumulating toxic concentration of zinc. higher yields.

Split application of water-soluble phosphatic Liming

fertilizers in two equal splits as basal and at In general, addition of lime is absolutely
maximum tillering stage is effective in giving necessary when the pH is lower than 5.5 and
higher grain and straw yield than the full dose it is advisable when pH varies between 5.5
as basal dressing under certain situations. and 6.5.
When the soil has less than 10 ppm of Apply lime @ 600 kg ha-1 in two split doses,
calcium chloride extractable sulphur or the first dose of 350 kg ha-1 as basal dressing
15 ppm of phosphate extractable sulphur, at the time of first ploughing and the second
substitute urea with ammonium phosphate dose of 250 kg ha-1 as top dressing about one
sulphate to correct sulphur deficiency. For month after sowing/transplanting.
medium duration rice grown in brown
A time lag of one week should be given
hydromorphic soils ammonium phosphate
between application of lime and fertilizers. For
sulphate may be used to supply 25 kg sulphur
per hectare to protect the crop from sulphur top dressing, lime may be applied one week
deficiency (ad hoc recommendations). prior to the application of fertilizers.
Water management
K status of soil is maintained by straw
incorporation. After straw incorporation, Maintain water level at about 1.5 cm during
if soil analysis prior to cropping season transplanting. Thereafter increase it gradually
indicates low K status, K should be applied to about 5 cm until maximum tillering stage.
@ 15 kg K2O ha -1. Drain water 13 days before harvest.
22 RICE

Note: In areas where water for irrigation is Irrigation schedule for rice under limited
assured and where acidity is high, water resources
draining and reflooding every 15 days For summer rice under limited resources
is recommended. In flood prone of water, phasic stress irrigation can be
areas, aged seedlings of Mahsuri or practised to the advantage of saving substantial
other varieties recommended for quantity of irrigation water without any
significant reduction in yield. About
waterlogged conditions may be planted.
20-30 per cent more area can be irrigated with
The date of planting may be adjusted the same water resources by adopting any of
so as to avoid synchronization of the the following phasic stress irrigation schedules
critical stages of maximum tillering or (Table 7). Depending up on the schedule, water
heading with the usual flood period in saving ranges from 24-36 per cent of the
the tract. requirement for 5 cm continuous submergence
throughout the crop growth. Grain yield
During the mundakan crop season, reduction in the above practice is only 0.1 per
water level of 5 cm need not be maintained cent to 1.6 per cent.
continuously after the cessation of northeast Weeds and their management
monsoon. Five centimetre irrigation once in
Common weeds in rice fields of Kerala are:
6 days will be quite adequate for project areas
where water is assured. Grasses:Oryza rufipogon (varinellu),
Echinochloa crusgalli (kavada), E. colona
For summer rice (in situation where the (kavada), E. stagnina (kavada), Sacciolepis
ground water level is low, i.e., within 1m from interrupta (polla), Isachne miliacea
the surface), 5 cm irrigation two days after (chovverippullu, naringa).
disappearance of ponded water is sufficient Sedges: Cyperus iria (manjakora, chengoal),
instead of 5 cm continuous submergence C. difformis (thalekkattan), Fimbristylis
throughout the crop period. miliacea (mungai).

Table 7. Irrigation schedule for rice under limited water resources

Stages
Schedule Rooting to max.tillering Max. tillering to heading Heading to maturity

Category I Continuous submergence Saturation point* Saturation point*

Category II Saturation point* Continuous submergence Continuous submergence

Category III Continuous submergence Continuous submergence Hair cracking of surface*

Category IV Hair cracking of surface* Continuous submergence Hair cracking of surface*

* Irrigation at 5 cm to be given at the stages marked.

RICE 23

Broad leaved weeds: Monochoria Algae: Chara spp. (chandi), Spirogyra spp.
vaginalis (neelolppalam), Ludwigia perennis (payal).
(neer-grampu), Limnocharisflava Control
(nagappola), Ammania baccifera (nellicheera). Keep the rice fields free from weeds up to
45 days either by hand weeding or by use of
Ferns: Salvinia molesta (African payal),
herbicides. The recommendation for use of
Marsilea quadrifolia (naalilakodian), Azolla herbicides in different systems of rice culture
pinnata (azola). are given below:

I. Pre emergence herbicides

A. Dry seeded rice [upland and lowland (semi-dry) rice]

Sl. Herbicide Dose Time of Weeds Remarks

No. Kg ai/ha application controlled
1. Butachlor 1.25 0 – 6 DAS Pre emergence Give a follow up hand
control of all weeding at 30 DAS or
2. Pretilachlor 0.75 0 – 6 DAS
types of weeds apply a post emerg
3. Oxyfluorfen 0.15 0 – 6 DAS for 3 – 4 weeks. ence herbicide, if
needed, to control
4. Pendimethalin 1.50 0 – 6 DAS
later emerging weeds.
5. Pretilachlor + 0.6 +0.06 0 – 6 DAS
Bensulfuron
methyl
B. Wet seeded rice (Direct seeding with sprouted seeds under puddled conditions)

Sl. Herbicide Dose Time of Weeds Remarks

No. Kg ai/ha application controlled
Pre emergence Give a follow up
1. Butachlor 1.25 6 – 9 DAS
control of all hand weeding at 30
2. Pretilachlor 0.75 6 – 9 DAS types of weeds DAS or apply a
for 3 – 4 weeks. post emergence
3. Oxyfluorfen 0.15 6 – 9 DAS
herbicide, if nee-
4. Pretilachlor + 0.45 3 – 5 DAS ded, to control later
safener (sofit) emerging weeds.
Drain the field
5. Pretilachlor + 0.6 +0.06 6 – 9 DAS before herbicide
Bensulfuron application. Some
methyl
phytotoxicity to rice
6. Pyrazosulfuron 0.02 – 0.03 6 – 9 DAS seedlings likely.
ethyl
24 RICE

C. Transplanted rice

Sl . Herbicide Dose Time of Weeds Remarks

No. Kg ai/ha application controlled
1. Butachlor 1.25 0 – 6 DAT Pre emerge- Give a follow up
nce control of hand weeding at 30
2. Pretilachlor 0.75 0 – 6 DAT
all types of DAT or apply a post
3. Pretilachlor + 0.6 + 0.06 0 – 6 DAT weeds for 3 – emergence herbicide,
Bensulfuron methyl 4 weeks. if needed, to control
4. Pyrazosulfuron 0.02 – 0.03 0 – 6 DAT later emerging
ethyl weeds.
Maintain standing
water in the field for
good results.

II. Post emergence herbicides

i. Dicot weeds
Sl. Herbicide Dose Time of Weeds Remarks
No. (kg ai/ha) application controlled
1. 2, 4-D 0.80 20 – 25 Broad leaved weeds Grass weeds not
DAS/DAT and sedges. controlled.
2. Chlorimuron 0.004 20 – 25 Broad leaved weeds With 0.2 %
ethyl + DAS/DAT and sedges. Control surfactant.
Metsulfuron Marsilea quadrifolia
methyl and Sphehoclea
spp. also.
3. Carfentrazone 0.02 20 – 25 Broad leaved weeds Very effective
DAS/DAT and sedges. against Melochia
corchorifolia.
4. Ethoxysulfuron 0.015 20 DAS Broad leaved weeds
and sedges.
ii. Grass weeds
1. Cyhalofop 0.08 15 – 18 Control grass weeds Broad leaved
butyl DAS/DAT like Echinochloa spp., weeds and sedges
Sacciolepis spp., not controlled.
Leptochloa chinensis
2. Fenoxapro- 0.06 15 – 18 -Do- -Do-
pethyl DAS/DAT
RICE 25

iii. Broad spectrum

Sl. Herbicides Dose (Kg Time of Weeds controlled Remarks
No. a.i/ha application
1. Azimsulfuron 0.035 15 – 20 All types of weeds. Only partial control
DAS/DAT of Leptochloa
chinensis
2. Penoxsulam 0.025 15 – 20 All types of weeds. Only partial control
DAS/DAT of Leptochloa
chinensis
3. Bispyribac 0.025 15 – 20 All types of weeds Not effective against
sodium DAS/DAT except Leptochloa
Leptochloa chinensis. chinensis

1. Weed free seeds : Use seeds from weedy or sprinkling with a rose can or broadcasting
rice free areas. after mixing with sand. Allow the water in the
2. Stale seed bed technique: field to evaporate. After three to four days,
After land preparation, withhold sowing and when the standing water has evaporated,
allow the weedy rice seeds in the top layers broadcast pre germinated rice seeds.The
of the soil to germinate. After two weeks,
herbicide applied will prevent the emergence
when most of the seeds would have
germinated, destroy the germinated seedlings of weeds (including weedy rice) for about two
by ploughing the field or by spraying non weeks. Most of the rice seeds sown above
selective herbicides like glyphosate or this layer can germinate.
glufosinate ammonium @ 8 ml product/litre of 4. Direct contact application of herbicides
water. If time permits repeat the process once
to kill the earheads
again. When the seedlings starts yellowing
4-5 days after herbicide application, let in water Weedy rice produce earheads about
and flood the field to allow complete kill of the 10-15 days ahead of rice. The quick growth
emerged seedlings. just before flowering, results in about 15-30 cm
Drain the field after 10 days of flooding height difference between rice and weedy
and broadcast the germinated rice seeds, rice. Utilizing this, non selective herbicides like
without further ploughing. In fields with very glyphosate or glufosinate ammonium can be
severe infestation, skip the crop for one season
applied directly on to the earheads of weedy
and go for repeated stale seed bed operations
to exhaust the soil seed bank of weedy rice. rice, using the KAU Weed Wiper specially
3. Pre sowing herbicide application to designed for this purpose. Mix 100 ml of the
prevent the establishment of weedy herbicide (formulation of glyphosate or
rice seedlings glufosinate ammonium) in one litre of water.
After land preparation, drain the field to Care should be taken not to apply the herbicide
retain only a thin film of water. Apply on the leaves of rice. The earheads of weedy
oxyfluorfen @ 0.2 kg ai/ha either by spraying rice will dry within 5 days.
26 RICE

Above methods should be used alone or in Management

combination depending on the severity of 1. Collect egg masses from the nursery plants
infestation of weedy rice. and observe for parasitisation.
Management of Salvinia molesta
2. Cultivate tolerant/resistant varieties in
(African payal) endemic areas.
Trampling salvinia in situ in the wet lands 3. In areas where stem borer occurs as a
a week before transplanting will control the serious pest in all seasons, apply any one
weed and add to soil fertility. Herbicides of the following insecticides first
should be applied only in areas where 15-20 days after transplantation and then
protected drinking water supply is available at the boot leaf stage keeping minimum
Precaution while using herbicides water level: Cartap hydrochloride, Quinal-
(1) Apply herbicides at the recommended phos, Carbosulfan, Fipronil, Chlorantra-
dose and time. (2) Drain the field before niliprole, Flubendiamide, Indoxacarb,
Malathion or Spinosad.
herbicide application. (3) Re-flood after
48 hours to prevent further weed germination For eco friendly management of rice
when post emergent herbicides are used. For stem borer the following practices can be
pre-emergent herbicides, wait for a week adopted.
before re-flooding the field. (4) Use herbicide 4. Use sex pheromone for the control of rice
nozzle (flood jet / flat fan) for herbicide stem borer as detailed in Table 9.
application. (5) Move at uniform speed when
5. Bacillus thuringiensis @ 200g/ha, fish
applying herbicides. (6) Spray without gaps and
jaggery extract @ 6ml/l, Chitin based
overlapping. (7) Use 300-400 litres of water Pseudomonas @ 2.5kg/ha, Trichogramma
per hectare for spraying the herbicide. japonicum and T. chilonis each @ 1 lakh/
Pests and Diseases ha + Beauveria bassiana @10 gm/l,
Adopt control measures only if the pest / Azadirachtin 1% @ 750ml/ha.
disease population exceeds the economic Gall midge (Orseolia oryzae)
threshold levels which are given in
Symptoms
Table 8. A general guide for rice pest control
is given as Table 10. Presence of silver shoot is the symptom.
The symptom appears from the nursery to the
Pests flowering stage. However, in very young
Rice stem borer seedling the silver shoots are not always
expressed. Instead, a swelling at the basal
(Scirpophaga incertulas) portion and excess tillering are noticed.
Symptoms Management
In the vegetative phase, the central shoot 1. Use tolerant varieties like Pavithra,
Panchami and Uma.
dies off turning yellow in colour (dead heart).
In the ear bearing stage, the ear head appears 2. Avoid late transplantation during the first
completely chaffy and white in colour (white crop season.
ear head). Both come out easily when pulled 3. Careful monitoring of the crop seasons in
up and show indication of feeding injuries at the month of July during additional crop
the base. season and October during puncha season.
RICE 27

Table 8. Economic threshold levels (ETLs)

Crop stage and pest Economic threshold levels
A. Nursery
1. Green leaf hopper 1-2 insects/m 2
2. Gall midge 1 silver shoot (gall)/ m2
3. Stem borer 1 moth or 1 egg mass/ m2
4. Blast 5% disease severity
B. Planting to pre-tillering
1. Leaf folder 2 freshly damaged leaves/hill
2. Yellow stem borer 10% dead hearts or one egg mass or one moth / m2
3. Gall midge 1 gall/m2 in endemic areas or 5% affected tillers in
non-endemic areas.
4. Brown plant hopper 5 to 10 insects/hill
5. Green leaf hopper 10 insects/hill (in RTV endemic areas 21 insects/hill)
6. White backed plant hopper 10 insects/hill
7. Rice Hispa 2 adults or 2 damaged leaves/hill
C. Mid tillering
1. Leaf folder 2 freshly damaged leaves/hill
2. Stem borer 10% dead heart or 1 moth or 1 egg mass/ m2
3. Gall midge 10% silver shoots
4. Brown plant hopper 10 insects/hill
5. Green leaf hopper 10-20 insects/hill
6. Hispa 2 adults or 2 damaged leaves/hill
7. Blast Light (5-10% disease severity)
8. Bacterial blight Light (2-5% disease severity)
9. Sheath blight 10% or more affected tillers
10. Tungro 1 affected hill/ m2
D. Panicle initiation to booting
1. Stem borer 1 egg mass or 1 moth/ m2
2. Leaf folder 2 freshly damaged leaves/hill
3. Green leaf hopper 20 insects/hill
4. Brown plant hopper 15 to 20 insects/hill
5. White backed plant hopper 15 to 20 insects/hill
6. Blast 5 to 10% leaf area damaged
7. Bacterial blight Light to moderate (2-5% disease severity)
8. Sheath blight 10% or more tillers affected
E. Flowering and after
1. Brown plant hopper 25 to 30 insects/hill
2. Climbing cutworm 4-5 larvae/m2
3. Rice bug 1 or 2 bugs/hill
4. Blast 5% leaf area damaged or 1-2% neck infection
5. Sheath rot / brown spot / slight 2-5% tillers affected
panicle discolouration
6. Sheath blight 10% or more tillers affected
7. Stem borer 2% white ear head
Source : Manual on Integrated Pest Management in Rice, Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage
Note: (1) The population should be estimated on the basis of careful and regular surveillance.
(2) When natural enemies of brown plant hopper, green leaf hopper, stem borers and leaf folders are present,
application of chemicals can be delayed or dispensed with.
28 RICE

4. Use optimum seed rate of 100 kg ha-1 8. Nursery treatment has to be followed by
5. Destruction of collateral host like wild rice, main field treatment, 10-15 days after
Cynodon dactylon, Ischaemum aristatum, transplantation using carbosulfan 6 G/
Echinochloa spp. and Isachne sp. Chlorantraniliprole 0.4 G/Fipronil 0.3 G.
9. In areas where the pest is of regular
6. Dipping germinated seed in 0.2 per cent occurrence, apply chlorpyriphos 10G
chlorpyrifos solution for 3 h before sowing. (0.5 kg ai/ha) within 10 days after sowing.
7. In transplanted crop root dip seedlings in The granules should be broadcast in
0.02 per cent chlorpyrifos suspension for 2-3 cm of water and the field should be
12 h prior to planting. impounded for at least 4 days.

Table 9. Sex pheromone used for the control of rice yellow stem borer
Chemical name of the 2-(z)-9-hexadecanol 2-(z)-11-hexadecemol in 1:3 identified from
pheromone female moths
Sex attracted Male moths
Description of the trap Sleeve trap with pheromone loaded rubber septa
Uses Pest monitoring : Three traps can be fixed in a triangular fashion at
about 80 m apart
Mating confusion
Number of traps required/ha Twenty
Entomology Department, Directorate of Rice Research,
Rajendra Nagar, Hyderabad.
Pest Control India limited, Bio-control Research Laboratories P.O.
Box. 6426, Yelahanka P.O., Bengaluru-560 064 Karnataka
Ecomax Agrosystems 302, Faigha Plaza Basher Bagh, Hyderabad.
Sources of availability Dr. David Hall and Dr. Allen Cork, Natural Resources Institute, Kent
ME4, 4TB, United Kingdom.
The Managing Director, Som IPM System (India) Ltd., Plot No.101,
1 Floor, Srinagar Colony, Hyderabad.

Rice bug (Leptocorisa acuta)

Symptoms 3. Avoid overlapping cultivation in an Ela.
4. When the bug is seen in large numbers
Look for the presence of bug in the field apply Malathion.
during the early ear bearing stage. Due to
Note: Since the occurrence of the bug
desapping, grains show brownish discoloured
coincides with the flowering stage,
patches on the husk.
application of the insecticide may be
Management done either before 9 a.m. or after
1. Strict vigilance is necessary at milky 3 p.m. so that fertilization of the flowers
stage. is not adversely affected.
2. Keep the field and bunds free of weeds For eco friendly management of Rice bug
and grasses. the following practice can be adopted.
RICE 29

Fish jaggery extract @ 6ml/l, Chitin based very soon (hopper burn) and the yellowing and
Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 2.5kg/ha drying extend rapidly. Examine the plants as
Leaf folder (Cnaphalocrocis medinalis) soon as the yellowing appears. Presence of
the hoppers at the base of the plants confirms
Symptoms
the infestation. Very close planting leads to
The leaves of the plant are seen folded, enhanced attack.
rolled and often webbed together with white Management
patches on them indicating the areas fed by
1. Use tolerant varieties for cultivation.
caterpillar. When such folded leaves are
opened up, larvae can be seen. Shaded 2. Apply one of the following insecticides as
conditions and application of excess nitrogen soon as the yellowing symptom is observed,
are conducive for leaf folder attack. covering the infested patches and the areas
surrounding the patches: quinalphos,
Management acephate, thiamethoxam, phosalone,
1. Open up the leaf folds with the help of a buprofexin, ethofenprox and imidacloprid.
thorny twig. While spraying, care has to be taken to see
that the insecticides reach the base of the
2. Apply one of the following insecticides in plants.
the field where the symptoms of attack are 3. Drain away water from the field and keep
manifested: quinalphos, phosalone, it in that conditions until the pest population
acephate, flubendiamide, cartap hydro- dwindle.
chloride, indoxacarb, carbosulfan 6 G, 4. In Kuttanad tract, early planting of paddy
Chlorantraniliprole 0.4 G and dichlorvos. in September-October is advisable,
Note: In the initial stages restrict spraying to wherever possible.
infested patches only. The field may be 5. Allow alleways after every 3m rows.
sprayed completely in case the 6. Avoid spraying synthetic pyrethroids.
infestation occurs uniformly.
Rice case worm (Nymphula depunctalis)
For eco friendly management of Rice Leaf
folder the following practices can be practised. Symptoms

1. Trichogramma japonicum and T. chilonis Leaves of plants are eaten by the

each @ 1 lakh/ha + Beauveria bassiana caterpillars, which remain within small
@10 gm/l cylindrical cases and are seen hanging on the
leaves. It occurs in ill drained fields. The cases
2. Chitin based Pseudomonas @ 2.5kg/ha, may be seen floating on water also.
Bacillus thuringiensis @ 200g/ha, Fish
jaggery extract @ 6ml/l, Azadirachtin 1% Management
@ 750 ml/ha Drain away the water from the fields.
Brown plant hopper (Nilaparvata lugens) For eco friendly management of Rice
Symptoms Case worm the following can be practised.
Yellowish circular patches appear here and Chitin based Pseudomonas @ 2.5kg/ha-1,
there in field. The plants in these areas dry up Azadirachtin 1% @ 750 ml/ha-1
30 RICE

Rice swarming caterpillar are seen along the margins of leaves, which
(Spodoptera mauritia) may become deformed.
Symptoms Leaf hoppers (Nephotettix spp.)
It appears in the field sporadically and Symptoms
cyclically in large swarms and feed on crops
General yellowing of the leaves is seen, if
gregariously. The nursery and early stages of
the attack is severe. When the plants are
the crop are attacked leaving the plant as mere
disturbed, the jassids are seen jumping out.
stumps.
Management
Management
Apply quinalphos, imidacloprid if needed.
Flood the field as soon as the caterpillars
are noticed. Rice mealy bug (Brevennia rehi)
Rice hispa (Dicladispa armigera) Symptoms
Symptoms Weak yellowish stunted plants are seen in
The adults feed on the green tissues of the patches. White waxy fluff is seen in leaf
leaves and the feeding scars appear as short sheaths.
white lines on the leaf surface. The grubs mine Management
the leaves causing formation of white blotches.
Early stages of the crop are more susceptible. Dimethoate 0.05 per cent is effective in
Rice thrips (Stenchaetothrips biformis) controlling the pest.
Symptoms Rice root nematode (Hirschmanniella
oryzae)
The crop is highly susceptible in the nursery
stage for the first 23-25 days after Symptoms
transplanting/sowing. The tips of leaves get Infests paddy roots and make them partially
rolled longitudinally into needle like outgrowths hollow. Feeding adversely affects absorption
and turn whitish. In severe cases, the lower of water and nutrients. Plants show stunted
leaves also turn yellowish. The infestation may growth in patches. Tiller production is affected.
be rated as mild, if there is less than three
needle like leaves and as severe, if there are Management
more than three outgrowths with the lower Dip the roots of seedlings in 0.2 per cent
leaves also showing chlorosis and scorching. dimethoate for six hours before transplanting
in tracts where nematode attack is detected.
Management
In severe infestations, apply DDVP 100 per Rice cyst nematode
cent EC/AF 250 ml/ha or dimethoate or (Heteroderaoryzicola)
quinalphos or phenthoate (EC/AF formulation). The cyst nematode occurs in various
proportions in certain areas of the State. The
Whorl maggots (Hydrellia philippina)
symptoms of infestation include leaf chlorosis,
Infestation is common in the nurseries and stunting and reduction in the number of leaves,
in the main fields up to six weeks after earhead length etc. In seriously affected
transplantation. Yellowish patches and streaks patches, yield is substantially reduced.
RICE 31

Table 10. Insecticide guide for rice pest control

Sl.
Insecticide *Dosage Insect controlled
No.
1 2 3 4
1. Acephate 800 g of 75 SP per ha Rice leaf folder, Brown plant hopper
2. Carbosulfan 17 kg of 6 G per ha Rice stem borer, Gall midge and leaf folder
3. Cartap hydro- 25 kg of 4 G per ha Rice stem borer and leaf folder.
chloride
4. Cartap hydro- 1kg of 50 SP per ha Rice stem borer and leaf folder.
chloride
5. Chlorpyriphos 0.2% suspension Germinated seed dip for 3 hrs. against gall
midge
0.02% suspension Seedling root dip for 12 hrs. against gallmidge
6. Dichlorovos or 500 ml of 100 EC/AF per ha Rice leaf folder, BPH, thrips
DDVP
7. Dimethoate 0.2% suspension For seedling dip against rice nematode
0.05% suspension For foliar application against thrips
8. Flubendiamide 125 g of 20 WDG per ha Rice stem borer, whorl maggot and leaf
folder
9. Flubendiamide 50 ml of 480 SC per ha Rice stem borer, whorl maggot and leaf
folder
10. Imidacloprid 150 ml of 200 SL per ha Brown plant hopper
11. Indoxacarb 200 ml of 15.8 EC per ha Rice stem borer, whorl maggot, leaf folder
and blue beetle.
12. Malathion 1000 ml of 50 EC/ AF per ha Rice stem borer, whorl maggot and rice bug
13. Phosalone 1000 ml of 35 EC/AF per ha Brown plant hopper
14. Quinalphos 1000 ml of 25 EC / AF Rice stem borer, brown plant hopper, gall
per ha midge, rice leaf folder and rice jassids
15. Spinosad 100 ml of 45 SC per ha Rice stem borer, whorl maggot and leaf
folder
16. Thiamethoxam 100 g of 25 WG per ha Brown plant hopper
17. Flubendiamide + 210g a.i./ha (875ml/ha) Rice stem borer, leaf folder and
Buprofezin brown plant hopper
24% SC
18. Chloranthrinili- 150 ml /ha Rice stem borer, leaf folder and whorl
prole 18.5 SC maggot

19. Chlorantranil- 10 kg/ha Rice stem borer, gall midge and leaf folder
prole 0.4G
32 RICE

1 2 3 4
20. Fipronil 0.3G 10 kg/ha Rice gall midge

21. Carbosulfan 6G 8 kg/ha Rice stem borer, gall midge and leaf folder

22. Buprofezin 20 SL 800 ml/ha Brown Plant Hopper

23. Ethofenprox 10% EC 750 ml/ha Brown Plant Hopper

* Dosage applies to the crop stage of booting and beyond. For early stages the quantity of
insecticides can be reduced

SP = Soluble Powder; DP = Dustable Powder; G = Granule; EC = Emulsifiable Concentrate;

AF = Aqua Flowable; WP = Wettable Powder; S = Sprayable suspension SL = Soluble Liquid
SC = Suspension Concentrate; WDG = Water Dispersible Granule.

Note : Diseases
1. Sub-lethal concentration of insecticides A guide on control of rice diseases has been
may lead to pest resurgence. included as Table 11.
2. Granular application is recommended only Fungal diseases
upto the booting stage.
Blast (Pyricularia grisea)
3. Spot application method should be resorted
to wherever possible Major symptoms of the disease are leaf
blast and neck blast. Sometimes nodal infection
4. Use 200, 300 and 500 1/ha of spray fluid
is also seen.
at 10, 25, 45 DAT or 30, 45, 60 DAS
respectively for high volume spray Symptoms on leaves appear as spindle
equipment. shaped water soaked greyish green spots,
5. When low volume spray equipment is used which gradually enlarge in size and develop to
the spray fluid can be limited to 90, 120, spots with grey centre and brown margin.
180 1/ha, but the quantity of insecticide Such spots coalesce together resulting in drying
should remain the same as used in high up of the leaves and collapse of the entire plant.
The fungus infects the nodes of the stem and
volume spray 200, 300 and 500 1/ha
the neck of the panicle causing dark brown to
respectively.
black lesions resulting in rotten nodes and necks
6. Waiting periods for quinalphos and which subsequently result in node blast and
malathion are 7 and 3 days respectively. neck blast respectively. This will also lead to
7. In regions where BPH is a regular pest breaking of the stem at the nodal region and
avoid the application of the following the panicle at the neck region. The grains will
insecticides due to the chances of be partially filled or unfilled. If the panicle is
resurgence to synthetic pyrethroids and infected before grain filling stage, the entre
quinalphos. panicle will be chaffy.
RICE 33

Sheath blight (Rhizoctonia solani) spots which later develop into a lesion with
Symptoms first appear on the lower leaf dark brown margin and grey center. The young
sheath near the water level as oval, oblong or panicle remains inside the sheath or rather
irregular greenish grey spots, which enlarge chocked and emerge only partially. The grains
and become greyish white with brown margin. become chaffy. A white powdery growth of
Under favouarble conditions, the disease the fungus can be seen on the surface of rotten
spread to the leaves also. Irregular greenish
sheath particularly inside the sheath.
grey lesions with dark brown margins develop
on leaves. Under humid conditions, white False smut (Ustilaginoidea vireus)
mycelial growth of the fungus as well as
initially white and later brown sclerotia of the The symptoms visible only after flowering
fungus loosely attached to the affected portion when infected grains get transformed to yellow
are also seen.
to orange spore balls, which later turns to dark
Brown spot (Helminthosporium oryzae) green or black.
On the leaves small definite spots of oval Udbatta (Ephelis oryzae)
or oblong shape and dark brown colour are
formed. On susceptible varieties, spots are Whole panicle transformed into a cylindrical
larger in size and are having light brown or rod covered with white mycelia. Later they
grey center with dark reddish brown margin. become hard bearing many black dots.
The symptoms also appear on glumes as black
oval or oblong spots or whole surface of the Foot rot (Fusarium moniliformae)
grain turn black and velvety.
Drying of leaves and leaf sheath,
Narrow brown spot (Cercospora oryzae) discolouration of lower nodes and adventitous
Numerous narrow linear short brown spots root formation are the major symptoms. Plants
are formed on the leaves. turn pale yellowish green, thin and some times
show abnormal elongation or rot in patches in
Stack burn (Alternaria padwickii)
the field.
Symptoms appear on leaves as large oval
or circular dark brown lesions with narrow Bacterial diseases
distinct margins. On the affected grains pale
brown to whitish spots with dark brown margin Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas oryzae p v.
bearing black dosts in the center are formed. oryzae)

Leaf scald (Rhynchosporium oryzae) Bacterial blight is characterised by two

phases of infection namely viz. Kresek and
Lesions with typical zonations with dark
coloured wavy lines usually start from the tip leaf blight. Kresek is drying or wilting of the
of the leaves and extend downwards or arise whole plant. It affects the crop in early stages
from the margin and advance inside. of growth in nurseries and upto 3-4 weeks
after transplanting. The infected leaves
Sheath rot (Sarocladium oryzae) become grayish green and begin to roll along
The fungus infects the leaf sheath enclosing the midrib and dry, In severe cases, the
the panicle causing oblong or irregular brown affected hills may be completely killed.
34 RICE

Leaf blight symptom start as water soaked a) Apply neem cake-coated urea as
lesions on the tip of the leaves and increases recommended under fertilizer appli-
in length downwards along the margins. lnitially cation.
the lesions are pale green in colour and later
turn into yellow to straw coloured stripes with b) Apply 50 per cent more potash than
wavy margins. Occasionally the linear lesions normal recommended dosage in split
may develop any where on the leaf lamina or application.
along the midrib with or without marginal c) Control weeds as suggested under
stripes. Lesions may cover the entire leaf weed control.
blade. The bacterial blight disease can be
confirmed by ooze test. Cut the affected plants 5. For control of sheath rot, spray the
at the base and dip it in a glass of water and fungicides at the time of panicle
hold it against the light for few minutes without emergence.
shaking. From the cut ends white milky
6. In organic farming, for the management of
bacterial ooze will come out as streams.
sheath blight of rice, spray Azadirachtin
Bacterial leaf streak 0.03 per cent EC or Azadirachtin 0.15 per
(Xanthomonas oryzae p v. oryzicola) cent w/w @ 2.5 litres ha-1 at the time of
first disease appearance.
Narrow brownish yellow translucent
interveinal lines joining to form large dirty white 7. Spraying of recommended fungicide,
patches. preferably dithio carbamate before the
heading stage of the crop may be followed
Note :
for the control of false smut and leaf scald
1. Spray fresh cowdung extract for the control diseases. Wherever control measures are
of bacterial blight. Dissolve 20 g cowdung adopted for sheath blight and sheath rot
in one litre of water; allow to settle and diseases, separate fungicide spraying is
sieve. Use supernatant liquid. not needed for the control of leaf scald
and false smut. Use 500 litres of water for
2. Application of bleaching powder @ 5 kg
high volume spraying and 200 litres for low
ha-1 in the irrigation water is recommended
volume spraying. It is advisable to use
for preventing the spread of bacterial leaf
different fungicies recommended on a
blight particularly in the kresek stage.
rotational basis than using the same
3. Before application of antibiotics for the fungicide continuously.
control of bacterial blight, confirm the
disease by observing the bacterial ooze. Rice glume discolouration disease:
Spraying commercially available carbendazim
4. For control of sheath blight and sheath rot 12% + mancozeb 63% @ 750g ha-1 is effective
the following prophylactic measures may in controlling Glume discolouration disease in
be adopted. rice at the time of panicle emergence.
RICE 35

Table 11. Chemicals used for the control of rice diseases

Foliar Sprays
A. Contact fungicides
Sl. No. Chemical Dosage Disease controlled

1. Mancozeb 75 WP 2 kg ha-1 Leaf spot diseases but more

specifically used against brown leaf spot

2. Thiophanate 50 WP 500 g ha-1 Sheath blight and blast

3. Copper hydroxide 77 WP 1000 g ha-1 For false smut disease control at the
time of 50% flowering stage,
Sheath rot and glume discolouration
4. Propineb 50 WP 1.25 kg ha-1 Glume discolouration, Brown spot
5. Pencycuron 250 SC 750 ml/ha Sheath blight
6. Propineb 50 WP 1.25 kg/ha Brown spot
B. Systemic fungicide
1. Iprobenphos 48 EC 500 ml ha-1 Blast and sheath blight
2. Carbendazim 50 WP 500 g ha-1 Sheath blight and sheath rot
3. Carboxin 75 or 80 WP 500 g ha-1 Sheath blight and sheath rot
4. Hexaconazole 5 EC 800 - 1000 ml ha -1 Sheath blight, brown spot and glume
discolouration
5. Propiconazole 25 EC 500 ml ha-1 Sheath blight
6. Carpropamid 27.8 SC 500 ml ha-1 Blast
7. Isoprothiolane 40 EC 750 ml ha -1 Blast
8. Propiconazole 25 EC 500 ml ha-1 False smut disease control at the time
of panicle emergence stage
9. Trifloxystrobin 200 g ha-1 Brown spot and glume discolouration
25% + Tebuconazole 50% Blast and sheath blight.
10. Hexaconazole 1000 g ha-1 Sheath blight
5 WG
11. Tebuconazole 250 EC 750 ml ha-1 Blast and sheath blight
12. Fluzilazole 40 EC 250 ml ha-1 Sheath blight

C. Antibiotics (systemic)
1. Aureofungin sol 60 g ha-1 Blast and brown leaf spot
2. Streptocycline 150 g 300 l ha
-1 -1 -1 Bacterial blight, bacterial leaf streak
3. Validamycin 3% 1000 ml 500 l ha-1
-1 -1
Sheath blight
liquid
36 RICE

D. Biocontrol
Use biocontrol agents, Trichoderma viride and Pseudomonas fluorescens for the management of
sheath blight of rice.
Prophylactic application of talc based formulation of Trichoderma viride as - Seed treatment
(10 g kg-1 seed) + Soil application (2.5 kg ha-1 ) one week after transplanting + Foliar spray (10g l-1)
after one month is effective for the management of sheath blight for upland rice.
Prophylactic application of talc based formulation Pseudomonas fluorescens as - Seed treatment
(10 g kg-1 seed) + Soil application (2.5 kg ha-1) one week after transplanting + Foliar spray (10g l-1) one
month after transplanting is effective for the management of blast, sheath blight, brown spot, sheath
rot, glume discolouration and bacterial blight of rice.
E. Bio Pesticides for Sheath blight control :
Spray Neem formulations Azadirachtin 0.15 per cent WSP@ 2.5 l ha-1 or Azadirachtin 0.03 per cent EC
@ 2.5 l ha -1 at the time of Sheath blight disease occurrence

Hints for reducing cost of cultivation to make the best use of it, at tillering and
seven days before panicle initiation.
1. Grow a green manure crop like daincha
in April-May in areas where the virippu 8. When the field preparation and planting
crop is usually transplanted. are done on rainy seasons, postpone the
application of the basal dose of nitrogen
2. If Azolla is available, this may be applied to the early tillering stage (10 days after
instead of green leaf or FYM at 5t ha-1. planting).
3. Puddle and level the field thoroughly. This 9. Use of Leaf Colour Chart (LCC): The
will help to reduce the cost of weed leaf colour chart (LCC) is an instant, easy
control and also the loss of water and and low cost technique for N diagnosis
nutrients through percolation. of current crop and N topdressing in rice.
The uppermost fully opened leaf of the
4. Maintain optimum plant density per unit
primary tiller has to be taken for
area, i.e., 50 hills/m2 for medium duration
observation. Ten hills are selected at
varieties and 67 hills/m2 for early duration random for an area of 400 sqm and thus
varieties. 10 leaves form the sample size. The leaf
5. Plant the seedlings shallow (3-4.5 cm), colour is compared with LCC and the
as shallow planting increases the tillering readings are taken. The average of 10
of seedlings. readings gives the LCC value of the plot.
Observation is taken at 10 days interval
6. Control the weeds during the vegetative from 20 days after transplanting or 25
phase itself. One weeding thoroughly on days after sowing upto heading. If the
the 30th day after sowing is ideal. Use threshold value is less than 4, N@ 25-30
herbicides for weed control, wherever it kg/ha is recommended for application.
is cheaper than hand weeding. If the inherent soil N is low, basal N @
7. Under good management practices (vide 25-30 kg ha-1 is to be applied.
item 1-6) reduce the dose of fertilizer N 10. When the amount of available N is limited,
to half the present recommended level. apply it 7 days before panicle initiation.
Apply the fertilizer when the plant is able This is the best time for top dressing N.
RICE 37

11. Adopt agronomic practices for increasing 8. Seedbed may be mulched, preferably
fertilizer use efficiency such as: (a) using green leaves.
Incorporating ammoniacal N in the 9. Sprinkle water over the seedbed for four
reduced zone in the soil (b) Incubating days twice daily and keep soil in saturated
urea with moist soil (1:6) for 24 hours condition. Never allow mat to dry up.
(c) Blending urea with neem cake.
10. On 4th day remove the mulch and keep
12. Choose fertilizer materials, which are standing water to a height of 3/4 th of
cheaper, e.g. urea is cheaper than seedling height. Keep this condition till
ammonium sulphate; rock phosphate is the end of nursery period.
cheaper than superphosphate.
11. Closely observe the nursery for pest and
13. Apply phosphatic and potash fertilizers disease attack and adopt control
once in two seasons in areas where there measures, if required.
is no marked response for these
nutrients. 12. When seedlings reach a height of
150 mm, mat is ready for transplanting.
14. Adopt integrated pest management
against insect pests and diseases. 13. Drain the required mat area 6-12 hours
before cutting for feeding into the
15. Harvest the crop at optimum moisture
content in order to avoid loss due to transplanter trays.
shedding and also for improving the 14. Cut the mat strips 225 mm wide and
recovery of rice. 450 mm long to match the measurements
Mechanical Transplanting in Rice of the transplanter trays.
A. Mat Nursery Preparation 15. Do not allow nursery to over grow. Over
growing will lead to entanglement of
1. Use very thin polythene sheet.
seedlings with fingers of transplanter and
2. Select nursery area near to the main field clogging of fingers due to thick and hard
mat of roots.
3. Cow dung powder may be incorporated
@ one third volume of the puddled soil B. Main field
and spread over the sheet at a thickness
of 10-15 mm. 1. Prepare the main field adequately,
without clods and stubbles interfering with
4. The sheet may be spread after leveling functioning of finger.
the nursery area.
2. Prepare main field sufficiently early to
5. Form small bunds along the boundaries avoid floating of puddle while transplanter
of the polythene sheet, after spreading it, is working.
to impound water.
3. Final preparation may be done on the day
6. Mat nursery may be of 900mm width and of transplanting in case of sandy loam
convenient length. soil, but may be done 3-4 days prior to
7. Just sprouted seeds (4th day of soaking) planting in case of clayey soils, depending
may be uniformly spread over the mat upon settling time of the puddle to
area @ 0.4 to 0.6kg m-2. consolidate.
38 RICE

4. A thin film of water only is needed in the the field so that the parasites that emerge can
main field at the time of transplanting. establish in the field effectively.
(Too much water in the field will lead to
floating of seedlings and too dry condition IPM Package:
to non-anchoring of seedlings). • Seedling treatment with Pseudomonas
5. Main field should have irrigation and florescens
drainage facility. • Nursery drenching with cartap hydro-
6. Wetting of mat may be required while chloride @ 1kg a.i./ha
transplanter is in operation.
• Plant at a spacing of 20 x 15cms
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) in • Provision of alleyways at every 3m rows
rice
• Mass trapping with pheromone traps @
The indiscriminate use of pesticides for pest
8 traps/acre for yellow stem borer
control has led to disturbances in natural
ecosystem leading to resurgence of pests, • Release of egg parasitoids Tricho-
secondary pests outbreak, toxic hazards and gramma japonicum for stem borer and
residues besides environmental pollution. T.chilonis for leaf folder
This has led to major emphasis on Integrated
Pest Management and gained greater • Spray with azadirachtin1% at 15, 30, 45
momentum. Integrated Pest Management and 60 DAT
programmes promote favourable, ecological, Trichogramma chilonis and Tricho-
economic and sociological outcome, which is
gramma japonicum are egg parasitoids which
accomplished by the best mix of pest control
effectively control egg mass of leaf roller, stem
tactics. The use of appropriate scouting tactics,
borer, skippers and cutworms. The parasitoids
proper diagnosis of pest, the use of economic
thresholds and conservation of naturally have to be released 15-30 days after
occurring biocontrol agents are fundamental transplantation or 25-30 days after sowing or
components of a sound Integrated Pest immediately after noticing moth activity in the
Management programme. The use of chemical field. The release rate is 1 lakh parasitoids/ha
is restricted. It is used only if it is absolutely of both size (5cc ha-1). The release has to be
essential based on surveillance. The important carried out at weekly intervals. The trichocard
components in the IPM are the use of tolerant/ have to be cut into small pieces (minimum 10
resistant varieties, regulating planting density, pieces) and released in main field, 6-8 releases
adjusting the time of planting / sowing, group is necessary to control the pest.
farming practices, cultural management of
Precaution : If larval attack is observed in
pests, integrated nutrient management,
the field, necessary organic/inorganic
removal of weeds, use of botanical pesticides
and preservation of natural enemies. A list of insecticides have to be used and a gap of
common natural enemies of rice pests is given 7 days has to be given before next release.
as Table 12. For the preservation of natural The trichocards have to be placed during early
enemies, collect the egg masses of pests in morning or late evening hours and should not
perforated polythene bags and keep them in come in direct contact with sunlight.
RICE 39

Table 12. Common natural enemies of insect pests found in rice ecosystem
Description of biocontrol agents
A. Predators
Characters Pest attacked
1 2 3
Spiders Female lays 200-800 eggs in life-time of Leaf and plant hoppers,
1. Wolf spider 3-4 months. Both nymphs and adults leaf feeding caterpillars and
2. Lynx spider are voracious feeders. It consumes 5-15 insect adult stem borers.
3. Jumping spider pests in a day depending up on the size.
4. Long jawed spider
5. Dwarf spider
6. Orb spider
Damsel and Multi-coloured with transparent narrow wings. Stem borers, hoppers and
dragon flies Nymphs are aquatic and can climb up rice stems other flying insects.
to search food. Adults fly normally below the
rice canopy in search of flying insects.
Mirid bugs Adults are green and black at the shoulder. Leaf hoppers and plant
Nymphs are greenish. They can consume hoppers.
7-10 eggs or 1-5 hoppers a day.
Water bugs Broad shouldered adults can be either winged Plant hopper and other
or wingless. Each female lays 20-30 eggs in rice small soft-bodied insects.
stumps above the water level. Life span 1-2
months. Winged adults disburse when rice
plants dry up.
Water treaders They are solitary feeders Stem borer larvae and
hoppers that fall on water
surface.
Water striders Each strider takes 5-10 prey daily. They live for Rice hoppers, moth and
1-1.5 month; lay 10-30 eggs. larvae that fall on the
water surface
Ground beetle Hard bodied insects. Larvae are shiny black and Plant hoppers and larvae of
adults are reddish brown. Active predators, which leaf folders.
pupate in the soil. Consume 3-5 larvae /day.
Rove beetle 7mm long with short elytra and blue tip of ab- Leaf hoppers, plant hop-
domen. Found on rice plant, water and ground pers and larvae of leaf
surface; active during night. folder and hairy caterpillar.
Lady bird beetles Active during daytime. Found in the upper half of Plant hoppers.
rice canopy. Feed on small and slow moving
prey as well as on exposed eggs. Grubs are more
voracious than adults and consume 5-10 prey.
Produce 150-200 offsprings in 6-10 weeks.
Crickets, Sword Egg predators. Eggs of stripped borer, leaf
tailed crickets folder, armyworm and nymph of
plant hoppers and leaf hoppers.
40 RICE

1 2 3
Grass-hoppers, Distinguished from true grasshoppers by its Eggs of rice bug and stem
Meadow grass long antennae, which are more than twice as borer, nymphs of plant
hoppers long as its body length. Active at night and hoppers and leaf hoppers
abundant in older fields. Can consume 3-4
yellow stem borer egg masses per day.
B. Parasitoids
1. Egg parasitoids
Trichogramma Dark coloured tiny insects. Female wasp lays Stem borers and leaf
japonicum 20-40 eggs in the host egg. Development from folders.
Telenomus chilonis egg to adult stage takes 10-40 days.
Tetrastychus sp.
Gonatocerus sp. Brown to dark yellowish brown tiny wasp. Plant hoppers and leaf
Anagris sp. Females can reproduce without mating. hoppers.
Adults live 6-7 days and parasitise on an
average 8 eggs/day.
2. Larval parasitoids
Cotesia sp. Dark coloured wasp. Lives for 4-7 days. Larvae feeding on stem,
Stenobracon sp. leaf and other parts of
Macrocentrus sp. rice plant.
Xanthopimpla sp.
Charops sp.

C. Birds convenient length, twisted at every 1 m

length scares away the depredatory birds.
a. Install artificial nesting sites viz., wooden
nest boxes in the rice fields (@ 12 nests Effective and eco-friendly pest manage-
ha-1) for colonization by cavity nesting birds ment in wet land rice ecosystem
(magpie robin, common myna, barn owl,
etc.) which play a vital role in managing a 1. Cultivate tolerant varieties.
variety of insect and non-insect pests. The 2. Monitor the field at least at weekly
nest boxes should be installed at a height intervals.
more than 8 feet on wooden pole, tree
3. Pest and natural enemy population should
trunk, etc.
be monitored for deciding spraying
b. Installation of bird perches @ 50 ha- 1 schedule.
increases the activity of insectivorous birds
and reduces the pest population in rice 4. Spraying should be avoided during the
fields. The perches should have a minimum reproductive phase.
height of 75 cm above the crop canopy for 5. Spot application of insecticide may
better visibility for the birds. be adopted in heavily infested
c. Tying metalised reflective ribbon @ pockets to control further spread
20 - 25 rolls ha-1 at 75 cm above the canopy of the pest and to conserve the existing
of the vulnerable stage of the crop on natural enemy population in rice
bamboo poles, 2.5 – 3.0 m apart at ecosystem.
RICE 41

Multi species integration in rice inundated after rice harvest and fishes are
released to the expanded water body. The left
Multi species integration is recommended over paddy straw on decomposition generate
in Kuttanad wetlands to the tune of 10000 abundant food material in addition to the duck
fishes, 750 broiler ducks and 3-5 male manure flowing down from the nursery pond.
buffaloes/annum/ha. Rice season is June- The fish species composition of grass carp and
October. Fish fingerlings are stocked cyprinus is capable of feeding aquatic weeds
simultaneously in nursery ponds dug nearby. and detritus straw. The field bottoms are tilled
Fish species composition of grass carp, rohu during foraging. The fishes are harvested prior
and mrigal at 2:1:1 @10000 per ha. Broiler to the next paddy season. Rice fields require
ducklings variety Vigoa @ 125-150/ha are no land preparation and preliminary weeding
grown in duck houses erected over the fish if the plant stand establishment is taken up
pond simultaneously. Ducklings are fed with within one week after the fish harvest. The
formulated feed. Spilled over feed and paddy straw and wild grass available is
excrements of duck fertilize the fish ponds. sufficient to grow 3-5 male buffaloes for meat
The ducklings are grown for 45-50 days and purpose. This farming system is capable to
attain 2.5 - 3 kg. On an annuity basis 5-8 produce 6-8 tons of paddy grain, 1.8 to 2.25
batches of broiler ducks can be reared. Duck tons of broiler duck, 2.5 to 3 tons of fish and
excrements to the tune of 9-10 tons are 450 to 500 kg beef meat/ha/annum. Other major
recycled in this way. Paddy harvest will be rice cropping systems of Kerala are included
over in 120-125 days. Paddy fields are as Table 13.

Table 13. Cropping pattern / system

General Rice Rice Fallow

Rice Rice Vegetable/pulses/oil seeds/
green manure
Kuttanad Water fallow Water fallow Rice
Rice Rice Water fallow
Onattukara Rice Rice Oil seed/green manure
Kole / Kaippad Water fallow Rice Water fallow
Water fallow Rice Rice
Water fallow Water fallow Rice
Pokkali Rice Fish / prawn —
High ranges Rice Rice Fallow
42 MAIZE AND SORGHUM

MAIZE (Zea mays)

Maize can be grown throughout the year season crop. For irrigated crop, beds are
at altitude ranging from sea level to about 300 m. prepared. Here, seeds are sown in lines and
Maize grows best in areas with rainfall of 600- earthed up later in to small ridges to form fur-
900 mm. It requires fertile, well-drained soil rows when the crop reaches knee height.
with a pH ranging from 5.5-8.0, but pH 6.0-
Manuring
7.0 is optimum.
Season Apply FYM/compost @ 25 t ha-1 at the
time of preparation of land. The recommended
As a rainfed crop, maize is grown in fertilizer dose is 135 kg nitrogen, 65 kg phos-
June-July or August-September. The irrigated phorus and 15 kg potash per ha. Apply full
crop is raised in January-February. dose of phosphorus and potash and 1/3 dose
Varieties of nitrogen as basal. Apply 1/3 nitrogen,
30-40 days and the rest 60-70 days after
Hybrids: Ganga Hybrid-1, Ganga Hybrid- sowing.
101, Deccan hybrid, Renjit, Hi-Starch.
Composite varieties: Kissan Composite, After cultivation
Amber, Vijay, Vikram, Sona, Jawahar. Hand hoeing and weeding on the 21st and
Seeds and sowing 45th day after sowing.

Seed rate: 20 kg ha-1 Irrigation

Plough the land three times and prepare Irrigate the crop on the day of sowing and
ridges and furrows. Dibble one seed per hole on third day. Subsequent irrigations may be
at a spacing of 60 cm x 23 cm for the rainy given at 10-15 days intervals.

SORGHUM (Sorghum bicolor)

Sorghum is a plant of hot and warm Varieties

localities. The optimum temperature for growth
Co.1, Co-10, Co-12, Co-17, K-1, K-2
is 30oC and it needs about 250-400 mm rainfall.
Hybrids - CSH-1 to CSH-4, Co-11, Co-1
Excess moisture and prolonged drought are
harmful. It is fairly tolerant to alkalinity and Seeds and sowing
salinity. Seeds are sown @ 12-15 kg ha-1. Dibble
two seeds/hole, at a spacing of 45 x 15 cm.
Seasons
Manuring
Rainfed crop : May-August
For both irrigated and rainfed crops FYM /
Irrigated crop : January-April compost may be applied @ 5 t ha-1.
SORGHUM AND RAGI 43

Fertilizers may be applied as follows: nitrogen in two equal splits, half as basal and
Nutrients / ha Irrigated crop Rainfed crop the rest 30 days after sowing.
N 90 kg 45 kg After cultivation
Thinning, weeding and hoeing may
P2O5 45 kg 25 kg
be done on the 20th day after sowing.
K2O 45 kg 25 kg Irrigation
Apply FYM and entire quantity of phos- Irrigate the crop on the day of sowing and
phorus and potash as basal dose. Apply thereafter at 10 days interval.

RAGI (Eleusine coracana)

Ragi is suited for cultivation in areas with m2 is necessary to raise seedlings for one hect-
annual rainfall of 700-1200 mm. It does not are. Transplant the seedlings when they are
tolerate heavy rainfall and requires a dry spell three weeks old.
at the time of grain ripening. It grows well in Manuring
altitudes of 1000-2000 m with average tem- Plough the field 3-4 times and incorporate
perature of 27ºC. Ragi is cultivated mostly in FYM or compost 5 t ha-1. Apply nitrogen, phos-
red lateritic soils. Relatively fertile and well phorus and potash @ 22.5 kg ha-1 each
drained soils are the most suitable. before sowing or planting. Topdress
Seasons nitrogen @ 22.5 kg ha-1 21 days after sowing
Ragi is not a season bound crop and hence or planting.
can be cultivated throughout the year, if mois- After cultivation
ture is available. It is usually grown Weeding should be done three weeks
during the following seasons. after sowing and completed before top
Main season : June-September dressing.
Late season : July-October Irrigation
Summer : Dec-Jan to March-April
Irrigate the field on the day of trans-
Varieties plantation. Irrigation at weekly intervals
PR-202, K-2, Co-2, Co-7, Co-8, Co-9, Co-10. increases growth rate and yield.
Seeds and sowing Plant protection
Seed rate The pink stem borer, which causes dead
Direct sown crop : 5 kg ha-1 heart symptoms, is often serious in the early
Transplanted crop : 4-5 kg ha-1 stages of the crop. Insecticidal control is not
Spacing : 25 x 15 cm needed for mild to moderate levels of infesta-
tion.
Prepare the nursery field to a fine tilth.
Incorporate FYM/compost 5 t ha - 1 and For controlling
-1
blast, spray mancozeb
form beds and channels. Sow seeds 750-1000 g ha .
uniformly on the beds and cover by stirring the Harvesting
soil. Apply carbaryl 10 per cent on the edges Harvest the crop when the ears are
of the beds against ants. One week before yellowish brown. Heap the harvested ears and
uprooting seedlings, apply ammonium sulphate cover the heaps with ragi straw for
@ of 1 kg per 100 m2. A nursery area of 480 2-3 days before threshing.

1
44 BLACK GRAM AND COWPEA

PULSES
BLACK GRAM (Vigna mungo)
Black gram can be grown in rice fallows Mixed crop - 6 kg ha-1
and uplands.
Spacing : 25 cm x 15 cm
Season
Sowing : Plough the land 2-3 times thoroughly
It can also be grown as pure or mixed crop and remove weeds and stubbles. For seed
throughout the year. treatment in black gram, two Rhizobium
Varieties cultures viz. KAU-BG-2 and BG-12 are
recommended.
T-9, Co-2, S-1, TAU-2, TMV-1, KM-2,
Syama and Sumanjana. Manuring
Variety T-9 is moderately tolerant to FYM 20 t ha-1 (as basal)
drought condition; CO-2 is photoinsensitive but
Lime 250 kg ha-1 (or dolomite 400 kg ha-1 )
susceptible to pests and diseases. S-1 is suitable
for pappad making. TAU-2 is suoited for N 20 kg ha-1
partially shaded condition in coconut garden
during rabi season in southern region; P2O 5 30 kg ha-1
TMV-1 and KM-2 are suited for Onattukara K 2O 30 kg ha-1
tract during late kharif; Syama is suited for
the summer rice fallow of Onattukara. Lime may be applied at the time of first
Sumanjana is high yielding and early maturing ploughing. Half the quantity of nitrogen, the
variety, suitable for summer rice fallows of whole of phosphorus and potash are applied
Trivandrum district. at the time of last ploughing. The remaining
10 kg nitrogen can be applied as foliar spray of
Seeds and Sowing
2 per cent urea solution in two equal doses on
Seed rate : Pure crop - 20 kg ha-1 the 15th and 30th day after sowing.

COWPEA (Vigna unguiculata)

Cowpea can be grown throughout the year 2. As a rainfed crop, sowing is done along
under Kerala conditions. It can be grown as a with pre-monsoon showers.
floor crop in coconut gardens where sufficient
solar radiation is available and as an intercrop 3. During the second crop season (rabi), i.e.,
in tapioca during May-Sept. It can be grown September to December, cowpea can be
as a pure crop in rice fallows during rabi and grown as a fringe crop along the rice field
summer seasons. bunds. Sowing can be done on either side
Season of bunds on the day of transplanting the
1. Cowpea can be grown during any season. paddy crop.
COWPEA 45

4. During summer, cowpea can be grown as Seed inoculation and pelleting

a pure crop in rice fallows after the harvest Cowpea seeds should be inoculated with
of paddy. Rhizobium and pelleted with lime. Rhizobium
Varieties cultures are available from the Assistant Soil
Chemist, Microbiological Laboratory, Soil
1. Grain type :
Testing Centre, Pattambi 679 306, Palakkad
C-152, S-488, Pusa Phalguni, P-118, Pusa District. The strains that are available at
Do Fasli, Krishnamony (PTB-2), V-240, Amba Pattambi are the two isolates (No.11 and
(V-16), GC-827, CO-3, Pournami (summer No.12) developed by the Kerala Agricultural
rice fallows) and Shubhra (suited for cultivation University.
in rice fallows during summer season in Procedure for seed inoculation
southern districts of Kerala), Sreya and Hridya
(Summer rice fallows of Onattukara). GC-3 The content of each packet of Rhizobium
and RC-101, DCS-47-1 (suited for rabi season). inoculant is sufficient for seeds to be sown in
the area indicated on the packet (250 to 375 g
2. Dual purpose type : ha-1). Use the inoculant only for the specific
Kanakamony (PTB 1), Anaswara and leguminous crop mentioned on the packet,
New Era before the expiry date. Do not expose the
3. As companion crop with tapioca : V-26 Rhizobium culture to direct sunlight or heat.
4. Floor crop : Gujarat V-118, CO-2 Mix the inoculant uniformly with the seeds by
using minimum quantity of water (instead of
Seeds and Sowing
water, either 2.5 per cent starch solution or
Seed rate kanjivellam of the previous day can be used
For grain and dual purpose type in order to ensure better stickiness of the
Broadcasting : 60-65 kg ha-1 inoculant with the treated seed material). Take
(45 kg ha for Krishnamony)
-1 care to avoid any damage to the seed coat.
Dry the inoculated seeds under shade over a
Dibbling : 50-60 kg ha-1
clean paper or gunny bag and sow immediately.
(40 kg ha-1 for Krishnamony)
The Rhizobium culture or the inoculated seeds
Spacing : 25 cm x 15 cm Dibbling two seeds should not be mixed with chemical fertilizers.
per hole
Procedure for lime pelleting
Bush : 30 cm X 15 cm
1. Add finely powdered (300 mesh) calcium
Trailing : 2 m X 2 m (on pandal @ three plants carbonate to moist fresh Rhizobium treated
per pit) seeds and mix for 1-3 minutes until each
Sowing seed is uniformly pelleted. Depending on
the seed size, the following quantity of lime
Soaking seeds in 500 ppm thiourea solution,
as required.
followed by two sprays of thiourea (one at
vegetative and another at flowering stage) Small seeds 1.0 kg/10 kg of seed
increased the yield of cowpea by Medium sized seeds 0.6 kg/10 kg of seed
26 per cent and net return by 50 per cent. Large sized seeds 0.5 kg/10 kg of seed
46 COWPEA

2. Spread out the pelleted seeds on a clean trailing on pandal or in channels at 1.5 m x 45 cm
paper to harden. Sow them as soon as spacing for trailing on trellis. If broadcasting
possible. However, lime pelleted seeds can is adopted, the seeds can be sown broadcast
be stored up to one week in a cool place over the field and channels drawn after sowing.
prior to sowing.
Sowing
Note:
Plough the land thoroughly 2-3 times and
1. Lime coating is required only for seeds that remove weeds and stubbles. Make channels
are to be sown in acid soils. of 30 cm breadth and 15 cm depth at 2 m apart
2. Ordinary agricultural lime is not good for to drain off excess rainwater.
pelleting because of its larger particle size. Manuring
Good quality high grade lime should be used.
FYM 20 t ha-1
3. Hydrated lime should not be used for
pelleting. Lime 250 kg ha-1(or dolomite 400 kg ha-1)

4. The dry pellet should be firm enough to N 20 kg ha-1

resist moderate pressure. It should appear P2O5 30 kg ha-1
dry without loose lime on its surface or in
K2O 10 kg ha-1
the container.
Lime may be applied at the time of the first
5. The lime-pelleted seeds can be mixed with
the fertilizer and sown. However, the period ploughing. Half the quantity of nitrogen, whole
of contact between fertilizer and the of phosphorus and potash may be applied at
pelleted seeds should be as short as the time of final ploughing. The remaining
possible. nitrogen may be applied 15-20 days after
sowing.
6. Pelleted seeds should not be sown into a
[Note: For vegetable cowpea grown as an
dry seedbed.
intercrop in the reclaimed alluvial soils of
Weed management : Pre-emergence Kuttanad, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash at
application (0-3 days after sowing) of the rate of 10, 20 and 10 kg ha - 1 are
Pretilachlor @ 0.75 kg a.i./ha recommended recommended. For vegetable cowpea,
to control grasses, sedges and broad leaved fertilizers can be applied in several split doses
weeds in cowpea. at fortnightly intervals.]
Spacing
After cultivation
For grain type and dual-purpose type, if
Hoeing at the time of application of the
dibbling is adopted, spacing of 25 cm between
second dose of nitrogen will give adequate
rows and 15 cm between plants is
recommended with two seeds per hole. For aeration to the soil and help the root system to
bush vegetable type, spacing of 30 cm between spread easily. For grain and dual-purpose
rows and 15 cm between plants is suitable. varieties, decapitation is found to be
For semi-trailing varieties, provide a spacing advantageous as the crop shows trailing
of 45 x 30 cm. Trailing varieties can be sown tendency. For vegetable types, provide trellis
in pits (@ 3 plants/pit) at 2 x 2 m spacing for or pandal for trailing.
COWPEA 47

Irrigation 10. Need based application of neem kernel

Giving two irrigations is highly beneficial; suspension (NKS) 5 per cent or
i.e., at 15 days after sowing and at the time of chlorpyriphos 0.05 per cent at 45 DAS in
flowering. Irrigation at the flowering stage the case of moderate incidence of
induces better flowering and pod set. A.craccivora, and a second spray using
Plant protection NSK 5% at 60 DAS if needed against
IPM package against major pests of pod bugs. Need based application of neem
cowpea kernel suspension (NKS) 5% or
flubendiamide 20 WG @ 50 g a.i/ha or
1. Burning of trash before sowing
chlorantraniliprole 18.5 SC @ 30 g ai/ha
2. Selecting healthy seeds or spinosad 45 SC @ 75 g a.i/ha or
3. Clean cultivation indoxacarb 14.5 SC @ 60 g a.i/ha at
4. Soil drenching with Bordeaux mixture moderate incidence of pod borers and
1 per cent wherever fungal diseases are second spray after 15 days if needed.
prevalent.
For protecting cowpea seeds against pests
5. Treating the seeds with rhizobium culture under storage conditions, smear the seeds with
@ 250 to 375 g ha-1 before sowing.
groundnut or coconut oil at 1.0 per cent.
6. Monitoring the field for incidence of pests/
population of natural enemies especially Spraying quinalphos 0.03 per cent at 60 DAS
at flowering stage (for Aphis craccivora, in the field along with treatment in storage with
epilachna beetles and pod borers) and at dried powdered rhiozome of Vayambu (Acorus
pod formation stage for pod bugs. calamus) 01kg/100kg seed.
7. Adoption of mechanical methods of pest
The root-knot nematode and reniform
control such as application of ash at
nematode associated with cowpea can be
10 DAS, keeping yellow sticky trap/
effectively managed by the application of neem
yellow pan tray, collection and destruction
and eupatorium leaves @ 15 t ha-1, two weeks
of infested leaves, flower buds and pods
and sweeping and destruction of the pests. before sowing.

8. Collection and release of potential natural Spray 1per cent Bordeaux mixture in early
enemies viz., grubs and adults of stages to protect the crop from fungal diseases.
Coccinella transversalis,Cheilo menes Anthracnose of cowpea
sexmaculatus,Harmonia octo maculata
and maggots of Ischiodon scutellare. (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum)

9. Spraying of neem oil emulsion 3 % or Causes water soaked lesions on leaves,

Dimethoate 2 ml/l-1 at the time of aphid which later become brown and enlarge to form
incidence. Need based application of circular spots. The infection may spread to
Lecani cillium lecanii @ 107 spores/ml the petiole and young stem also. Petiole
or Beauveria bassiana @ 107 spores/ml infection results in defoliation. For protecting
for the management of A. craccivora the crop from anthracnose, treat the seeds with
and pod bugs. carbendazim (0.05 per cent) and spray the crop
48 COWPEA AND FRENCH BEAN

with Bordeaux mixture 1 per cent or carbendazim cowpea can be managed with carbendazim
0.05 per cent. seed treatment (2g kg-1 of seed), drenching
(2g l -1 ) at 15 DAS and spraying (2g l -1)
Dry root rot of cowpea
at 30 DAS.
(Macrophomina phaseolina)
Fusarium wilt, root rot, web blight and
Infected plant suddenly wilts and dies. The collar rot of cowpea
bark of the root and basal stem becomes
fibrous. The disease appears in patches and * Trichoderma viride seed treatment
become severe during dry periods. Dry root (20 g kg-1 seed) + soil drenching (2%)at
20, 40 and 60 days after sowing (DAS)
rot can be managed by seed treatment with
Trichoderma viride @ 4g kg-1 of seed or * Soil drenching of cowdung slurry
carbendazim 1g kg-1 of seed or Psuedomonas supernatant 2% + Pseudomonas
fluorescens @ 10g kg-1 of seed or neem cake fluorescens 2% at 20, 40 and 60 days
soil application @ 20 kg ha-1. Dry root rot of after sowing (DAS)

FRENCH BEAN (Phaseolus vulgaris)

Light sandy-loam to clayey-loam soils with Sowing

good drainage are best suited for the crop.
Prepare land thoroughly by ploughing.
Season Raised beds are not essential for bush beans.
In the high ranges of elevation more than For pole beans, raised beds are
1000 m, this crop can be grown throughout advantageous. Spacing of 30 cm x 20 cm is
the year. The crop being susceptible to ground recommended.
frost in higher altitudes (above 1400 m),
adequate protection should be given during Manuring
January-February.
Apply basal dose of 20 t ha-1 of FYM and
Varieties N:P2O5:K2O @ 30:40:60 kg ha-1. Top dressing
There are two types of French beans viz., with 30 kg N ha-1 may be given 20 days after
pole beans and bush beans. sowing.

Pole beans : Kentucky Wonder After cultivation

Bush beans : Contender, Premier, YCD-1, Provide support, 1 to 1.5 m long for trailing
Arka Komal, Tender Green the plants. First weeding can be given
Seeds and sowing about 4 weeks after sowing and second
weeding will be essential 50 days later. Pods
Seed rate become ready for harvest in 50-60 days in the
case of bush beans and in 70-80 days for the
80 kg ha-1 for hills
pole beans. The average yield of green
50 kg ha-1 for plains pods is 8-10 t ha-1.
GREEN GRAM AND GREEN PEA 49

GREEN GRAM (Vigna radiata)

Green gram is grown as a pure crop in rice 2 m apart to drain off excess rain water during
fallows after the harvest of the first or second kharif season and provide irrigation during
crop of paddy. It can also be grown as a mixed summer season. The seeds may be sown
crop with tapioca, colocasia, yam and banana broadcast.
or as an intercrop in coconut gardens.
Manuring
Varieties
FYM 20 t ha-1 (as basal)
Philippines, Madiera, Pusa Baisakhi,
NP-24, Co-2, Pusa-8973 (Pusa-8973 is suited Lime 250 kg ha-1 or dolomite 400 kg ha-1
to the summer rice fallows of Onattukara;
N 20 kg ha-1
tolerant to pod borer; duration 66 days).
Seeds and sowing P 2O 5 30 kg ha-1

Seed rate K 2O 30 kg ha-1

Pure crop 20-25 kg ha-1 Lime may be applied at the time of first
Mixed crop 6 kg ha-1 ploughing. Half the quantity of N and the full
quantity of P2O5 and K2O may be applied at
Sowing the time of last ploughing. The remaining
Plough the land 2-3 times thoroughly and quantity of N (10 kg) can be applied as foliar
remove weeds and stubbles. Channels, spray of 2 per cent urea solution in two equal
30 cm broad and 15 cm deep, are drawn at doses on the 15th and 30th day after sowing.

GREEN PEA (Pisum sativum)

Green pea can be successfully grown in Seeds and sowing

altitudes above 1000 m in the cool season. Adopt seed rate of 60 kg/ha and spacing
Well-drained loamy and laterite soils are of 15-20 cm between rows and 10 cm between
suitable. plants. Place the seeds at a depth of 2 to 2.5 cm.
Season Line sowing is helpful for training the vines on
standards.
The crop is sown in October-November
after abatement of the southwest monsoon Land Preparation
showers. Crops sown beyond January will not The land should be prepared thoroughly by
give satisfactory result. ploughing, digging and removing all stems,
stubbles, etc. For early-sown crop, raised beds
Varieties of 1 m width and 5 cm height may be prepared
Bonnevilla, Markserbsen (These are short for sowing the seeds. If irrigation is necessary,
duration varieties with long green pods each provide furrows between rows for guiding
containing 7-8 kernels; suitable for canning). water.
50 GREEN PEA, HORSE GRAM AND RED GRAM

Manuring 100-120 days while long duration varieties will

normally take 140-160 days.
Apply FYM or compost @ 20 t ha-1 and
N:P2O 5:K 2O @ 30:40:60 kg ha -1 as basal Plant protection
dressing. In soils of medium fertility, top Soak the seeds before sowing in a copper-
dressing of nitrogen @ 30 kg ha-1 four weeks based fungicide solution. Spray malathion
after sowing is essential. 0.1 per cent suspension at 15-20 days interval
After cultivation for the control of aphids. Stop application of
chemicals 10 days before harvesting. Powdery
Weed the plots four weeks after sowing mildew can be controlled by spraying
and 50 days later. Provide support for training thiophanate methyl 0.05 per cent. For control
the vines. Pods can be harvested when the of downy mildew, spray any of the copper
grains are fully developed. In short duration fungicides at a concentration of 0.2 to 0.3 per
varieties, harvesting will be over within cent.

HORSE GRAM (Macrotyloma uniflorum)

Horse gram can be grown in paddy Seeds and sowing

nurseries after transplantation of the second Seed rate: 25-30 kg ha-1
crop and in palliyal lands after harvest of first Sowing
crop and uplands during rabi season.
After land preparation, sow the seeds either
Season: September-October dibbled in rows 25 cm apart or by broadcast.
Variety: Co-1 and Pattambi Local Manuring
AK-21 and AK- 42 (Photo insensitive Lime 500 kg ha-1
varieties) P2O5 25 kg ha-1

RED GRAM (Cajanus cajan)

Red gram (Pigeon pea) is suitable for the gram can also be sown in paddy fields after
tropics. The most favourable temperature the harvest of mundakan crop.
range is 18-30ºC. The crop is grown at a wide
range of elevation. Red gram can be grown in Variety: SA 1
almost all soil types that are not very poor in Seeds and sowing
lime and are not subjected to waterlogging.
Optimum growth and yield are obtained in deep Seed rate
loam soils. Red gram can be grown as mixed Pure crop 15-20 kg ha-1
crop with groundnut, paddy or tapioca or as a
pure crop. Mixed crop 6-7 kg ha-1
Season Sowing
Sowing can be done in two seasons. As a When sown with groundnut, spacing
mixed crop, sow the seeds in June-July. Red recommended between rows is 3 to 3.5 m. In
RED GRAM AND SOYBEAN 51

the dibbled crop, a spacing of 35 cm between After cultivation

rows is recommended. Thinning is to be done,
Weeding and intercultivation once in three
if necessary.
weeks will ensure a good crop.
Manuring
Plant protection
Lime 500 kg ha-1
Pod borer is the main pest. For controlling
Cattle manure 3000 kg ha-1 this, spray the crop with 0.05 per cent
quinalphos suspension at the time of flowering.
N 40 kg ha-1
The blister beetle, Zonabris, gregariously feeds
P 2O 5 80 kg ha-1 on the flowers.

SOYBEAN (Glycine max)

Soybean is grown, mainly in areas where a row or by giving a plant-to-plant distance of

the summer is hot and humid. However, it does 20 cm.
not withstand extreme summer and winter. The Land Preparation
optimum temperature for growing soybean is
25-30ºC. Well-drained sandy or clay loams and As waterlogging will affect germination
alluviums with good fertility are generally and growth of the crop, it may be sown in raised
beds during rainy season.
suitable for the cultivation of the crop. When
taking up cultivation in a new area, inoculation Manuring
with the culture of Rhizobium is desirable. Apply fertilizers to provide N:P2O5:K2O @
Season 20:30:10 kg ha-1. The fertilizers may be applied
basally. In soils of low fertility, application of
The crop will perform best when sown by organic manures is beneficial.
the onset of south-west monsoon. Sowing after
the onset of heavy showers will result in poor After cultivation
germination and growth. Though it can be Weed the plots once or twice depending
grown in other seasons under irrigation, its on weed growth. As the crop smothers the
performance will be poor. If flowering field after initial growth, weed control will be
coincides with rainy season, fruit set will be necessary only up to 30-40 days after sowing.
adversely affected. Earthing up at the time of weeding is beneficial.
Varieties Plant protection
Bragg, JN-2750, EC-2661 The crop is free from infestation of major
pests. The minor pests include stem fly
These varieties have duration of about (Melanagromyza sp.) and leaf roller
4 months when sown in May-June. The (Lamrosema sp.). The stem fly mines into stem
duration will be less in other seasons. and the plant withers and dries up. Damage is
Seeds and sowing more serious in young plants. The leaf miner
causes pale brown patches along the lamina.
Seeds may be sown either in lines 45 cm The flower thrip feeds within flowers and
apart at a distance of 10 cm between seeds in prevents seed formation.
52 SOYBEAN

Collar rot the crop may be harvested after leaf shedding

and the produce may then be dried in shade
The diseases include collar rot
for about 10 days. After drying, seeds may be
(Rhizoctonia solani) which causes water
separated by beating with stick. Soybean
soaked lesions at the collar region which later
seeds lose viability after about a year. By
spread along the whole stem. The plant
drying the seeds to moisture content less than
succumbs in a few days. The disease occurs
10 per cent, reasonable viability can be
in patches under high soil moisture and high
maintained up to one year. If it is not for sowing,
organic matter levels. To control the disease, the seed may be stored for up to three years
provide good drainage (Refer cowpea). after drying.
Anthracnose Value addition
Anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum The bulk of the soybean is processed
lindemuthianum is also common. The fungus industrially into oil and protein. It may also be
causes dark brown elongated, more or less used as a pulse for direct consumption after
angular spots along the veins on the petioles, cooking. It can be substituted for black gram
stem and lamina. When infection occurs on and other pulses in the common household
the hypocotyl, the plant collapses. Seeds when preparations. The soybean preparations will
infected turn brown or black. To control the have the characteristic soyodour, which can
disease, select seeds from disease free plots be eliminated by treatment. Soybean may also
(Refer cowpea). be used for making soymilk, soymilk shake,
Mosaic disease etc.

The spread of mosaic disease, characte- Preparation of soybean milk

rized by mottling, curling and distortion of leaves Mature dry beans are washed thoroughly
and malformations of the pod is checked by and soaked in water for 8-10 hours. Remove
rouging out the infected plant and spraying the husk (testa) by gently pressing the soaked
dimethoate 0.05 per cent to control the insect seeds. Wash thoroughly and grind to a thick
vectors. paste. Alternatively, the beans may be steamed
and ground. Add water 6-8 times the volume
Pod blight
of seeds and bring to boil. Strain through muslin
The pod blight (Diaporthe phaseolorum) cloth. Boil once again under gentle stirring. This
causes irregular spots with discoloured border milk can be kept for 5 days in refrigerator.
on the leaves and pods. Crop rotations, Periodic boiling will increase the storage life
destruction of diseased plants and prophylactic of soymilk.
foliar application of mancozeb 0.3 per cent Soybean has a characteristic “bean flavour”
are recommended to control the disease. which is not relished by many. The
Harvesting and yield acceptability of the soymilk can be improved
by removal of the “bean flavour”. For this, soak
The crop will be ready for harvest in about
soybean in 5 per cent starch solution preheated
4 months after sowing. Yellowing of leaves to 80ºC for 8-12 hours. The starch solution
and their shedding are signs of maturity. If the drained from cooked rice (kanjivellam) can
period of maturity is rain free, the crop may be used for this purpose. Soaking the beans
be left in the field for about a week after for half an hour in hot starch water and then
complete leaf shedding. If the period is rainy, repeated washing with cold water is required.
ELEPHANT FOOE YAM 53

TUBERS
ELEPHANT FOOT YAM (Amorphophallus paeoniifolius)

Elephant foot yam requires fairly long Minisett technique for quality planting
growing season and a rainfall of about 150 cm materials
during the crop period. A well-drained soil of Minisetts weighing 100 g each can be planted
medium texture is suited for this crop. directly in nursery beds or in the main field with
Season the central bud portion facing up at a spacing
Corm pieces are normally planted during of 60 cm x 45 cm. A total of 37,000 minisetts/
February-March, before the onset of ha is required as against 12,345 setts/ha in the
monsoon. traditional method. Multiplication ratio in
elephant foot yam could be enhanced to 1:15
Varieties as against the conventional 1:3 by adopting
Sree Padma : The crop matures in 8-9 months. minisett technique.
Cooked tubers are free from acridity. After cultivation
Sree Athira : First genetically improved variety Apply full dose of P2O5 and half the dose
with very good cooking quality. N and K2O (N:P2O5:K2O @ 50:50:75 kg ha-1)
Seeds and sowing after forty five days of planting along with
Tuber cut-pieces having a portion of central intercultivation and weeding. Apply second
bud and weighing about 1 kg are ideal for dose of fertilizers (N and K2O @ 50:75 kg
planting. Dip the pieces in cowdung slurry and ha-1) one month after the first application
allow to dry under shade before planting. along with intercultivation and earthing up.
Nematodes associated with amorphophallus Harvesting
can be controlled by seed material treatment
The crop will be ready for harvest 8-9
with talc based formulation of Bacillus
months after planting.
macerans @ 3g (106 cfu/g) per kg of corms.
After planting, cover the pit with dried leaves Organic farming technology for elephant
or other mulching materials. About 12,000 cut foot yam
pieces weighing about 12 t are required for Recommendation
planting one hectare. Most of the seed material
• Raising green manure cowpea (seed rate
will germinate within one month after planting.
@ 20 kg ha-1) prior to elephant foot yam
Mealy bugs usually attack the corm in field and incorporation of green matter at
and store. Avoid planting corms already 45-60 days.
infested. • Use of organically produced planting
Land Preparation materials.
Dig pits of 60 cm x 60 cm x 45 cm size • Treatment of corm pieces of 500-750 g
90 cm apart. Collect the topsoil to a depth of with slurry containing cowdung, neem cake
15-20 cm separately and fill it after the pits and Trichoderma harzianum (20g kg-1
are formed. Apply cowdung or compost at seed) and drying under shade before
2-2.5 kg/pit and mix with topsoil. planting.
54 ELEPHANT FOOT YAM AND XANTHOSOMA

• Application of Trichoderma harzianum • Application of neem cake @ l.0 t ha-1

incorporated FYM @ 36 t ha-1 (3 kg pit-1) (80-85 g pit-1 ) in pits at the time of planting.
in pits at the time of planting (FYM, neem • Inter-sowing of green manure cowpea
cake mixture (10:1) inoculated with (seed rate @ 20 kg ha-1 ) between elephant
Trichoderma harzianum @ 2.5 kg t-1 of foot yam pits and incorporation of green
FYM neem cake mixture. Trichoderma can matter in pits at 45-60 days. The green
be multiplied in FYM alone but it will take 15 matter addition from the 2 green manure
days to form sufficient inoculam as against crops should be 20-25 t ha-1.
7-8 days if neem cake is also used along with • Application of ash @ 3 t ha-1 (250 g pit-1)
FYM). This is effective against collar rot at the time of incorporation of green maure
caused by Sclerotium rolfsii. in pits.

XANTHOSOMA (TANNIA)
(Xanthosoma sagittifolium L. Schot)

Tannia is suited to warm humid climate with adjoining areas as a rainfed crop. It matures
high rainfall. But can be grown in areas of within 190-210 days, the cooking quality of the
100-200 cm rainfall, provided it is evenly cormels is good and the leaves are edible.
distributed. It is usually grown from sea level But local selections having tubers with low
up to 1350-1500 m over a wide range of acridity, good texture and leaves with vegetable
temperature (13 to 29oC). It is less tolerant to use are also available.
drought but cannot withstand water logging. Seeds and sowing
This crop can tolerate light shade but the aerial
part dies down with increasing shade. It can Healthy cormels of 50-100 g weight and
be grown on a wide variety of soils except 20-25 cm long and cut corms of 150-200 g
hard clay or pure sands, but requires a deep size are commonly used. For planting one
well drained, fertile loamy soil, preferably with hectare, 1.8-2.5 tons of corms or 0.6-1.0 ton
of cormels are required. Usually seed
a pH of 5.5 to 6.5 with a mean soil temperature
materials are planted 6-7 cm deep. While
above 20oC. It can be grown as pure crop as
planting the cut pieces of the main corm or
well as intercrop in coconut, banana, rubber
suckers, it is advisable to keep the apical
and other plantations.
portion above the ground level.
Season
Land preparation
Rainfed crop : February- March to
The land is usually made to a fine tilth and
November-December.
ploughed to a depth of 20-40 cm followed by
Irrigated crop : Throughout the year. the formation of ridges and furrows especially
in heavy textured soils. Planting on ridges or
Varieties
mounds is often recommended since tuber
There is only a single variety released so formation is improved when adequate drainage
far in this crop by name ‘Konkan Haritparni’ is provided. A spacing of 90 X 90 cm is usually
which is mostly adopted in Konkan and practiced with a planting density of 12,345
XANTHOSOMA 55

plants ha-1 and pits converted to mounds is the adequate soil moisture, proper shade to sustain
usual method of planting. a humid microclimate and avoiding full
exposure to sunlight is a must for good crop
Manuring
growth, better tuber and leaf yield.
Soil amendment (dolomite), cattle manure
Plant protection
and NPK @1 ton ha -1, 25 tons ha -1 and
80:50:150 kg ha-1 respectively is recommended Dasheen mosaic virus was found to a small
for cultivation. Apply dolomite during first land extent. Use of disease free planting materials
preparation alteast 15 days before planting. can avoid the incidence of this problem. Usually
Apply cattle manure and P as basal. 25% it was manifested as a secondary infection
reccommended Nitrogen is applied as when nutritional disorders in the form of Mg
chemical ferlilizer. To meet the remaining 75% deficiency became severe in the crop.
Nitrogen sow green manure cowpea in the
Nutritional disorders
interspaces @ 20 kg ha-1 immediately after
planting tannia and incorporate at 45-60 days. When the crop is grown in laterite soils of
Application of N bio-fertilizer @ 10 g per plant Kerala, interveinal chlorosis of the lower
within one month of planting and application leaves characteristic to Mg deficiency was
of neem cake in pits after one month of the prevalent from 3rd month of growth causing
bio-fertilizer application has to be done. complete devastation of crop. As tannia is
Chemical N (25%) and Kare applied in 3 splits identified as an indicator plant for Mg
of 2,4 and 6 months after planting. deficiency, application of dolomite @ 1 ton per
ha during land preparation is advocated to
After cultivation
prevent the problem in these soils.
Weeding and earthing up should be done
Harvesting
twice at 1 and 2 months after planting. In some
areas, earthing up three times along with Crop can be harvested when older leaves
weeding and fertilizer application is start yellowing and drying usually during
recommended. When crop is grown in kitchen 9-11 months of planting. As the corms and
garden without applying any fertilizer, weeding cormels do not deteriorate if left un harvested,
is done especially at the early stage of plant harvesting can be done from 6 months till
growth. Lower leaves and petioles should be 10-12 months. If mature cormels are not
removed when they start drying. harvested, most of them will sprout at rain,
become watery and less suitable for
Mulching
consumption.
As the crop respond well to mulching, after
Storage of seed material
planting, green leaf mulching @15 tons per ha
was found beneficial for maximum corm as After harvesting, curing of the corms and
well as cormel production. cormels is done under sunlight for 4-5 days.
They can also be stored by embedding in dry
Irrigation
soil or sand for a period of 4-5 months under
During summer and drought periods, it is ventilated, dry and semi dark conditions. Care
essential to give 5-6 shallow irrigations to should be taken to avoid injury to the corms
maintain soil moisture. Maintenance of and cormels while harvesting.
56 COLOCASIA

COLOCASIA [TARO] (Colocasia esculenta)

Colocasia is a crop of tropical and Manuring

sub-tropical regions and requires a warm Apply cattle manure or compost @ 12
humid climate. Under rainfed conditions, it t ha-1 as basal dressing, while preparing the
requires a fairly well distributed rainfall around ridges for planting. A nutrient dose of 80:25:100
120-150 cm during the growth period. Well- kg of N:P2O5:K2O ha-1 is recommended. Full
drained soil is suitable for uniform development dose of P2O5 and half dose of N and K2O
of tubers. should be applied within a week after sprouting
and the remaining half dose of N and K2O
Season one month after the first application along with
Rainfed crop : May-June to Oct-Nov. weeding and earthing up.
Irrigated crop : Throughout the year After cultivation
Varieties Inter-cultivation is essential in colocasia.
Sree Rashmi, Sree Pallavi and Sreekiran Weeding, light hoeing and earthing up are
are three improved varieties. required at 30-45 days and 60-75 days after
planting. The leafy parts may be smothered
Sree Rashmi - Economic yield under low input about one month before harvest so as to
levels, conical cormets and 7 enhance tuber development.
months duration.
Irrigation
Sree Pallavi - Field tolerant to leaf blight and
Ensure sufficient moisture in the soil at the
mosaic, club shape cormets
time of planting. For uniform sprouting, irrigate
and 7 months duration. just after planting and one week later.
Sreekiran - First hybrid taro variety in Subsequent irrigation may be given at
India, long keeping quality of 12-15 days intervals, depending on the moisture
cormets and 61/2 - 7 months retention capacity of the soil. The irrigation
duration. should be stopped 3-4 weeks before harvest.
About 9-12 irrigations are required for the crop
Seeds and sowing till harvest. In the case of rainfed crop, if there
Use side tubers each of 25-35 g for planting. is prolonged drought, supplementary irrigation
About 37,000 side tubers weighing about is required.
1200 kg are required to plant one hectare. Plant protection
Land preparation Colocasia blight can be controlled by
spraying mancozeb or copper oxychloride
Plough or dig the land to a depth of
formulations at 2 g l-1of water (1 kg ha-1). For
20-25 cm and bring to a fine tilth. Make ridges controlling serious infestation of aphids, spray
60 cm apart. Plant the side corms at a spacing dimethoate at 0.05 per cent. Leaf feeders can
of 45 cm on the ridges. be controlled by spraying malathion 0.1%.
Mulching Harvesting
Soon after planting, cover the ridges with Colocasia becomes ready for harvest five
suitable mulching materials for retention of to six months after planting. The mother corms
moisture and to control weeds. and side tubers are separated after harvest.
COLOCASIA AND DIOSCOREA 57

Storage of seed material planting (30 g plant-1), application of biofertilizers

The side tubers to be used as planting Azospirillum @ 3 kg ha -1, mycorrhiza @ 5 kg
materials are usually separated from the ha -1 and phospho bacteria @ 3 kg ha-1, inter-
mother corm and stored. Keep seed tuber in sowing of green manure cowpea (seed rate
sand spread over the floor to avoid rotting. @ 20 kg ha-1) between yam mounds and
incorporation of green matter at 45-60 days.
Organic Farming of Taro (Green matter addition from the green manure
Application of FYM @ 15 t ha-1 in pits at @ 15-20 t ha-1), and application of ash @ 2.0
the time of planting (400 g plant -1), application t ha-1 at the time of incorporation of green
of neem cake @1 t ha-1 in pits at the time of manure in pits (60 g plant-1).

DIOSCOREA (YAMS)
1. GREATER YAM (Dioscorea alata)

Greater yam is predominantly a tropical 3. Indu : This is recommended as a pure crop

plant. The crop cannot withstand frost and and also as an intercrop of coconut in the
excessively high temperatures. Temperature reclaimed alluvial soils of Kuttanad.
around 30ºC and rainfall of 120-200 cm 4. Sree Shilpa : This is the first hybrid having
distributed throughout the growth period are good culinary quality. The crop matures
ideal. Day length greater than 12 hours during early, within 8 months. The tubers have 33-
initial stages and shorter day length during the 35 per cent dry matter, 17-19 per cent
later part of the growing season favour starch, 1.4-2 per cent protein and
satisfactory tuber formation. Yam requires 0.8-1.2 per cent sugar.
loose, deep, well-drained, fertile soil. The crop
5. Sree Karthika : High yiled, excellent
does not come up well in waterlogged
cooking quality. The crop matures within 9
conditions.
months. The tubers have 21.42 per cent
Season starch, 1.14 per cent sugar and 2.47 per
Seed tubers are normally planted during the cent crude protein.
later part of the dry season (March-April) and Seeds and sowing
start sprouting with the onset of pre-monsoon
D. alata produces mostly a single big tuber
showers. If the planting is delayed, yams start
in which only one head end of the tuber is
sprouting in storage, which is not desirable for
available as good seed material. For getting
planting.
the head end in each propagation unit, the
Varieties whole tuber is divided longitudinally. Each piece
of cut tuber should weigh at least
1. Sree Keerthi : Suitable for intercropping in 250-300 g. Dip the pieces in cowdung slurry
mature coconut garden and with banana. and allow to dry under the shade before
2. Sree Roopa : Possesses excellent cooking planting. About 2500-3000 kg of seed material
quality. is required to cover one hectare of land.
58 DIOSCOREA AND LESSER YAM

Preparation of land one month after the first application along with
Plough or dig the land up to a depth of 15- weeding and earthing up.
20 cm. Dig pits of size 45 x 45 x 45 cm at a Trailing
distance of 1 x 1 m. Fill up three fourth of the
Trailing is essential to expose the leaves to
pits with 1-1.25 kg cattle manure or compost
sunlight. Trailing has to be done within
and mix with top soil. Plant the cut tuber pieces 15 days after sprouting by coir rope attached
and completely cover the pit with leafy to artificial supports in the open areas or to
materials to conserve soil moisture and trees where they are raised as an intercrop.
maintain optimum temperature. When grown in open areas, trail to a height of
3-4 m. Trail the vines properly as and when
Manuring
side shoots are produced.
Apply cattle manure or compost @ 10-15
Harvesting
t ha-1 as basal. An NPK dose of 80:60:80 kg
The crop becomes ready for harvest within
ha-1 has to be applied in two splits; half dose
8-9 months after planting when the vines are
of N, full P2O5 and half of K2O within a week
completely dried up. Dig out the tubers without
after sprouting; remaining half N and half K2O causing injury.

2. LESSER YAM (Dioscorea esculenta)

It is grown in a similar agro-climatic temperature and moisture. To plant one hectare

situation as that of D. alata. Planting season 1800-2700 kg of seed materials are required.
and manuring are also similar. Preparation of land
Varieties Plough or dig the land to a depth of
15-20 cm. Prepare mounds at a spacing of
1. Sree Latha : This is a selection from
75 cm x 75 cm incorporating cattle manure
Thiruvananthapuram district with a @ 1 kg per mound.
duration of 8 months. Tubers are oblong
to fusiform with creamy white flesh. Vines Manuring
twine to the left. The nutrient dose and schedule of
2. Sree Kala : This is an early variety application are the same as that of D. alata.
with 7.5 months duration. The tubers have Trailing
35-37 per cent dry matter, 23-25 per cent
Trail the vines by fixing small poles attached
starch and 1-1.3 per cent sugar.
with coir rope and direct 4-6 plants per pole.
Seeds and sowing Harvesting
Select medium size tubers weighing about The crop is ready for harvest by about
100-150 g each. Plant the whole tuber, one in 7-8 months time. Tuber yields of 20-25 t ha-1
each mound and cover completely with soil. can be obtained by following the improved
Mulch the mounds to maintain optimum methods of cultivation.
WHITE YAM AND SWEET POTATO 59

3. WHITE YAM (Dioscorea rotundata)

White yam or African yam is a new crop tubers weighing about 1 kg are cut into
species of edible yam introduced from cylindrical (disc-like) pieces, each about 5 cm
Nigeria. thick. From each such piece, 2-4 small pieces
Varieties (30 g) could be obtained by cutting the disc
Sree Subhra: The tuber contains longitudinally or along the two perpendicular
27-28 per cent dry matter, 21-22 per cent diameters. Such a piece is called a “minisett”.
starch and 1.8-2 per cent protein. It is drought The minisetts are then spread out under light
tolerant with 9-10 months duration. shade for an hour with cut surface facing up
before planting them in the nursery seed beds.
Sree Priya: The tuber contains 25-27 per
The minisett takes 2-3 weeks for sprouting.
cent dry matter, 19-21 per cent starch and 2-
At this stage, they are transplanted to the main
2.5 per cent protein. It is drought tolerant and
duration is 9-10 months. It is suitable for field at a spacing of 50 cm on ridges taken
inter-cropping in mature coconut garden and 1 m apart.
with banana. Organic Farming of Yams (Greater Yam,
Sree Dhanya: It is the first dwarf variety. Lesser Yam, White Yam & Dwarf White
The tubers have 28-30 per cent dry matter, Yam)
22-24 per cent protein and 0.3-0.5 per cent Use of organically produced planting
sugar. materials, application of FYM @ 15 t ha 1 in—

Manuring pits at the time of planting (1.5 kg plant 1), —

FYM 15 t ha-1 to be applied at the time of application of neem cake @1 t ha 1 in pits at

—

land preparation followed by application of the time of planting (80 g plant 1), application
—

NPK fertilizers @ 100:50:100 kg ha-1. Full dose of biofertilizers, Azospirillum @ 3 kg ha 1, —

of P fertilizer along with 50 per cent of mycorrhiza @5 kg ha 1 and 1 phospho bacteria

—

N and K fertilizers to be applied as basal when @ 3 kg ha 1 (for dwarf white yam Azospi-
—

50 per cent of the planted setts sprouts. rillum @ 3 kg ha 1 and mycorrhiza @ 5 kg

—

The balance 50 per cent of N and K fertilizers ha 1), inter-sowing of green manure cowpea
—

to be applied as top dressing, 1 month after (seed rate @ 20 kg ha 1) between yam mounds
—

the first application which could be combined and incorporation of green matter at 45-60
with intercultural operations. days (green matter addition from the green
Rapid seed yam production (minisett manure @15-20 t ha 1), application of ash
—

technique) @1.5 t ha 1 at the time of incorporation of

—

In this method clean and healthy yam green manure in pits (250 g plant 1).
—

SWEET POTATO (Ipomoea batatas)

Sweet potato requires a warm humid 1500-1800 m as a summer crop. Under rainfed
tropical climate with a mean temperature of conditions the crop requires a fairly well
about 22ºC. Though sensitive to frost, it can distributed annual rainfall of 75-150 cm. Being
also be grown in the hills up to an altitude of a photosensitive crop, sunny days and cool
60 SWEET POTATO

nights are favourable for better tuber Local varieties: Badrakali Chuvala,
development. Kottayam Chuvala, Chinavella, Chakaravalli,
The crop can be grown on a variety of soils Anakomban.
having good drainage, but grows best in fertile Seeds and sowing
sandy loam soils. Heavy clayey and very light
sandy soils are not suitable for proper tuber Sweet potato is propagated by means of
development. vine cuttings. To obtain vine cutting, raise
nurseries from selected tubers using the
Season
following method. 80 kg of medium sized
Rainfed crop: June-July,
weevil free tubers (each of 125-150 g) are
September- October
required for planting in the primary nursery
Irrigated crops: October-November area (100 m2 to plant one hectare).
(for uplands) and January-
February (for low lands) Plant the tubers at a spacing of 30-45 cm
on ridges formed at 60 cm apart and replant in
Varieties
secondary nursery of about 500 m2 area at a
Improved varieties: H-41, H-42, spacing of 25 cm. Apply urea 15 days after
Sree Nandini, Sree Vardhini, Sree Rethna, planting @ 1.5 kg/100 m 2 in the primary
Sree Bhadra, Kanjanghad, Sree Arun, Sree
nursery. To ensure better plant growth in the
Varun and Sree Kanaka.
secondary nursery, 5 kg of urea has to be
H-41 – Variety with excellent cooking applied in two split doses on 15th and 30th day
quality, sweet tubers and duration of 120 days. after planting. Vines obtained from the freshly
H-42 – Variety with excellent cooking harvested crop are also planted in similar
quality, sweet tubers and duration of 120 days. nursery area to obtain sufficient planting
Sree Nandini – Early maturing, drought material. Cuttings obtained from the apical and
tolerant variety with 100 - 105 days duration near apical portions of the vines are preferable
and suited as catch crop in paddy fallows. for planting in the main field. Storing of cut
Sree Vardhini – Early maturing, carotene sweet potato vines with intact leaves, in bundles
rich variety for food and feed with a duration covered with banana leaves (dipped in water)
of 100 - 105 days. and kept under shade for two days prior to
Sree Rethna – Early maturing, carotene rich planting is recommended. Irrigate the nursery
orange fleshed variety with 90 - 105 days every alternate day during the first 10 days
duration. and once in 10 days, thereafter. Vines will be
Sree Bhadra – Early maturing, (90 days), ready for planting on the 45th day.
trap crop for nematodes. In the main field, plant vine cutting of 20-
Sree Arun - Early maturing, (90 days), 25 cm length on ridges 60 cm apart and at a
}
Sree Varun - highly palatable varieties. spacing of 15-20 cm between the vines. The
Sree Kanaka – Short duration (75 - 85 cuttings can also be planted on mounds taken
days) with very high carotene (8.8 - 10 mg/ at a spacing of 75 cm x 75 cm. On the top of
100 g). each mound, 3-6 cuttings can be planted. Plant
Kanjanghad – KAU variety obtained the vine cuttings with the middle portion buried
through selection and duration of 105 - 120 deep in the soil and the two cut ends exposed
days. to the surface. Ensure sufficient moisture in
SWEET POTATO 61

the soil for early establishment of the cutting. Rotation and mixed cropping
Provide adequate drainage and prevent water
Under irrigated conditions, sweet potato
logging.
can be rotated with rice and planted during
Land preparation December-January after harvest of the second
crop of rice. As a mixed crop, it can be grown
Make the soil to a fine tilth by ploughing or
along with colocasia, elephant foot yam etc.
digging to a depth of 15-25 cm. Make ridges
Under rainfed conditions, green manure crops
25-35 cm high, 60 cm apart for planting vines.
such as kozhinjil and sunnhemp can be grown
Manuring after harvest of the sweet potato and later
Apply cattle manure or compost @ incorporated into the soil at the time of land
10 t ha-1 at the time of preparation of ridges. preparation for the succeeding crop.
The recommended N:P2O5:K2O dosage for Plant protection
sweet potato is 75:50:75 kg ha-1. For the
reclaimed alluvial soils of Kuttanad, the Integrated control of sweet potato weevil
recommendation is 50:25:50 kg ha-1. Apply N a) Remove and destroy the crop residues of
in two equal split doses, the first at the time of the previous crop.
planting and the second 4-5 weeks after
b) Use healthy and weevil-free planting
planting. Apply full dose of P2O5 and K2O at
materials.
the planting time.
c) Apply Chromolaena odorata leaves as
Irrigation
mulch @ 3 t ha-1 at 30 DAP.
When grown as irrigated crop, provide
d) Trap adult weevils using sweet potato pieces
irrigation once in 2 days for a period of
(of about 6 cm diameter) of 100 g size, kept
10 days after planting and thereafter once in
at 5 m apart during 50 to 80 DAP at 10
7-10 days. Stop irrigation 3 weeks before
days interval. Tubers may be cut and kept
harvest. But one more irrigation may be given
inside wire cages to avoid rat damage.
2 days before harvest. IW / CPE for higher
tuber yield in non-rainy periods is 1.2 e) Use pheromone traps (3Z dodecenyl 2E
(approximate interval of 11 days). The butenoate).
application of N and K2O @ 50 kg ha-1 is Harvesting
recommended for the crop grown under
irrigation. The duration of the crop depends on the
variety; but in general, the crop can be
After cultivation harvested in about 3.5 – 4 months after
Conduct two weeding and earthing up planting. Harvest the crop when leaves begin
operations about 2 weeks and 5 weeks after to turn yellow and the tubers mature.
planting. The top dressing of fertilizers may The maturity of tuber can be ascertained
be done along with the second after cultivation. by cutting fresh tubers. The cut surface will
Prevent development of small slender tubers dry clear if the tuber is mature and becomes
at the nodes by turning the vines occasionally dark green if immature. Harvest the crop by
during active growth phase. digging out the tubers without causing injury.
62 TAPIOCA

TAPIOCA [CASSAVA] (Manihot esculenta)

Tapioca grows and produces best under duration. It is tolerant to mosaic but susceptible
warm humid tropical conditions where rainfall to wilt disease. The starch content is 24.5 per
is well distributed and fairly abundant. It can cent.
also be grown under irrigation where rainfall
H-226: This is a semi-branching type with
is low. Its outstanding characteristic in terms
of moisture requirement is the ability to medium cooking quality having 10 months
withstand fairly prolonged periods of drought. duration. It is moderately susceptible to mosaic.
However, at the time of planting there must The starch content is 29 per cent.
be sufficient moisture for the plant to establish M-4: This is an erect type with excellent
itself. The crop cannot withstand cold and is cooking quality having 10 months duration.
killed by frost. The starch content is 29 per cent.
The crop grows well in well-drained laterite, Sree Visakham: This is a semi-branching
gravelly and sandy loam soils. Heavy and rocky type with yellow coloured flesh having
soils are less suitable because they restrict root
10 months duration. It shows high tolerance
development. The crop cannot survive
to mosaic and low susceptibility to pests like
waterlogged conditions and in such areas, it
red mites, scale insects, thrips etc. The starch
must be planted on mounds or ridges that
permit drainage. The crop can also be gown content is 26 per cent and vitamin A 466 IU.
on hill slopes with precautions and on Sree Sahya: This is a predominently
wastelands of low fertility. semi-branching type with 10 months duration.
Season It shows high tolerance to mosaic and low
susceptibility to pests like red mites, scale
The main planting seasons are April-May
insects, thrips etc. The starch content is
with the onset of southwest monsoon and
30 per cent.
September-October with the onset of north-
east monsoon. Planting can also be done during Sree Prakash: This has seven months
February-April, provided sufficient moisture is duration and the yield potential is 30-40 t ha-1.
made available through irrigation. For
Kalpaka: This is a non-branching type with
maximum tuber production, April-May planting
is preferred because the crop can effectively six months duration and is suited as an intercrop
utilize both the monsoons. The second best of coconut in reclaimed alluvial soils of
season is September-October. Kuttanad.

Varieties Sree Jaya: This is an early variety with

H-97: This is a semi-branching variety, seven months duration and excellent cooking
tolerant to mosaic disease with duration of 10 quality. Tuber contains 24-27 per cent starch
months. But the harvest can be prolonged even and is low in cyanogens.
up to 16 months. The starch content is 30 per Sree Vijaya: This is an early variety with
cent. 6-7 months duration and excellent cooking
H-165: This is a non-branching type with quality. Tuber contains 27-30 per cent starch
poor cooking quality having eight months and is low in cyanogens.
TAPIOCA 63

Sree Harsha: This has 10 months duration lower cut end, at a depth not exceeding 4-6
and good cooking quality. Tuber contains cm. Adopt square method of planting at a
34-36 per cent starch. They are non-bitter and spacing of 90 cm x 90 cm @ one cutting per
ideal for culinary purposes and the high starch pit. It is preferable to adopt 75 cm x 75 cm
content makes it suitable for preparing dried spacing for non-branching varieties like M-4.
chips.
Gap filling should be done within 15 days
Nidhi: This is a high yielding early variety after planting preferably with longer setts of
with 5.5-6 months duration. It is tolerant to 40 cm length. Sree Visakham is a choice
mosaic and moisture stress. Tuber contains variety recommended as an intercrop in
26.8 per cent starch and 20 ppm HCN. coconut gardens. Optimum plant population is
Vellayani Hraswa: High yielding early 8000 plants per ha with 90 cm x 90 cm spacing.
variety with 5-6 months duration. It cannot Land preparation
tolerate drought. The cooking quality is very
Before planting, plough the field 2-3 times
good. Tubers contain 27.8 per cent starch and
or dig to a depth 25-30 cm depending upon
53 ppm cyanogen.
soil type to establish a deep porous field in
Sree Rekha: It is a top cross hybrid which the setts are to be planted.
with 10 months duration. Tubers contain 28.2 Minisett planting technique for quality
per cent starch with excellent cooking quality. planting material
Sree Prabha: It is a top cross hybrid with For producing minisetts, mature, disease
10 months duration. Tubers contain 26.8 per free stems preferably those obtained from
cent starch with good cooking quality. indexed meristem culture should be selected.
Two node cuttings are taken from these stems
Seeds and sowing
using a sharp hack-saw. Top one-third portion
Tapioca is propagated by stem cuttings. is usually discarded in the traditional system,
Select mature healthy stems free from however in the minisett technique, it is fully
diseases or pests. Discard about 10 cm from utilized. The tip of the stem (about 5 to 6 cm
the lower mature and about 30 cm from the long) is carefully cut without causing damage.
upper immature end. Stems should be cut into For preventing dehydration, it is advisable to
setts of 15-20 cm length using a sharp knife. place the tip cuttings in water. The stem just
About 2000 stems are required for planting below the growing tip is very tender with
one hectare. Harvested stems are to be stored
prominent axillary buds. Hence, from this
vertically in shaded and well-aerated places.
portion, cuttings with four nodes are taken
Spraying dimethoate (0.05 per cent) on the
instead of two as the latter may easily get
stem will control scale insects.
dried up.
Pit, flat, ridge or mound method of planting
Preparation of nursery:
can be adopted depending upon soil type,
topography of land and elevation so that Select an area with well drained soil and
waterlogging is avoided. Pit followed by mound irrigation facility. Shade net house of
is found to be the best method of planting. Plant 35 per cent shade is ideal for the germination
the cuttings vertically after smoothening the and growth of minisetts. Mark out the length
64 TAPIOCA

and breadth and make raised beds of soil : sand full dose of recommended fertilizers, since
mixture in equal proportion. The beds could under such situation there would be build up
be of convenient length and width not exceeding of soil P.
1 m. An area of 220 m2 nursery is required for
For August-September planted tapioca,
producing minisetts for planting one hectare
apply half N, full P2O5 and half K2O basally
of land. Two node cuttings are planted end to
end horizontally, about 5 cm deep inside the with first digging and weeding. The remaining
soil, with the buds facing either sides. Tip quantity of N and K 2O may be applied
cuttings and four node top setts should be 45 days after planting at the time of
planted erect at 5 cm x 5 cm spacing to prevent intercultivation.
decay due to excess moisture in these tender In the acid soils of Kerala, 50 per cent of
parts. Minisetts would sprout in a week’s time. K requirement can be substituted by NaCl.
Mosaic virus infected plants, if any found,
should be rogued off as soon as such symptoms Note: N:P2O5:K2O @ 50:50:100 kg ha-1 is
are expressed, to keep the nursery disease recommended for Sree Visakham when
free. The minisetts will be ready for grown as an intercrop in coconut
transplanting in about three to four weeks time. garden. Higher levels of N tend to
After the basal application of recommended increase HCN content of the tubers.
manure in the main field, ridges of 30 cm height
Soil application of Mg as MgSO4 @ 20 kg
are taken with a spacing of 45 cm between
ha-1 (1.62 g plant-1) and Zn as ZnSO4 @ 12.5
the ridges and planting is done on the ridges at
a spacing of 45 cm. Multiplication ratio by this kg ha-1 (1g plant-1) in small channels around
process is enhanced to 1: 60 as against the the mounds within 2 months of planting cassava
traditional method 1:10. providing an interval of 2 weeks between the
application of these fertilizer enhances tuber
Manuring
yield and quality. When they are used
Cattle manure or compost may be applied continuously, their application rates can be
at 12.5 t ha-1 during the preparation of land or fixed based on their status in the soil following
while filling up the pits so as to provide about Table 14.
1 kg of organic manure per plant. Apply
N:P2O5:K2O (kg ha-1) at the rates shown After cultivation
below: Keep the field free of weeds and maintain
soil loose by 2-3 shallow diggings or hoeing
H-97 and H 226 : 75 : 75 : 75
upto 90 days after planting followed by light
H-165, Sree Visakham, 100 : 100 : 100 earthing up. Retain two shoots on each plant
Sree Sahya: in opposite directions and remove excess
M-4 and local: 50 : 50 : 50 shoots about 30 days after planting.
N and K2O may be applied in three split Irrigation
doses, i.e., 1/3 basal, 1/3 two months after Under conditions of well-distributed rainfall,
planting and 1/3 three months after planting. tapioca grows well as a rainfed crop and
Dose of P2O5 can be reduced to half where irrigation is not necessary. However, the crop
the crop is grown for more than 3 years under has to be irrigated to provide sufficient moisture
TAPIOCA 65

Table 14. Application rate of Mg and Zn based on their status in the soil

Rate of Rate of
Soil Mg status application of Soil Zn status application of
MgSO4 ZnsO4
meq 100g-1 kg ha-1 kg ha-1 µg g-1 kg ha-1 kg ha-1
0.0-0.25 0- 67 20.0 <0.2 <0.45 12.5
0.25-0.50 67-134 15.0 0.2-0.3 0.45-0.67 10.0
0.50-0.75 134-201 10.0 0.3-0.4 0.67-0.90 7.5
0.75-1.00 201-268 5.0 0.4-0.6 0.90-1.34 5.0
>1.00 >268 2.5 >0.6 >1.34 2.5

under conditions of prolonged dry periods after selected for sowing. In acid laterite soils of
planting. When the crop is grown under Kerala, apply 1000 kg ha-1 of lime as basal
irrigation, yield increase of 150-200 per cent dressing. A basal dose of 50:100:50 kg
over the rainfed crop has been observed. N:P2O5:K2O per ha should be given uniformly
to both the crops. One month after sowing of
Furrow irrigation with 25 mm water at the seed, 20 kg each P2O5 and K2O and 10 kg
100 mm CPE and alternate furrow irrigation N / ha-1 may be given to the intercrop along
with 50 mm water at 75 mm CPE require only with earthing up. Once pod formation has
less water and labour for optimum yield. started (i.e., 40-45 days after sowing) the soil
Approximate irrigation interval schedules will should not be disturbed, as it will affect the
be 27 and 20 days respectively in summer pod development adversely. The groundnut
months. crop matures in 105 to 110 days. After the
Intercropping in tapioca harvest of pods, the haulms are incorporated
in the soil along with a top dressing of 50 kg
Tapioca is planted at a spacing of 90 cm x
each of N and K2O per ha for the main crop.
90 cm and it takes about 3-3.5 months time to
By adopting this practice, 20-25 per cent
have enough canopy to cover the land. additional income can be obtained.
So it is possible to have an intercrop of
groundnut during the early stages of tapioca In sandy areas intercropping tapioca with
cowpea / groundnut / black gram / green gram
crop. Bunch varieties like TMV-2, TMV-7,
may be recommended giving a spacing of 20 cm
TG-3, TG-14 and Spanish Improved are
on both sides of the ridges. The non-trailing grain
preferred for intercropping in tapioca. The best
cowpea variety V-26 is recommended as a
season for sowing groundnut is May-June. companion crop along with tapioca. For a pure
Immediately after planting of tapioca setts, crop of tapioca or for a cropping system
groundnut seeds are sown at a spacing of involving tapioca as the main crop and the pulse
30 cm between rows and 20 cm within rows, crop suggested above, the field may be irrigated
so that two rows of groundnut can be once in 36 days to a depth of 5 cm. This
accommodated in between two rows of recommendation is for shallow water table
cassava. A seed rate of 40-50 kg ha-1 is situations. For deep water table situations, the
recommended for dibbling one seed per hill. crop may be irrigated once in 24 days to a depth
Only well-matured and bold seeds are to be of 5 cm.
66 TAPIOCA

Plant protection Bacterial blight

Cassava mosaic disease (CMD) Bacterial blight is a disease noted in severe
The disease is transmitted by a white fly proportion in certain parts of Kerala. Chemical
Bemisia sp. As a rule, only stem cuttings from control is not effective. Use of resistant or
tolerant varieties is the only method of control.
disease free plants should be used for planting
Among improved varieties, H-97, H-226,
to minimize the spread of the virus disease.
H-1687 and H-2304 are tolerant to the disease
For this purpose, tagging of disease free healthy
while H-165 is highly susceptible. Among the
plants for selection as planting materials must
local varieties, M-4, Paluvella, Pichivella,
be practised from September to December. Parappilappan, Anamaravan etc. are tolerant
All plants showing even very mild symptoms to the disease.
must be rejected. Mosaic tolerant varieties
Red spider mites and scale insects
such as H-97 may be used to minimize
economic loss of tubers. Red spider mites in the field and scale
insects under storage are important pests of
Production of disease free planting tapioca. Under field conditions light infestation
material of tapioca through nursery of mites can be controlled effectively by
techniques spraying the crop with water at 10 days interval
Setts of 3 to 4 node cuttings from apparently from the onset of mite infestation. In the case
disease free plants are collected and planted of very severe infestation, the crop can be
in the nursery at a very close spacing of protected by spraying 0.05 per cent dimethoate
4 x 4 cm so that about 500 setts can be at monthly intervals from the time of
accommodated in one square metre land. Daily appearance of mites.
watering of the setts has to be done for the The stem may be sprayed with 0.05 per
first 10 days and on alternate days afterwards. cent dimethoate before storing as a
Screening of CMD symptoms may be started prophylactic measure against the scales.
10 days after planting. Setts showing even mild Termites
symptoms are to be removed and burnt. This To control termites infesting planted
must be continued up to 20-25 days, by that setts, sprinkle chlorpyrifos in the mounds prior
time healthy seedlings can be transplanted to to planting.
the main field. Supplementary irrigation may Management of storage pests of cassava
be given in the transplanted field till they get
Treating chips with granular salt (3 per
established. Screening for disease symptoms
cent), sun drying thoroughly and storing in
and roguing of infested plants may be continued
gunny bags in godown are very effective
in field at weekly intervals upto harvest. The against Araecerus fasciculatus and
selected healthy stems are again cut into Sitophilus oryzae.
minisetts and subjected to nursery and field
Harvesting
screening. By adopting this technique it is
possible to produce healthy plants. Tapioca becomes ready for harvest 9-10
months after planting. Hybrid varieties like
Leaf spot H-226, H-97 and H-165, when grown under
Spray 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture for recommended management practices have
control of leaf spot. recorded yields up to 40-50 t ha-1 of raw tuber.
COLEUS 67

COLEUS (Solenostemon rotundifolius)

Coleus thrives well in tropical and Preparation of main field

subtropical regions. A well-drained medium Plough or dig the land to a depth of
fertile soil is suitable for its cultivation. 15-20 cm and form ridges 30 cm apart or
Season raised beds of 60-90 cm width.
Plant the cuttings in the main field between Planting
July and October.
Plant the vine cutting collected from the
Variety: Nidhi, Sree Dhara and Suphala. nursery on ridges at a spacing of 30 cm or on
Sree Dhara – First variety in chinese potato raised beds at 30 cm x 15 cm spacing.
with good cooking quality and 5 months Manuring
duration. Broadcast 10 tonnes of FYM and N:P2O5:
Nidhi – Variety released from RARS, Pattambi K2O @ 30:60:50 kg ha-1 and incorporate into
with 5 months duration. the soil at the time of land preparation. Topdress
Suphala – A tissue culture mutant derived by with N and K2O at the rate of 30 and 50 kg
KAU from local cultivar suited for year round ha-1 respectively at 45 days after planting.
cultivation with a duration of After cultivation
120 - 140 days. Give weeding and earthing up, at 45 days
Nursery after planting along with topdressing. Cover a
portion of the vine with soil to promote tuber
Raise the nursery approximately one month
formation.
before planting. An area of 500 to 600 m2 is
sufficient to produce cuttings required for one Plant protection
ha of main field. Apply 125 to 150 kg FYM in To control the root-knot nematode, deep
the nursery area. Plant the seed tubers at a plough the field in summer, adopt crop rotation
spacing of 15 cm on the ridges taken 30 cm and destroy root residues and other plant parts
apart. About 170 to 200 kg of tubers is required by burning.
to raise the nursery. Take the vine cutting to a
Harvesting
length of 10-15 cm from the top portion after
three weeks from planting. Harvest the crop 5 months after planting.
68 CASHEW

COMMERCIAL CROPS
CASHEW (Anacardium occidentale)
Cashew is adapted to warm humid Planting materials
tropical conditions. It can be grown in Cashew can be propagated by seedlings,
almost all types of soils from sandy to air layers and softwood grafts. Since it
laterite and up to an elevation of 600-700 m is a cross-pollinated crop, vegetative
including wastelands of low fertility. propagation is recommended to obtain true
It grows and yield best in well-drained red to type progeny. Field establishment of air
sandy loams and light coastal sands. Heavy layers have been found to be poor. Hence
clay soils, poor drainage conditions, very low softwood grafts, which give a high rate of
temperature and frost are unsuitable establishment and early flowering, are
for the crop. recommended for planting (Table 15).

Table 15. Cashew varieties

Mean yield Nature of

Varieties / hybrid / types
(kg/tree/year) bearing
Anakkayam-1 (BLA 139-1) 12.00 Early
Madakkathara-1 (BLA 39-4) 13.80 Early
Vridhachalam-3 (M 26/2) 11.68 Early
Kanaka (H-1598) (BLA 139-1 x H3-13) 12.80 Mid
Dhana (H-1608) (ALGD 1-1 x K 30-1) 10.66 Mid
K-22-1 (Selection from K22) 13.20 Mid
Dharasree (H-3-17) (T 30 x Brazil 18) 15.02 Mid
Priyanka (H-1591) (BLA-139-1 x K30-1) 16.90 Mid
Amrutha (H-1597) (BLA–139-1 x H3-13) 18.35 Mid
Anagha (H8-1) (T 20 x K30-1) 13.73 Mid
Akshaya (H7-6) (H4-7 x K30-1) 11.78 Mid
Madakkathara-2 (NDR 2-1) 17.00 Late
Sulabha (K10-2) 21.90 Late
Damodar (H1600) (BLA 139-1 x H3-113) 13.36 Mid
Raghav (H1610) (ALGD 1-1 x K 30-1) 14.65 Mid
Poornima (BLA 139-1 x K 30-1) 14.08 Mid
Sree (Selection from Anakkayam-1) 23.78 Early
CASHEW 69

1. Propagation by seedlings polythene film of size 23 cm x 15 cm. Secure

loose ends of film with jute fibre. When roots
Selection of mother trees
emerge from the ringed portion in 40-60 days,
Select mother trees having the following give a ‘V’ cut at lower end of treated shoot.
characteristics: (1) Good health, vigorous After about 15 days, deepen the cut slightly.
growth and intensive branching habit Cut and separate rooted shoot about 7 days
with panicles having high percentage of later. Pot the layers immediately after sepa-
hermaphrodite flowers. (2) Trees of 15-25 ration from the tree into containers of size
years of age. (3) Bearing nuts of medium size 15 x 15 cm made from coconut husk and keep
and weight (5-8 g/nut) with an average yield them in shade. Avoid excessive watering.
of 15 kg nuts per annum. (4) Bearing 7-8 nuts Plant the layers along with the container in the
per panicle. prepared pits with the onset of southwest
monsoon. Provide shade and mulch with dry
Selection of nuts
leaves to reduce sun-scorch in tender plants.
Select mother trees in February and It is advisable to defoliate the layers two weeks
collect seed nuts in March-April. Select good, before separation from the mother
mature, medium sized nuts, which sink in plant.
water as seeds after drying in sun for two to
three days. 3. Propagation by grafting / budding

Raising seedlings Different methods of grafting viz.,

epicotyl grafting, softwood grafting, veneer
Raise seedlings in polythene bags during grafting, side grafting, patch budding etc. have
May. Use polythene bags of size 20 cm x 15 been tried in cashew with varying degrees of
cm and fill the bags with garden soil, success. Among them, softwood grafting was
leaving a gap of 1 to 1.5 cm above. Soak seed found to be the best for commercial multipli-
nuts in water for 18 to 24 hours to cation of cashew.
hasten germination. Sow the pre-soaked seed
Softwood grafting
nuts in polythene bags filled with garden soil at
a depth of 2-3 cm with the stalk end up. Seeds Selection of seed nuts
germinate in seven to ten days. (1) Seed nuts may be collected during the peak
2. Propagation by air layering period of harvest (February-March) and sun-
dried for 2-3 days. (2) Quality seed nuts may
Prepare air layers during February-March, be selected by immersing in water or
so that they will be ready for planting in June- 10 per cent saline solution. Seeds, which sink
July. Select 9-12 months old pencil-thick in water, may be selected. (3) Medium sized
terminal shoots. Remove carefully a strip or nuts (7-9 g) may be selected to get
ring of bark, 0.6 to 1.2 cm thick by using a vigorously growing seedlings.
sharp knife without injuring the underlying
wood. Wind a string around the cut area and Raising rootstocks
cover it with moist moss or wood shavings or 1. Fresh seed nuts are to be used for
sand and saw dust mixture or ordinary potting raising rootstock. Seed nuts stored for
mixture and wrap round with 150-200 gauge more than one year may be avoided.
70 CASHEW

2. The seed nuts should be soaked in water Selection of scions

overnight before sowing. (1) Select a high yielding variety of cashew
3. Use polythene bags (size 25 cm x 15 cm, as mother plant to collect adequate number of
300 gauge thickness) for filling potting scions. (2) Select 3-5 month old non-flower-
mixture. ing lateral shoots of current season’s growth.
4. Punch about 16-20 holes on the polythene (3) The selected scions should be 10-12 cm
bags to ensure good drainage. long, straight, uniformly round and pencil thick
5. Prepare the potting mixture (1:1:1 ratio of with brown colour having dormant plumpy
red soil, river sand and compost) mixed with terminal bud. The top 4-5 leaves should be
rock phosphate @ 5 g per 2 kg potting dark green in colour indicating proper maturity
mixture. of the scion.
6. Fill the polythene bags up to the brim of Pre-curing
the bag. (1) Pre-cure the selected scions by clipping
7. Sow the pre-soaked nuts in the centre of off three fourth portion of leaf blades.
the bag with stalk end up, at a depth of (2) Scions will be ready for grafting in
2.0-2.5 cm. 7-10 days after leaf removal.
8. Water the bags immediately after Collection of scions
sowing and daily thereafter. Avoid excess (1) The pre-cured scions are to be cut early
irrigation. in the morning to avoid desiccation.
9. Nuts usually germinate within 15-20 days (2) The scions should be collected before the
after sowing during monsoon months and terminal buds sprout. (3) Wrap scions in moist
within 8-10 days during dry months. cloth and put in polythene covers as soon as
10. Nuts should be sown at weekly intervals they are cut from the mother tree and bring
to get continuous supply of rootstocks. them to the nursery for grafting. If necessary,
11. During summer, provide partial shade to they can be stored for 3-4 days and used for
the seedlings till they change their bronze grafting.
colour to green and then keep them in the Preparation of rootstock
open.
(1) Retain two pairs of bottom leaves and
12. The seedlings will be ready for grafting in remove others from the selected seedlings
50-60 days after germination. using a sharp knife. (2) Give a transverse cut
13. Prevent damage to germinating nuts from on the main stem, 15 cm above ground level.
squirrels, birds etc. (3) A cleft of 4-5 cm deep is made in the middle
14. During the rainy season, damping off of the decapitated stem of the seedling by giv-
of young seedlings is common. To ing a longitudinal cut.
control this disease, spraying / drenching Preparation of scion
Bordeaux mixture (1per cent) is effective. (1) Select a matching scion stick (same
Selection of rootstock thickness as that of the rootstock). (2) The
Select 50-60 days old healthy seedlings cut end of the scion is shaped to a wedge of
having single main stem grown in the centre 4-5 cm long by chopping the bark and wood
of the polythene bag, as rootstock. from two opposite sides.
CASHEW 71

Grafting to another to prevent them from striking

1. The wedge of the scion is inserted into the roots into the ground.
cleft of the rootstock, taking care to en- 6. Spray recommended insecticides for
sure that the cambium layers of stock and controlling the infestation of sucking
scion are in perfect contact with each other. insects as and when required.
2. The graft joint is secured firmly by a Graft production under polyhouse
polythene tape (1.5 cm wide and 30 cm Softwood grafts can be prepared almost
long). throughout the year with a mean graft
3. The scion of the graft is to be covered with success of about 60-70 per cent. Higher
a wet polythene cap (15 cm x 12.5 cm. 100 success is achieved during the monsoon
gauge thickness) and tied at the season. For this, low cost polyhouses
bottom to maintain humidity inside and to (prepared from casuarina/bamboo poles/areca
protect the apical bud from drying. The reapers / GI pipes/PVC pipes and covered
with high density polythene sheet of conve-
polythene cap should not touch the
nient dimensions) preferably 20 m long and
terminal bud. A narrow polythene cover of
6 m wide may be utilized for graft production.
size 20 cm x 3 cm (sip-up-cover) can also
The height of the polyhouse should be 2.5 m in
be used instead of above said polythene
the middle and 1.0 m on both sides. The plants
cap.
may be watered using hose. Misting units can
4. The grafted plants are to be kept under also be fitted at appropriate points and switched
shade for 10-15 days to enable sprouting on for about 5-10 minutes at an interval of two
of the terminal buds. hours from 10 a.m. to 6 p.m. during summer
5. The polythene caps are to be removed and season. This reduces the temperature build up
the grafts shifted to open place. The inside the polyhouse. Raising of rootstock
successful grafts show signs of growth seedlings, grafting of rootstocks and mainte-
within 3-4 weeks after grafting. nance of grafts can be done inside the
6. The grafts will be ready for planting polyhouses. These polyhouses give protection
5-6 months after grafting. to the seedlings and grafts during heavy rains
and reduce the mortality. Again during
7. The success in softwood grafting is more summer months the seedlings/grafts can be
during the period from March to Septem- maintained in these polyhouses by covering
ber under Kerala conditions. with HDPE shade nets (35-50 per cent shade).
Care in the nursery Planting and management of grafts
1. The grafts are to be watered regularly The softwood grafts will be ready for plant-
using a rose can or micro-sprinkler. ing in 5-6 months after grafting. The pits are
2. Remove new sprouts emerging from filled with topsoil and 5-10 kg of compost or
rootstock at frequent intervals. dried cowdung / pit and the grafts are planted
3. Panicles, if produced by the grafts, may be after carefully removing the polythene bags.
removed as and when observed. Care should be taken while planting to see that
the graft union is 2.5 cm above the ground level.
4. Grafts should be placed on polythene sheets
The polythene tape is to be carefully cut and
spread on the ground to prevent rooting.
removed subsequently. Staking should be done
5. Shift the grafts frequently from one place immediately after planting to avoid lodging.
72 CASHEW

Planting and management of plantation (de-blossoming) in order to allow the plant to

Plant softwood grafts in pits of size 50 cm x put up good vegetative growth. The plants are
allowed to flower and fruit only from the third
50 cm x 50 cm during June-July.
year onwards.
Planting may be done at a spacing of
7.5 m for poor and 10 m for rich and deep soils General pruning
and sandy coastal area. On very sloppy lands, In older cashew plantations, removal of dried
the rows may be spaced 10-15 m apart with a or dead wood, criss-cross branches, water
spacing of 6-8 m between trees in a row. shoots etc. should be attended to at least once
in 2-3 years. This allows proper growth of the
Depending upon the weed growth, weeding
canopy and receipt of adequate sunlight on all
operation may be done during August-
the branches. Pruning of cashew plants should
September. Mulch the plant base with dry
be done during May / June.
leaves to reduce sun-scorch to tender plants.
Manuring
Herbicides can be used for controlling
A fertilizer dose of 750 g N, 325 g P2O5 and
weeds. Apply glyphosate 0.8 kg ai/ha-1, once
750 g K2O per plant is recommended for
in June-July.
cashew. Apply 1/5th dose after the completion
Initial training / shape pruning of first year, 2/5th dose during second year and
thus reaching full dose from 5th year onwards.
The sprouts coming from the rootstock Broadcast the fertilizer within an area of 0.5 to
portion of the graft, that is from the portion 3.0 m (15 cm deep) around the tree and
below the graft joint, should be removed incorporate by light raking.
frequently during the first year of planting. Intercropping
Initial training and pruning of young cashew
Pineapple is the most profitable intercrop
plants during the first 3-4 years is essential for
in cashew plantation in the early stages of
providing proper shape. Thereafter, little or
growth. It can be planted between two rows
no pruning is necessary. The plants should be of cashew in trenches opened across the slope.
allowed to grow by maintaining a single stem Paired row of pineapple suckers can be planted
up to 0.75-1.00 m from ground level. This can in each trench at 60 cm between rows and
be achieved by removing the side shoots or 40 cm between two suckers within the row.
side branches gradually as the plants start These trenches can be opened at 1 m
growing from the second year of planting. between two rows of cashew. Ginger, lemon-
Weak and criss-cross branches can also be grass and tapioca are also suitable as
removed. Branches growing unwidely may also intercrops.
be cut off. Proper staking of the plants is High density planting
required to avoid lodging due to wind during
High density planting is a technique
the initial years of planting. Initial training and recommended for enhancing the productivity
pruning of cashew plants facilitate easy cultural of cashew plantations. This technique involves
operations such as terrace making, weeding, planting more number of grafts per unit area
fertilizer application, nut collection and plant and thinning at later stages. Instead of the
protection. The flower panicles emerging from normal planting density of 64 to 177 plants per
the grafts during the first and second year of hectare (spacing ranging from 7.5 to 10 m in
planting should also be removed the square system of planting) or 74 to 204
CASHEW 73

plants (spacing ranging from 7.5 to 10 m in the years. The unproductive trees are to be
triangular system of planting), 312 to 625 grafts beheaded at a height of 0.75 to 1.00 m from
will be planted per hectare, initially. During ground level. The stem should be cut with a
later years, as the canopy develops, plant saw to avoid stump splitting. The best season
population is to be regulated by selective felling for beheading trees is May-September. Soon
to minimize competition. after beheading, the stumps and cut portions
While adopting a high density planting should be given a swabbing with copper
technique, grafts may be planted initially at a oxychloride and carbaryl 50 WP (50 g each
spacing of 4 m x 4 m or 8 m x 4 m so that per litre of water). Sprouts emerge 30-45 days
there will be 625 or 312 plants respectively. after beheading. Sprouting will be profuse in
This population can be retained for a period of young trees. New, 20-25 days old shoots should
seven to nine or ten years depending upon the be grafted with scions of high yielding variet-
canopy expansion rate. If the soil is very rich ies using softwood grafting technique. To
the canopy development rate will be faster.
ensure at least six or seven successful grafts,
High density planting would be more useful in
10-15 grafting are to be done on the new shoots
poor soils where the rate of canopy expansion
is slow. Considering the fertility status of the of every tree. The best season for grafting is
soil, the level of management in terms of July–November. Thinning of the extra shoots
fertilization, irrigation etc. the initial plant arising from the stumps should be done to
population is to be decided carefully for every obtain better growth of the grafts. Removal
agro-climatic condition. Later, after monitor- of sprouts below the graft joint and removal of
ing the canopy pressure between adjacent polythene strip from the graft joint should be
plants, the alternate plants are to be removed. done. Top working is simple and can be done
Finally, when the plants attain full growth, the by farmers after getting proper training.
spacing between the plants will be 8 m x 8 m.
The top worked trees start yielding right
If uniform management practices are from the second year after top working. Thus
adopted, during early years of yield, the precocity can be considered as one of the best
per tree nut yield will be more or less the same
advantages of this technique. The major
with all the trees, in both the conventional
disadvantage associated with top working is
system of planting and in high density planting.
But the per hectare yield will be more from the huge casualty of trees due to stem borer
high-density plantations (due to higher plant attack. Intensive care and management to ward
population) compared to the normal density off stem borer is essential. As such, adoption
plantations. During later years, when the plant of top working on a larger scale would be dif-
population is equalized to that of normal ficult.
density plantation, the productivity of both the Pest and diseases
plantations would be more or less the same.
The bonus yield obtained during the early years Tea mosquito bug
of yield would be substantial in high-density plan- This is the most serious pest affecting
tations. cashew. The pest usually appears with the
Top working emergence of new flushes and panicle.
Top working is a technique evolved to Drying of inflorescence and dieback of shoots
rejuvenate unproductive and senile cashew are the symptoms. For control of tea
trees. Top working can successfully rejuve- mosquito bug, spray 0.05 per cent quinalphos
nate poor yielders in the age group of 5-20 or 0.003 per cent Lambda cyhalothrin or
74 CASHEW

thiamethoxam 25 WG 0.2 g/l. For organic per cent neem oil twice a year during March –
cashew cultivation, pongamia oil @ 2 ml/l or April and November – December.
Beaveria bassiana @ 20 g/l can be sprayed.
To reduce the spread of infestation, it is
A rational rotation of insecticides would be de-
essential to remove the dead trees and trees in
sirable to counteract the tendency of the pest
advanced stage of infestation at least once in
to develop field resistance. Spraying may be
6 months. Dead trees and trees beyond
done once, twice or thrice depending upon ne-
recovery - trees having yellow canopy and /or
cessity.
more than 50 per cent bark circumference
First spraying is to be given synchronizing damage needs to be uprooted. Pest stages
with the emergence of new vegetative flushes occurring in the roots should be destroyed so
in October-November. The second spraying as to reduce pest inoculum in the future.
may be given synchronizing with the
Dieback or pink disease
commencement of panicle emergence in
December-January. The third spraying may be This disease is prevalent in cashew
given at completion of flowering / initiation of plantations during rainy season. Main
fruit set in January – February. symptom of attack is the appearance of white
patches on branches followed by drying of
Note: Avoid spraying 0.003 per cent Lambda twigs from the tip.
cyhalothrin at the time of flowering, as
it is highly toxic to honey bees. Chisel out the affected parts and apply
Bordeaux paste. Give prophylactic sprays of
Cashew stem and root borer (CSRB)
1 per cent Bordeaux mixture during May-June
This is a serious pest, which is capable of and October.
destroying the cashew tree. Main symptoms
of attack are yellowing of leaves, drying of Note:
twigs, presence of holes at the base of stem 1. For grown up trees, 5 litres of spray fluid
with exuding sap and frass. would be required at high volume discharge
Check regulary for symptoms of CSRB rate and 2.5 litres at the low volume
attack particularly during January – May discharge rate. For spraying, rocker sprayer
period. In the case of already infested trees, with hi-tree lance is preferable.
mechanically remove various stages of pest 2. For low volume application, the concen-
(grubs and pupae) by carefully chiseling the tration of the insecticides is to be maintained
bark. Care should be taken to avoid removal at 0.1 per cent for quinalphos. It is difficult
of more than 50 per cent of total bark to cover the entire canopy with low volume
circumference. Swab the chiseled area by equipment. In such cases, the uncovered
using chlorpyriphos 20 EC (0.2 per cent @ 10 upper canopy areas may be covered with
ml 1-1) and drench the pesticide solution onto rocker sprayer fitted with hi-tree lance
the soil near the root zone to minimize system.
reinfestation by the pest. 3. Dusting powder formulations are not
Prophylactic treatment by swabbing the recommended against tea mosquito bug.
trunk region (up to 1 m height from the ground 4. Spray 0.003 per cent Lambda cyhalothrin
level) and exposed roots, with a suspension of as a prophylaxis against pest infestation in
mud slurry + coal tar and kerosene (1:2) or 5 nursery plants.
CASHEW 75

5. Spray Bordeaux mixture 1 per cent to About 50-60 per cent raw juice with 9-10 per
seedlings as a prophylactic measure cent soluble solids can be obtained. The
against fungal diseases. astringent taste of cashew apple is due to the
6. In anthracnose and tea mosquito endemic presence of tannins in it. The tannin present in
area following practices are recommended the raw juice can be removed through
Chemical Concen- Time/ clarification by adopting one of the following
(%) tration stage methods:-

Lamda cyhalothrin 0.6 ml l-1 1. Take 5g powdered sago in minimum

0.003 % + 5 EC quantity of water, heat and make into paste
Copper oxychloride 0.2 % 2 g l-1 Flushing by stirring and cool it. Add sago paste into
(50 WP) one litre juice and mix well by stirring.
Quinalphos 0.05 % 2 ml l-1 Decant the clear juice after 12 hours.
+ (25 EC)
Flowering
2. Mix gelatin @ 0.5 g kg-1 of raw juice and
Mancozeb 0.2 % 2 g l-1
allow to settle. Decant the clear juice and
(75 WP)
discard the sediment (gelatin may be
Post Harvest Utilization of Cashew Apple dissolved in water by heating).

Cashew apple is a valuable source of 3. Mix poly vinyl pyrollidone @ 1.4 g kg-1 of
sugars, minerals and vitamins especially raw juice. Allow to settle and decant the
vitamin C and can be used for preparation of clear juice.
various products. 4. Mix about 125 ml of fresh rice gruel
Preliminary Processing (kanjivellam) and allow to settle. Decant
Select crisp, firm, tight and full colour the clear upper layer and repeat the
developed best quality apples. It should have process using 125 ml of rice gruel.
medium to large size, more than 70 per cent Tannin can be removed from mature or ripe
juice, more than 11 per cent sugar and
apples (de-tanning) by adopting the following
0.39- 0.42 per cent acidity. Since highly
procedures:-
susceptible to physical injury and microbial
spoilage, collect apples every day, after 1. Detanning of ripe whole apples : Clean
separating the nuts, when it falls to the ground. the apples and immerse in 5 per cent salt
The selected fruits are washed with water. solution for 3 days with the change of salt
Stainless steel or glass containers should solution daily. Take out the fruit on the 4th
be used for processing, after sterilization. day and wash thoroughly in water. The fruit
Copper, iron, aluminum and brass containers is now de-tanned.
should not be used as it will blacken the
2. Detanning of mature but unripe whole
products. Plastic buckets or barrels can be used
for dipping and cleaning fruits. green apples for pickle preparation :

Juice can be extracted from ripe cashew Wash the raw green fruit and cut into small
apples, after washing, using screw press, pieces. Keep in 8 per cent salt solution for
basket press, hydraulic press or by hand 3 days with the change of salt solution daily.
pressing with the help of citrus juice extractor. Take out the fruits on the 4th day and wash
76 CASHEW

thoroughly with water. The fruit is now 1. Cashew apple juice

de-tanned. Ingredients
Off – season storage of raw material Cashew apple – 25 kg
Raw material for cashew apple processing Poly Vinyl Pyrollidone – 10 g
can be stored for a period of six months without Sodium benzoate – 6g
affecting quality for the off – season Sugar – 500 g
Citric acid – 8g
preparation of products.
Preparation
1. Juice for beverage production:- Mix
Extract the juice by pressing. Clarify the
2.5 g potassium meta bisulphate (KMS) and
juice by adding PVP and filter it through a
5 g citric acid during clarification of juice muslin cloth. To the clarified juice, add all the
and store the clarified juice in food grade items one by one under stirring.
plastic containers.
Note:
2. Pulp for jam production:- Cook ripe 1. Cashew apple juice can be blended with
cashew apple, after removal of tannin, for lime juice, orange juice or pineapple juice
20 minutes, make into pulp using pulper and on 75:25 basis and served.
mix with 2.5 g KMS and 5 g citric acid. 2. The recovery of juice from apple can be
3. Cashew apple for pickle production:- improved by using basket press, screw
Keep one kg of de-tanned green cashew press or hydraulic press.
apple pieces with 200 g salt in alternate 2. Cashew apple squash
layers. Ingredients
Standard products like syrup, squash, Cashew apple – 25 kg
PVP – 10 g
ready-to-serve beverages etc. can be made
Sodium benzoate – 6g
using the clarified juice as per FPO
Sugar – 3 kg
specifications (Table 16).
Citric acid – 100 g
Preparation of products Preparation
The recipe for the preparation of various Wash cashew apple and extract the juice
products from cashew apple is given below:- (8 litres). Clarify the juice by adding PVP and

Table 16. FPO specifications for fruit products

Minimum Minimum Acidity Max. preservative

Products fruit juice % TSS% max.% (free SO2) ppm

Squash 25 40 3.5 350

Syrup 25 65 3.5 350

Ready to serve beverages 10 10 — 70
CASHEW 77

filter the juice through muslin cloth. To the clear Lemon yellow – Should not exceed
juice, add the other items and stir well. Bottle colour 100 ppm
the juice and store in cool place. (100 mg l-1)
3. Cashew apple syrup Preparation

Ingredients Take required quantity of sugar and citric

acid in water and boil. Towards the end, switch
Clarified cashew off the flame and add clarified cashew apple
apple juice – 1litre juice immediately in hot condition itself by
Citric acid – 15 g stirring. Cool, add pineapple juice and colour
Sugar – 2 kg and bottle it after sieving through a clean muslin
cloth. Bottle in sterilized glass bottles or new
Lemon yellow – Should not
grade pet bottles and seal it air tight. Keep in
colour exceed 100 ppm
cool dry place. Dilute the squash three times
(100 mg l-1)
with cool water to use as fresh drink.
Preparation
5. Ready-to-Serve beverage
Add sugar @ 2.0 kg litre-1 into the clarified (RTS beverage)
cashew apple juice and then heat moderately.
Continue heating with continuous stirring till Ingredients
the sugar completely dissolves. Then add citric Clarified cashew – 150 ml
acid @ 15 g litre-1 (dissolved in little quantity apple juice
of syrup) and stir well. Remove the solution
Sugar – 120 g
from the stove, cool, strain and then add colour
(dissolved in little quantity of syrup). Now Water – 730 ml
syrup is ready. To store the syrup for long Citric acid –5g
periods without spoilage, pour into well Lemon yellow colour – Should not
sterilized glass bottles/new food grade pet exceed 100 ppm
bottles and seal air tight. It can be stored for (100 mg l-1)
one year. Keep in a cool, dry place. Dilute the
syrup five times with cool water to use as Preparation
fresh drink. Take required quantity of sugar and citric
4. Blended cashew apple - Pineapple acid in water and boil. Towards the end, switch
squash off the flame and add clarified cashew apple
juice immediately in hot condition itself by
Ingredients
stirring. Cool, add colour, strain and bottle it.
Clarified cashew Pasteurize the bottles by keeping in boiled
apple juice – 125 ml water for 20 minutes for a storage life of three
Pineapple juice – 125 ml months. Packing can also be done in food
grade plastic covers using liquid packaging
Water – 350 ml
machine. But it cannot be pasteurized and
Sugar – 400 g hence can be kept only for 2-3 days, unless
Citric acid –5g kept under refrigerated condition.
78 CASHEW

6. Cashew apple – Pineapple blended Chilly powder – 100 g

RTS beverage Fenugreek powder – 10 g
Asafoetida powder – 10 g
Ingredients
Turmeric powder – 5g
Clarified cashew Mustard powder – 5g
apple juice – 75 ml Mustard – 2g
Pineapple juice – 75 ml Garlic paste – 10 g
Sugar – 150 g Ginger paste – 10 g
Water – 700 ml Green chilly paste – 10 g
Citric acid – 5g Vinegar – 150 ml
Lemon yellow – Should not exceed Sodium benzoate – a pinch (0.75 g)
colour 100ppm (100 mgl-1) Salt to taste
Preparation Preparation
Take required quantity of sugar and citric Boil gingelly oil in steel vessels. Put mustard
acid in water and boil. Towards the end, switch seed, asafoetida powder, turmeric powder,
off the flame and add clarified cashew apple fenugreek powder, chilly powder and mustard
juice immediately in hot condition itself by powder to the boiling gingelly oil. When the
stirring. Cool, add pineapple juice, colour and colour of chilly powder changes, add all the
bottle it after sieving through a clean muslin pastes to it. Then add de-tanned and sliced
cloth. Pasteurize the bottles by keeping in raw green cashew apple. Heat at least for three
boiling water for 20 minutes. minutes, after which vinegar and salt (if
7. Cashew apple – Mango mixed fruit jam needed) are added by thorough stirring. Cover
the vessel well and allow to cool. Add sodium
Ingredients
benzoate dissolved in little quantity of boiled
De-tanned cashew apple pulp – 500 g water and stir. Transfer to clean dry glass jars.
Mango pulp – 500 g Use the product after keeping for one week.
Sugar – 1.0 kg
Citric acid – 2.5 g 9. Cashew apple candy
Ingredients
Preparation
De-tanned ripe cashew apple – 1.0 kg
Fresh ripe mango fruits are washed, peeled,
Sugar – 1.0 kg
sliced and made into pulp using a mixer or
Citric acid – 1.0 g
pulper. Add KMS @ 2.5 g and citric acid @
Potassium metabisulphite – 1.35 g
5 g per kg of pulp for storage. Mix the pulps in
the ratio of 1:1. Add one kg sugar per kg of Preparation of cashew apple
mixed pulp and citric acid (quantity adjusted Keep the de-tanned apples in a solution of
as per acidity) and cook it with continuous potassium metabisulphite (half the quantity ie.
stirring. When it reaches the appropriate stage 625 mg) for 2-3 days. Thoroughly wash the
for jam, transfer hot into sterilized glass bottles. apples in water. Remove black spots and parts
8. Cashew apple pickle of pedicel. Keep in perforated crates of
stainless steel and steam for 10-20 minutes in
Ingredients pressure cooker without over cooking. Make
De-tanned and sliced deep holes in the apple using bamboo sticks or
raw green fruit – 1.0 kg steel forks to facilitate entry of sugar syrup in
Gingelly oil – 100 ml the next stage.
CASHEW 79

Preparation of sugar syrup narrow mouthed plastic bottles, with cotton

plugging. After twelve days filter the
Dissolve 250 g sugar in one litre of water
fermented supernatant juice (to obtain alcoholic
and heat well. Dissolve citric acid (1.0 g) and
ferment) into a wide mouth glass container or
potassium metabisulphite (625 mg) in this
clay pot and add thrice the quantity of mother
solution.
vinegar for acetic fermentation. Keep it tied
Preparation of candy with a muslin cloth, allowing air passage, for
15 days. Filter the clear juice portion to a clean
Drop the pre-prepared apple pieces into the
stainless steel, pasteurize by keeping in boiling
boiling sugar syrup so that the apples are
water for 10minutes, cool and bottle it on the
completely immersed. Cover the container
16th day to get vinegar with 5-6 per cent acidity.
with lid and keep as such for one day. Take
For continuous vinegar production, the filtrate
out the fruits on the 2nd day, add 125 g sugar,
can be used as mother vinegar.
and drop the apple while heating. Repeat it
for 5 days. On 8th day, volume of sugar syrup 11. Cashew apple wine
will be reduced to one-third. Keep the apples Ingredients
as such for 8-10 days. Remove the apples
from the syrup solution, drain for 30 minutes Cashew apple pieces – 1kg
and dry it slowly in open area by spreading in Sugar – 1kg
a polythene sheet. Keep it in clean, dry, screw Lukewarm water – 1 litre
capped glass jars in a cool, dry place. It can Clove –5g
be stored for one year in air tight containers
Cardamom –5g
under refrigerated condition.
Starter solution – 10 g sugar +
10. Cashew apple vinegar 100 g luke warm
water + 5 g yeast
Ingredients
Preparation
Unclarified cashew apple juice – 1.0 litre Prepare starter solution by mixing 5 g yeast
Sugar – 158 g
and 10 g sugar in 100 ml lukewarm water and
Powdered sago – 5g
keep for 30 minutes. Place one kg of cashew
Mother vinegar – As needed
apple pieces and one kg of sugar in one litre
Starter solution – 2 g yeast
of lukewarm water along with 5 g each of
+ 20 ml
coconut clove, cardamom and cinnamon in a porcelain
water vessel, mix together and keep air tight for
Preparation 21 days. Shake daily the ingredients without
opening the vessel. Strain the solution through
Cashew apple vinegar preparation consists muslin cloth after 21 days, again keep for 21
of two stages ie., alcoholic fermentation and days and strain to get the cashew apple wine.
acidic fermentation. Add 2.0 g yeast in 20ml
coconut water and keep for 12 hours to make Other products
starter solution. Add sugar, cooked and cooled Methods have been standardized for the
sago along with starter solution into one litre preparation of canned cashew apple, cashew
of extracted unclarified juice and keep it for apple chutney and cashew apple liquor at
twelve days for alcoholic fermentation in Kerala Agricultural University.
80 COTTON

COTTON (Gossypium sp.)

Cotton is grown from sea level to moder- Manuring
ate elevations not exceeding 1000 m where Apply FYM or compost @ 12.5 t ha-1 for
the climate is tropical with rainfall 500 to rainfed crop and 25 t ha-1 for irrigated crop.
750 mm. Excessive rain at any stage is Apply N:P2O5:K2O each @ 35 kg ha-1 as basal
harmful to the crop. It can be grown in a wide dressing. Top dress with 35 kg N per ha-1
variety of soils. A deep homogeneous fertile about 45 days after sowing.
soil is desirable.
Seasons After cultivation
Thin the crop when the plants are 15 to
Winter crop : August – September
20 cm high, retaining two seedlings per hill.
Summer crop : February – March Retain only one seedling per hill in the case of
Cotton varieties with spacing and duration hybrids. Timely weeding and hoeing will
are given in Table 17 and seed rate for cotton ensure good crop growth.
is given in Table 18. Irrigation
Preparation of land and sowing
In the case of irrigated crop, irrigate
Plough the land three to four times and form the plants once in two weeks. Copious
ridges and furrows. Dibble the seeds on the irrigation during flowering will ensure good pod
sides of the furrows. Use basalin @ 2.5 l ha -1 setting and good fibre quality.
before irrigating the feel to control weeds.
Plant Protection
Note: Treat the seeds with carbendazim
Against sucking pests like jassids,
50 WP (2 g kg-1) or Trichoderma viride
aphids and thrips, spray imidacloprid
talc preparation (4 g kg -1 ) before
(100 ml ha-1) on 20th day and 40th day.
sowing.

Table 17. Cotton varieties, spacing, duration and season

Variety Spacing (cm) Duration (days) Season
MCU 5 / MCU 5 VT 75 x 45 175 Irrigated crop (Aug – Sept.)
TCHB 213 (hybrid) 120 x 60 190 Irrigated crop (Aug – Sept.)
Savita (hybrid) 90 x 60 165 Irrigated crop (Aug – Sept.)
LRA 5166 60 x 30 150 Rainfed crop (Aug – Sept.)
Table 18. Seed rate for cotton
Variety Delinted seeds Fuzzy seeds
Irrigated MCU 5/MCU 5 VT 5.0 kg 8.0 kg
TCHB 213 2.5 kg –
Savita 3-4 kg –
Rainfed LRA 5166 8-10 kg 10-12 kg
COTTON AND RUBBER 81

To control whitefly, use neem oil (3.0 l/ 1.5 kg ha-1). For grey mildew, carbendazim
ha-1) or phosalone (1000ml ha-1). @ 250 g ha-1 may be used. For Alternaria
leaf spot, use copper oxychloride @ 1.5 kg ha-1.
For bollworm, spray quinalphos or
Harvesting
chlorpyriphos.
The bolls start bursting 100-120 days
For bacterial blight disease, use strepto- after sowing and will be ready for harvest at
cycline (50 g ha -1 + copper oxychloride this stage.

RUBBER (Hevea brasiliensis)

Rubber can be cultivated from sea level up a. Traditional region

to an altitude of 500 m. The major rubber Category I : Clone: RRII 105, RRII 430,
tract experiences a monsoon climate with RRII 414, RRII 417, RRII 422 and PB
annual rain fall ranging from 2000 – 4500 mm. 260
Soils of the traditional belt are highly weathered Category II : Clone RRIM 600, GT I,
and are mostly laterite and lateritic types. Red RRII 5, RRII 203, PB 28/59, PB 217,
and alluvial soils are also found in some areas. PB 255, PB 280, PB 312 and PB 314
Rubber grows in a wide range of soils
Category III Clones RRII 118, RRII
however, deep well drained soils free from
208, RRII 300, RRII 429, PR 107, PR
underlying sheet rocks are well suited for the
255, PR 261, PB 86, PB 5/51, PB 235,
cultivation of rubber.
PB 311, PB 330, RRIM 605, RRIM 701,
Propagation RRIM 703, RRIM 712, RRIC 100, RRIC
1. Clonal seeds : Collected from approved 102, RRIC 130, KRS 163, IRCA III,
seed gardens in the country and abroad IRCA 109, IRCA 130, SCATC 88-13,
BPM 24 and Polyclonal seeds.
2. Budded plants: Either poly bag or root In addition, other promising clones approved
trainer plants can be used for planting by the Rubber Board are also included.
Approved cultivars b. Clones recommended for the North
The planting material recommendation of Eastern Region
the Rubber Board is based on a multi clone Category I : RRIM 600
concept. Monoclonal plantations in general are Category II : RRII 105, GT 1, PB 235,
prone to the outbreak of epidemics and RRII RRII 208, RRII 203, RRII 429, RRII 430
105 is prone to Corynespora leaf disease as and RRII 417.
manifested in the Karnataka region during the Category III : RRII 5, RRII 422, RRII
year 2000. Realizing the potential risk involved 118, PB 260, PB 310, PB 311, RRIM
in monoclonal planting, the Board from 1991, 703, SCATC 88-13, SCATC 93-114,
has been recommending planting of as many Haiken 1 and polyclonal seedlings.
clones as practicable, out of a select list of
c. Clones suitable for Karnataka and
desirable clones. South Konkan
The clones under each category for the GT - 1, RII 203*, PB 260, PB 217*, RRII
different regions are listed below: 414, RRII 430, RRII 422, RRII 429, PB
82 RUBBER

280, PB 312, PB 314, PB 235, RRII 5, When the same area is repeatedly used, rock
RRII 300, PB 311* and RRII 105* have phosphate needs to be applied only once in
exhibited good growth and yield in the three years. Application of 275 kg urea, 700
region. kg rock phosphate (18% P2O5), 85 kg muriate
* RRII 105 is highly susceptible to of potash and 235 kg magnesium sulphate or
Corynespora leaf disease. Hence 1250 kg 10-10-4-1.5 NPKMg mixture and
recommended prophylactic and control 118 kg magnesium sulphate per hectare
measures are to be adopted. PB 217 and 6 – 8 weeks after planting is recommended.
RRII 203 are also susceptible to the Zinc sulphate @ 25kg/ha may be applied
disease and require prophylactic 2 weeks after the fertilizer application. After
protection. PB 311 is wind susceptible 6 – 8 weeks from first fertilizer application,
hence planting of this clone in wind prone urea may be applied @ 275 kg/ha.
areas is to be avoided. Subsequently, application of Zinc Sulphate in
the nursery may be carried out on soil test basis.
d. Planting materials suitable for North
Konkan Plant protection by regular spraying of
fungicides and insecticides will be necessary
RRIM 600, RRII 208, RRII 105, to prevent disease/insect pest damage. When
RRII 6, RRII 5, PB 260, PR 255 and sufficiently grown, seedlings can be used for
RRIC 100 perform well in this region. budding.
The RRII 400 series clones have not been
evaluated in North Konkan. However, Bud wood nursery
the drought tolerant and stable clone RRII Bud wood nursery is raised by planting
430 shows good initial establishment and polybag plants or budded stumps of authentic
growth and could be planted in the region. planting materials of desired clones at a spacing
Lifesaving irrigation is to be given to all of 90 x 60 cm. Before planting, bud wood
clonal plantings in the first three years. nurseries are given a basal dose 165 kg of
For cultivation under rainfed/unirrigated powdered rock phosphate per hectare (1.65
conditions, polyclonal seedlings are the kg/100 m 2 ). Two to three months after
best choice. planting, 125 g of 10-10-4-1.5 NPKMg mixture
Category 1 consists of clones officially per plant is applied. A second application at
released by the Rubber Board of India for the same rate is given 8 to 9 months after
planting in large areas. However, it is planting. This dose should also be applied 2-3
recommended that any one of these clones months after each harvest of bud wood. The
may be used to plant only up to 50 per cent of first harvest of brown bud wood is done one
the total area of a large holding. year after planting by cutting the shoot 30 cm
Category II consists of clones with consistent above the bud union. Two sprouts are allowed
performance in this country over a long term to grow for the second harvest after similar
in large scale trials. It is recommended that growth. This process of cutting back each
combinations of three or more of these clones healthy shoot is to be repeated every year to
may be used to plant up to 50% of the total allow regeneration of fresh bud wood.
area of a large holding. Cattle manure and 4 Green bud shoots are generated by cutting
kg of rock phosphate for every 100 m2 of back the growing shoots in a bud wood nursery
nursery bed is recommended as basal dressing. 6 to 8 weeks before bud grafting.
RUBBER 83

Polybag and root trainer nurseries and pressed firmly into the sand leaving the
surface of seeds just visible above the sand.
Polybag and root trainer grown plants grow
well when maintained in poly houses. This is Seeds sprouted on each day should be picked
particularly useful for green/young budded into a vessel containing water to avoid injury.
The picked seeds should be planted in seedling
plants. Reduction in disease incidence and
nursery without any delay.
increased growth is observed in poly houses.
Prevention of excess sunlight using shade nets Seedling nursery
and appropriate ventilation to avoid heat and
Level lands with water table at least 60 cm
humidity build up are necessary for healthy
below is ideal for raising seedling nursery.
growth of plants. Regular but controlled
Shaded areas should be avoided. Soil should
watering and manuring are essential.
be deep, well drained loam with good fertility
Category III consists of superior clones with status. Raised beds (15 cm) should be
proven merit in small scale trials and found prepared with width of 60 to 120 cm and
convenient length with pathways in between
promising in the early years in large scale trials
to facilitate cultural operations.
in India or abroad (in the case of introduced
clones). These clones are recommended for The spacing adopted for planting in seedling
only experimental planting on a limited scale nurseries are 23 x 23 cm (for green budding)
not to exceed 15 per cent of the total area in and 30 x 30 cm (for brown budding).
aggregate. Polyclonal seeds are also included Application of a pre-emergent herbicide
in this category and recommended for planting Diuron at the rate of 2.5 kg in 700 litres of
in marginal areas. water per effective hectare if applied after
preparation of beds prevent weed grown for
Most of the modern high yielding clones 6 to 7 weeks. Manual weeding should be done
are prone to tapping panel dryness when at monthly intervals. Mulching in between the
tapped under half spiral alternate daily system. plant rows reduces weed growth besides
It is, therefore, strongly recommended that all conserving soil moisture and regulating soil
such clones be tapped at a lower intensity, say, temperature. Addition of 25 kg of compost or
on half spiral once in three days. Prophylactic dried FYM is also recommended.
protection against diseases is recommended
for the cultivation of all these clones. Planting materials
The generally used planting materials are
Rubber Nursery
seedling stumps, budded stumps, polybag plants
Nurseries are maintained for raising and root trainer plants.
seedlings, budded plants and bud wood. As Stumps: Seedling stumps are prepared by
rubber seed viability is very short, seeds are pulling out polyclonal seedlings and cutting
collected for planting soon after fruit dehision. back the stem at 45 to 60 cm of brown wood,
Germination beds are prepared with the top tap root to convenient length and trimming of
5cm made up of river sand or well leached lateral roots (7.5 cm length). The cut end of
coir pith. The beds should be raised 10-15 cm stem is dipped in molten wax to prevent water
above ground to avoid water logging and be loss. Budded stumps are prepared in the same
of 90 cm width and convenient length. Partial way as seedling stumps but a slanting cut with
shading may be provided to protect from strong slope towards opposite side of bud is gen at
sunlight. Seeds are sown closely in single layer about 7.5 cm above the bud patch.
84 RUBBER

Polybag plants: Polybag plants are raised tap root pruned near the drainage hole and
either by budding seedlings that are developed stacked on stand made or iron/bamboo
by in situ planting of seeds (in polybags) or by splinters. The tap root undergoes natural air
planting budded stumps in polybags. Polythene pruning, which induces stress and thereby
(LDPE/HDPE) bags of 45 x 18 cm holding several lateral roots emerge inside the
about 7 kg soil are generally used. Larger bags container. The ridges on the side walls direct
55 x 25 cm which holds about 10 kg soil are these laterals to the drainage hole which also
preferred for raising larger plants (3 whorls or undergoes air pruning. Thus a hardened root
more). The polythene material used for the trainer plant consists of a dense root plug with
bag should be 75-100 micron thickness (300- tap root and well oriented lateral roots.
400 gauge). The bags should be filled with top
soil. About 20 to 25 g rock phosphate is Planting
incorporated in the top half of the soil filled in Planting should be done with the onset of
the polybags. Monthly application of the monsoon when the weather conditions are
fertilizer 10:10:4:1.5 NPK Mg mixtures at 10g/ ideal with sufficient rains.
plant initially, gradually increasing up to 30 g/
Spacing: The density of planting recom-
plant, when each top whorl of leaf is mature is
recommended. Regular watering and weeding mended is 420-520 plants per hectare (170 to
is necessary. Partial shading (50% shade) 200/acre). However for the clone RRII 105
during dry season reduces incidence of leaf the density can be upto 550/ha. Some common
spot diseases and sun scorch besides regulating spacing adopted and the corresponding number
transpiration loss. Plants are transplanted to of plants is given in Table 19.
the main field when they are at two to three Lining: In flat or slightly undulating areas,
whorl stages and the top whorl of leaves is square or rectangular planting can be adopted.
mature. For rectangular planting, lines should be taken
Root trainer plants: The root trainer cups east-west to get maximum sunlight. Contour
usually have a length of 26 cm and a holding lining is done on undulating and hilly lands by
capacity of 600 cc with vertical ridges on the marking out the planting points in contour lines
inside wall and tapering with a drainage hole across the slope.
at the bottom. Well cured coir pith (washing Soil and water conservation: Formation of
with water at least for two months to leach terraces is a recommended practice in hilly
out all toxic compounds) mixed with neem areas to conserve soil and water. In order to
cake, bone meal, pesticides and single super reduce erosion further and to facilitate rain
phosphate is used as potting medium. Partially water infiltration trenches of about 120 cm
dried elephant dung mixed with equal quantity length, 45 cm width and 60 cm depth are taken
of soil can also be used as an alternative to
along with contour in between the planting
coir pith. The potting medium should be
rows. Construction of stone-pitched contour
packed well inside the root trainer cup before
retaining walls (edakayyalas) is another
planting seeds. Root trainers are stacked in a
effective method to restrict surface runoff.
raised bed of soil so as to facilitate tap root
development. When the plants show healthy Drainage: Proper drainage is essential
growth, the root trainer is lifted from the bed, especially on low-lying lands. The natural
RUBBER 85

waterways existing in the plantation may be rotted cattle manure @ 12 kg and rock
cleared or deepened to give adequate phosphate 200 g are mixed with the top 20 cm
drainage. If drains are cut, uniform depth soil in the pit. When small pits are taken, the
should be maintained throughout. manure should be incorporated around the plant
basin leaving around 15 cm from bud union.
Pitting In newly-cleared forest areas, 200 g rock
Pits are taken either manually or phosphate alone would suffice.
mechanically using tractor-mounted hole- Field planting
diggers or earth mover. The texture and depth
Seed-at-stake: Two to three germinated
determine the size of the pit. In soils with a
seeds are directly planted in the centre of the
depth of one meter or more, planting can be
refilled pit. After establishment, the most
done in small pits dug to accommodate polybag rigorous one is retained which is field-budded
plants. However in hard soils, planting should subsequently.
be done in larger pits of size 75 cm3 or 90 cm3
depending on hardness. Seedling and budded stumps: Planting of
seedling and budded stumps should be done
While digging the pit, the top soil should be immediately after pulling out. While planting
placed on one side and subsoil on the other. budded stumps, the bud patch should be just
Filling should be done with top soil after above the ground level to reduce the effect of
removing stones and roots. Compost or well- elephant foot and infection by soil-borne

Table 19. Plant density at different spacings

Spacing
No. of plants/ha. No. of plants/acre
Meters Feet
Rectangular system
5.5 x 3.7 18 x 12 499 202
5.8 x 3.0 19 x 10 566 229
5.8 x 3.4 19 x 11 514 208
6.1 x 3.0 20 x 10 539 218
6.1 x 3.4 20 x 11 489 198
6.4 x 3.0 21 x 10 511 207
6.4 x 3.4 21 x 11 467 189
6.7 x 3.0 22 x 10 489 198
6.7 x 3.4 22 x 11 445 180
7.0 x 3.0 23 x 10 467 189
Square system
4.3 x 4.3 14 x 14 549 222
4.6 x 4.6 15 x 15 479 194
4.9 x 4.9 16 x 16 420 170
86 RUBBER

pathogens. A hole with depth equal to the using lime or china clay to prevent sun
length of tap root is made at the centre of the scorching till the canopy develop partial shade.
pit. After leveling the soil, the stump is placed
Cover crops: Cover crops are established
in the hole with its tap root and lateral roots
and maintained in rubber plantation for
spread out in proper position so that the tip of
conserving soil and improving or maintaining
the root is in contact with bottom soil and no
soil structure and fertility. Fast growing
air gap is left in between. The hole is then
leguminous creepers, having the ability to fix
filled and the soil around the stump is packed
atmospheric nitrogen in addition to other
firmly with the help of a crowbar.
attributes common to all cover plants like
Polybag plants: At the time of planting, the suppressing weed growth, reducing soil
top whorl of leaves of the plant should be fully temperature etc., are widely used as cover
mature. A planting hole slightly bigger than crops in rubber. The common cover crops
the size of the polybag is made. The tip of the established in rubber plantations are Pueraria
tap root if grown out of the bag should be phaseoloides and Mucuna bracteata. Seeds
removed. The bottom of the bag is cut and of cover crops have very hard seed coat which
the bag along with the plant is placed in the delays or inhibits germination. Therefore, pre-
hole, gradually filling the hole with the soil core sowing treatment is done to ensure uniformity
intact. The cut is continued as the bag is slit and higher percentage of germination.
open and carefully removed. The soil is finally
packed firmly around the plants. Weed control: The concept of weed
management in rubber plantation is to manage
Root trainer plants: At the time of planting, the weeds in such a way that they do not
the root plug can be separated from the adversely affect the growth of rubber.
container without any damage by inverting it Complete eradication of the entire weed flora
and giving a gentle tap of the rim of the root from the field is not envisaged. Weeds can be
trainer on any hard surface. A planting hole controlled by manual, chemical (using
can be made in the refilled planting pit by herbicides) or mechanical (using weed cutters)
pressing the empty root trainer container into methods. Manual weeding and herbicide
soil. The root plug is carefully inserted into application can also be done in rotation for
the planting hole and the soil around is effective weed control and better environ-
compacted. The root trainer plants show early mental safety.
establishment due to its well-developed root
system. Different herbicides are used depending
upon the type of weed for effective control.
Mulching, shading, irrigation and Herbicide spraying is most effective when
whitewashing: The soil around the plants done during sunny weather and in the absence
should be mulched properly before the onset of wind. The post-emergent herbicides
of summer to conserve soil moisture, maintain effective in controlling weeds in rubber and
optimum soil temperature and control weed their dosage are furnished in Table 20.
growth. Young plants during the year of
planting are provided with artificial shade Weed cutters offer ample scope for the
during summer with plated coconut leaves or management of weeds in rubber plantations
gunny bags. From the second year onwards, and there is 40 – 50 per cent savings inweeding
brown portion of the main stem is whitewashed cost over manual weeding.
RUBBER 87

Table 20. Herbicides and their dosage

Name of Dose/ha Frequency of Target Quantity/ Volume of

chemical application weeds L water water (L)/
effective ha

Paraquat # 2.25 L* 4 rounds at Grass 4.5 ml*

+2, 4-D An interval of weeds and
(Tank mix) 1.25 Kg** 6-8 weeks broad
leaved 2.5 g** 500-600
weeds

Glyphosate 2 L*** 2-3 rounds at Grass 5.0 ml*** 400

3 months weeds and
interval and broad
spot application leaved
of 0.5 to 2.5 L weeds
Paraquat/ha

For formulations of * 20% EC, ** 80% WP and *** 41% SL

# Banned in Kerala

Intercropping 2. During the first two years, light is not

Rubber is planted at a wide spacing and limiting for intercropping and hence any
hence sufficient land and light are available in annual or short-term crop can be
the inter-row areas during the initial years for cultivated. From third year onwards, light
intercropping. Intercrops should be selected availability in the interspaces decreases
based on slope of the land, light availability in and hence partially shade tolerant crops
the plantation and marketability. like tuber crops may be cultivated.

Guidelines for intercropping 3. Intercrops should be planted at least

1.5 m away from the base of rubber plant
1. Intercrops should be selected based on and this distance should be maintained
the slope of the land. If the slope is less during later year also.
than 5 per cent, any intercrop can be
4. Manures and fertilizers should be
cultivated. If the slope is more than 5 per
applied separately to rubber and intercrops
cent, intercrops which require less soil
as per requirement of the crop. For
disturbance should be selected. If the manuring intercrops, the recommen
slope is more than 25 per cent, dations given by the Kerala Agricultural
intercropping is not advised. In such University should be followed. For
plantations, cover crops should be perennial intercrops, the dose of chemical
established. Tillage operations should be fertilizers can be reduced to 50 per cent
restricted to minimum while inter cropping. after 5 years.
88 RUBBER

5. The residues of intercrops should be enhances growth of rubber and adds to fertility
retained in the field. of soil.
6. Cover crops should be established along As zinc deficiency is commonly noticed
with intercrops. especially in young rubber, zinc sulphate
application @ 25 kg/ha or 50g/plant mixed with
7. The fertilizer application to intercrops will equal quantity of farm yard manure or top soil
affect soil nutrient status. Hence after (for uniform distribution) two weeks after the
intercropping, fertilizer application for post monsoon fertilizer application during the
rubber should be done based on soil testing year of planting is advocated as an ad hoc
to avoid nutrient imbalances. recommendation.
Annual and short term intercrops Time and frequency of fertilizer
Banana, pineapple, tuber crops, ginger, application
turmeric and diverse vegetable can be culti- Fertilizer should be applied when there is
vated in young rubber plantations following the sufficient moisture in the soil. However, heavy
guidelines. Short duration vegetables like rainfall period should be avoided to minimize
amaranthus can be cultivated in mature rubber runoff and leaching losses. In the year of
plantation also during the wintering period. planting, fertilizer application is done 2-3
months after planting ie., during September-
Perennial crops October. From second year onwards, the
Shade tolerant perennial crops with canopy fertilizers should be applied in two equal splits
underneath rubber viz., coffee, cocoa and during April-May (pre-monsoon) and
vanilla on Glyricidia standards can be cultivated September-October (post-monsoon) when
as intercrops without adversely affecting there is enough moisture in the soil. For manure
growth and yield of rubber and soil fertility from rubber also, fertilizers can be applied in two
the young phase onwards. Coffee and cocoa equal splits, first application after a period of
can be established during the mature phase about 30 days after the onset of pre-monsoon
showers after ensuring the presence of prolific
also. When perennial crops are cultivated with
feeder roots in the surface soil and second
rubber, yield will decrease after canopy closure
application during September-October.
of rubber. Medicinal plants like aratha (Alpinia
calcarata), Karimkurinji (Strobilanthes Method of application
haenianus) and Chuvanna koduveli During the first year, fertilizers should be
(Plumbago rosea) also can be cultivated as evenly distributed over a circular band of 30 cm
intercrops in mature rubber plantations. all around the base of young plant, leaving about
Manuring 7 cm from the base and slightly forked into
the top 5 to 8 cm of soil. The plant bases should
The general fertilizer recommendations for then be immediately mulched. The second
rubber plantation of the traditional are provided application (9 months after planting) should be
in Table 21. However, these are subject to done in a circular band of 45 cm width leaving
modifications for individual holdings based on 15 cm around the plant base. The applications
soil and leaf nutrient status, soil type, age of in subsequent years till the canopy of the rubber
the plantation, management practices followed, plant closes should be made in circular bands
etc. Application of compost/farm yard manure of steadily increasing width.
RUBBER 89

Table 21. Recommended doses of straight fertilizers for the traditional region
Straight fertilizers (g/plant)

Age of Dose of Urea Rock phosphate Muriate of Magnesium

rubber NPK Mg/ (46% N) (18% P2O5) potash sulphate
NPK (60% K2O) (16%MgO)***
(kg/ha/
year) *

April- Sept- April- Sept- April- Sept- April- Sept-

May Oct May Oct May Oct May Oct

First year # 20:20:8:3 - 100 - 250 - 30 - 40

Second year 40:40:16:6 100 100 250 250 30 30 40 40

Third year 50:50:20:7:5 120 120 300 300 40 40 50 50

Fourth year ** 40:40:16:6 100 100 250 250 30 30 40 40

From fifth
year till
tapping
a) With 30:30:30 80 80 200 200 65 65 — —
cover crops

b) With 60:40:24 165 165 275 275 50 50 — —

natural
cover

Rubber 30:30:30 80 80 200 200 65 65 — —

under
tapping ##

* Considering a stand of 445 during the initial four years.

** For plantation without cover crop, the third year recommendation may be continued during fourth
year also.
*** Magnesium is recommended for plantations in Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alappuzha,
Pathanamthitta, Kottayam, Idukki and Ernakulam districts in the traditional belt. It is not
recommended for the rest of the area as the available Mg status is high.
# When budded stumps are planted, only half the recommended quantity should be applied during
first year.
## For plantations with magnesium deficiency symptom (intervenial yellowing of leaves during
September-December period), 50 kg of magnesium sulphate/ha is recommended.
90 RUBBER

Once the canopy closes, fertilizers should tapping to a depth of less than one millimeter
be applied in square or rectangular patches in close to the cambium. Bark regeneration is
between four trees and gently forked in. brought about by the activity of the cambium.
Where legume cover is present or where it Bark shaving thickness should vary depending
has died out leaving thick mulch, broadcasting on the frequency adopted.
in the inter-row areas can be resorted to. Time of tapping and task
Discriminatory fertilizer recommendation Tapping should commence early in the
Fertilizer recommendation based on soil and morning as late tapping reduces the exudation
leaf analysis ensures site-specific fertilizer of latex. Headlight can be used for visibility
application for rubber and is the most ideal during early morning tapping. Completion of
approach. This facility is available at the tapping and latex flow in the early hours (02.00
to 6.00 hrs.) is good for higher yield. It is
Rubber Research Institute of India and also
particularly important during summer and in
at the Regional Laboratories at Adoor,
wind-prone areas. The tapping task (number
Kanjirappally, Pala, Muvattupuzha, Thrissur,
of trees tapped on a day by one tapper) in
Kozhikode and Nedumangadu.
India is 300-400 trees.
Harvesting
Tapping system
Tapping
Response to different tapping systems
Latex is obtained from the bark of the varies from clone to clone. For high yielding
rubber tree by tapping, a process of controlled clones (RRII 105, RRII 400 series clones, PB
wounding during which thin shavings of bark 260, PB 235 etc.), the trees are to be tapped
are removed. Both “Michie Golledge” knife on half spiral third daily (S/2 d3) system.
used in India as well as the draw knife or Alternate daily tapping can be practiced only
‘Jebong’ knife common in Malaysia are for medium yielding clones (RRIM 600,
suitable for high and low level tapping and GT 1, PB 28/59 etc.).
higher tasks.
Low frequency tapping (LFT)
Marking, slope, direction of tapping cut
Low Frequency Tapping (LFT) with yield
and latex regeneration
stimulation using ethephon (2-chloroethyl
The tapping cut of budded trees should have phosphonic acid) can be practiced from the
a slope of about 30o to the horizontal and for first year of tapping to reduce the cost of
seedling trees only about 25o, since the fairly tapping and increase productive life of trees
thick bark prevents spillage. The latex vessels and timber volume. The LFT systems
in the barn run at an angle of 3-5o to the right recommended are of d3, d4 or d7 frequency.
and therefore a cut from high left to low right
Controlled Upward Tapping
will open more latex vessels.
Controlled Upward Tapping (CUT) is a
Tapping depth, bark renewal and bark
proven harvesting practice to achieve
consumption
sustainable high yield for long term from old
Latex vessels are concentrated near the and senile trees. The combination of Low
cambium. Hence, high yield is obtained by Frequency Tapping with CUT from renewed
RUBBER 91

panel stage can increase the economic life of Plant protection

trees up to 40 to 50 years. In general 30-50 Abnormal leaf fall (Phytophthora meadii)
per cent higher yield can be obtained for many Symptoms
years under CUT.
During south west monsoon period, the
The normal recommended CUT practice fruits rot. Later, infected leaves fall in large
in India is periodic panel changing ie, basal number prematurely either green or after
panel tapping (S/2) with rain guard during rainy turning coppery red with a drop of latex
season, and CUT (S/4) on high panel during often coagulated in the centre of a black
non-rainy season. The length of tapping cut lesion on the petiole.
can be quarter spiral for CUT irrespective of Management
the girth of tree and its slope should be 45o.
Prophylactic spraying of the foliage prior
For CUT, a modified long handled gouge knife
to the onset of southwest monsoon with
must be used so that the tapper can stand on
1 per cent Bordeaux mixture (3000-4000
the ground and tap the high panel.
l ha-1) or oil based copper oxychloride (30-40
Tapping cut in the high panel can be litres of COC-oil mixture per ha mixed in
stimulated using 5 per cent ethephon following 1:5 proportion) is recommended.
lace application method. For third daily (d3) Powdery mildew (Oidium heveae)
tapping of quarter spiral cut in the high panel,
Symptoms
monthly stimulation is enough for high yielding
clones (like RRII 105) and stimulation at once Prominently noticed on newly formed
in three weeks intervals is necessary for tender flush during the defoliation period of
medium yielding clones. January-March. Tender leaves with ashy
coating curl, crinkle, edges roll inwards and fall
Rain guarding off leaving the petioles attached to the twigs
A suitable device is fixed on the trunk just giving a broom stick appearance. In later stages
above the tapping cut and flow of water on older leaves white patches appear. Infected
through the main trunk is channeled out. This flowers and fruits shed.
method is found to be effective to keep the Management
tapping cut and the bark below and above in For young plants, spray wettable sulphur
dry condition during the rainy season. Chances (2 g l-1) or carbendazim (1 g l-1) at fortnightly
of bark rot are high when the trees are rain intervals. For mature trees, dust with sulphur
guarded and tapping is continued during rainy 3-5 rounds at weekly to fortnightly intervals.
season. Irrespective of the type of rain guard Sulphur mixed with an inert material like talc
used, regular panel washing using fungicide (70:30 mixture) is generally used @ 11-13 kg
(mancozeb 0.37%) at 10-15 days interval is ha-1 per round.
necessary to prevent incidence of panel
Corynespora leaf spot disease
diseases. With the introduction of Low
(Corynespora cassiicola)
Frequency Tapping, rain guarding is needed
even under low rainfall conditions. Types of Symptom
rain guards recommended are polythene skirt, The disease is prevalent in nurseries (Nov-
tapping shade and Guardian/Kissan rain guard. May) and mature plantations (Jan-May). Large
92 RUBBER

spots with brown margin and pale centre are water mixed in the proportion 1:2:4 by volume
formed, which later fall off forming shot holes. is very effective for control. Thiram (0.75 per
On mature trees, light green leaves during cent) mixed in petroleum wound-dressing
refoliation are more susceptible. Defoliation compounds like rubberkote, sopkote etc. is also
and dieback of twigs are also noticed. effective.
Management Regular inspection of trees during July to
Shading in nursery reduces incidence. September for detecting the infection is
Spraying mancozeb (2 g l-1) or carbendazim (1 recommended. In severe cases, prune off and
g l -1) or Bordeaux mixture 1 per cent is burn the dried up branches.
recommended. In mature rubber, micronized Bark rot (Phytophthora spp.)
spraying with oil-dispersible copper oxy
Symptoms
chloride dispersed in spray oil (1:5 proportion)
at light green stage of leaves is effective. In During rainy season, when trees are tapped,
mature trees high volume spraying with depressions are formed in the tapping panel
mancozeb 0.2 per cent, carbendazim 0.05 per due to localized rotting and drying of bark.
cent or Bordeaux mixture 1 per cent at 2-3 Black vertical lines running downward into the
week intervals during refoliation is effective. tapping bark and upwards into the renewed
Micron spraying with oil dispersible mancozeb bark are noticed. The bark when renewed
70 per cent @ 7 kg dispersed in 40 l ha-1 spray becomes highly uneven.
oil is also effective.
Management
Pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor)
The tapping cut and nearby bark should be
Symptom washed with mancozeb (3.75 g l -1) or
Trees in the age group 3-12 years are highly phosphoric acid (0.08 per cent) at weekly
susceptible. The seat of infection is usually at intervals. The rotten bark may be scraped off
the fork region. White or pink coloured cob- and applied with fungicide and then
web mycelial growth form on the surface of covered with petroleum wound-dressing
the bark with streaks of latex oozing out from compound.
the lesion; resulting in rotting, drying up and Other diseases are patch canker, dry rot,
cracking up of the affected bark. The distal Colletotrichum leaf spot disease, bird’s
portions of affected branches dry and dried eyespot, shoot rot, brown rot etc.
leaves remain on these branches.
Pests
Management
The pests associated with rubber are scale
In high disease prone areas, the highly
insect, mealy bug, termite, cockchafer grub,
susceptible clones can be treated as a
mite, snail, rat etc. Appropriate control
prophylactic measure with Bordeaux mixture
measures may be adopted after identifying the
or Bordeaux paste. In the early stages of
pest.
infection, apply Bordeaux paste up to 30 cm
above and below the affected region. Thiram (Source: Rubber Research Institute of
(7.5 g l -1) in pidivyl, china clay and India, Kottayam).
SUGARCANE 93

SUGARCANE (Saccharum officinarum)

Sugarcane grows best in the tropical duration and 90 cm apart for medium
regions, receiving a rainfall of 750-1200 mm. duration varieties. In hilly tracts, prepare pits
Sugarcane grows well on medium heavy soils, in rows along the contour at spacing of 30 cm in
but can also be raised on lighter soils and heavy the row and 75 cm between the rows. For
clays, provided there is adequate irrigation. The mid-late varieties, an inter-row spacing of
soils should be well drained. 75 cm is recommended.
Season Selection of setts
The normal planting season is October- Select top ends of mature, healthy
December. Delay in planting reduces cane disease free canes up to 1/3 of total length and
yield. The planting season for semi-arid tract cut into setts of three eye buds. The seed rate
is from October-December and in deltaic is 40000-45000 setts per hectare.
areas the ideal time is the first fortnight of
Seed treatment
January. Planting should not be delayed
beyond February in the plains. In hilly tracts For control of fungus disease like red rot,
where sugarcane is cultivated under rainfed dip cut ends of setts in 0.25 per cent solution
conditions, planting should be done after of copper based fungicide.
abatement of heavy rains. Planting
Varieties Plant setts end to end in the furrow, with
CoTI 1358 (Abhay): Tolerant to water logging the eye buds facing sideways and cover with
CoTI 1153 (Aromal): Suitable for flood prone soil. In the pit system, plant 2-3 setts in
situations and have high sugar content suitable each pit.
for jaggery production Manuring
CO TI 88322 (Madhuri): Resistant to red rot Apply compost or cattle manure, 10 t ha-1 or
disease pressmud 5 t ha-1 or dolomite 500 kg ha-1 or
Co 92175: Suitable for drought prone calcium carbonate 750 kg ha-1. In addition, the
situation following fertilizers as N:P2O5:K2O kg ha-1 are
Co 740: For ratooning also recommended.
Co 6907, Co 7405 and Cul 57/84 (Thiru- Pandalam and Thiruvalla areas: 165: 82.5: 82.5
madhuram): Red rot resistant, high sugar (Madhuri, Thirumadhuram, Madhurima and
content Madhumathi )
Cul 527/85 (Madhurima): Resistant to red rot, Chittoor area : 225:75:75
tolerant to drought and waterlogging Newly cleared forest areas : 115:75:90
Co 88017 (Madhumathi): Resistant to red rot, Apply organic manures such as compost/
tolerant to drought and waterlogging cattle manure/pressmud as basal dose
Preparation of land preferably in furrows and mix well with soil
Plough the land thrice length-wise and before planting.
breadth-wise and level properly. Prepare In sugarcane tracts of Palakkad where sett
furrows 25 cm deep and 75 cm apart for short treatment with Azospirillum @ 500g ha -1
94 SUGARCANE

together with soil application 5 kg ha-1 is done, commencement of the south west monsoon,
sugarcane need be given only 175kg ha-1 N. final earthing up should be done to prevent
When Azospirillium and Phosphobacteria at lodging. At this time, de-trashing is to be done
5 kg each per ha is integrated with FYM 10t to prevent the possible germination of axillary
ha –1 , sugarcane need be given only buds and to reduce pest infestation. Prevent
75 per cent of the recommended dose of N, lodging either by twisting of trash or by prop-
P2 O5 and K 2 O (165:82.5:82.5) for deltaic ping.
areas.
Weed control using herbicides
Apply lime or dolomite or calcium carbonate
Apply oxyflurofen at 0.61 kg ai ha–1 as pre
in the field before final preparation of the land.
emergent and at 60 DAP as post-emergent
Apply N and K2O in two split doses, the application.
first 45 days after planting and the second Apply metribuzen 1 kg ai ha -1 as pre-
90 days after planting along with earthing up. emergent application followed by one hoeing
Do not apply N beyond 100 days after at 60 DAP while integrated weed management
planting. is undertaken.
Apply entire dose of phosphorus as basal
Intercropping
dressing. When pressmud at 10t ha -1 is
applied sugarcane grown in Palakkad need be Under irrigated conditions, intercropping
given only 50 per cent of the recommended with short duration pulse crop is recommended.
dose of P as rock phosphate. In such cases, sow the pulse crop on the ridges
one month in advance, so that the first inter-
In the black soil of Palakkad apply S at 60 cultivation is not hindered. As a green ma-
kg ha-1 in the form of gypsum as a soil nure, sun hemp can also be raised on the ridges.
ameliorant before the final land preparation.
Irrigation
Among the sources of sulphur, gypsum is
Irrigate the crop 8-10 times depending upon
found to be beneficial in sugarcane.
the availability of rains. In Chittoor area, more
After cultivation number of irrigations will be necessary. In early
When ratoon crop of sugarcane is trash growth periods, irrigate the crop at more
mulched @ 4t ha-1 the crop must be given only frequent intervals. However, avoid too much
100 per cent of the recommended dose of NPK moisture and water stagnation especially
225:75:75 against the existing recommendation during germination and early growth phases.
of 125 per cent. Alternate furrow with trash mulching could
The crop should be weeded twice on economise the use of irrigation water to the
45 and 90 days after planting before tune of 41 per cent during the formative phase
application of fertilizers. First weeding is done of spring planted sugarcane as compared to
by digging on the ridges and by hand in the all furrow irrigation with trash mulching.
furrows. Care should be taken to see that the
Plant protection
furrows are not filled up while digging so that
tillering is not affected. At the time of second Pests
digging, the crop is partially earthed upto The important pests of sugarcane found in
arrest formation of late shoots. With the the state are early shoot borers, top shoot
SUGARCANE 95

borers, mealy bugs, white grubs, termites 8. Cultivate red rot resistant varieties.
and rats. 9. To control the fungal diseases, in
Management general, dip the cut ends of setts in
Use pest free setts for planting. copper oxychloride 2 g l-1 solution before
planting.
Adhere to clean cultivation.
Other transmissible diseases like grassy
Use traps or poison baiting for
shoot, ratoon stunting etc. can be controlled
controlling rats.
by heat treatment and by implementing three
Diseases tier seed programme.
Red rot Harvesting
The most characteristic symptom of the Harvest the crop when it is fully mature.
disease is the drying up of the canes, which Delayed harvesting will reduce yield and
when split open will show characteristic red recovery percentage.
colouration of the internal tissues with
Ratoon management
horizontal white patches and the typical foul
smell. The disease is mainly transmitted through Normally not more than two ratoon crops
infected setts and flowing water and can be are recommended. Stubble shaving should be
checked only by prophylactic means which are done with a sharp spade wherever the canes
given below: are not cut close to the ground.
1. Affected crop should be harvested as early Spread the trash uniformly in sugarcane
as possible to prevent loss in yield and field after stubble shaving and dismantling the
deterioration in quality and also to arrest ridges.
further spread of the disease. The crop Gap filling
residues should be completely burnt after Fill the gaps at the rate of one - three budded
harvesting. sett for every 50 cm gap or with poly bag
2. When infection is noticed in the field, the settlings for every 50cm gap. Polybag settlings
affected clumps should be uprooted and are produced by planting single budded setts
burnt promptly. in polythene covers containing potting mixture
3. Infected crop should never be ratooned. and transplanted at 45-60 DAP.
4. Water should not be let into a healthy crop Manuring of ratoon crop
from diseased areas and as far as possible, Ratoon crop requires a higher dose of
the field may be kept free of standing nitrogen than the plant crop. An extra dose of
water by providing drainage channels. 25 per cent nitrogen is recommended.
5. In severely affected areas sugarcane Manure the crop by 25th and 75th days
should not be cultivated at least for one after harvest of the previous crop. Entire quan-
season during which paddy and tapioca can tity of phosphorus, half of nitrogen and potash
be cultivated. are applied as the first dose and the remaining
6. Seed setts should not be collected from as the second dose. The first dose is incorpo-
diseased crops and from diseased areas. rated into the soil by digging and the second
7. Movement of seed materials from dose is applied around the clump and earthing
diseased to healthy areas should be strictly up is done. Weeding is also done at this time.
quarantined. Irrigation is given as in plant crop.
96 COCONUT

OIL SEEDS
COCONUT (Cocos nucifera)
Coconut requires an equatorial climate with Hybrids
high humidity. The ideal mean annual 1. Lakshaganga (Lakshadweep Ordinary x
temperature is 27oC with 5-7º diurnal variation. Gangabondam)
The palm does not withstand prolonged spells
2. Anandaganga (Andaman Ordinary x
of extreme variations. A well-distributed
Gangabondam)
rainfall of 1300-2300 mm per annum is
3. Keraganga (West Coast Tall x Ganga-
preferred.
bondam)
Coconut is grown in different soil types 4. Kerasankara (West Coast Tall x Chowghat
such as laterite, coastal sandy, alluvial and also Orange Dwarf)
in reclaimed soils of the marshy lowlands. It 5. Chandrasankara (Chowghat Orange
tolerates salinity and a wide range of pH (from Dwarf x West Coast Tall)
5.0-8.0). 6. Kerasree (West Coast Tall x Malayan
The cultural practices have to be adopted Yellow Dwarf)
to suit the varying climatic and soil conditions. 7. Kerasoubaghya (WCT x SSA)
Selection of site 8. Chowghat Green Dwarf x West Coast Tall
9. Chandralaksha (Lakshadweep Ordinary x
Select sites with deep (not less than
Chowghat Orange Dwarf)
1.5 m depth) well drained soil. Avoid shallow
Tender nut variety: Chowghat Orange
soils with underlying hard rock, low-lying areas
Dwarf
subject to water stagnation and heavy clayey
soils. Keramadhura : A superior coconut suitable for
tender nut and copra, with more quantity of
Cultivars nut water (287 ml) with excellent quality. Yield
1. West Coast Tall (WCT) -119 nuts/palm; copra yield (196 g/nut).
2. Lakshadweep Ordinary (Chandrakalpa) Note:
3. Philippines Ordinary (Kerachandra) 1. Hybrids Anandaganga, Keraganga and
4. Andaman Ordinary Kerasankara are recommended for
general cultivation both under rainfed and
5. Java
irrigated conditions.
6. Cochin China
2. Other hybrids especially Chandrasankara
7. Kappadam are recommended for ideal situations and
8. Komadan where good management practices are
9. Kerasagara adopted.
10. Kalparaksha 3. Since the performance of Chandrasankara
11. Kalpadhenu is markedly superior to that of WCT in
root (wilt) affected areas, cultivation of
12. Kalpaprathibha Chandrasankara and Kalparaksha are
13. Kalpamithra preferred in such areas.
COCONUT 97

4. Chandralaksha, Lakshaganga, Chandra- Collection and storage of seed nuts

kalpa and Kalpadhenu are recommended
Collect mature nuts (above 11 month old)
for cultivation under drought prone
during the period from December to May.
areas.
Lowering of bunches by means of ropes may
5. Kalparaksha is recommended for be done when the palms are tall and ground is
tender coconut. Kalpaprathibha is a dual hard. Discard nuts, which show improper
purpose variety (copra and tender development or other undesirable features.
coconut). Store seeds in shade for a minimum period of
6. Kalpamithra is recommended for 60 days prior to sowing in nursery. For storing,
rainfed conditions. arrange the seed nuts with the stalk-end up
Selection of mother palms over an 8 cm layer of sand in a shed and cover
with sand to prevent drying of nut water. Up
Select mother palms having the following
to five layers of nuts can be arranged one over
characters:
the other. The nuts can also be stored in plots,
1. Regular bearing habit and yielding not less provided the soil is sandy and the ground is
than 80 nuts / annum. sufficiently shaded. In the case of nuts
2. Age 20 years or more (5 years after harvested in May, heap them in partial shade,
reaching full bearing capacity). If the till husk is well dried and then sow them in the
mother palms are the progeny of elite nursery.
planting material and gives consistently
Selection and preparation of site for
higher yields for a period of not less than
nursery
6 years, seed nuts can be collected from
such palms. There is no need for insisting Nursery sites should be well drained with
20 years as minimum age for mother light textured soil and with adequate but not
palms in such conditions. too much shade. In open areas, provide shade
3. More than 30 fully opened leaves with during summer. Prepare beds of 1.5 m width
short strong petioles and wide leaf base and of convenient length with 75 cm space
firmly attached to the stem. between beds. In areas where drainage is poor,
4. Bearing at least 12 bunches of nuts with prepare raised beds.
strong bunch stalks. Before sowing, examine seed nuts and
5. Bearing nuts of medium size and oblong discard those without nut water and rotten
shape. kernels. Sow the nuts in the nursery after
6. Husked nuts should weigh not less than commencement of southwest monsoon during
600 g. May-June.
7. Mean copra content of 150 g per nut or Spacing of nuts
more.
Plant the seed nuts at a spacing of 30 cm
Avoid palms which (i) have long, thin and (between rows) x 30 cm (between nuts) with
pendulous inflorescence stalks (ii) produce four or five rows per bed.
long, narrow, small sized or barren nuts (iii)
show shedding of immature nuts in large Method of planting seed nuts
numbers and (iv) are grown under favourable Plant the seed nuts in the beds in trenches
environmental conditions. 25-30 cm deep and cover with soil so that top
98 COCONUT

portion of husk alone is visible. The nuts may sowing of seed nuts should be in lots
be planted either horizontally with the widest rather than in a staggered manner.
of the segments at the top or vertically with
stalk-end up. Vertical planting is preferable on Removal of seedlings
account of convenience in transporting and Remove seedlings from the nursery by
lesser risk of seedling injury. lifting with spade and cutting the roots. Keep
Care and management of nursery the seedlings in shade and do not expose to
sun. Plant seedlings as early as possible after
Provide protective fencing to the nursery removal from nursery. Never allow lifting the
if it is located in open area. If the soil is sandy, seedlings from the soil by pulling the leaves or
provide mulching immediately after the stem.
cessation of monsoon rain. Irrigate the nursery
once in two days during summer months. Keep Preparation of land and planting of
the nursery beds free of weeds by periodic seedlings
weeding. If termite is noticed, remove soil in
The nature of preparation of land before
the affected area upto a depth of about 15 cm
planting depends upon topography of land, soil
and dust soil and nuts with carbaryl or
type and other environmental factors. On
chlorpyrifos. Repeat if attack persists.
slopes and in areas of undulating terrain,
Periodically spray the plants with 1per cent
prepare the land by contour terracing or
bordeaux mixture or any other copper fungicide
bunding. In low-lying areas and rice fields, form
to prevent fungal infection.
mounds to a height of at least 1 m above water
Selection of seedlings level. In reclaimed kayal areas, planting can
be done on the field bunds.
Remove seed nuts, which do not germinate
within 6 months after sowing as well as those The size of pits for planting would depend
with dead sprouts. Select only good quality upon soil types and water table. In loamy soils
seedlings (9-12 months old) by a rigorous with low water table, pit size of 1m x 1m x
selection based on the following characte- 1 m is recommended. In laterite soils with
ristics. underlying rock, take larger pits of size 1.2 m
1. Early germination, rapid growth and x 1.2 m x 1.2 m. In sandy soils, the size of pits
seedling vigour. may be 0.75 m x 0.75 m x 0.75 m. The pits
may be filled up with top soil to a height 60 cm
2. Six to eight leaves for 10-12 months old below the ground level. In low lying lands,
seedlings and at least four leaves for 9 take shallow pits and as the plant grows, raise
months old seedlings. the ground level by adding silt and sand so as
3. Collar girth of 10-12 cm. to cover the entire bole of the palm. The same
procedure can be adopted when planting
4. Early splitting of leaves. is done on mounds or bunds. Burial of
Note: The recovery of quality seedlings will two layers of husks in the pits will be useful
be about 60-65 per cent. Since early for moisture conservation. The husk
germination is one of the criteria for the is to be buried in layers with concave surface
selection of seedlings, the storing and facing upwards.
COCONUT 99

Note: In lateritic areas, common salt Time of planting

@ 2 kg per pit may be applied on the
Planting the seedlings during May, with the
pit to improve soil conditions. Common
onset of pre-monsoon rains is ideal. Under
salt is to be applied about six months
assured irrigation, planting can be done during
prior to planting.
April also. In low-lying areas, plant the
Spacing seedlings in September after the cessation of
heavy rains.
Spacing depends upon the planting system,
soil type etc. In general, spacings are Shading and irrigation
recommended under different systems in For the first two years from planting, irrigate
sandy and laterite soils as given in Table 22. @ 45 litres of water per seedling, once in 4
In lateritic gravelly soils, under rainfed days, during dry summer months. Provide
conditions of north Kerala, a closer spacing to adequate shade to the transplanted seedlings.
accommodate 250 palms per ha is more
Manuring young palms
economical.
For the first three years after planting under
In the hedge system of planting, the rows rainfed conditions, apply fertilizers in two split
should be aligned in north-south direction and doses at the rates shown in Table 23. Fertilizer
the seedlings planted as in the triangular requirement of adult palms is given in
system. Table 24.
Table 22. Spacing for coconut
Approximate number
Planting system Spacing
of plants ha-1
Triangular 7.6 m 198
Square 7.6 m to 9 m 170-120
Single hedge 5 m in the rows 9 m between the rows 220
Double hedge 5 m x 5 m in rows 9 m between pairs of rows 280

Table 23. Fertilizer requirement of young palms in relation to that of adult palms
Time of application
Time after planting April-June Sept-Oct.
(Proportion of adults palm dose)
3 months (1/10th of full dose) 1/10
1 year (1/3rd of full dose) 1/9 2/9
2 year (2/3rd of full dose) 2/9 4/9
3 year onwards (full dose) 3/9 6/9
100 COCONUT

Table 24. Fertilizer recommendation for coconut

Quantity (kg/palm/annum)
N P2O5 K2O
1. General recommendation
(a) Average management 0.34 0.17 0.68
(b) Good management 0.50 0.32 1.20
2. For reclaimed clayey soils 0.25 0.35 0.90
(as in Kuttanad)
3. Red loam soils (southern Kerala) 0.68 0.23 0.90
4. Hybrids & high yielding palms
(a) For irrigated areas 1.00 0.50 2.00
(b) For rainfed conditions 0.50 0.32 1.20

Note: Under irrigated conditions, the fertilizers Drought management in coconut gardens
can be applied in 3-4 equal split doses. Coconut produces nuts round the year.
In the case of low lying areas, apply Therefore, adequate supply of water is
fertilizer after water table recedes in one essential for its proper growth. Soil moisture
single dose or in two split doses as is essential for the absorption of nutrients by
conditions permit. In all types of soils roots. Moisture stress leads to stunted growth,
that are low in organic matter content drooping of leaves, immature nut fall and
(except reclaimed clayey soils and decreased yield. Importance may be given on
alluvial soils), apply organic matter @ the following aspects so as to ward off stress:
of 15-25 kg per palm per year during
June-July from the second year of 1. Husk burial for moisture conservation
planting. Burying of fresh or dried coconut husk
Weeding and interculture around the palm is a desirable practice
particularly for moisture retention. The husk
Keep the pits free of weeds by periodical
can be buried either in linear trenches taken
weeding. Remove the soil covering the collar
3 m away from the trunk between rows of
of seedlings. As the seedlings grow fill up the
palms or in circular trenches taken around the
pits gradually by cutting the sides. Proper
palm at a distance of 2 m from the trunk. The
intercultivation provides control of weeds and
trenches may be of 0.5 m width and depth.
creates soil mulch. Any tillage system
The husks are to be placed in layers with
(ploughing, digging, raking or forming mounds)
concave surface facing upwards and covered
that provides soil mulch and control weeds may
with soil. The beneficial effect of husk burial
be followed depending upon local conditions.
will last for about 5-7 years. Instead of husk, coir
For laterite, sandy and red sandy loam soils
give two ploughings or diggings in May-June pith can be buried @ 25 kg per palm per year.
and September-October and one raking in 2. Mulching
January. In areas where surface run off is
Mulching is an effective method of
more, form mounds in September-October and
conserving soil moisture. Mulch the coconut
level them in November-December.
basins with green / dry leaves at the close of
COCONUT 101

northeast monsoon (October-November). increase the water holding capacity of soil.

Mulching also adds organic matter to the soil Calapagonium can be grown either as green
and reduces the soil temperature. Do not manure or cover crop. Tephrosia is especially
disturb soil in the coconut garden during suited for planting around seedling pits for
summer months. In level lands, during rainy summer shade and as a source of green
seasons excess water may be conserved in manure in the rainy season.
small trenches dug out in the plantation. In
Manuring of adult palms
sloppy areas, land may be terraced and
trenches dug across. This will facilitate The nutrient dosages recommended for
maximum percolation of rainwater and water adult palms are given in Table 24.
conservation. For moisture conservation, 1. Under irrigated conditions, fertilizers can
lowermost 3-5 leaves may be cut and removed. be applied in 3-4 equal split doses.
Provide adequate shade for the transplanted 2. In the case of low-lying areas, apply
seedlings for 1-2 years. To minimize the sun fertilizers in one single dose after water
scorch on the srunk, application of lime solution table recedes or in two split doses as
on the trunk up to a height of 2-3 m at the start conditions permit.
of the summer season is recommended. 3. The application of organic materials such
3. Green manure and cover crops as forest leaves, cattle manure, coir dust
or coconut shredding at 10 kg per pit in the
Green manure and cover crops recom- first three years and 15-25 kg thereafter
mended for cultivation in coconut gardens are: will be useful to obtain better establishment
a. Green manure crops: Crotalaria juncea of coconut palms in sandy soils and in
(sunhemp), Tephrosia purpurea (kolinji), coastal situations.
Indigofera hirsuta, Pueraria phaseoloides 4. In situations where the available P2O 5
b. Cover crops: Calapagonium muconoides, status of the soil is more than 10 ppm,
Mimosa invisa, Stylosanthes gracilis application of phosphatic fertilizers can be
c. Shade-cum-green manure shrub: skipped for a few years until the status of
Tephrosia candida P2O5 reaches 10 ppm.

Sow cowpea seeds more towards the 5. For sandy and sandy loams of Onattukara
periphery of basins taken at a radius of 2.0m and similar situations and also for hybrid
from the base of the palm for green manure palms grown in root (wilt) affected areas,
during April-May with the onset of pre- apply 500 g N + 300 g P2O5 + 1000 g K2O
monsoon rains. When a few plants start along with 500 g MgSO4 per palm per year.
flowering, uproot the entire plants and 6. Application of MgSO4 to coconut palms
incorporate into the soil during August- earlier confined to root wilt affected areas
September and cover the basins with soil. is recommended for the whole state.
Sow green manure and cover crop seeds 7. The N:P2O5:K2O recommendation given
during April-May with the onset of pre- for high yielding palms is, in general,
monsoon rains. The green manure crops sufficient for palms yielding upto 100 nuts
should be ploughed in and incorporated into per year. For palms yielding more than 100
the soil during August-September. This will nuts per year, an additional dose of 10 g N,
102 COCONUT

5 g P2O5 and 15 g K2O may be supplied for This practice of organic recycling of waste
every nut exceeding 100 nuts . has been found to improve the growth and
productivity of the palms.
8. In laterite soils, 50 per cent of the K2O
requirement of coconut can be substituted Intercropping and mixed cropping
by Na2O supplied in the form of sodium Schedules for inter/mixed cropping may be
chloride. drawn up based on the canopy size, age and
spacing of palms. In general, palms in the age
Time, frequency and method of fertilizer group of 8-25 years are not suitable for inter
application and mixed cropping. However, cereals and
Under rainfed conditions, apply fertilizers tapioca are recommended as intercrops in
in two split doses, 1/3 at the time of early young coconut plantation upto 3-4 years. Since
southwest monsoon showers in April-June and ginger and turmeric are shade tolerant crops
2/3 in September-October. with shallow roots, they can be intercropped
in coconut garden even in the age group of
Under irrigated conditions, apply fertilizers 15-25 years. It ensures better land utilization,
in three or four equal doses in April-May, solar energy harvesting, efficient water use,
August-September, December and February- utilization of soil nutrient resources, more
March. returns and an insurance against crop failure.
Apply lime or dolomite during April-May, Under conditions of wider spacing i.e. beyond
magnesium sulphate during August-September 7.6 m, intercropping is possible irrespective of
and organic matter during June-July. For an the age of the palms.
adult palm 1.0 kg dolomite or 1.0 kg lime + 0.5 The following crops are recommended as
kg MgSO4 is required per annum. intercrops.
Apply fertilizers and manures in circular Cereals: Rice, maize
basins at a radius of 2.0 m from the base of Legumes and pulses: Groundnut, horse
the palm and 10 cm deep, opened after the gram, cowpea.
onset of southwest monsoon. Split doses can Tubers: Tapioca, sweet potato, yams,
be applied with irrigation water in summer colocasia.
months.
Spices and condiments: Ginger, turmeric,
Recycling of palm waste chilly, pepper, nutmeg, cinnamon, clove.
Recycling of palm waste is very much Fruit plants: Banana, pineapple, papaya.
beneficial especially for maintaining the (Banana variety Palayankodan is
availability status of micronutrients and trace recommended in the reclaimed soils of
elements. Palm wastes like coconut leaves, Kuttanad. Three suckers per clump have to
crown waste, dried spathes, husk etc. may be be retained).
deposited in a small trench of convenient
Beverage crop: Cocoa
length, 0.5 m to 0.75 m wide and 0.3 to
0.5 m deep at a distance of 2-2.5 m away from Fodder grasses: Hybrid Napier, guinea
the base of the trunk. Fill up this trench with grass.
the palm wastes along one side of the palm In all cases, separate application of
(north) in one year, opposite side (south) in adequate fertilizers and manures to the
the next year, east in the third year and so on. individual crop is essential.
COCONUT 103

Casuarina (Casuarina equisetifolia) may Note: In coastal sandy soils, seawater can be
be planted as single row intercrop, between used for irrigation. In irrigated gardens,
rows of coconut during the first year of interruption of irrigation would lead to
planting coconut seedlings in pits of size serious set back in yield and general
30 cm x 30 cm x 30 cm spacing of 2m. The condition of palms. Hence, when once
casuarina poles will be ready for felling/ started, irrigation should be continued
harvesting within 5-6 years of planting. regularly and systematically. In sandy
loam soil, irrigating the crop with 500
Crop cafeteria for multiple cropping in
litres of water through basin taken at
coconut garden
1.5 m radius at CPE value of 50 mm
Perennials: Cocoa, nutmeg, pepper, clove, (approximate interval of 15 days) is
lemongrass and cinnamon. most economical. Do not irrigate
Annuals: seedlings and very young palms with
a. Kharif: Rice, maize, groundnut, ginger, seawater.
turmeric, chilli, yams, colocasia, red gram, Drip irrigation
vegetables, sweet potato, tapioca, banana,
In the traditional system of irrigation
pineapple, papaya and fodder grass.
followed in coconut gardens such as flood
b. Rabi: Sesame, horse gram, red gram, irrigation, basin irrigation etc. irrigation
vegetables, cowpea, sweet potato and efficiency is only 30 to 50 per cent due to
banana. considerable wastage of water. In addition, cost
c. Summer: Vegetables on inputs like labour and energy in adopting
Irrigation these systems are high. Scarcity of water and
Irrigate the palms during summer increasing cost of labour and energy are
months in basins around palms as shown in deterrents in adopting these traditional irrigation
Table 25 & 26. systems. Under these circumstances, drip

Table 25. Irrigation requirement of coconut

Soil texture
Parameters
Sandy Sandy loam Loam Silty clay
Available soil moisture (cm/m) 8 12 17 21
Quantity of water / irrigation / palm 600 900 1300 1600
in litres in a basin of 1.8 m radius
Frequency of irrigation (days)
All areas in Kerala except north 3-4 5 7-8 9
eastern portion of Thrissur and
Palakkad districts
North eastern portion of 2-3 3-4 5-6 6-7
Thrissur and Palakkad districts
104 COCONUT

Table 26. Irrigation recommendation for Coconut on Agro Ecological Unit (AEU) basis
Parameters Agro Ecological Zones*
I II III IV V
Coastal Midland Foot hills High hills Palakkad
Plains laterites plains
Quantity of Water /irrigation / 350 to 500 to 600 to 500 to 600 to
palm in litres in a basin of 800 800 800 850 800
1.8 m radius **
Irrigation interval in days** 3 to 7 3 to 7 4 to 7 3 to 9 3 to 6
*NBSSLUP classification (Nair et al., 2012).
** The lower values are for sandy soils and higher values are for clayey soils. Intermediate values can be chosen
based on the texture of the soil with values moving towards lower side for increasing sand content and vice versa
for increasing clay content. Add 30 to 40% to the above values depending upon the conveyance and application
efficiencies in irrigation.
irrigation is the most suitable system of 4. Narrow stem without any bulging at the
irrigation to coconut. Some of the major base with close leaf scars.
advantages of drip irrigation are: it saves water, Hybridization
enhances plant growth and yield, saves energy
and labour, most suited for soils having low 1. Use mixed pollen from identified tall palms.
water holding capacity and undulating terrain, 2. Emasculate the inflorescence by cutting the
reduces weed growth and improves efficiency male flowers with scissors and stripping if
of fertilizers. For coconut, generally, three to necessary within 5-7 days of opening the
four drippers are given per palm. The water spathe.
requirement for an adult palm is 40 to 50 litres 3. Cloth bags made of very close mesh should
per day. be used for covering the inflorescence.
D x T hybrid production 4. Hairy caterpillar larvae cause serious
The following guidelines are suggested for damage by boring into the female flowers
large scale production of D x T hybrid and developing buttons through stigmatic
seedlings. Assisted pollination should be done ends. The damage is more serious under
to get maximum hybrid nut production. As far bagged conditions.
as possible use prepotent palms as parents in
5. Dusting of pollen-talc mixture in 1:9
the hybridization programmes.
proportion using pollen dispensers is
Selection of mother palms recommended.
Palms with the following phenotypic 6. Assisted pollination for at least 3-5 days
character combination may be selected for on each inflorescence till last female flower
hybridization work.
becomes receptive and fully pollinated.
1. Nuts without ridges and having yellow, 7. Remove bags after the seventh day of
orange or red colour.
pollination of the last female flower.
2. Palms with overlapping female and male
phases. Nursery
3. Small crown and canopy compared to that The nuts should be harvested before it is
of tall palm. tree-ripe and sown immediately in the bed
COCONUT 105

without storage. Nursery beds should be innermost 2-3 leaf axils. This treatment
mulched or shaded and watered regularly and is to be done twice, ie., during April-May
adequately. before the onset of south-west monsoon
Button shedding and during September-October after the
The shedding of buttons in the coconut is south-west monsoon.
attributed to the following reasons. b. Naphthalene balls 12.0 g (approx.
4 nos.) in the innermost 2 leaf axils and
1. Pathological conditions
covered with fine sand, once in 45 days.
2. Attack of insect pests
c. I n c o r p o r a t i o n o f C l e ro d e n d ro n
3. Nutritional deficiencies
infortunatum @ 10 per cent w/w basis in
4. Soil and climatic variations the cowdung pit and/or manure pits.
5. Defects in pollination and fertilization
4. Crown cleaning followed by the application
6. Structural defects in the flower of 20g Cartap hydrochloride 4G or Fipronil
7. Abortion of embryos 0.3G or carbosulfan 6G mixed with 200 g
8. Limited capacity of the tree to bear fruits sand in the innermost 2-3 leaf axils. This
9. Unfavourable conditions such as deficit of treatment has to be done thrice during
moisture, waterlogging and lack of aeration. January, May and September.
The causes of button shedding may be 5. Release Baculovirus oryctes infected
identified and appropriate remedial measures adults @ 10-15 ha-1 to bring down the pest
adopted. population.
Plant protection 6. Inoculation of breeding sites with
Pests entomopathogenic fungus Metarrhizium
Rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros) anisopliae (@ 5 x 1011 spores / m3) var
Symptoms major causes mortality to the grubs.
The adult beetle bores into the unopened Red palm weevil
fronds and spathes. The attacked frond when (Rhyncophorus ferrugineus)
fully opened shows characteristic triangular Symptoms
cuts.
The diagnostic symptoms are the presence
Management of holes on the stem, oozing out of a viscous
1. Provide field sanitation to prevent breeding brown fluid and extrusion of chewed up fibrous
of beetles. matter through the hole, longitudinal splitting
2. Hook out the beetles from the attacked of leaf base and wilting of central shoot.
palms by using beetle hook. Sometimes the gnawing sound produced by
the feeding grubs inside will also be audible.
3. The topmost three leaf axils around the
spindle may be filled with any of the Management
following mixtures as a prophylactic 1. Field sanitation should be given prime
measure: importance.
a. Application of 250 g neem cake or marotti 2. Avoid making steps or any other injury on
(Hydnocarpus wightina) cake mixed the tree trunks to reduce the loci of
with equal volume of sand in the infestation.
106 COCONUT

3. Leaf axil filling as suggested in the case of 3. Trunk release of G.nephantidis @ 10 nos/
rhinoceros beetle will be useful against the plam (4 to 6 releases) is effective for the
red palm weevil also. management of leaf eating caterpillar.
4. When green leaves are cut from the palms, 4. When infestation is very severe and if the
stumps of not less than 120 cm may be left biocontrol is not likely to be effective, spray
on the trees in order to prevent successful the undersurface of the fronds with
inward movement of the grubs through the dichlorvos 0.05 per cent, malathion
cut end. 0.1 per cent, quinalphos 0.05 per cent or
5. In attacked palms, observe for the bore- phosalone 0.07 per cent.
holes and seal them except the top most 5. When the infestation is very severe and if
one. Through the top most hole, pour the biocontrol is not likely to be effective,
1 per cent carbaryl or 0.15 per cent spray the under surface of the fronds with
trichlorphon suspension @ one litre per dichlorvos 0.05 per cent, malathion 0.1 per
palm, using a funnel. cent, quinalphos 0.05 per cent, phosalone
6. When the pest infestation is through the 0.07 per cent, Flubendiamide 39.35 SC (0.2
crown, clean the crown and slowly pour ml l-1), Chlorantraniliprole 18.5% SC (0.5
the insecticidal suspension. ml l-1). Spinosad 45 SC (0.4 ml l-1) is also
7. As an alternative, apply 1 per cent DDVP effective.
as a curative measure. Note: Application of the insecticides should
8. Coconut log traps with fermenting toddy be followed by liberation of larval and
or pineapple or sugarcane activated with pupal parasites from the 21st day.
yeast or molasses can be set in coconut Cockchafer beetle
plantation to attract and trap the free
(Leucopholis coneophora)
floating population of red palm weevil.
Incorporate any of the insecticide to each Symptoms
trap to kill the weevils trapped. The soil inhabiting white grubs cause
9. Use of pheromone trap for attracting and damage to the roots of coconut palm. The
killing adult weevils @ one trap per 2 ha. attack is common in sandy tracts. The infested
Leaf eating caterpillar (Opisina arenosella) palms turn pale yellow and there will be
considerable reduction in yield.
Symptoms
Management
The caterpillar feeds on green matter from
the lower leaf surface, remaining within 1. Collection and destruction of adults during
galleries of silk and frass. The attack will be the monsoon period from adjacent
severe during summer months from January- vegetation (in the evening).
May. 2. Plough or dig the infested soil synchro-
Management nizing with pre-monsoon showers.
1. As a prophylactic measure, the first 3. Drench the soil with chlorpyrifos 0.04 per
affected leaves may be cut and burnt during cent suspension. The treatment should
the beginning of the summer season. be given twice, first during April-May after
the receipt of pre-monsoon showers and
2. Arrange for the release of larval / pupal
second during the month of September.
parasitoids, Goniozus nephantidis,
Elasmus nephantidis (brown species) and Note: Wherever possible, light traps may be
Brachymeria nosatoi. set up to attract and trap adult beetles.
COCONUT 107

Coreid bug (Paradasynus rostratus) may be about 500 to 750 ml. Spraying has
Symptoms to be done on second to seventh bunches
from top avoiding unpollinated inflore-
The attacked buttons become deformed scence. Care should be taken to see that
with characteristic crevices on the husk below spray fluid reaches the perianth region of
the perianth with gum exudations and the third, fourth and fifth bunches since these
tender nuts become barren. bunches harbour maximum number of
Management mites. Three rounds of spraying are
Apply 0.1 per cent Dimethoate 0.05% on recommended in a year viz., March-April
the newly opened inflorescence after the before the onset of southwest monsoon, in
receptive phase of the female flowers and August-September during the dry spell
spray the entire crown excluding the leaves between the southwest and northeast
and older bunches. monsoons and in December-January after
the northeast monsoon so that all the
Note: The insecticide may be applied
emerging bunches in the vulnerable stage
according to the severity of infection
receive one round of spraying. Rational
in a need-based manner.
rotation of the above pesticides may be
Coconut eriophyid mite adopted to avoid chances of resistance.
(Aceria guerreronis) Preparation of neem oil + garlic emulsion
It is a microscopic worm like mite infesting (2 per cent)
young buttons colonizing under the perianth. To prepare 10 litres of 2 per cent neem
Symptoms oil + garlic emulsion, 200 ml neem oil, 200 g
The earliest symptoms on 2-3 months old garlic and 50 g ordinary bar soap are required.
button is pale yellow triangular patches seen Slice the bar soap and dissolve in 500 ml
below the perianth. Later, these patches lukewarm water. Grind 200 g of garlic and take
become brown. Severely affected buttons may the extract in 300 ml of water. Pour the 500
fall. As the buttons grow, brown patches lead ml soap solution in 200 ml neem oil slowly and
to black necrotic lesions with longitudinal stir vigorously to get a good emulsion. Mix the
fissures on the husk. Uneven growth results garlic extract in the neem oil + soap emulsion.
in distortion and stunting of nuts leading to Dilute this 1 litre stock solution by adding
reduction in copra yield. In severe cases, the 9 litres of water to get 10 litres of 2 per cent
losses are compounded because the quality of neem oil + garlic emulsion.
fibre is reduced and distorted nuts increase As per the recommendation of the National
the labour requirements for dehusking. Level Steering Committee, a holistic approach
Management has to be adopted in the management of the
1. Collect and destroy all the fallen buttons of coconut eriophyid mite. Hence, in addition to
the affected palm. the plant protection measures mentioned
above, the following measures can be adopted:
2. Apply 2 per cent neem oil + garlic emulsion
or commercial neem formulation 1. Improving nutrient status by applying
azadirachtin 0.004 per cent (Neemazal T/ organic manure at the rate of 50 kg and
S 1 per cent @ 4 ml per litre of water) or neem cake 5 kg per palm per year. Also
micronized wettable sulphur 0.4 per cent apply the recommended dose of fertilizers
in the crown on young bunches. When in two split applications.
rocker sprayer is used 1.0 to 1.5 litres of 2. Growing compatible intercrops / mixed
spray fluid per palm is required. If a hand crops.
sprayer is used, the spray solution required 3. Providing adequate irrigation.
108 COCONUT

Mealy bug In seedlings, the spear leaf turns pale and

Symptoms comes off with a gentle pull. In adult palms,
the first visible symptom is the colour change
Mealy bugs infest the unopened heartleaf
of the spear, which becomes pale and breaks
and inflorescence. As a result, the leaves
at the base and hangs down. The tender leaf
become highly stunted, suppressed, deformed
base and soft tissues of the crown rot into a
and present a crinkled appearance. It is often
slimy mass of decayed material emitting a foul
confused with the leaf rot symptoms. The
smell. The rotting slowly progresses
affected inflorescences are malformed and do
downwards, finally affecting the meristem and
not open. Even if they open, they do not bear
killing the palms. This is accompanied by
nuts.
drooping of successive leaves. Even then, nuts
Button mealy bugs colonize under the that are retained on the palm may grow to
perianth lobes of tender nuts. Infested nuts maturity. The disease proves fatal if not
harbouring gravid mealy bugs remain on the checked at the early stages, before damage
spadix, which serve as inoculum for further of the bud.
spread.
Management
Management
1. In early stages of the disease (when the
Remove and destroy all dried up heartleaf starts withering) cut and remove
inflorescence and unproductive buttons. Apply all affected tissues of the crown. Apply
non-residual phosphatic insecticide dimethoate Bordeaux paste and protect it from rain
0.05 per cent or quinalphos 0.05 per cent at till normal shoot emerges.
the site of infestation. Neem garlic emulsion 2
2. Burn all disease-affected tissues removed
per cent applied on infested bunches checks
from the palm.
button mealy bugs.
3. Spray 1.0 per cent Bordeaux mixture on
Rodents
spindle leaves and crown of disease
Rats damage tender nuts by forming affected as well as neighbouring palms,
characteristic holes. Shed nuts can be seen at as a prophylactic measure. Palms that are
the base of the palm. sensitive to copper containing fungicides
Place wax blocks of 0.005 per cent can be protected by mancozeb. Small,
bromadiolone in coconut crown of the infested perforated sachets containing 2 g of
palms at 3 to 4 days interval till the bait is no mancozeb may be tied to the top of leaf
more consumed. axil. When it rains, a small quantity of the
Diseases fungicide is released from the sachets to
Phytophthora diseases the leaf base, thus protecting the palm.
Phytophthora palmivora has been found 4. Adopt control measures for rhinoceros
to affect seedlings and adult palms causing bud beetle.
rot and immature nut fall commonly known as 5. Provide adequate drainage in gardens.
mahali. 6. Adopt proper spacing and avoid over
Bud rot crowding in bud rot prone gardens.
Symptoms Mahali
Palms of all age are liable to be attacked Symptoms
but normally young palms are more susceptible, Shedding of female flowers and immature
particularly during monsoon when the nuts are the common symptoms of the disease.
temperature is low and humidity is very high. Lesions appear on the young fruits or buttons
COCONUT 109

near the stalk, which later lead to the decay of 2. Apply fertilizers for coconut palms in
the underlying tissues and endosperm. average management at the rate of 0.34
Management kg N, 0.17 kg P2O5 and 0.68 kg K2O /
palm / year in the form of urea, rock
Spray 1.0 per cent Bordeaux mixture or phosphate and muriate of potash,
copper oxychloride preparation (2 g l-1) on the respectively. For palms under good
crown of palms, once before the monsoon and management, fertilizers may be given @
once or twice later on at intervals of 40 days. of 0.5 kg N, 0.32 kg P2O5 and 1.2 kg
Root (wilt) disease K2O / palm / year.
Symptoms 3. In addition to the above, apply 50 kg cattle
manure or green manure and 1 kg of
The characteristic symptom is the flaccidity
lime/palm/year. Magnesium may be
of leaflets. Yellowing of older leaves, necrosis
supplied @ 500 g MgO per palm per year
of leaflets and deterioration and decay of root
in the Onattukara region (sandy soil) and
system are other salient features of the disease.
100 g MgO in the remaining areas. The
The leaflets curve inwardly to produce ribbing
cheapest source of MgO is magnesite
so that the whole frond develops a cup like
appearance. Abnormal shedding of buttons and (MgCO3). The magnesium in magnesite
immature nuts are also noticed. is acid soluble. Hence it may be preferred
in acid soils.
Management 4. Growing green manure crops like
Coconut root (wilt) is a non-lethal sun hemp, sesbania, cowpea and
debilitating disease and the affected palms calapagonium in the coconut basin and
survive for a long period giving a reasonably their incorporation in situ is beneficial as
good yield. The root (wilt) affected palms are the practice reduces the intensity of the
susceptible to diseases like leaf rot and pests root (wilt) and increases the nut yield. The
like rhinoceros beetle and red palm weevil. So ideal green manure crops for the sandy
there is a chance of confusing the pests and and alluvial soils are cowpea and sesbania,
disease symptom with the root (wilt) disease. respectively.
Negligence on the management aspects
5. Under rainfed conditions, apply fertilizers
aggravates the malady. Efficient management
in two splits, 1/3rd at the time of early
of palms suspected to be affected by coconut
root (wilt) disease demands control of all pests southwest monsoon and 2/3rd before the
and diseases and imparting natural resistance northeast monsoon. Under irrigated
and health to the palms through proper conditions apply fertilizers in three equal
manuring and agronomic practices. A package splits (April-May, August-September and
of management practices for the effective December-January).
management of root (wilt) disease is given 6. Apply fertilizers and manures in 10 cm
below: deep circular basins at a radius of 2 m
1. Rogue out palms that are affected from the bole of the palm.
severely by root (wilt) and yield less than 7. When the crop is grown under the bund
10 nuts / palm / year and those, which and channel system, desilt the channel and
have contracted the disease before strengthen the bunds during summer
flowering. Replant with disease tolerant months.
material / high yielding hybrids 8. Follow strictly all the prescribed
(Chandrasankara). prophylactic measures against leaf rot
110 COCONUT

disease, red palm weevil, rhinoceros leaves twice a year (April-May and
beetle etc. so as to ensure that the palms September-October) 1. Pseudomonas
are not debilitated. To maintain the fluorescens (20 g l-1) or 2. PGPR mix II
productivity of the palms, prophylactic (20 g l-1).
measures are of great importance. Stem bleeding
Leaf rot Symptoms
Symptoms Exudation of the reddish brown liquid
The first symptom is the appearance of through the growth cracks mostly at the basal
water-soaked brown lesions in the spear leaves part of the trunk and bleeding patches higher
of root-wilt affected palms. Gradually these up in the trunk are characteristic symptoms.
spots enlarge and coalesce resulting in One or more lesions, lying close by, may
extensive rotting. As the leaf unfurls, the rotten coalesce to form large patches. The liquid that
portions of the lamina dry and get blown off in oozes out dries up and turns black. The tissues
wind, giving a ‘fan’ shape to the leaves. Some beneath the bleeding points decay and become
times, the symptom becomes very acute and yellowish. The lesions spread upwards as the
the spear fails to unfurl. disease progresses. In advanced stages, the
This disease is a fungal complex initiated leaf size reduces leading to reduction in crown
predominantly by Colletotrichum gloeospo- size. The rate of leaf production slows down.
rioides, Exserohilum rostratum and Fusarium The production of bunches is affected and nut
spp. shedding takes place. The trunk gradually
Management tapers towards the apex. The progress of the
disease is faster during July to November.
1. Remove the rotten portions from the spear
and the two adjacent leaves. Causal organism
2. Pour 300 ml of fungicidal solution at the The fungus, Thielaviopsis paradoxa is the
base of the spear. This can be prepared causal agent. Growth cracks on the trunk,
by mixing hexaconazole 5 EC 2 ml or severe summer followed by heavy down pour,
mancozeb 3 g in 300 ml water. water stagnation, imbalance in nutrition, excess
salinity and stress can act as predisposing /
3. Treat the top two leaf axils with insecticide aggravating factors.
preparation. This can be prepared by
mixing cartap hydrochloride 20 g with Management
200 g sand. 1. Chisel out completely the affected tissues
4. Spray crowns and leaves with 1per cent and paint the wound with Bordeaux paste.
Apply coal tar after 1-2 days.
Bordeaux mixture or copper oxy chloride
formulations (2 g l-1) or mancozeb (3 g l- 2. Destroy the chiseled materials by burning.
1
) in January, April-May and September. Avoid any mechanical injury to trunk.
While spraying, care has to be taken to 3. Apply neem cake @ 5 kg per palm in the
spray the spindle leaf. basin along with other organics.
5. After crown cleaning (removal and 4. Apply hexaconazole @ 25 ml in 25 litre of
destruction of affected parts) in coconut water as soil drenching once in four months.
palms pour 300 ml of any of the following 5. Swabbing the lesions on the trunk with a
bio-control agent at the base of spear paste of Trichoderma viride talc based
COCONUT 111

formulation (100 g 100 ml-1) along with Management

application of lime or dolomite @ 1kg palm-1 1. Apply organic manure @ 50 kg palm-1.
during April-May and application of neem 2. Apply neem cake @ 5 kg palm-1 year-1.
cake (5kg palm -1 ) + organic manure
3. Reduce fertilizer application to one-fourth
enriched with Trichoderma viride (1%)
of the recommended dose.
during September-October.
4. Drench the basin with 40 litres of any
Grey blight copper fungicide to soak soil up to 15 cm
This is caused by the fungus Pestalotia depth at quarterly intervals.
palmarum. 5. Avoid flood irrigation in order to prevent
Symptoms the possible spread of the pathogen through
Symptoms appear in the mature leaves of soil.
the outer whorl as yellow specks encircled by 6. Isolate the affected palm from the healthy
a greyish band which later become greyish ones by digging a trench of size 1 m deep
white. The spots coalesce into irregular and 50 cm wide, 1.5 m away from the bole
necrotic patches causing extensive leaf blight. of the infected palm.
In advanced stages, the tips and margins of 7. Avoid growing leguminous crops in and
the leaflets dry and shrivel giving a burnt around the garden.
appearance. Safe storage of copra
Management Copra obtained from commonly cultivated
Remove severely affected older leaves and varieties / cultivars is attacked by various insect
burn. Spray the trees with 1 per cent Bordeaux pests in store. Among these ham beetle,
mixture or propiconazole @ 1 ml l-1. Necrobia rufipes and saw toothed grain
beetle, Oryzaphilus surinamensis are of
Tanjore wilt
major importance, which can cause more than
Symptoms 15 per cent loss to copra when stored for more
This disease is of recent occurrence in than six months.
many parts of Kerala, especially in the districts Following precautions are to be taken for
of Palakkad, Malappuram, Thrissur, Kollam, the safe storage of copra for more than three
Thiruvananthapuram and Wayanad. Middle months:
aged palms were seen fatally affected. The 1. Dry the produce to 4 per cent moisture
characteristic symptom of the disease is the content.
rotting of the basal portion of the stem. The 2. Avoid heap storage, which causes
bark turns brittle and often gets peeled off in maximum damage.
flakes, leaving open cracks and crevices. The
3. Store copra in netted polythene bags or
internal tissues are discoloured and
gunny bags.
disintegrated, emitting a bad smell. Mild
bleeding occurs on the basal region. The tissues Shell fired copra dryer
on the bleeding spots are soft to touch. A new type of dryer working on indirect
Extensive damage of the root system following heating and natural convection principles using
root rotting has been observed. Ultimately the coconut shell as fuel has been designed and
palm dies off. developed by CPCRI. The overall dimension
112 COCONUT AND GROUNDNUT

of the dryer is 2.25 m length, 1.5 m breadth from the dryer, cleaned and reloaded with fuel,
and 1.5 m height. The capacity of the dryer is refired and replaced into respective burning
1000-1200 nuts per batch. The dryer has two chambers. About 4 loads of fuel are required
heating chambers which are arranged in with a capacity of 80 shells per tray to dry the
parallel. Specially developed rolling in type of
copra to about 6.25 per cent moisture content.
fuel trays are used for burning the fuel. The
dryer consists of a drying chamber, a burning The total drying time is 24 hours. The cost of
chamber, a plenum chamber and ventilation the dryer is approx Rs.35,000/-. Farmers and
holes. Each full tray produces heat for 6 hours, entrepreneurs interested to purchase this dryer
with a temperature of about 80-82 o C. can contact, Agricultural Technology
Generally after 6 hours, when the temperature Information Centre (ATIC), CPCRI,
drops below 60oC, the fuel trays are removed Kasaragod, for further details.

GROUNDNUT (Arachis hypogaea)

Groundnut can be cultivated as a floor crop Seeds and sowing

in coconut gardens, as an intercrop with Pure crop 100kg kernels ha-1
tapioca and as a catch crop after second crop Intercrop in coconut 80 kg kernels ha-1
paddy with irrigation. The crop is grown best
Intercrop in tapioca 40-50 kg kernels ha-1
in sandy loam and loam soils.
Plough the field three or four times into a
Season fine tilth. Sow the seeds by dibbling in ploughed
furrows at a spacing of 15 cm x 15 cm. For seed
Rainfed : May-June to September-October
treatment the rhizobial culture is recommended.
Irrigated : January to May
Manuring
Varieties
Cattle manure or compost 2 t ha-1
Duration (days)
Lime 1-1.5 t ha-1
TMV-2 (bunch type) 110 Fertilizers N:P2O5:K2O 10:75:75 kg ha-1
TMV-7 (bunch type) 110 Apply entire quantity of cattle manure or
TG-3 (bunch type) 100-110 compost and recommended quantity of
fertilizers as basal dressing and incorporate well
TG-14 (bunch type) 105-115
into the soil. Apply lime at the time of flower-
Spanish Improved 100-110 ing of the crop and mix with the soil by light
Sneha (bunch type) Early hoeing or raking.
Snigtha (bunch type) Early Irrigation and interculture
Note: TG-3, TMV-2 and TMV-7 are Irrigate the crop once in 7 days. Weed the
recommended as intercrops in crop 10-15 days after germination of seed by
coconut gardens. light hoeing. Give another light hoeing or
GROUNDNUT AND OIL PALM 113

raking at the time of application of lime. Do rainfed and irrigated crops. Prophylactic spray-
not disturb the soil after 45 days of sowing. ing with Bordeaux mixture 1.0 per cent before
Plant protection flowering will control the disease.

Red hairy caterpillar, termites and leaf min- Harvesting

ers are the major pests of groundnut. Against The crop will be ready for harvest when
leaf miner apply any of the organophosphorus the leaves start yellowing and begin to dry up.
insecticides with contact action. Development of brown colour inside the pods
Tikka leaf spot disease infects both the also indicates maturity of the crop.

OIL PALM (Elaeis guineensis)

Oil palm grows best in areas with a mean germinator maintained at a temperature of
maximum temperature of 30-32oC and on an 40ºC. After 80 days, the seeds are removed
average of at least five hours of sunlight. from polythene bags, soaked in water for
It can be grown in areas, which receive 5 days changing the water daily and dried in
well-distributed annual rainfall of 200 cm or the shade for two hours. The seeds are then
more. However, it can tolerate two to four put back into bags and kept in a cool place in
months of dry spell. The oil palm grows on order to maintain the moisture content.
wide range of tropical soils. The adult palms Germination commences in about 10-12 days.
can withstand occasional waterlogging, but The percentage of germination obtainable by this
frequently waterlogged, extremely sandy and method is 90-95.
hard lateritic soils should be avoided.
Raising nursery
Varieties
Polybags (preferably black) of 400-500
The only variety recommended for gauge measuring 40 cm x 35 cm are used. The
commercial cultivation is Tenera, which is a bags are filled with topsoil and compost and
hybrid between Dura and Pisifera. are arranged at a spacing of 45 cm x 45 cm and
Nursery practices one sprouted seed is dibbled per bag. A good
mulching during summer is desirable.
The fruits are separated from the bunch Watering the seedlings weekly thrice is
and seeds are extracted by scraping off the recommended. A fertilizer mixture containing
exocarp and mesocarp with a knife, or by
15 g N, 15 g P 2 O 5 and 6 g K 2 O at the
retting in water. The seeds are then dried by
rate of 8 g in five litres of water for 100
spreading them on concrete or wooden floors
seedlings may be applied when the seedlings
under shade for two days. Such seeds can be
are two months and eight months old.
stored for 3-9 months at about 27 o C
without much reduction in viability. Planting
Seeds are soaked in water for five days, Oil palm is planted in the main field in
changing the water daily. Thereafter, the seeds triangular system at spacing of 9 m
are spread out to dry for 24 hours. The dried accommodating 140 palms per ha. Planting is
seeds are put in polythene bags and placed in preferably done at the onset of monsoon
114 OIL PALM

during May-June. The polythene bag is torn Elaedobius kamerunicus is introduced in the
open and the entire ball of earth is buried in plantation. They congregate and multiply on
the pit (50 cm x 50 cm x 50 cm) and levelled. male inflorescence during flower opening. The
weevils also visit the female flowers and
Manuring
pollinate them effectively.
The following fertilizer schedule is
Harvesting
considered satisfactory for oil palm.
First harvest can be taken 3.5 to 4 years
N:P2O5:K2O g/palm/year
after planting. When a few ripe fruits are loose/
First year 400:200:400 fall off, the bunch is ready for harvesting.
Second year 800:400:800 Processing over-ripe fruits reduces quantity
and quality of oil.
Third year onwards 1200:600:1200
A chisel is used for harvesting bunches from
Mg application is necessary only if young palms. The stalk of the bunch is struck
deficiency symptoms are noticed. Fertilizers hard with the chisel to cut off and push the
are preferably applied in two equal split doses bunch out. When the palms become taller
(May and September), within 2 m diameter (from 10 year onwards) a harvesting hook has
around the palm and forked in. Supply of to be used. When the palms are too tall, it is
sufficient quantities of green leaf or compost necessary to climb the palms for harvesting.
is advantageous, especially where the soil is
poor in organic matter. Plant protection

Leaf pruning Pests

Dead and diseased leaves and all Rhinoceros beetle

inflorescences should be cut off regularly The pest causes severe damage to
upto three years after planting. When the emerging fronds and spindle. The adult beetle
palms are yielding, judicious pruning to retain feeds on the softer tissue of the rachis,
about 40 leaves on the crown is advocated. It resulting in snapping off of the fronds and
is necessary to remove some of the leaves spears at the feeding sites. Field sanitation
while harvesting. In such cases, care should and elimination of breeding sites are
be taken to avoid over pruning. In addition, all essential components of the pest management
dead and excess leaves should be cut off and operation. This pest can be suppressed by
crown cleaned at least once in a year, using the virus Baculovirus oryctes.
usually during the dry season.
Red palm weevil
Pollination
This is a major pest of oil palm in India.
Oil palm is a cross-pollinated crop. These weevils lay their eggs at the cut end of
Assisted pollination is done to ensure petioles or other wounds. The emerging
fertilization of all female flowers. However, larvae tunnel into the crown and feed on the
this is not necessary if the pollination weevil growing tissues. Palms infested by red palm
OIL PALM 115

weevil start wilting and leaves show drying of leaves showing yellowing are other
gradually increasing chlorosis and fracture in symptoms. Roguing of all the affected palms
strong winds. may be adopted to prevent further spread of
the disease. In early stages of the disease, the
Birds affected portions of leaves may be removed
Many birds such as the forest crow, the and burnt.
house crow and the common Indian myna Bunch failure
cause severe damage to oil palm fruit bunches.
These birds feed on the mesocarp of the oil Sparse or no fruit set followed by complete
palm fruits. The damage can be minimized by drying or rotting of the affected bunches are
scaring the birds and covering the ripe bunch the typical symptoms. The extent of incidence
with wire net, 150 days after fruit set. can be up to 20 per cent. This malady is
generally attributed to excess pruning, mutual
Diseases shading, underpollination, moisture stress and
unhygienic conditions. The situation can be
Anthracnose
improved by assisted pollination as well as by
This disease occurs in the nursery. It is adopting hygienic measures like removal of
recognized by regular or irregular brown to infected bunches and dry male inflorescence.
black leaf blotches surrounded by yellow
haloes, which develop along the margin, Processing
centre or tip of the leaves. It causes heavy For mature plantations not exceeding
seedling loss. The disease can be controlled 40 ha, a hand-operated hydraulic press will be
by spraying mancozeb or captan @ 200 g 100-1 enough for extraction of oil. In the case of
litres of water. Copper fungicides should not large-scale plantations, the hydraulic press will
be used because of the extreme susceptibility not be economical and as such, mechanically
of oil palm seedlings to copper burn driven oil mills have to be established. The
(scorching). fruit bunches brought to the factory are first
quartered by means of a chisel. They are then
Spear rot
sterilized in steam or boiling water for 30-60
This is noticed to affect oil palms of all ages. minutes. The objective of this process is to
The incidence is less than one per cent. inactivate the fat splitting enzymes, which are
Yellowing starts from tip of the innermost whorl present in the fruit, which may raise the free
of leaves. Small lesions occur at the distal fatty acid content of the oil and also to soften
portions of spear and rotting extends the fruits for easy pounding. The sterilized fruits
downwards. As the disease advances, new are stripped off from the bunch and then
leaves become rudimentary and show rotting. pounded. The pounded fruit mass is then
General decline in vigour and production is then reheated and squeezed using a hydraulic press.
noticed. Occurrence of spear rot without It is then boiled in a clarification drum where
yellowing has also been noticed. Distinguish- the sludge will deposit and pure oil float over
able marginal yellowing of leaflets and sudden the water. The oil is then drained out.
116 SESAME

SESAME (Sesamum indicum)

Sesame grows in well-drained, sandy loam Manuring

soils. Coarse sandy soils and soils of alkaline
and saline nature are not suited for the crop. Apply manures and fertilizers at the
following rates.
Season
Cattle manure / compost: 5 t ha-1
Lowland paddy field: December–April
(third crop) N:P2O5:K2O: 30:15:30 kg ha-1
Uplands: August–December Apply cattle manure/compost as basal
dressing and incorporate into the soil along with
Varieties
last ploughing. Apply fertilizers as basal dose
For upland cultivation use varieties when there is enough moisture in the soil. Urea
with long duration of 100-110 days and for low is preferable to ammonium sulphate. Nitrogen
land, use varieties with duration of may be applied in split doses, 75 per cent as
80-99 days (Table 27). basal and the balance as foliar spray at 3 per
cent concentration, 20-35 days after sowing
Preparation of land and sowing
keeping the discharge rate at 500 1 ha-1.
Prepare the soil into a fine tilth by ploughing
2-4 times and breaking the clods. Seed rate is Interculture
4-5 kg ha-1. Broadcast seeds evenly, prefer- After cultivation of the crop may be done
ably mixed with sand 2-3 times its twice, first at 15 days and the next 25-35 days
volume, to ensure uniform coverage. Work with after sowing. When the plants are about
harrow, followed by pressing with wooden plank 15 cm in height, thin the crop so as to give a
so as to cover the seed in the soil. spacing of 15-25 cm between plants.

Table 27. Sesame varieties

Kayamkulam-1 Suitable for lowlands of Onattukara

Kayamkulam-2 Suitable for rice fallows in Onattukara, resistant to leaf
(Thilothama) spot disease.
ACV-1 (Soma) Pure line selection for summer fallows of Onattukara
ACV-2 (Surya) Pure line selection suited for uplands
ACV-3 (Thilak) Pure line selection suited to summer fallows of Onattukara
Thilathara (CST 785 x Suitable for the summer rice fallows of Onattukara, oil
B14) 51.5%, duration 78 days
OMT–1165 Suited to uplands of Onattukara (rabi season), oil 50.5%
Thilarani Suited to summer rice fallows of Onattukara
SESAME 117

Irrigation of leaf and pod caterpillar, pod borer

infestation and phyllody incidence.
Usually the crop is grown under rainfed
conditions. When facilities are available, the For control of leaf curl disease, remove and
destroy disease affected sesame plants as well
crop may be irrigated to field capacity after
as the diseased collateral hosts like chilli,
thinning operation and thereafter at 15-20 days
tomato and zinnia.
interval. Stop irrigation just before the pods
begin to mature. Remove plants affected with phyllody and
destroy them. Do not use seeds from affected
Surface irrigation at 3 cm depth during the plants for sowing.
critical stages, viz., 4-5 leaves, branching,
Harvesting
flowering and pod formation will increase the
yield by 35-52 per cent. Two irrigations of Harvest the crop, when the capsules turn
yellowish by pulling out the plants. Harvest
3 cm depth each in the vegetative phase (4-5
during the morning hours. Cut the root
leaf stage or branching) and in reproductive
portion and stack the plants in bundles for
phase (at flowering or pod formation) are the 3-4 days when the leaves will fall off. Spread
best, registering maximum yield and water use in the sun and beat with sticks to break
efficiency. In the case of single irrigation, it open the capsules. Repeat this for 3 days.
can be best given in the reproductive phase. Preserve seeds collected during the first day
In the tail end fields in command area, best for seed purposes. Clean and dry in sun for
use of the sparingly available water can be about 7 days before storing.
made for augmenting sesame production. Storage of seeds

Plant protection By keeping sesame seeds in polybags, tin

bins, wooden receptacles or in earthen pots,
Azadirachtin 0.03 per cent at 5 ml per litre the viability can be maintained for about one
spray at 7th and 20th DAS and thereafter need year. Admixture of seeds with ash will
based application can manage the incidence drastically reduce germination.
118 CARDAMOM

SPICES AND CONDIMENTS

CARDAMOM (Elettaria cardamomum)
The habitat of small cardamom is the sprout are used. Plants propagated vegetatively
evergreen forests of Western Ghats. It is grown come to bearing one year earlier than the
in areas where the annual rainfall ranges from seedling propagated plants and are true to type.
1500-4000 mm with a temperature range of
Rhizome multiplication
10-35 ºC and an altitude of 600-1200 m above
MSL. This may be taken up from the first week
of March to the first fortnight of October. The
Cardamom is generally grown in forest
site is selected in open, gently slopping and
loam soils rich in available phosphorus and
well-drained areas near a source of
potassium. The crop is raised mainly on well
water. Trenches of 45 cm width, 45 cm depth
drained, deep, good textured soils rich in
and convenient length are taken across the
humus.
slope or along the contour 1.8 m apart. They
Varieties are filled with equal quantity of humus rich
ICRI-1, ICRI-2, PV-1 and PV-2. ISSR topsoil, sand and cattle manure. Uproot a part
Vijetha is resistant to Katte disease and is of the high yielding disease free mother clump
recommended to moderate rainfall with identified in the plantation. Trim the roots and
moderate to high shaded mosaic (cardamom separate the suckers so that the minimum
mosaic virus) infected areas. IISR Avinash is planting unit consists of one grown up tiller and
resistant to rhizome rot and is highly a growing young shoot. Plant them at a spacing
suitable for planting in valleys. of 1.80 m x 0.60 m in filled up trenches. Provide
sufficient mulch and stake each planting unit.
Cultivars
Provide overhead pandal as in the case of
Malabar : Suitable for areas from 600 seedling nursery and remove shading material
to 1200 m elevation with onset of monsoon rains. Provide irrigation
Mysore : Suitable for areas from 900 once in a fortnight and adopt necessary plant
to 1200 m elevation protection measures. Apply fertilizers
Vazhukka : Suitable for areas from 900 @ 100:50:200 kg ha-1 N:P2O5:K2O in six splits
to 1400 m elevation at an interval of two months. Apply neem cake
@ 100-150 g/plant along with fertilizers. On
Propagation an average, 20 to 30 suckers / initial planting
Cardamom can be propagated vegetatively unit can be produced within one year of
and by seedlings. However, in Kerala where planting. Care should be taken to identify and
viral diseases is a serious problem seed collect mother clumps only from areas totally
propagation is not popular among farmers. free from ‘katte’ disease.

Vegetative propagation Main field planting

In Kerala, vegetative propagation is Cardamom plantation is raised in forests

commonly practiced. For vegetative under the shade of tall trees. For raising a
propagation, rhizomes with an old shoot and a new cardamom plantation, the undergrowth of
CARDAMOM 119

bushes is cleared. When open areas like marshy the ill effects of drought during summer months
valleys and grasslands are selected for raising and to conserve soil moisture. Sickle weeding
new plantation, saplings of shade trees have is essential which has to be carried out
to be raised before planting cardamom sucker. frequently depending upon the intensity of
The quick growing shade trees like Vernonia weeds. Forking is necessary in hard soils,
arborea and Toona ciliata are generally used which is to be carried out in October-
for this purpose. Other quick growing trees like November.
Albizia can also be used. Useful trees like jack Trashing (removal of old and dried shoots,
can be used along with wild nutmeg, leaves and dried panicles) should be taken up
kurangatti etc. once in a year during June-July, with the
Spacing commencement of monsoon. This will help to
Mysore and Vazhukka: 2 m x 2 m to prevent the spread of diseases and expose the
3 m x 2 m depending on the fertility of the soil. panicles to easy visit by honeybees.
Soil conservation measures, maintenance
Malabar: 1.5 m x 1.5 m to 2 m x 2 m
of drainage channels and such other
depending on the fertility of the soil.
operations may be taken up promptly.
The recommended size of pits is 60 cm x
Manuring
60 cm x 35 cm. The pits are filled with rich
topsoil at least two months in advance of Application of organic manures such as
planting the seedlings. Application of well FYM, cowdung or compost @ 5 kg / plant or
decomposed FYM or compost or leaf mould neem cake @ 1-2 kg / plant may be done during
and 100 g of rock phosphate with the topsoil in June-July. The present recommendation of
the pit will help in proper establishment and nutrients for cardamom in Kerala under rainfed
quick growth of plants. If the selected site is a situation is N:P2O5:K2O @ 75:75:150 kg ha-1.
hill slope, terraces may be formed before The fertilizers may be applied in two split doses,
digging pits. before and after the southwest monsoon, in a
circular band of 20 cm wide and 30-40 cm
Planting can be done with the commence-
away from the base of the clumps and mixed
ment of southwest monsoon, before the heavy
with soil.
rains. A small pit may be formed inside the pit
by scooping out soil at the centre of the pit for Shade
planting single tillers. The soil may be put just Since inadequate as well as excessive
to cover the rhizomes. Care should be taken levels of shade are harmful to the crop,
to ensure that the rhizomes do not go deep into regulation of shade is inevitable. There should
the soil. be sufficient shade to protect cardamom plant
Cultural operations during the hot season. By regulating the
shade before the monsoon, more light
A regular schedule of cultural practices
becomes available to the plant during the rainy
consisting of weeding, mulching, trashing, season. Red cedar or chandana-vempu (Toona
shade regulation, fertilizer application, ciliata) is an ideal shade tree. It sheds the
irrigation, etc. will have to be undertaken. leaves during rainy season and thus
Sufficient mulch should be applied at the provides natural shade regulation. Some of the
base of the plant during December to reduce other ideal shade trees are kurangatti
120 CARDAMOM

(Acrocarpus fraxinifolius), vellakil capsules are spread thinly in the wire net trays
(Dysoxylum malabaricum) and thelli and stirred frequently to ensure uniform drying.
(Canarium strictum). They are initially heated at 50oC for the first
Bee-keeping for better pollination 4 hours and heat is then reduced to 45oC by
opening ventilators and operating exhaust fans
The main pollination agent in cardamom is till the capsules are properly dried. Finally the
honeybee (Apis cerana indica). Maintaining temperature is raised to 60oC for an hour.
four bee colonies per hectare during
the flowering season is recommended for The dried capsules are rubbed on wire
increasing fruit set and production of mesh to remove the stalk and dried portion of
capsules. flower from the capsules and then graded
according to size by passing through sieves of
Harvesting and processing sizes of 7, 6.5, 6 mm etc. The graded
Cardamom plants normally start bearing produce is stored in polythene lined gunny bags
capsules from the second year of planting. to retain the green colour during storage and
Picking is carried out at an interval of also to avoid exposure to moisture.
45 days. After harvest, cardamom capsules are A relatively new innovation in the curing
processed. procedure is blanching by soaking the fruits in
Cardamom capsules with green colour 2.0 per cent washing soda for 10 minutes prior
fetch a premium price in foreign countries. to drying. This inhibits colour loss during drying
Hence emphasis has to be given on the operation and extends colour retention during
preservation of green colour during curing and subsequent storage from three months to ten
subsequent storage. Capsule should be months.
processed within 24-36 hours after harvest to
prevent colour deterioration. By curing, the Sun drying
moisture of green cardamom is reduced to 11 Capsules are dried directly under sunlight
per cent at an optimum temperature so as to for five to six days or more. Frequent
retain its green colour to the maximum extent. turning is done. This method can result in
Harvesting is done almost round the surface blemishes and may not give
year in Kerala with the peak period from an attractive green colour. This method is
August - October. practiced if the cultivar yields fruits that turn
yellow before they are ready for picking and
Artificial drying where facilities for green curing are not
Processing of capsules is done in specially available.
built curing houses. The harvested capsules are
Bleaching
washed in water to remove dust and soil
particles. Then they are spread on wire net A proportion of the crop is bleached after
trays in curing chamber. Burning firewood in sun drying by exposing the capsules to fumes
the iron kiln produces heat required for from burning sulphur to get uniform colour and
drying. The heat thus produced is passed appearance. Steeping capsules in a
through pipes made of galvanized iron sheets. dilute solution of potassium metabisulphite
The process of drying takes about 18-24 hours, solution induces a slight improvement in
depending on the ambient temperature. The keeping quality.
CARDAMOM 121

Oleoresin At the early stage of the crop, the caterpillars

Solvent extraction of ground spice yields of this yellow coloured moth bore into the core
10 per cent oleoresin. Cardamom oleoresin of the aerial stem resulting in the death of
dispersed in salt, flour etc., is used for flavouring central spindle, which appears as characteristic
food. One kilogram of oleoresin replaces dead hearts.
20 kg ground spice.
At the time of flowering, when the
Decorticated seeds / seed powder caterpillars attack the panicles and spikes it
Decorticated seeds command a lower price may lead to flower shedding and drying up of
due to rapid loss of volatile oil during storage the attacked portions. At a later stage of the
and transportation. Seed powder is marketed crop, the caterpillars bore into the capsules,
to a limited extent. feed on the seeds and make them hollow. The
Control of pests and diseases in the presence of excreta at the region of attack
plantation indicates presence of the caterpillars in the
Cardamom thrips (Sciothrips cardamomi) pseudostem, inflorescence and pods.

This insect is a serious pest of cardamom. Pest infestation is pronounced in three

It colonizes and breeds in unopened leaves, leaf seasons viz. January-February, June and
sheath, flower bracts and flower tubes. It September-October.
lacerates and feeds on the exuding sap from
the aerial parts. Infestation on the panicle and Management
flower buds results in stunted growth of
Later stages of larvae bore into the
panicles, shedding of flower buds and warty
growth on the surviving capsules. The infested pseudostem and remain there. Insecticides
capsules are light in weight, inferior in quality sprayed at this time may not give adequate
and fetch very low price in the market. Since control of the pest. For an effective
the pest population is high during dry months management of the pest, the insecticides
from December to May, pesticide application have to be targeted on early stages of the
during this period is important. Four sprayings larvae, which are usually present within 15-20
of insecticide during this period is days after adult emergence in the field.
recommended. Insecticide application can be Chemicals like Quinalphos and dimethoate
skipped during rainy months of June and July. @ 0.05% are recommended.
Three more sprayings are to be given during
the period from August-November. Any of the Leaf eating caterpillars
following insecticides are recommended for
thrips control. There are 10 species of caterpillars
feeding on cardamom leaves. Out of these,
Quinalphos 0.05 per cent, phosalone 0.07
seven species are hairy and appear in large
per cent, dimethoate 0.05 per cent.
numbers during certain seasons causing
Shoot/capsule borer extensive defoliation. For controlling the leaf
(Conogethes punctiferalis) caterpillars, mechanical collection and
It is a serious problem to cardamom destruction and spraying of any contact
growers of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. insecticide are recommended.
122 CARDAMOM

Cardamom whitefly [Kanakarajiella September-October can be controlled by

(Dialeurodes) cardamomi] drenching chlorpyriphos 0.04 per cent @
3-4 litre per clump 10-15 cm around the plant.
It is a serious pest in cardamom growing
tracts of Kerala. The adult is a small Cardamom scale (Aulacaspis sp.)
soft bodied insect, about 2 mm long and
This scale insect is found on the lower
having two pairs of white wings. The nymphs
surface of leaves, leaf sheath, panicles and fruit
are elliptical and pale green. The nymphs
stalk. As a result of damage, capsules get
secrete sticky honeydew, which drops on to
shrivelled, panicles become dry and the leaves
lower leaves. On these, black sooty mould
become yellow. The pest is mostly seen during
develops, which interrupts photosynthesis of
summer months.
the leaves.
Nematodes (Meloidogyne sp.)
Management
Root knot nematodes are the most
The flies are attracted towards yellow
common nematode species associated with
colour. So metal sheets painted yellow and
cardamom plantations. Common symptoms are
coated with sticky materials, such as castor oil
necrosis of leaf tips and margins,
or poly-venyl butanol would serve as traps. By
narrowing of leaves, thickening of veins,
placing such yellow sticky traps between rows
reduction of internodal length and
of cardamom plants, population of adults can
rosetting. Roots branch heavily and galls
be monitored and adults trapped to some
appear on them. Plant becomes highly stunted.
extent. Nymphs are effectively controlled by
spraying the lower surface of leaves with a Management
mixture of neem oil (500 ml) and triton (500
Frequent change of nursery beds will help
ml) in 100 litres of water. Acephate 0.1 per
to reduce nematode infestation in nurseries.
cent is effective. The spray may be repeated
two or three times at 15 days interval. Application of cartap hydrochloride 4G @
1 kg ai/ha before monsoon and use of Neem
Cardamom root grubs (Basilepta
cake 2 kg/plant before monsoon or Bacillus
fulvicorne)
macerans (1 X 10 7 cfu) 30 g/plant or
The grubs of a small, greenish blue beetle Psuedomonas fluorescens (1 X 10 8 cfu)
cause damage. The grubs are short, stout, pale 30 g/plant before monsoon.
white in colour and often assume a shape
Diseases
resembling ‘C’, which feeds on cardamom
roots. The symptoms start as yellowing of Katte or mosaic
leaves, which later result in the drying up and This is a virus disease, which is transmitted
death of the plant. by the banana aphid, Pentalonia nigro-
Management nervosa. The symptoms consist of
discontinuous stripes of light green colour
Collect the beetle with hand nets or sticky running almost parallel to each other from the
traps at the time of mass emergence (March- mid-rib to the margin of the leaves, which form
April and August-September) and destroy. a mosaic pattern. On young shoots, such stripes
Early stages of the grub which are usually are seen on the leaf sheath also. The infected
present in soil during May-June and clumps will be smaller in size with fewer tillers.
CARDAMOM 123

Management Drench with 0.1% Fosetyl –Al (3-5 l /plant)

Eradication of the source of inoculum by and repeat this at monthly interval depending
destroying infected plants and destruction of the intensity of the disease and rainfall.
the vector by insecticide application are Prophylactic application of the biocontrol
effective. Regular application of insecticide agent Pseudomonas fluorescens (two percent
against cardamom thrips controls the aphids spray) along with basal application of
also. Avoid using katte-infected rhizome for Mycorrhiza (100 g) and Trichoderma viride
planting. (50 g) per plant by the commencement of the
Destruction of plants showing symptoms of monsoon and continue the spraying
the disease should be done promptly once in operation monthly depending on the intensity
two months. Removal of all alternate hosts of of the disease and rainfall. Trichoderma can
virus is also recommended. be used along with cowdung for controlling this
disease.
Azhukal
Clump rot or rhizome rot
This is a fungal disease caused by
Phytophthora sp. occurring during the rainy This disease is caused by Pythium
season. It affects the leaves, tender shoots, aphanidermatum, P. vexans, Rhizoctonia
panicles and capsules. On the infected leaves, solani and Fusarium oxysporum. The
water soaked lesions appear first and rotting affected shoots become brittle and easily break
and shedding of leaves along the veins off from the rhizome at the bulbous base.
occur thereafter. The infected capsules Management
become dull greenish brown and decay.
Drench with 2 g l-1 copper oxychloride
This emits a foul smell and subsequently shed.
(2-3 l plant-1) and repeat this two times at
Infection spreads to the panicles also.
monthly intervals.
Management As a bio-control measure, inoculate
Trashing and destruction of the infected suckers with native arbuscular mycorrhiza,
parts should be done as a phytosanitary Trichoderma and Pseudomonas fluorescens
measure just prior to the onset of southwest at the time of planting and apply during
monsoon. Remove the trash (dried leaves and pre-monsoon period in established plantations
leaf sheaths) from the basal region of the plant (see the chapter on biocontrol agents against
to the extent possible. plant pathogens).
Spray the shoots with 1 per cent Bordeaux Stem rot or stem lodging
mixture with adhesive (rosin soda or any other This disease is caused by a fungus
sticker) by the commencement of the (Fusarium oysporum). The pathogen attach
monsoon and continue the spraying middle portion of a tillers as a result, the
operation two or three times up to November- infected one produces pale colour lesions
December according to the intensity of the leading to dry rotting. The disease occurs
disease and rainfall. Give spray to the panicle during non rainy seasons.
with 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture during
Management
July-August when the disease intensity is
maximum. The affected tillers must be removed and
124 CARDAMOM AND CINNAMON

destroyed. Spraying Carbendazim @ 0.1per Chenthal disease

cent checks the disease spread. Application Chenthal disease is characterized by the
of Trichoderma @ 10 g per clump-1 along appearance of rectangular linear reddish brown
with 0.5 kg quality neem cake is
lesions mainly on the lower surface of the
recommended as preventive measure.
leaves. The lesions are clearly visible even on
Leaf blotch disease dried leaves. The incidence of the disease
The fungus Phaeodactylium venkate- appears to be more severe in areas, which do
sanum causes this disease. The disease is not have proper shade. Even though
characterized by the appearance of large Corynebacterium and Colletotrichum
blotches of irregular lesions with alternating gloeosporioides have been isolated from the
shades of light and dark brown necrotic infected leaves, the pathogenicity of these
tissues. This is mainly observed on mature organisms could not be established.
leaves. On the lower surface of the lesions
ash coloured white superficial growth of Management
the fungus appears during moist weather Providing adequate shade is the only
conditions. measure recommended pending confirmation
Management of etiology of the disease.

The fungicides, Bordeaux mixture (1 per Waiting period of insecticide / fungicide

cent), mancozeb (3 g l-1) and carbendazim Quinalphos 30 days
(1 g l-1) are effective in controlling the disease. Mancozeb 30 days

CINNAMON (Cinnamomum zeylanicum)

Cinnamon grows in areas up to an Vegetative propagation

altitude of about 1800 m. Humid tropical For raising cinnamon from cuttings; semi
evergreen rain forest conditions favour the best hardwood cuttings of about 10 cm length with
growth of cinnamon. Well-drained, deep sandy 2 leaves are taken and dipped in IBA 2000
soil, rich in humus is suitable for the crop. Avoid ppm and planted either in polythene bags filled
marshy areas and hard laterites. with sand or a mixture of sand and coirdust in
the ratio 1:1 or in sand beds raised in a shaded
Varieties place. The cuttings in polythene bags must
also be kept in a shaded place or in a nursery.
Navasree, Nithyasree and Sugandini.
The cuttings are to be watered regularly 2-3
Seeds and sowing times a day for maintaining adequate moisture
and prevent wilting. Rooting takes place in 45-
Cinnamon is usually propagated through 60 days. The well rooted cuttings can be
seeds. Sow seeds immediately after harvest transplanted to polythene bags filled with
on raised beds. Pot seedlings when they are potting mixture and maintained in a shaded
six months old. place and watered regularly.
CINNAMON 125

Air Layering established, if there is long drought period.

Air layering is recommended for all Prune plants when they are 2-3 years old at a
cinnamon nurseries. It is done on semi height of 15 cm above ground level. Cut the
hardwood shoots. A ring of bark is removed side shoots growing from the base to
from the semi hardwood portion of the shoot encourage growth of more side shoots till the
and a rooting hormone (IBA 2000 ppm or IAA whole plant assumes the shape of a low bush.
2000 ppm) is applied on the portion where the Harvesting and curing
bark has been removed. Moist coir dust or coir
husk is placed around the region where the The plants will be ready for harvest in about
hormone has been applied and is secured in 3 years after planting. Harvesting is done
position by wrapping with a polythene sheet during two seasons, the first in May and
of 20 cm length. This would also avoid second in November. The correct time for
moisture loss. Rooting takes place in 40-60 cutting the shoots for peeling is determined by
days. The well rooted air layers are separated noting the sap circulation between the wood and
from the mother plant and bagged in polythene corky layer. Peelers can judge this by making a
bags filled with potting mixture and kept in a test cut on the stem with a sharp knife. If the
shaded place or nursery by watering the plants bark separates readily, the cutting is taken
twice daily. immediately. Stems measuring 2.0 to 2.5 cm in
Planting diameter and 1.5 to 2.0 m length are cut early in
the morning and twigs and leaves are detached.
Select seedlings with green leaf petioles. The outer brown skin is first scrapped off and
Plant seedlings in the main field when they are the stem is rubbed briskly to loosen the bark.
1-2 years old with the commencement of Two cuts are made round the stem about
southwest monsoon. Planting is done in pits of 30 cm apart and two longitudinal slits are made
size 60 cm x 60 cm at a spacing of on opposite sides of the stem. The bark is
2 m x 2 m. Dig the pits sufficiently early to
separated from the wood with curved knife. The
allow weathering. Fill the pit with leaf mould
detached pieces of bark are made into
and topsoil before planting.
compound quills. The best and longest quills are
Manuring used on the outside while inside is filled with
Apply N:P2 O 5:K 2O @ 20:20:25 g per smaller pieces. The compound quills are rolled
seedling in the first year and double this dose by hand to press the outside edges together and
in the second year. Cattle manure or compost are neatly trimmed. They are dried in shade as
at 20 kg per plant per annum may also be direct exposure to sun can result in warping.
applied. Increase the dose of N:P2O 5:K2O The dried quills consist of mixture of coarse and
gradually to 200:180:200 g per tree per year fine types and are yellowish brown in colour.
for grown up plants of 10 years and above. The quills are graded as Fine or Continental,
Apply organic manures in May-June and Mexican and Hamburg or Ordinary. The Fine
fertilizers in two equal split doses, in consists of quills of uniform thickness, colour
May-June and September-October. and quality and the joints of the quills are neat.
After cultivation Mexican grades are intermediate in quality. The
Hamburg grade consists of thicker and darker
Weed regularly in the early stages of quills. The lower grades are exported as:
growth. Irrigate the seedlings till they get (a) Quillings: The broken lengths and
126 CINNAMON AND CLOVE

fragments of quills of all grades are bulked and oil. It is yellow to brownish yellow in colour
sold as quillings; (b) Featherings: This grade and possesses a warm, spicy but rather harsh
consists of the inner bark of twigs and twisted odour. The major constituent is eugenol
shoots that do not give straight quills of normal (70 to 90 per cent) while the cinnamaldehyde
length. content is less than five per cent. The oil is
Chips: This includes the trimmings of the cut used in perfumery and flavouring and also as
shoots, shavings of outer and inner bark, which a source of eugenol.
cannot be separated, or which are obtained
from small twigs and odd pieces of thick outer Cinnamon root bark oil
bark. The root bark contains 1.0 to 2.8 per cent
Oleoresin oil containing camphor as the main constituent.
Cinnamaldehyde as well as traces of
Cinnamon oleoresin is prepared by
extracting cinnamon bark with organic eugenol are found in the oil, having less
solvent. Oleoresin yield varies from 10 to 12 commercial relevance.
per cent. The oleoresin is dispersed on sugar,
Plant protection
salt and used for flavouring processed foods.
Cinnamon bark oil Leaf spot and dieback disease
(Colletotrichum gloeosporioides)
A pale yellow liquid possessing the
delicate aroma of the spice is obtained by On young nursery seedlings, small brown
steam distillation of quills (0.2 to 0.5 per cent). specks appear which gradually enlarge
Its major component is cinnamaldehyde resulting in drying of the leaf. From the leaves,
(55 per cent) but other components like the infection spreads to the stem, resulting in
eugenol, eugenyl acetate, ketones, esters and necrosis from the apex downwards.
terpenes also impart the characteristic odour
and flavour to this oil. Cinnamon bark oil is On old seedlings and mature trees, light and
used in flavouring bakery foods, sauces, dark brown concentric zonation occurs.
pickles, confectionery, soft drinks, dental and Spraying 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture during
pharmaceutical preparations and also in rainy season controls the disease.
perfumery.
The other diseases of cinnamon include grey
Cinnamon leaf oil blight caused by Pestalotiopsis palmarum,
Cinnamon leaf oil is produced by steam sooty mould caused by Phragmocapnius sp.
distillation of leaves yielding 0.5 to 0.7 per cent and algal leaf spot by Cephaleuros sp.

CLOVE (Syzygium aromaticum)

Clove requires a warm humid tropical suited for the cultivation of the crop.
climate with an annual rainfall from
150-250 cm. It grows well from mean sea level Selection of site
up to an altitude of 800-900 m. Deep loam soils Select partially shaded sites having
with high humus content and black loams of adequate protection from high winds. Avoid
semi-forest regions with good drainage are exposed and shady locations.
CLOVE 127

Seeds and sowing September-October in shallow trenches dug

around the plant about 1 to 1.25 m away from
Clove is propagated through seeds
the base.
obtained from fully developed fruits known as
mother of clove. Collect fully developed fruits After cultivation
from high yielding mother trees. Dehusk the
Conduct weeding and intercultivation
fruits immediately after collection by soaking
whenever necessary. Cut and remove dead and
in water and peeling. Prepare raised nursery
diseased branches of fully grown trees to
beds with fertile soil rich in humus under the
prevent over crowding. Spray one per cent
shade of trees. Sow the seeds flat at a depth
Bordeaux mixture to control dieback.
2-5 cm and a spacing of 12-15 cm. Water the
beds regularly. Seedlings can either be retained Harvesting and curing
in the nursery till they attain a height of 25-30 cm The trees begin to yield from 7-8 years after
when they are ready for transplanting or planting. The stage of harvest of flower buds
potted when they are six months old and determine the quality of the final dried product.
transplanted after another 12-18 months. Buds are harvested when the base of calyx
Planting has turned from green to pink in colour. If
Select 18 months old seedlings for allowed to develop beyond this stage, the buds
planting. Prepare pits of size 60 cm x 60 cm x open, petals drop and an inferior quality spice
60 cm at a spacing of 6 m x 6 m about a month is obtained on drying.
in advance of planting. Allow to weather. Fill Prior to drying, buds are removed from the
up the pits with mixture of burnt earth, compost stem by holding the cluster in one hand and
and topsoil. Plant the seedlings during the rainy pressing it against the palm of the other with a
season, May-June or August-September. slight twisting movement. The clove buds and
Provide shade and irrigation during breaks in stems are piled separately or drying. Buds may
the monsoon and summer. Banana or glyricidia be sorted to remove over ripe cloves and fallen
may be planted to provide shade. flowers. Drying should be done immediately
Clove is generally grown as a mixed crop after the buds are separated from the clusters.
with coffee, coconut, arecanut etc. If left too long in heaps, they ferment and the
dried spice has a whitish shriveled appearance
Manuring (khoker clove).
Apply cattle manure or compost at the rate The traditional method of drying is by
of 15 kg per tree per annum during exposing them to sun in mats. The green buds
May-June. The recommended fertilizer dose are spread out in a thin layer on the drying
is N:P 2O 5 : K 2 O @ 20:18:50 g per plant floor and are raked from time to time to
during the first year and @ 40:36:100 g per ensure the development of a uniform colour
plant during the second year. Increase gradually and to prevent mould formation. In sunny
the dose to 300:250:750 g per plant per year weather, drying is completed in 4-5 days
for a well grown tree of 15 years or more. giving a bright coloured dried spice of
Apply organic manures in May-June with the attractive appearance. During drying, clove
commencement of southwest monsoon. Apply loses about two-third of its original fresh green
fertilizers in two equal split doses in May-June weight. When properly dried, it will turn bright
along with the organic manures and in brown and does not bend when pressed. The
128 CLOVE

dried cloves are sorted to remove mother of trees showing dieback symptoms. Do not allow
cloves and khoker cloves, bagged and stored dried glyricidia and other twigs to
in a dry place. The stem after separation of remain in the plantation, to ensure that the
buds is dried in a similar manner as the spice, beetles will not multiply on these materials and
without allowing mould formation and subsequently initiate infestation in cloves.
fermentation.
Diseases
Clove bud oil
Leaf spot, twig blight and flower bud
The essential oil is obtained by steam
shedding (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides)
distillation of comminuted buds or whole cloves.
On distillation, about 17 per cent essential oil is Three types of symptoms are seen viz., leaf
obtained which is a colourless or yellow liquid spot, twig blight and flower bud shedding. On
possessing odour and flavour characteristic of the leaves, necrotic spots of variable sizes and
the spice. Finest oil contains 85-89 per cent shapes are noticed. Severely affected leaves
eugenol. Clove bud oil is used for flavouring wither, drop and dry up. In the nursery
food and in perfumery. seedlings, dieback symptoms are seen.
Extension of the symptoms from the leaves
Clove stem oil through petioles results in the infection of twigs.
Clove stem oil is obtained from dried The affected branches stand without leaves
peduncles and stem of clove buds (5-7 per cent) or only with young leaves at the tips. The
on steam distillation. The eugenol content of flower buds are attacked by spread of infection
the oil ranges from 90-95 per cent. This oil from the twigs. Shedding of flower buds occur
possesses a coarser and woodier odour than during periods of heavy and continuous
bud oil. rainfall.
Management
Clove leaf oil
Spraying 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture at
Clove leaves on distillation yield 2-3 per cent
1-1.5 month intervals reduces disease intensity,
oil as a dark brown liquid with a harsh woody
defoliation and flower bud shedding. The
odour. When rectified, it turns pale yellow and
spraying has to be commenced just prior to
smells sweeter with a eugenol content of 80 to
flower bud formation and continued till the
85 per cent.
harvest of flower buds for effective control.
Oleoresin Destruction of the weed Clerodendron from
Clove oleoresin may be prepared by cold the clove garden is recommended to reduce
or hot extraction of crushed spices using the disease since the pathogen survives on this
organic solvents like acetone giving a weed during adverse conditions.
recovery of 18-22 per cent. The oleoresin is
The other diseases of clove are:
chiefly used in perfumery and when used for
Grey blight of clove (Pestalotia palmarum),
flavouring it is dispersed on salt, flour etc.
Leaf spot of clove (Cylindrocladium
Plant protection quinqueseptatum), Leaf spot of clove
Pests (Alternaria citri), Sooty mould of clove
Infestation of shoot borer Sinoxylon sp. can (Phragmocapnius sp.), Algal leaf spot of
be controlled by pruning off the laterals of old clove (Cephaleuros sp.).
VANILLA 129

VANILLA (Vanilla planifolia)

Vanilla is a tropical orchid requiring a warm in loops touching the ground.
climate with frequent rains, preferring an
Manuring
annual rainfall of 150-300 cm. Uncleared jungle
areas are ideal for establishing vanilla Being a surface rooting plant, manuring
plantations. In such locations, it would be should be confined to the surface layer of soil.
necessary to retain the natural shade provided Provide heavy and frequent mulching to the
by lofty trees and to leave the soil or the rich vines. Apply 120 g of N in the form of leaf
humus layer on the top undisturbed. Vanilla is mould or FYM in two split doses in June-July
cultivated on varied type of soils from sandy and September-October.
loam to laterites. It requires filtered sunlight. After cultivation
In the absence of natural shade, trees should
Vanilla cannot withstand even the
be grown to provide shade.
slightest root disturbance. Hence remove
Preparation of land weeds from the plant base by hand weeding
and use them as mulch.
Clear the land of jungle growth and
prepare for planting. Being a creeper, the plant Being closely planted, no intercrops are
requires support up to a height of about 130- raised in a pure plantation of vanilla. But
135 cm. Cuttings of Plumaria alba, Erythrina vanilla can be planted as an intercrop in
lithosperma, Jatropha carcas and Glyricidia coffee, coconut, arecanut etc.
maculata are suitable as live supports. The Pollination, harvesting and curing
growth of live standard is to be adjusted to
Flowering of vine commences usually
make them branch at a height of 120-150 cm
by about the third year. The inflorescence is
to facilitate trailing of the vines and artificial
produced in the leaf axils. There is a
hand pollination.
tendency for some of the vines to maintain only
Time and method of planting vegetative growth. A light nipping off or pruning
Vanilla is propagated by planting shoot of the terminal shoots hastens flowering. Due
to the peculiar structure of the flowers, self-
cuttings in situ. Plant cuttings of 60 cm length.
pollination is not possible. Hence hand
Longer cuttings bear earlier than shorter
pollination is adopted for fruit set. Best time
cuttings. Rooted cuttings as well as tissue
for pollinating the flowers is between 6 am and
culture derived plants can also be used for
1 pm and a success of 80-85 per cent can be
planting.
obtained. Successful fertilization is indicated
Plant the cutting with the onset of by the retention of calyx and the stigma even
monsoon rains. Set out the cutting at a after four days of pollination.
spacing of 2.7 m between plants and 1.8 m The pods ripen in about 9-11 months time.
between rows in pits of size 40 cm x 40 cm x Before attaining maturity the fruit is dark green
40 cm. Trail the vines on the live supports and in colour and when ripe yellowing commences
when they attain a height of 135 cm trail them from the tip of the pod. Collect the pods at this
horizontally on bamboo poles tied to time, as this is the optimum time for harvesting
vertical supports or branches of support plants the pod. If allowed to remain on the vine further,
130 VANILLA AND GINGER

the pods split. Free vanillin is not present in the vanillin content of properly cured beans will
beans when they are harvested. Beans do not be about 2.5 per cent.
have the aroma at this stage. Vanillin is
Plant protection
developed as a result of enzyme action on a
glycoside during the process of curing of The occurrence of a wilt disease caused
beans. by Fusarium oxysporum has been observed.
For control of wilt disease adopt the
Curing of vanilla involves immersing the
following measures.
beans (2-3 days after harvest) in hot water at
a temperature of 63 to 65 o C for three 1. Remove diseased plants along with
minutes for the cessation of vegetative life. surrounding soil where the disease is
After a rapid drying on woolen blankets, when observed.
the beans are still very hot, they are kept in 2. Remove weeds around the plants.
chests lined with blankets. Next day they are 3. Mulch the base of the vine with dry leaves
spread out in sun on blanket for three to four before and after monsoon.
hours and rolled up to retain the heat. 4. Avoid injury to roots during cultivation.
Repeat this for six to eight days during which
5. Drench soil around the base of vine with
beans lose their weight, become supple and
1 per cent Bordeaux mixture.
can be twisted on finger without breaking. This
is followed by slow drying in the shade for a Fungal diseases like shoot tip rot, stem and
period of two to three months. Properly dried bean rot caused by Phytophthora sp. as well
beans are kept in trunks where the fragrance as immature bean drop are noticed. The
is fully developed. Finally, they are graded disease affected portions are to be removed
according to size and bundled and placed in regularly and 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture
iron boxes lined with paraffin paper. The should be applied on the affected plants.

GINGER (Zingiber officinale)

Ginger is a tropical plant adapted for Preparation of land

cultivation even in regions of subtropical Clear the field during February-March and
climate such as the high ranges. It prefers a burn the weeds, stubbles, roots etc.
rich soil with high humus content. Being in situ. Prepare the land by ploughing or
an exhausting crop, ginger is not cultivated digging. Prepare beds of convenient length
continuously in the same field but shifting (across the slope where the land is undulating),
cultivation is practised. The crop cannot 1 m width, 25 cm height with 40 cm
withstand waterlogging and hence soils with spacing between the beds. Provide drainage
good drainage are preferred for its cultivation. channels, one for every 25 beds on flat lands.
It is shade tolerant / loving crop with shallow Varieties
roots and therefore suitable for intercropping Improved varieties: Athira, Karthika,
and as a component in the homesteads where Aswathy, IISR-Varada, IISR-Rejatha and
low to medium shade is available. IISR-Mahima.
GINGER 131

Dry ginger Cultivars: Maran, Wayanad, The process include

Manantoddy, Himachal, Valluvanad, • Selection of healthy rhizomes of high
Kuruppampady. yielding varieties of ginger.
Green ginger cultivars / varieties : Rio-De- • Treating the seed rhizome with mancozeb
Janeiro, China, Wayanad Local and Aswathy. (0.3 %) and quinalphos (0.075%) for
Dual purpose varietis: Athira, Karthika, 30 min. before storage.
IISR-Varada, IISR-Rejatha and IISR-Mahima. • Preparation of single bud sprouts (4-6 g)
Planting material by cutting ginger rhizomes and

Ginger rhizomes are used for planting. For • Treatment of single bud sprouts with
mancozeb 0.3%, for 30 minutes before
selection and preservation of seeds, adopt the
planting after 30 days.
following methods:
Mark healthy and disease free plants For raising sprouts, 98 well pro-trays and
in the field when the crop is 6-8 months old nursery medium of partially decomposed coir
and still green. Select best rhizomes free from pith and vermicompost in the ratio of 3:1 are
recommended. The advantages are less
pest and disease from the marked plants.
planting material requirement, 500-750 kg per
Handle seed rhizomes carefully to avoid
ha, 98 – 100 per cent field establishment, high
damage to buds. Soak the selected rhizomes
cost: benefit ratio and suitability for early/
for 30 minutes in a solution of mancozeb
delayed planting and high production
and malathion to give terminal concentration technology.
of 0.3 per cent for the former and 0.1 per cent
for the latter. Dry the treated rhizomes in shade Season and method of planting
by spreading on the floor. Store the treated
rhizomes in pits dug under shade, the floor of The best time for planting ginger is
which is lined with sand or saw dust. It is during the first fortnight of April, after
receipt of pre-monsoon showers. For irrigated
advisable to spread layers of leaves of
ginger, the best suited time for planting is middle
Glycosmis pentaphylla (panal). Cover the pits
of February (for vegetable ginger).
with coconut fronds.
Plant rhizome bits of 15 g weight in small
Examine the stored rhizomes at monthly
pits at a spacing of 20 cm x 20 cm to
intervals and remove the rhizomes that show
25 cm x 25 cm and at a depth of 4-5 cm with
signs of rotting. This will help to keep the at least one viable healthy bud facing
inoculum level low. Provide one or two holes upwards.
for better aeration. Treat the seed rhizomes
similarly before planting also. Seed rate 1500 kg ha-1

Single bud sprout transplanting: A Manuring

transplanting technique using single bud sprouts Apply 20 t FYM + 2 t Neem cake + 1 t
(about 5g) has been standardized to produce Ash + 4 t vermicompost/ha. Also use
good quality planting material with reduced Azospirillum and P-Solubilising bacteria
cost. (20 g/bed of 3 x 1 m) as nutrient supplement.
132 GINGER

Drench the beds with PGPR GRB 35 after planting. Earth up the crop during the first
(Bacillus amyloliquifacians) for growth mulching and avoid water stagnation.
promotion and suppression of soft rot disease.
Plant protection
Apply manures and fertilizers at the
For managing shoot borer following
following rates:
measures are recommended
FYM 30 t ha-1
1. Spray Beauveria bassiana @ 5 X 10 8
N:P2O5:K2O 75:50:50: kg/ha/year conidia/ml and Chlorantraniliprole 18.5%
SC at 0.005 per cent.
Full dose of P2O5 and 50 per cent of K2O
may be applied as basal. Half the quantity of 2. Spray dimethoate or quinalphos at 0.05 per
N may be applied 60 days after planting. The cent.
remaining quantity of N and K2O may be 3. Spray neem oil (5 ml l-1 of water) in
applied 120 days after planting. combination with the cultural control
Mulching recommended for shoot borer.

Immediately after planting, mulch the beds For the management of rhizome rot,
thickly with green leaves @ 15 t ha-1. Repeat bacterial wilt and fusarium yellows of ginger
mulching with green leaves twice the following practices are recommended:
@ 7.5 t ha-1 first 44-60 days and second • Soil application of Bleaching powder (15g)
90-120 days after planting. Grow green + lime (250g 3m2) – ATP, 2MAP, 4 MAP
manure crops like daincha and sun hemp in
• Rhizome treatment with mancozeb
the interspaces of beds, along with ginger and
(3 g l-1) for 30 min. + Soil application of
harvest the green manure crop during
bleaching powder (15 g) + lime (250 g
second mulching of ginger beds.
3 m2 bed) -2 MAP & 4 MAP
Application of dried coconut leaves as • Seed treatment/Soil application of
mulch in ginger beds after removing the petiole Pseudomonoas fluorescens (2%) +
at the time of planting is also recommended. cowdung supernatant (2%)-ATP, 2MAP,
Dried coconut leaves after removing the 4MAP
petiole, split into two at midrib @ 8 kg/ 3 x1 m/
bed or 5400 kg ha-1 for effective weed control • PGPM – Seed treatment/soil appli-
in ginger. Subsequent application of green leaf cation - ATP, 2MAP, 4MAP
at 45 & 90 DAP is not required. This 4. Adopt the following to control Rhizome
environment friendly technology recorded 87% rot and Fusarium yellow.
weed control efficiency, less incidence of soft
a. Select sites having proper drainage.
rot incidence (8.7%) with a B:C ratio 1.97
compared to unweeded control with no b. Select seed rhizomes from disease free
mulching. areas.
After cultivation c. Treat seed rhizomes with 0.3 per cent
Remove weeds by hand weeding before mancozeb.
each mulching. Repeat weeding according to d. When incidence of rhizome rot is noted
weed growth during the fifth and sixth month in the field, dig out the affected plants
GINGER AND MANGO GINGER 133

and drench the beds with cheshunt overnight and then cleaned. The skin is
compound or 1.0 per cent Bordeaux removed by scrapping with sharp bamboo splits
mixture or 0.3 per cent mancozeb. or such other materials. Never use metallic
substances since they will discolour the
e. Inoculation with native arbuscular
rhizomes. After scrapping, the rhizomes are
mycorrhiza, Trichoderma and
sun dried for a week with frequent turnings.
Pseudomonas fluorescens at the time
They are again rubbed well by hand to remove
of planting is recommended as a
any outer skin.
biocontrol measure.
5. For controlling the leaf spot disease, Ginger oil
1 per cent Bordeaux mixture, 0.3 per cent Ginger oil is prepared commercially by
mancozeb or 0.2 per cent thiram may be steam distillation of dried powdered ginger. The
sprayed. yield of oil varies from 1.3 to 3.0 per cent. The
6. For control of nematode in endemic area, major use of ginger oil is as a flavouring agent
apply neem cake @ 1.0 t ha-1 at planting for beverages, both alcoholic and non-alcoholic.
followed by application of neem cake @
Ginger oleoresin
1.0 t ha-1 at 45 days after planting (DAP).
Oleoresin from ginger is obtained
Harvesting and processing
conventionally by extraction of dried powdered
For vegetable ginger, the crop can be ginger with organic solvents like ethyl acetate,
harvested from sixth month onwards. For dry ethanol or acetone. Commercial dried ginger
ginger, harvest the crop between 245-260 days. yields 3.5-10.0 per cent oleoresin. Ginger
After harvest, the fibrous roots attached to the oleoresin is a dark brown viscous liquid
rhizomes are trimmed off and soil is removed responsible for the flavour and pungency of
by washing. Rhizomes are soaked in water the spice.

MANGO GINGER (Curcuma amada)

It is an under exploited spice crop, which carminative and stomachic and in crushed pulp
grows luxuriantly in tropical soils with good form they are applied over contusions, sprains
drainage. The rhizomes of mango ginger are and bruises for rapid healing.
used for preparing pickles, chutney, preserve,
candy, sauce and salad and in meat and other Mango ginger is botanically related to
culinary preparations. The rhizome has neither mango nor ginger, but to turmeric
excellent medicinal properties and finds (Curcuma longa). Morphologically mango
extensive use in the indigenous system of ginger plant is similar to turmeric, but has
medicine. It is, appetizer, antipyretic, shorter crop duration of six months. The
aphrodisiac and laxative. It is useful in rhizomes are pale yellow inside with lighter
biliousness, itching, skin diseases, bronchitis, colour outside, have sweet smell of unripe
asthma, hiccough and inflammation due to mango when crushed. The crop comes up well
injuries. The rhizomes and roots are in open conditions, but tolerates low levels of
134 MANGO GINGER AND NUTMEG

shade and therefore partially shaded situations dose @ 30-40 t ha-1, spread over the beds and
can also be utilized for its cultivation. It can be mix well. Apply N:P2O 5:K2O fertilizer @
well accommodated as an intercrop in coconut 30:30:60 kg ha-1. Full dose of P2O5 and half
gardens and in rotation with other short duration dose of K2O may be applied as basal. Apply
crops like vegetables and also as a crop two-third dose of nitrogen 30 days
component in homesteads. after planting and remaining N and K2O at
60 days after planting.
Preparation of land
Prepare the land to a good tilth during Mulching
February-March subject to the availability of Mulch the crop immediately after planting
pre-monsoon showers. Prepare beds of with green leaves @ 15 t ha-1. Repeat mulching
convenient length, 1.2 m width, 25 cm height after 50 days with same quantity of green
and 40 cm spacing between beds. leaves.
Seed material and varieties After cultivation
Whole or split mother rhizomes or well The rhizomes germinate within 3-4 weeks.
developed, healthy and disease free finger Remove weeds 45 days after planting and
rhizomes weighing 15-20 g are suitable for repeat if necessary. Earth up the crop after
planting. In Kerala, local varieties are used for 60 days of planting.
cultivation. Amba is a released variety from Plant protection
High Altitude Research Station, Pottangi, Compared to the related crops ginger and
Orissa. turmeric, the crop is free from pests and
Season and method of planting diseases. But when large scale cultivation is
Plant during April with the commencement taken up, the attack of shoot borer
of pre-monsoon showers. Take small pits in (Conogethes punctiferalis) causes damage
the beds with a spacing of 25 cm x 30 cm and to the crop. Appearance of dead heart in the
at a depth of 4-5 cm. Adopt a seed rate of field is the main symptom. To reduce the pest
1500 kg ha-1. population, pull out the dead hearts with the
larvae inside and burn it. If infestation is
Manuring severe, spray dimethoate or quinalphos at
Apply cattle manure or compost as basal 0.05per cent.

NUTMEG (Myristica fragrans)

Nutmeg requires a hot, humid climate raising seedlings. The fleshy rind and the mace
without pronounced dry season. The soil should are removed before sowing. The seeds should
be rich in organic matter and well drained. The be sown immediately after collection. If there
tree prefers partial shade. Sheltered valleys are is any delay in sowing, the seeds should be
the best suited. It can be grown up to about kept in baskets filled with damp soil. The
900 m above MSL. seedbeds of 100-120 cm width, 15 cm height
and of convenient length may be prepared in
Variety: IISR-Viswashree cool and shady places. A mixture of garden
Seeds and sowing soil and sand in the ratio 3:1 may be used for
Fully ripe tree-burst fruits are selected for preparing nursery beds. Over this, sand is
NUTMEG 135

spread to a thickness of 2-3 cm and the seeds are directly used as spice and also for the
dibbled 2 cm below the surface at a spacing of preparation of their derivatives.
about 12 cm on either side. Seeds germinate
within 50-80 days after sowing. When the After de-rinding the nutmeg fruit, red
plumule produces two elongated opposite feathery aril (mace) is separated from pericarp.
leaves, the seedlings are to be transferred from The mace is detached, flattened and sun dried
beds to polybags. on mats for 3-5 days or in artificial heat drier.

Vegetative propagation of nutmeg through The nuts are sun dried for four to eight
epicotyl grafting is recommended for all weeks or in artificial heat drier until kernel
nutmeg nurseries. rattle inside the shell. They are stored in warm
dry place prior to shelling.
Planting
Oleoresin
Since the nutmeg trees require shade,
suitable fast growing shade trees like Albizia, Nutmeg and mace oleoresins are prepared
Erythrina etc. are planted in advance. by extracting the ground spice with organic
Banana can also be grown as a shade crop in solvents. Yield of oleoresin is 10-12 per cent
the early stages. Pits of 90 cm x 90 cm x for nutmeg and 10-13 per cent for mace. Mace
90 cm are dug at a spacing of 8 m x 8 m with oleoresin possesses a fine, fresh fruity
the onset of southwest monsoon. The pits are character.
filled with topsoil and compost or well
Nutmeg butter
decomposed cattle manure and seedlings are
planted. Nutmeg contains 25-40 per cent of fixed
oil that can be obtained by pressing the crushed
Manuring nuts between plates in the presence of steam
Apply 10 kg cattle manure or compost per or by extracting with solvents. The product,
seedling during the first year. Increase the known as nutmeg butter, is a highly aromatic,
quantity gradually till a well grown tree of orange coloured fat with the consistency of
15 years and above receives 50 kg of butter at ambient temperature.
organic manures per year. Apply N:P2O5:K2O
Nutmeg oil
@ 20:18:50 g/plant during the first year. This
may be doubled in the next year. Gradually This is obtained as pale yellow to white
increase the N:P2O5:K2O dose to 500:250:1000 volatile liquid possessing a fresh warm
g/plant/year to obtain full dose from 15th year aromatic odour. The yield ranges from 7 to 16
onwards. per cent. The unshelled nuts are coarsely
crushed in a mechanical cracker and steam
Harvesting distilled.
Fruits are available throughout the year, but
Mace oil
the peak period of harvest is from
June to July. When fruits are fully ripe, the nuts The mace yields 4-17 per cent colourless
split open. These are either plucked from the to pale yellow liquid possessing organoleptic
tree or allowed to drop. The two major products properties similar to nutmeg oil. Nutmeg and
are nutmeg and mace. Dried nutmeg and mace mace oil are also used for flavouring.
136 NUTMEG AND BLACK PEPPER

Pests controlled by spraying 1 per cent Bordeaux

mixture two or three times during rainy
The hard scale Saissetia nigra occurs on
season.
the pencil thick branches and desaps the
tissues. The infested shoots invariably Fruit rot
develop sooty mould cover. It can be
controlled by spot spraying with quinalphos This is caused by Colletotrichum
0.025 per cent. gloeosporioides and Botryodiplodia
theobromae. Water soaked lesions are seen
Diseases on the fruits, the tissues of which become
discoloured and disintegrated. Premature
Leaf spot and die back (Colletotrichum splitting of the pericarp and rotting of mace
gloeosporioides) and seed are the main symptoms of the
Sunken spots surrounded by a yellow halo disease. The internal tissues are found
are the initial symptoms. Subsequently the rotten. The fallen fruits become enveloped with
central portion of the necrotic region drops off the growth of the organism. The disease can
resulting in shot hole symptoms. Dieback be controlled by spraying 1 per cent Bordeaux
mixture.
symptoms are also observed in some of the
mature branches. On young seedlings Other diseases: Phytophthora leaf fall,
drying of the leaves and subsequent white thread blight, horse hair blight, sooty
defoliation are seen. The disease can be mould and algal leaf spot.

BLACK PEPPER (Piper nigrum)

Pepper requires a warm and humid the optimum being 20 - 30oC. It can be grown
climate. Though an annual rainfall of 250 cm from sea level upto an altitude of 1200 m.
is ideal for the proper growth of the crop, it
Pepper prefers a light porous and well-
can also come up well in low rainfall
drained soil rich in organic matter. Water
areas, if the pattern and distribution of rainfall
stagnation in the soil, even for a very short
are conducive. About 70 mm of rainfall within
period, is injurious for the plant. So, heavy
a period of 20 days may be sufficient for
textured soils in locations where drainage
triggering of flushing and flowering
facilities are inadequate should be avoided.
process in the plant, but once the process is
set on, there should be continuous, rainfall Varieties
until fruit development starts. Any dry spell, Improved varieties : Panniyur-1, Panniyur-2,
even for a few days, within this critical Panniyur-3, Panniyur-4, Panniyur-5,
period will result in substantial reduction of Panniyur-6, Panniyur-7, Panniyur-8, Vijay,
yield. Very long spells of dry weather are Subhakara, Sreekara, Panchami, Pournami,
unfavourable for the crop growth. Girimunda and Malabar Excel. IISR
The plant tolerates a minimum Sakthi and IISR Thevam are tolerant to
temperature of 10oC and maximum of 40oC, Phytophthora foot rot.
BLACK PEPPER 137

river sand and one part of well rotten cattle

Local varieties: Karimunda, Neelamundi,
manure. Substituting granite powder (a waste
Kottanadan, Kuthiravally, Arakulam
material from stone quarries) for sand in
Munda, Balankotta and Kalluvally.
conventional potting mixture (2:1:1) is good for
Selection of site growth of pepper cuttings and is economical.
Sites with slight to moderate slope are ideal Recommended for black pepper nurseries for
for pepper cultivation, as they promote large scale multiplication. Solarized potting
drainage. Slopes facing south are to be avoided mixture supplemented with nutrient solution
as far as possible. When such slopes are to (urea, superphosphate, MOP and magnesium
be used for cultivation, the young plants may sulphate in 4:3:2:1 ratio) and fortified with
be sufficiently protected from the scorching biocontrol consortia promotes growth and
sun during summer. helps in production of disease free rooted
cuttings. When polythene bags are used,
Selection of mother plants sufficient number of holes (16-20) may be
Cultivate varieties, which are proven to be provided at the base to ensure good drainage.
highly productive. Select mother plants, which The cuttings should be planted at least one node
give regularly high yields and possess other deep in the soil. The cutting after planting
desirable attributes such as vigorous growth, should be kept under good shade. In large
maximum number of spikes per unit area, long nurseries, pandals are to be constructed for
spikes, close setting of berries, disease this purpose. The cuttings are to be well
tolerance etc. Selected mother plants should protected from direct sunlight and frequent
be in the age group of 5-12 years. Mark and watering is recommended in the nursery to
label selected mother plants in October- maintain a humid and cool atmosphere around
November. the cuttings. Watering 2-3 times a day is
Raising of rooted cuttings sufficient. Heavy watering, which makes the
soil slushy and causes water logging is to be
Pepper is propagated vegetatively from avoided.
cuttings. Select runner shoots produced at the
Partially composted coir pith and
base of mother plants and keep them coiled
vermicompost (75:25) enriched with Tricho-
and raised to prevent from striking roots in the
derma (in talc formulation, 107 cfu g-1 at the
soil. Separate them from the vines in
rate of 10 g kg-1) is found to be an ideal potting
February-March.Very tender and too hard
medium for black pepper nursery for healthy
portions of the shoots are to be avoided for
planting material production using plug-trays
planting. The shoots are cut into pieces with
(cell dimension of 7.5 x 7.5 x 10.0 cm)
2-3 nodes in each. Two node semi-hard wood
compared to conventional multiplication. It
cuttings are to be planted for rooting of pepper
reduces the incidence of soil born diseases and
cuttings. Leaves, if any, are to be clipped off
aids easy transportation of seedlings.
leaving a small portion of the petioles on the
stem. Satisfactory rooting and survival of Serpentine method of propagation
cuttings (over 70 per cent) could be achieved Three node cuttings planted in polythene
even without any hormone treatment. Plant bags are kept in a corner of the nursery. When
the cuttings in polythene bags filled with potting the plant develops two leaves they are trailed
mixture. The potting mixture is prepared by horizontally in polythene bags containing
mixing two parts of fertile topsoil, one part of potting mixture kept below each tender node.
138 BLACK PEPPER

Each node will be pressed into the mixture with planted in narrow holes of 40 to 50 cm depth.
polythene bags with ‘V’ shaped midribs of The spacing recommended is 3 m x 3 m on
coconut leaves. As new shoots arise these plain lands and 2 m between plants in rows
will be trailed horizontally in polythene bags across the slope and 4 m between rows on
containing potting mixture. Upward growth sloppy lands. The soil should be pressed well
of cutting is not arrested. Once twenty nodes around the standards to avoid air pockets and
get rooted first 10 bags in the rooted nodes keep the standards firm in the soil.
will be separated by cutting at the inter nodes. For planting pepper, prepare pits on the
The inter nodal stub will be pushed back into northern side of standards, 15 cm away from
the potting mixture. These stubs also produce it. The pit size should be 50 cm x 50 cm x
a second root system. Daily irrigation is to be 50 cm. Fill the pits with a mixture of top soil
given using a rose can. After three months it and compost or well rotten cattle manure @
will be ready for planting in the main field. On 5 kg per pit and 50 g of Trichoderma. With
an average 60 cuttings will be obtained in a the onset of south west monsoon in June-July,
year by this method from each mother cutting. plant 2 rooted cuttings in the pits at a distance
Recommended in black pepper nurseries for of about 30 cm away from the standards. Press
large scale multiplication. the soil around the cuttings and form a small
Field planting mound slopping outward and away from the
Planting of standards is to be taken up in cuttings to prevent water stagnation around the
April-May with the onset of pre-monsoon plants. The growing portions of the cuttings
showers. Karayam or Killingil (Garuga are to be trailed and tied to the standards.
pinnata), Matti/Pongalyam (Ailanthus sp.), Provide shade to the plants if the land is
subabul (Leucaenea leucocephala) etc. are exposed and if there is a break in the rainfall.
suitable standards for growing pepper. When pepper is trailed on arecanut, plant the
cuttings 1.0 m away from palm and 1.5 m when
Acacia auriculiformis and Artocarpus
coconut is used as the support. Trail the pepper
heterophyllus are two multipurpose support
vines on a temporary stake for 1-2 years.
tree species suitable for block cultivation of
When they attain sufficient length to reach the
black pepper (Piper nigrum L.). Pepper yields
tree trunk, remove the stake without causing
are promising when trees are grown in high
damage to the vines and tie the pepper plants
density (3 x 3m spacing; 1111 trees ha-1) block
on to the tree trunk and trail them on it.
plantations. Both the tree species provide
additional economic returns through timber Management after planting
yield at final harvest. Because of prevalence If the terrain of the land is sloppy or
of Erythrina gall wasp avoid using Erythrina uneven, carry out contour bunding or
as standard. Only species tolerant to Erythrina terracing to prevent soil erosion. Carry out
gall wasp is Erythrina variegata (heavily digging around the standards and vines at a
throny). In high altitude areas, dadap (E. radius of about 1 m from the base or in the
lithosperma) and Silver oak (Grevillea entire plantation, twice during the year, the first
robusta) can be successfully used as standard at the onset of southwest monsoon and the
for pepper. Seedlings of subabul and silver second towards the end of northeast
oak are to be planted 2-3 years before planting monsoon. Weeding around the plants is to be
pepper. The cuttings of standards are to be done according to necessity. However, in foot
BLACK PEPPER 139

rot affected gardens, digging should be avoided is excessive shade in the garden. PGPM soil
and weeds are removed by slashing. In the application (50 g/vine) and spraying (2%) with
early stages, tie the vines to the standards, if consortium of PGPM helps to prevent
found necessary. phytophthora foot rot infestation.
Where pepper is grown in large areas, Underplanting
growing of cover crops like Calapagonium
After regular bearing for about 20 years,
muconoides is recommended. When such
the vines of most varieties start declining in
cover crops are grown, they are to be cut back
yield. The age of decline in yield varies with
regularly from the base of the plants to prevent
variety and agroclimatic and management
them from twining along with the pepper vines.
factors. So underplanting should be attempted
Lowering of vines after one year’s growth will
at about 20 years after planting or when a
promote lateral branch production.
declining trend in yield appears. The old and
Intercropping of pepper gardens with senile vines can be removed 3-5 years after
ginger, turmeric, colocasia and elephant foot underplanting depending upon the growth of the
yam is advantageous. Banana as an intercrop young vines.
in yielding gardens reduces pepper yield.
Manuring
Therefore, this is not recommended beyond
three to four years after planting of pepper Manuring for pepper vines is to be done in
vines. However, in the early years, banana basins taken around the plant, 10-15 cm deep
provides shade to the young plants and and 30-40 cm radius, depending upon the
protects them from drying up during summer growth of the plants. Apply cattle
months. manure / compost / green leaves @10 kg/ plant
/ annum just at the onset of southwest monsoon
When pepper is grown in open places,
and cover lightly with soil. It is desirable to
shading and watering of the young seedlings
apply lime at the rate of 500 g/vine in April-
may be done during summer months for the
May, with the receipt of pre-monsoon showers,
first 1 to 3 years according to necessity. The
in alternate years.
young plants may be completely covered with
dry arecanut leaves, coconut leaves or twigs Apply 10 kg FYM + 500g Neem cake +
of trees until summer months are over. 500 g ash+ 2 kg vermicompost with bioferti-
Mulching the basins of pepper vines during lizer – Azospirillum & P solubilizing
summer months is highly advantageous. Saw bacteria (20g).
dust, arecanut husk and dry leaves are Apply PGPR Consortia (50 g) consisting
suitable mulching materials. Removal of of 2 spp. of Micrococcus and I sp. of
unwanted terminal shoot growths and Enterobacter per vine which helps in growth
hanging shoots should be done as and when promotion and disease suppression.
necessary.
Recommended nutrient dosage for
Prune and train the standards in March- pepper (3 years and above) is:
April every year to remove excessive
N:P2O5:K2O g/vine/year
overgrowth and to give them a proper shape.
The effective height of the standard is to be 50:50:150 (general recommendation)
limited to about 6 m. A second pruning of the 50:50:200 (for Panniyur and similar
standards may be done in July-August, if there areas)
140 BLACK PEPPER

140:55:275 (for Kozhikode and similar recommended for areas deficient in soil
areas) molybdenum availability.
Note: Apply 1/3 dose for one year old plants Irrigation
and 1/2 dose for two year old plants.
Irrigating pepper plants of Panniyur-1
The fertilizers may be applied in two split
variety at IW/CPE ratio of 0.25 from
doses, the first in May-June with the receipt
November / December till the end of March
of a few soaking rains and the second in
and withholding irrigation thereafter till
August-September. Apply fertilizers in a circle
monsoon break, increases pepper yield by
of radius 30 cm around the vine in the case of
about 50 per cent. The depth of irrigation
plants trailed on erythrina (Nadan murukku) recommended is 10 mm (100 litres of water
or teak pole (dead standard) soil application of per vine per irrigation at an interval of about
zinc @ 6 kg ha-1 as zinc sulphate or foliar spray 8-10 days under Panniyur conditions). The
of Zn @ 0.5 per cent during flowering and pin water is to be applied in basins taken around
head stage of black pepper is recommended the plants at a radius of 75 cm. The basins
in zinc deficient areas of black pepper may be mulched with dry leaves or other
cultivation for increasing the yield and quality. suitable materials. The irrigation schedule for
Application of molybdenum @ 1 kg ha-1 is AEUs of Wayanad district is given below.

Agro Ecological Units of Waynad District*

AEU-15 Northern AEU-20 AEU-21Wayanad
Parameters
High hills (Sandy Wayanad Central Eastern plateau
Clay loam) plateau (Clay (Sandy to Sandy
loam to Clay) loam)
Quantity of Water/
irrigation/ vine in 25 35 20
litres in a basin of
0.75 m radius**
Irrigation interval
in days*** 5 to 7 7 to 10 4 to 7

* NBSSLUP classification (Nair et al., 2012).

** Add 30 to 40% to the above values depending upon the conveyance and application
efficiencies.
*** Shorter irrigation interval is for the months from March to May

Bush pepper be collected and planted in the nursery for

rooting during June - July. Well rooted plants
For production of bush pepper, two to four are used for field planting. The rooted
node semi hard wood lateral branches with cuttings are to be planted in pits or pots.
orthotropic shoot from where they arise are to Fertilizers can be applied @ 1.0, 0.5 and 2.0 g/
BLACK PEPPER 141

pot of N, P 2 O 5 and K 2O respectively at Two sprayings of dimethoate 0.05 per cent

bimonthly interval. Alternatively, application at fortnightly intervals after the harvest of
of 15 g groundnut cake or 33 g of neem cake berries effectively control black pepper
can also meet the N requirement of the crop. mussel scale.
The bushy nature of the plant will have to be
Soft scale (Lecanium sp.) is occasionally
ensured by proper pruning of the viny growth.
found to infest the foliage and vines at higher
The potted plants are to be kept preferably
elevations. This scale insect can be
under partial shade. It is necessary that
re-potting is carried out after every two years. controlled by spraying quinalphos 0.05 per
cent.This treatment will be adequate to
Irrigating black pepper vines with 8 litres control the mealy bugs also. Root mealy bugs
of water through drip per day during can be controlled by drenching the basins of
Oct - May enhances yield and quality in bush vines with chlorpyriphos 0.075 per cent.
pepper with high B:C ratio. Recommended for Adequate precaution has to be taken to
bush pepper grown as intercrop in coconut ensure that the insecticide solution reaches the
gardens. root zone of the vines. Many of the vines
Plant protection infested by root mealy bugs are also likely to
Pests be infected with Phytophthora and nema-
For the control of pollu caused by the flea todes. For controlling hard scale, spot
beetle Longitarsus nigripennis, spray any one application of dimethoate 0.1 per cent is
of the following insecticides namely, recommended.
dimethoate or quinalphos at 0.05 per cent Two sprays of Azadiractin 5000 ppm at 15
concentration. The spraying is to be given at days interval after the incidence of scale insect.
the time of spike emergence (June-July), at
Thiamethoxam 0.013% two sprays at an
berry formation (September-October) and
interval of 15 days after incidence of scale
once again at berry maturing stage, if needed.
insect is also recommended.
It can also be controlled by spraying
Top shoot borer can be controlled by
cypermethrin 0.01 per cent twice, first at the
berry formation stage and the second spraying dimethoate (0.05 per cent) on the
one-month after the first spray (Sept.-Oct.). tender shoots and flushes. The spraying has to
be repeated to protect newly emerging shoots
For controlling pepper leaf gall thrips,
and flushes.
dimethoate 0.05 per cent may be used.
For control of the burrowing nematode
Three different types of scale insects are
Radopholus similis and the root knot
found infesting black pepper in high ranges of
nematode Meloidogyne incognita, adopt the
Idukki district. They are black pepper mussel
following measures:
scale (Lepidosaphes piperis Gr.) infesting all
parts of vines, coconut scale (Aspidiotus a. Use nematode free rooted cuttings for
destructor Sign) feeding from undersurface raising new plantations.
of leaf and soft scale Marsipococcus b. Apply talc based formulation of Bacillus
marsupiale Gr. confining to upper leaf surface. macerans @ 10g/vine in basins (106 cfu/
Infestation by mussel scale causes significant g) at the time of planting of vines or just
loss of yield as it affects all parts of plant before the monsoon period in established
including berries. plantations.
142 BLACK PEPPER

Drench carbosulfan 25 EC 0.1% @ 50 ml / The application of neem cake should be four

polybag (1.5 kg potting mixture) for the weeks after lime application.
management of plant parasitic nematodes in
Chemical control
black pepper nurseries. Recommended dose
of carbosulfan is compatible with Trichoderma For the control of Phytophthora foot rot,
harzianum and Pochonia chlamydosporia. any of the following control measures can be
adopted.
Pochonia chlamydosporia (MTCC 5412)
bioformulation, a native nematode ant agonistic 1. After the receipt of monsoon showers
fungus is recommended for field management (May-June), all the vines are to be drenched
of root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne sp.) over a radius 45-50 cm with copper
and burrowing nematodes (to a lesser extent) oxychloride 2 g l-1 @ 5-10 litres per vine.
infesting black pepper plants. The mode of This varies according to the age of the plant.
A foliar spray with 1 per cent Bordeaux
application is 10 g formulation mixed with 2 kg
mixture is also to be given. Drenching and
of well decomposed farmyard manure or
spraying are to be repeated just before the
compost and applied to basin of the vine in the
northeast monsoon. A third round of
field. Pochonia is compatible with copper
drenching may be given during October if
oxychloride and Trichoderma harzianum and the monsoon is prolonged.
does not have any non-target effects on other
living beings. 2. After the receipt of a few monsoon
showers (May-June), all the vines are to
Diseases
be drenched over a radius of 45-50 cm with
Phytophthora (Foot rot) (3 ml l-1) potassium phosphonate @ 5-10
For controlling the disease, adopt the litres per vine. This varies according to the
following management practices: age of the plant. A foliar spray with 0.3 per
cent potassium phosphonate is also to be
Phytosanitation given. A second drenching and spraying with
All infected or dead vines along the root 0.3 per cent potassium phosphonate is to
system are to be removed and burnt. Wherever be repeated just before the northeast
water stagnation is a problem, effective monsoon. If the monsoon is prolonged, a
third round of drenching may be given
drainage of both surface and sub-soil is
during October.
to be ensured. To avoid soil splash and
consequent disease initiation and spread, a Biocontrol
legume cover in the plantation should be
ensured. Runner shoots are to be pruned or Inoculate pepper vines with native
tied back to vines before the onset of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, Trichoderma
monsoon. At the onset of monsoon, the and Pseudomonas fluorescens at the time of
branches of support trees may be lopped off planting in the nursery and field and apply during
to allow penetration of sunlight and avoid build the pre-monsoon period in the established
plantations to control foot rot. In the field, apply
up of humidity.
the biocontrol agents around the base of the
Apply 1 kg lime and 2 kg neem cake per vine (see the chapter on biocontrol agents
standard per year as pre-monsoon dose. against plant pathogens).
BLACK PEPPER 143

Note: 1. All chemical control measures control measures for pollu disease may not be
are prophylactic in nature and necessary.
application of chemicals in Note: Since Bordeaux mixture application for
advanced stages of disease will not pepper is to be given mostly at a time
be effective in combating the when the monsoon is very active, it is to
disease. be ensured that a sticker is added to the
2. In Phytophthora sick fields, use fungicide. The cheapest and most
only chemical control measures. effective sticker is rosin washing soda
Replanting/rejuvenation mixture.
Total replanting has to be undertaken in Rotting disease
gardens where the mortality is 50-60 per cent For control of rotting disease of cuttings in
or above. Where the mortality is below the nursery, VAM and Trichoderma can be
50 per cent, timely plant protection measures applied in the potting mixture. VAM
as described above should be given to all the inoculum consisting of infected root bits and
existing vines as prophylactic measure and soils can be applied @100 cc per kg of
gaps filled up. Gap filling or replanting should potting mixture and Trichoderma @ 1g kg-1
be taken up only after a period of one year. At of potting mixture. For the control of foliar
the time of replanting, soil drenching with copper infection apply potassium phosphonate
oxychloride should be given. While replanting, @ 3 ml litre-1 at fortnightly interval. In case,
farmers should be encouraged to use biocontrol agents are not incorporated in the
recommended varieties. potting mixture, 1 per cent Bordeaux
Fungal pollu (Anthracnose) mixture spray at weekly interval may be
For the control of fungal pollu or resorted to. When the cuttings start
anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeo- germination, ensure good aeration in the
sporioides, spray 1 per cent Bordeaux nursery. Heavy watering, which causes water
mixture, once before flowering starts (late June stagnation is to be avoided. Instead, light and
and early July) and then at berry formation frequent watering should be resorted to.
stage (late August). Minimize shade in the Remove shade as soon as continuous rain
garden. sets in.
Treat the cuttings before planting by Phyllody
immersing in a solution of carbendazim + In certain pockets, instead of normal spike
mancozeb (1 g l-1) for 30 minutes and spray with berries, leaf-like structures are
Bordeaux mixture (1%) alternating with produced. This is caused by Phytoplasma.
carbendazim (1 g l-1) for effective control of Such vines, if noticed, must be uprooted and
Colletotrichum infection in nurseries. destroyed. Planting material should not be
Foliar spray of carbendazim @ 1g l-1 or a collected from such vines.
formulation containing combination of Stunted disease
carbendazim + mancozeb @ 1g l-1 during the The symptoms due to this disease include
month of June can effectively control the shortening of internode and narrowing of leaves
disease. with mottling. Such leaves also become
Wherever Phytophthora foot rot leathery and deformed. This is caused by a
management is undertaken properly, separate virus. Since the disease is systemic and
144 BLACK PEPPER

transmitted through planting materials, avoid drying. It also gives a uniform lustrous black
collecting planting materials from such vines. colour to the finished product and prevents
Once it is noticed, uproot the vines to avoid mouldiness of berries.
further spread.
White pepper
Waiting period of insecticide / fungicide
White pepper is prepared from ripe
Dimethoate 20 days berries or by decorticating black pepper. Bright
Quinalphos 20 days red berries, after harvest are detached from
Mancozeb 30 days the stalk and packed in gunny bags. The bags
are allowed to soak in slow running water for
Harvesting and processing about one week during which bacterial rotting
Black pepper occurs and pericarp gets loosened. Then the
Black pepper of commerce is produced berries are trampled under feet to remove any
from whole, unripe but fully mature adhering pericarp, washed in water and then
berries. The harvested berries are piled up in sun dried to reduce the moisture content to 10-
a heap to initiate browning. Then berries are 12 per cent and to achieve a cream or white
detached from the stalk by threshing. Then they colour. White pepper is garbled, sorted and
are spread on suitable drying floor. During sun- packed in gunny bags. Approximately 25 kg
drying, berries are raked to ensure uniform
drying and to avoid mould development. Drying white pepper is obtained from 100 kg ripe berries.
the berries for 3-5 days reduces the moisture HACCP protocol for pepper products
content to 10-12 per cent.The dried berries are
cleaned, graded and packed in double lined The product specific hazard analysis and
gunny bags. critical control points (HACCP) worksheet for
Blanching the berries in boiling water for different spice products viz., garbled pepper,
one minute prior to sun drying accelerates white pepper, dehydrated green pepper (DGP)
browning process as well as the rate of and pepper in brine are shown in Table 27 (A).

Table 27(A) Critical control points at various steps of pepper processing line
CCP1 CCP2 CCP3 CCP4
Product All 4 products* All 4 products* All 4 products * Pepper in brine
Process stage Reception Reception Metal detection Brining
Hazard Mycotoxin Chemical residue Metal Chemical,
Microbiological
Monitoring procedure Vendor/farmer selection, sample On-line inspection
testing & analysis
Prerequisite programme proper handling GAP - GMP, SSOP
and storage
Post occurrence control No effective - Metal detector No effective
technique technique
Corrective action Avoid entry to the process line Hold and review Water quality
testing
*Common for garbled pepper, white pepper, DGP & pepper in brine
BLACK PEPPER 145

Improved CFTRI method pepper in that it retains the natural colour,

Fully mature but unripe berries are texture and flavour.
harvested and boiled in water for 10-15 minutes Bottled green pepper
to soften the pericarp. After cooling, the skin Green pepper is preserved without
is rubbed off either mechanically or manually, spoilage in 20 per cent brine solution
washed and sun dried to obtain white pepper. containing 100 ppm SO2 and 0.2 per cent
Since no retting operation is involved, the citric acid. Addition of citric acid prevents
product will be free from any unpleasant odour. blackening of berries.
However, white pepper produced by this Cured green pepper
method gives pepper powder of light brown
To overcome the disadvantages of poor
colour due to gelatinisation of starch in contrast
texture and weak flavour of dehydrated
to pure white powder obtained by traditional
greenpepper and the high unit weight and
method.
packing cost of canned and bottled green
Decorticated black pepper pepper, cured green pepper has been
This is a form of white pepper produced by developed. Berries are thoroughly cleaned in
mechanical decortication of the outer skin of water, steeped in saturated brine solution for
black pepper. This is generally done when 2-3 months, drained and packed in suitable
white pepper is in short supply. The flexible polyethylene pouches.
appearance of decorticated kernel is inferior Freeze-dried green pepper
to traditionally prepared white pepper, but is Most of the moisture from fresh tender
satisfactory when ground. Also the milling green pepper is removed by freezing the
operation requires considerable skill to avoid berries at -30oC to - 40oC under high vacuum.
excessive volatile oil loss. The colour, aroma and texture of freeze-dried
Dehydrated green pepper green pepper are superior to sun dried or
mechanically dehydrated green pepper.
In this method, under-mature berries are
Freeze-dried green pepper has 2 - 4 per cent
harvested and subjected to heat treatment for
moisture and is very light.
inactivating the enzymes responsible for
browning reaction.Then the berries are Pepper oil
dehydrated under controlled conditions wherein Black pepper is crushed to coarse
maximum retention of green colour is obtained. powder and steam distilled to obtain 2.5 to 3.5
Dehydrated green pepper after reconstitution per cent colourless to pale green essential oil
in water resembles freshly harvested green which becomes viscous on ageing. It is used
pepper. The advantage is that the season of in perfumery and in flavouring. The drying
availability can be extended and the berries percentage & oil content of KAU Varieties of
could be stored for a year or more. Dry Pepper are given as Table 28. Oil can also be
recovery comes to 20 per cent. distilled from white pepper but high price of
Canned green pepper white pepper and low oil yield do not favour its
Green pepper after harvest is preserved in commercial production.
two per cent brine solution and the Pepper oleoresin
product is heat sterilized. This product has the Extraction of black pepper with organic
additional advantage over dehydrated green solvents like acetone, ethanol or dichloro-ethane
146 BLACK PEPPER AND TURMERIC

Table 28. Drying percentage and oil content of Panniyur varieties of pepper

Variety
Properties
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7
Drying % 35.3 35.7 27.8 34.7 35.7 32.9 33.6
Piperine % 5.30 6.50 4.80 4.40 5.30 4.94 5.57
Oleoresin % 11.78 12.20 10.40 11.30 12.33 8.27 10.61
Essential oil % 3.31 3.40 3.12 3.12 3.80 1.33 1.50

provides 10-13 per cent oleoresin possessing freshly made, pepper oleoresin is a dark green,
the odour, flavour and pungent principles of the viscous, heavy liquid with a strong aroma.
spice. The content of the pungent alkaloid One kg of oleoresin when dispersed on an inert
piperine ranges from 4 to 6 per cent in dry base can replace 15 to 20 kg of spice for
pepper and 35 to 50 per cent in oleoresin. When flavouring purpose.

TURMERIC (Curcuma longa)

Turmeric is a tropical herb and can be grown Varieties

on different types of soil under irrigated and Cultivars: Tekurpetta, Sugantham, Kodur,
rainfed conditions. Rich loamy soils having good Armoor, Alleppey.
drainage are ideal for the crop. It is a shade
Improved varieties: Suvarna, Suguna,
tolerant crop with shallow roots suitable for
Sudarshana, Prabha, Prathibha, Kanthi, Sobha,
intercropping and also as a component crop in
Sona, Varna, IISR Kedaram and IISR
the homesteads where low to medium shade
Alleppey Supreme (Resistant to leaf blotch).
is available.
Season and method of planting
Preparation of land
Plant during April with the receipt of
Prepare the land to a fine tilth during pre-monsoon showers. Take small pits in the
February-March. On receipt of pre-monsoon beds in rows with a spacing of 25cm x 25cm.
showers in April, prepare beds of size 3 m x 1.2 m Plant finger rhizomes flat with buds facing
with a spacing of 40 cm between beds. upwards and cover with soil or dry powdered
Seed material cattle manure. The seed rate is about
-1
2000-2500 kg ha .
Whole or split mother rhizomes are used
for planting. Select well developed, healthy and Manuring
disease free rhizomes. Treat the rhizomes in Apply cattle manure or compost as basal
any of the copper oxychloride fungicides and dose at 40 t ha-1 at the time of land preparation
store in cool, dry place or in earthen pits or by spreading over the beds after planting.
plastered with mud and cowdung. Apply N:P2O5:K2O @ 30:30:60 kg ha-1. Full
TURMERIC 147

dose of P2O5 and half dose of K2O may be (approximately 50 kg) are taken in a perforated
applied as basal; 2/3 dose of N may be applied trough of size 0.9 m x 0.55 m x 0.4 m made of
at 30 days after planting; and 1/3 N and GI or MS sheet with extended handle. The
remaining K2O may be applied 60 days after trough containing the rhizomes is then
planting. immersed in MS pan (1 m x 0.62 m x 0.48 m)
Apply 20 t FYM + 2 t Neem cake + 1 t containing clean water sufficient to immerse
Ash + 4 t vermicompost/ha. Also use the rhizomes. The whole mass is boiled till the
Azospirillum and P- Solubilising bacteria (20 g/ rhizomes become soft. The correct stage of
bed 3X1 m) as nutrient supplement. cooking can be judged by piercing a wooden
needle through the rhizome. If the rhizomes
Mulching
are properly cooked, the needle will pass
Mulch the crop immediately after through the rhizome without resistance. The
planting with green leaves @ 15 t ha -1. cooked rhizomes are taken out of the pan by
Repeat mulching after 50 days with the same lifting the trough and draining the solution into
quantity of green leaves. the pan.
After cultivation
Drying: The fingers are then dried in the sun
Weed the crop thrice at 60, 120 and by spreading them as a thin layer on
150 days after planting, depending upon bamboo mats or drying floor. Artificial
weed intensity. Earth up the crop after drying at a maximum temperature of 60oC
60 days. gives a bright coloured product than that of
Intercropping sun drying especially for sliced turmeric.

Chilli, maize and colocasia can be grown Curing of Turmeric: Use turmeric boiler
as intercrops. TNAU model 100 kg capacity especially for
commercial growers and steam boil for 60
Harvesting and curing
minutes. This method reduces drying time to
Time of harvest depends upon variety and 10 days and improves quality and cleanliness.
usually extends from January to March.
Harvest early varieties at 7-8 months, Polishing
medium varieties at 8-9 months and long
In order to smoothen the rough and hard
duration varieties at 9-10 months after
outer surface of the boiled dried turmeric and
planting.
also to improve its colour, it is subjected to
Improved method of processing polishing. There are two types of polishing: hand
Cleaning: Harvested turmeric rhizomes are polishing and machine polishing.
cleaned off mud and other extraneous Hand polishing: The method of hand
materials adhering to them and subjected to
polishing is simple, which consists of
curing within 2-3 days after harvest so as to
rubbing turmeric fingers on hard surface or
ensure the quality of the end product.
trampling them under feet wrapped in gunny
Boiling: Fingers and mother rhizomes will have bags. The improved method is by using
to be boiled separately. Boiling is usually done hand-operated barrel or drum mounted on a
in MS pans of suitable size. Cleaned rhizomes central axis, the sides of which are made of
148 TURMERIC AND CAMBOGE

expanded metal mesh. When the drum filled yield ranges from 7.9 to 10.4 per cent. One kg
with turmeric is rotated, polishing is effected of oleoresin replaces 8 kg of ground spice.
by abrasion of the surface against the mesh as
well as by mutual rubbing against each other Plant protection
as they roll inside the drum.
No major incidence of pest or disease is
Machine polishing: This method consists of noticed in the crop. Shoot borers can be
an octagonal or hexagonal wooden drum controlled by spraying 0.05 per cent dimethoate
mounted on a central axis and rotated by or 0.05 per cent quinalphos.
power.
Leaf spot and leaf blotch can be
Turmeric oleoresin
controlled by spraying 1 per cent Bordeaux
This is obtained by the solvent extraction mixture or 0.2 per cent mancozeb. If
of the ground spice with organic solvents like symptoms of early wilt or rhizome rot appear,
acetone, ethylene dichloride and ethanol for 4- drench the soil with cheshunt compound or
5 hours. It is orange red in colour. Oleoresin 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture.

CAMBOGE (KUDAMPULI)
(Garcinia gummi-gutta var. gummi-gutta)

Garcinia, the camboge tree is a big sized for bearing. Hence planting of grafts
glabrous and evergreen forest tree commonly is advocated as they ensure maternal
seen in the Western Ghats of Kerala, characters including early bearing tendency.
Karnataka, and also in Sri Lanka. The tree is Propagation by seedlings
very much adapted to hill tops and plain lands
alike. But, its performance is best in river banks Selection of mother trees: Locate mother
and valleys. It grows well in dry or occasionally trees that give a steady annual yield with a
waterlogged or flooded soils. mean fruit weight of 200-275 g, high acid and
low tannin content. Collect seeds from freshly
The economic part of the plant is its
harvested and fully ripe fruits and wash in
mature fruit, which is highly acidic. The
running water and spread in a thin layer under
extract obtained from the mature fruit rind, th
(-) hydroxy citric acid, attracts foreign markets, roof. By the 20 day, seeds will be ready for
for its use in medicines controlling obesity. sowing. Sow seeds at the rate of two per bag
in polybags during the month of August-
Varieties
September. Usually seeds start sprouting in the
Amrutham, Haritham. month of December but the sprouts become
Planting materials visible above the soil surface only by February.
Grafts prepared through soft wood In order to avoid delayed germination, simple
grafting or side grafting and healthy seed treatment methods can be employed.
seedlings raised in the nursery are used for Method 1: In this method, the processed
cultivation. If seedlings are planted, 50-60 per seeds (after drying under shade) are given a
cent will be male and female takes 10-12 years mechanical treatment. Remove seed coats of
CAMBOGE 149

such seeds using a sharp knife without to a wedge of 3-4 cm length by giving slanting
injuring the ivory coloured cotyledon. Sow these cuts on two opposite sides.
ivory coloured cotyledons afresh in polybags
Preparation of rootstock: Stock-plants having
at a depth of 3 cm. Germination starts in 20-25
3-4 mm stem thickness are ideal for grafting.
days after sowing.
Behead the selected plants at two nodes below
Method 2: After removing the seed coats, the terminal bud and remove all the leaves at
treat the seeds with gibberellic acid @ 250 ppm the graft union. Use scion and rootstock of
for 6 hours and thereafter soak them in same thickness for grafting. Grafting: Insert
mancozeb @ 4 g per l for 2 hours. Sow the the wedge of the scion into the cleft made on
seeds in nursery bags and irrigate daily. Seeds the rootstock and secure the graft joint firmly
germinate in 16-20 days. with a black polythene tape, 1.5-2 cm wide
and 30 cm long.
Method 3: Second method followed by
transfer of the seeds to a white polypropylene Care in the nursery: Immediately after
cover of size 20 cm x 25 cm along with 30-50 grafting, cover the plants with a transparent
ml of filtered water. Tie the polybag along with polypropylene cover and keep under shade. By
the air inside tightly using a rubber band. Such the 30th day, grafts will establish and new
seeds germinate in 10-12 days after sowing. leaves will start emerging. Remove the
In a polybag, about 500-750 seeds can be polythene cover and keep under shade. Water
incubated at a time. Pick up the sprouted seeds the grafts daily using rose-can or micro-
and sow in the nursery bags kept under shade. sprinkler. Care should be taken to remove
sprouts emerging from rootstock at frequent
Keep the seedlings under shade. Irrigate
intervals. Three months after grafting the plants
them regularly on alternate days during
will be ready for planting in the main field. Just
summer months. After 3-4 months, place the
before planting in the main field, leave the
seedlings under direct sunlight to trigger
grafts under open condition in 10-15 days for
robust growth. At this age, apply FYM @
hardening.
50 g per bag. In six to seven months time,
seedlings will be ready for planting. Approach grafting
Propagation by grafting Here also stock plants having 3-4 mm
thickness are preferred and they are brought
Two types of grafting methods are to the place where the mother tree is located.
employed viz. soft wood grafting and Grafting is done as in other crops and is kept
approach grafting. intact for 45 days by which time union
Soft wood grafting occurs. Graft is detached from the mother tree
in three steps. The main disadvantage is that
Select scions only from specific elite trees only a limited number of grafts can be produced
regular in bearing, which produce high yield of in this method. Forty five days after grafting,
large and quality fruits. they will be ready for transferring to the main
Collection of scion: Select straight growing, nursery for hardening. Grafts are to be watered
healthy, young shoots emerging from the daily using a rose-can or micro-sprinkler. Care
primary branches with whorled leaf should be taken to remove sprouts emerging
arrangement. Cut them to a length of 6-10 cm from rootstock at frequent intervals. Leaf
and store in polybags under humid condition. folding pests common in the nursery can be
Remove leaves partly and shape the cut end controlled by spraying with quinalphos @ 2 ml
150 CAMBOGE

l -1 at monthly intervals. One year old grafts organic manure per year. Apply N:P2O5:K2O
can be used for field planting. mixture at the rate of 20:18:50 g/plant during
the first year. Double the dose in the second
Planting
year and gradually increase it to 500:250:1000 g /
The plants can be raised as a pure crop or as plant / year at the 15th year.
a mixed crop in coconut and arecanut
Pruning
gardens. Take pits of size 0.75 m x 0.75 m x 0.75 m
in hard and laterite soils; 0.50 m x Grafts will grow fast from the second year
0.50 m x 0.50 m in sandy and alluvial soils, at a onwards. Give strong support with casuarina
spacing of 4 m x 4 m for grafts and 7 m x poles at this stage. By fifth year, the tree will
7 m for seedlings. In slopes of 15 per cent or have 3 to 4 m height. At this stage, height of
more, for planting grafts, rows are spaced at 5 the plant may be maintained at 3.5 to 4 m and
to 5.5 m and 3.5 m between trees in a row. by seventh year at 4 to 4.5 m by pruning.
For planting seedlings, rows are spaced at 8 to Pests and diseases
12 m and at 6 to 8 m for trees in a row. Planting
is generally done at the onset of monsoon Hard scales and beetles are found to
showers. Under existing coconut plantation of infest the crop. Hard scales desap the leaves
25 years and above, spacing shall be so and tender shoots. Both the adult beetles and
adjusted that it should alternate with the palms their grubs defoliate the crop inflicting heavy
in the rows. Under Kuttanad conditions, where loss of yield. Control these pests by spraying
-1
bunds and channels alternate, planting can be dimethoate @ 1 ml l . Leaf folders are very
done in between two palms. Fill the pits with common in the nursery against which
-1
topsoil and 5 kg of compost or well- quinalphos @ 2 ml l may be sprayed.
decomposed cattle manure and 10 g of carbaryl Incidence of hoppers is observed on grafts and
10 per cent dust, to avoid white ant attack, large trees. This causes withering of leaves,
before planting. The graft union shall remain drying up of branches and yield loss. Control
just above the ground level. Provide support to them by spraying dichlorovos 1 ml per litre of
the young plants. One month after planting, water. Sooty mould is seen associated with
gently remove the polythene tape around the hard scales. Seedling blight in the nursery stage
graft union. is very common. Control it by drenching
nursery bed with 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture
Management of plantation or using mancozeb @ 5 g l-1. In grafts and
Clean the field free of bushes and thick large trees, sometimes, fungal thread blights
shades. Weed once in three months and mulch have been observed to cause leaf and twig
the basin with black polythene or dry leaves to blight. Adopt proper pruning and spray
avoid drying. 1per cent Bordeaux mixture or mancozeb
0.3 per cent.
Manuring
Harvesting
Apply 10 kg cattle manure or compost per
seedling / graft during the first year. Gradually Seedlings start bearing generally at the age
increase the quantity so that a well-grown tree of 10-12 years. Grafts start bearing from the
of 15 years and above receives 50 kg of third year onwards and will attain full
CAMBOGE AND TAMARIND 151

bearing at the age of 12 to 15 years. Garcinia powder: Drying of Garcinia

Flowering occurs in January-March and fruits cambogia juice into powdered particles gives
mature in July. There are reports of off-season a considerable reduction in volume, easy to
bearers, which bear two times a year, i.e., use and is an effective method for prolonging
during January-July and September-February. the shelf life. Powder from fresh fruit juice
Mature fruits, which are orange yellow in along with standardized limit of additive,
colour, drop off from the tree. Harvest mature followed by spray drying could get powder
fruits manually before they fall. Immediately which packed in Aluminium pouches gives a
after harvest, wash the fruits in running water storability of above 7 months with good
and separate the fruit rind for processing. reconstitution properties.

Processing Optimized parameters of production are

spray drying at inlet air temperature of 180oC
Separated fruit rind is first sun dried and with the atomizer speed of 22000 rpm and
then either smoke-dried or oven-dried at feed rate as 5.5 l/h. The powder is packed in
70-80ºC. In order to increase the storage life LDPE inserted in aluminium foil pouches and
and to impart softness, mix the dried rind can be stored for 7 months with good
with common salt @ 150 g and coconut oil @ reconstitution properties (wetting time, 80 S
50 ml per kg of dried rind. and solubility index <0.1mm )

TAMARIND (Tamarindus indica)

The tree is particularly well adapted to semi- m above ground level to induce scaffold
arid tropical regions, but can be grown in heavy branches. Organic manures are generally
rainfall areas too, provided the soil is well used. Intercropping with vegetables, groundnut
drained. It is adaptable to poor soil also. and sesame can be done till the fifth year.
Propagation technique Pests and diseases
It is propagated by means of seeds, grafts Insects like Tribolium castaneum and
and budding. Healthy seeds are sown in fungi are serious problems in storage and
polybags and seedlings are transplanted at 40-
field respectively. Spray application of
60 cm height. Due to erratic bearing of seedling
Quinalphos 0.05 per cent at the time of
progeny, grafts are successfully used as
fruiting, when infestation starts, can control
propagules. Side grafting, inarching and patch
the storage beetle.
budding are commonly practised. Budding is
done on nine month old saplings for higher Harvest and yield
success.
Seedlings start to yield 8-10 years after
Cultural operations planting, whereas grafts and budded
Plants of 40-60 cm height are planted during seedlings give yield after 4-5 years. Stabilized
June to November at 10 m x 10 m spacing in yield of 250 kg/tree is obtained from
pits of 1 m3 size incorporated with 15 kg of 9-10 years onwards. Harvesting is done from
FYM. Regular watering till the plants establish January to April. There is also a tendency of
in the field is a must. Leader shoot is cut at 3 alternate bearing as in the case of mango.
152 ARECANUT

BEVERAGES AND STIMULANTS

ARECANUT (Areca catechu)
The arecanut palms grow under a variety during hot and dry periods and drainage during
of climatic and soil conditions. It grows well monsoon. Periodical weeding and mulching are
from almost sea level up to an altitude of 1000 m necessary.
in areas of abundant and well-distributed Selection of seedlings
rainfall or under irrigated conditions. It is
Select good seedlings for transplanting in
grown in a variety of soils such as laterites,
the main field when they are 12-18 months old.
red loams and alluvial.
Selection of seedlings can be based on the
Varieties selection index.
Mangala, Sumangala, Sreemangala and Note: Plant characters such as girth at the
Mohitnagar, VTLAH1, VTLAH2 collar one year after transplanting and
Selection of site number of nodes two years after
Select sites with deep well drained soil transplanting are highly correlated with
without high water table. Provide adequate yield. Removal of plants with poor collar
irrigation facilities. girth and lesser number of nodes one
Selection of mother palms and two years after planting respectively,
will help to increase the yield potential
Select mother palms showing earliness and
of plantations.
regularity in bearing, high percentage of fruit
set and dwarf to semi-tall stature. Field planting
Selection of seed nuts Plant tall, quick growing shade trees
on the southern and western sides of the
Select fully tree-ripe nuts from middle
plantation to provide protection from sun
bunches during mid season. Discard nuts, which
scorching.
are undersized, malformed and low in weight.
Plant seedlings in pits at a spacing of
Nursery techniques
2.7 m x 2.7 m with north-south alignment, the
Sow selected seed nuts soon after rows being deflected at an angle of 35º
harvest in nursery bed with stalk-end up and towards west. Dig pits of size 60 cm x 60 cm x
with a spacing of 5-6 cm. Cover the seed nuts 60 cm and fill up with rich topsoil to a level of
with sand and irrigate daily. 15 cm from the bottom. Plant seedlings at the
Transplant 90 days old sprouts having centre of pit, cover with soil up to collar level
2-3 leaves to the secondary nursery. Prepare and press around.
secondary nursery beds of 150 cm width The planting is to be done during
and convenient length. Apply cattle manure @ May-June in well-drained soils and during
5 t ha-1 as basal dose. Transplant sprouts at a August-September in clayey soils. Banana may
spacing of 30 cm x 30 cm. Provide shade by be planted between rows to provide shade in
growing banana, Coccinia indica etc. or by the initial stages up to 4-5 years.
means of artificial pandal. Plant banana in
Manuring
advance at a spacing of 2.7 m x 3.6 m when it
is grown as a shade crop. Provide irrigation Apply green leaf and compost, each
ARECANUT 153

@12 kg per palm per year from first year of Cultural operations
planting onwards, during September-October.
Keep the garden free of weeds and break
Apply N:P 2 O 5 :K 2 O for adult palms up surface crust by light forking or digging after
@ 100: 40:140 g / palm / year. cessation of monsoon during October-
November. In slopes, prevent soil erosion by
Apply 1/3 dose during first year, 2/3 dose
terracing. Sow seeds of green manure-cum-
during second year and full dose from third cover crops such as Mimosa invisa,
year onwards. Under irrigated conditions, apply Stylosanthes gracilis and Calapagonium
fertilizers in two split doses, the first during muconoides in April-May with the onset of
September-October and the second during pre-monsoon rains. Cut and apply them to the
February. Under rainfed conditions, apply the palms in September-October.
second dose during March-April after the
receipt of summer rains. Apply manures and Intercropping and mixed cropping
fertilizers during September-October in circular Crops such as elephant foot yam,
basins of 15-20 cm depth and with a radius of pineapple, pepper, betel vine, banana, guinea
0.75-1.0 m from the palm. Apply the second grass, cocoa, ginger and cardamom can
dose of fertilizers around the base of palm after be grown in arecanut gardens. While
weeding and mix into soil by light forking. In planting cocoa, a spacing 2.7 m x 5.4 m is
acidic soils, broadcast lime @ 0.5 kg per palm recommended. In all cases, the intercrops
once in two or three years and incorporate into should be manured adequately and separately.
soil by forking during March-April. Plant protection
Irrigation and drainage Pests
Irrigate the palms during hot and dry Mites
periods at regular intervals depending upon the
soil type. Orange coloured mites can be controlled
by spraying the bunches with dimethoate at
The palms should be irrigated once in four 0.05 per cent.
to seven days depending on the soil type and
Inflorescence caterpillar (Batachedra sp.)
climatic factors. In west coast, where major
area of arecanut gardens are irrigated, Force open the inflorescence out of the
watering the garden once in seven or eight days enclosing spathe and spray malathion 50 EC
during November-December, once in six days (250 ml in 100 litres of water). Control slugs,
during January-February and once in three to which predispose inflorescence to the attack
five days during March-April-May is of caterpillar, by using bait of metaldehyde.
recommended. In each irrigation, give about Root grub (Leucopholis burmeisteri)
175 litres of water per palm. Where there is
shortage of water, follow drip irrigation. Loosen soil around the base of palms to a
Application of organic mulch to the garden depth of 10-15 cm and drench with chlorpyrifos
0.04 per cent suspension twice, one in May
helps conservation of soil moisture.
just before the onset of southwest monsoon
Construct drainage channels (25-30 cm and again in September-October towards the
deep from the bottom of pits) between the rows end of the monsoon. Repeat application for 2
and drain out water during periods of heavy or 3 years consecutively to secure a complete
rainfall to prevent waterlogging. eradication of the pest.
154 ARECANUT

Diseases strategies may be adopted to control yellowing

of arecanut grown in the following topo
Koleroga (Mahali or fruit rot)
sequences:
(Phytophthora palmivora)
1. Converted paddy fields
Spray Bordeaux mixture 1 per cent on all
bunches three times in a year, one just • Provide deep drainage channels so as to
before the onset of southwest monsoon and keep the water below the root zone during
the rest at 40 days intervals. If monsoon monsoon.
season is prolonged give a third spray. Use rosin • 150 g lime palm-1 year-1 may be applied in
soda adhesive to ensure tenacity of the spray the basin opened during February.
deposit on treated substrate. Remove and burn • A minimum of 10 kg palm-1 organic manure
all fallen and infected nuts. as farmyard manure/compost may be
Bud rot (Phytophthora palmivora) provided.

Remove and destroy affected spindle and • Fertilizer application may be done @
leaves. In early stages of infection, scoop out 100:40:200g NPK palm-1year-1 in two splits
affected rotten tissues by making longitudinal in February and September under irrigated
side splits and apply Bordeaux paste on the conditions. A sulphur containing fertilizer
exposed healthy tissues or drench crown with either single super phosphate or
1 per cent Bordeaux mixture. ammonium sulphate or ammonium
phosphate sulphate (Factamphos) should
Basal stem rot (Anabe) (Ganoderma be used in the fertilizer schedule so as to
lucidum)
include a minimum of 100g S palm-1 year-1.
1. Isolate affected palms by digging trenches
• Magnesium sulphate @ 60 g, borax and
60 cm deep and 30 cm wide around, one
zinc sulphate @ 20 g palm-1 year should
metre away from the base and drench with
be included to yellowing affected palms.
calixin (0.08 per cent) or copper
oxychloride (0.3 per cent). 2. Garden land
2. Remove and destroy all severely affected • 150 g lime and a minimum of 10 kg organic
palms and stumps of dead palms. manure, 60 g magnesium sulphate per
3. Drench the soil with 1 per cent Bordeaux palm per year may be applied as in case
mixture before planting healthy seedlings. of converted paddy field.
4. Discourage growing of collateral hosts of • Fertilizer @ 100:40:250g NPK palm-1 year-1
fungus such as Delonix regia and in two splits in February and September
Pongamia glabra in the vicinity of by way of including any sulphur containing
gardens. fertilizer so as to supply a minimum of
5. Apply 2 kg neem cake per palm. 100 g S palm-1 year-1, under irrigated
6. Avoid flood irrigation and water flowing conditions, can be adopted.
from infected palms to healthy palms. 3. Terraced upland
Yellow leaf disease
• 150 g lime and a minimum of 15 kg organic
Together with the routine pest and disease manure palm-1 year-1 may be applied as in
control measures different management case of garden land.
ARECANUT 155

• Fertilizer @ 100:40:250g NPK in two splits inside. With the progress of the disease, a
in February and September, including any brown exudate oozes out from these cracks.
sulphur containing fertilizer source so as High water table predisposes the palm to this
to supply a minimum of 100 g S/palm/year, disease.
60 g magnesium sulphate and 20 g borax Improvement of drainage and root
and 20 g zinc sulphate/palm/year under feeding of 125 ml tridemorph (1.5 per cent) is
irrigated conditions can be adopted. suggested as control measure against this
Band disease disease.
Sun scorch
Improve soil conditions by loosening hard
soil strata, if present, by providing good Protect palms from southwest sun by
drainage. Adopt adequate control measures wrapping stems with areca sheath or
against spindle bug, mealy bugs, scales and white-wash the exposed portion. Provide
mites. Where the results of the above reinforcement to palms showing stem
treatments are not found satisfactory, apply fissures. Grow tall, quick growing trees on
powdered mixture of copper sulphate and lime southern and western sides of garden.
in equal quantities @ 225 g/palm twice a year Nut splitting
at the base of affected palms. Application of This can be considered as a physiological
borax @ 25 g/palm has been found to have an disorder than a disease. Palms in the age group
ameliorative effect. of 10-25 years are more susceptible. Symptoms
Collar rot of seedlings are premature yellowing of the nuts when they
are half to three-fourth mature. Later splits
Improve drainage conditions in nursery develop at the tips, which extend longitudinally
beds and gardens. Drench spindle and base exposing the kernel. Sometimes kernel also
of seedlings with 1 per cent Bordeaux show splitting and malformation. Rarely the
mixture in disease affected nursery or garden. kernel inside may exhibit splitting without visual
Dieback of inflorescence symptoms on the husk, resulting in nut fall.
Hyper nutrition or sudden flush of water after
Remove affected inflorescence imme a period of drought or insufficient moisture in
diately. Spray mancozeb (3 g l-1) twice, one the soil is the probable cause (s) of the disease.
just after female flowers are set and again
Improvement of drainage in ill drained
15-28 days later. Aureofungin sol at 100 ppm
gardens and spraying of borax @ 2 g l-1 of
concentration is also effective in controlling the
water are found effective in reducing the
disease. disease incidence.
Stem bleeding De-husking
Palms in the age group of 10-15 years are A simple de-husking device has been
more prone to this disease. Symptoms standardized by the CPCRI, Kasaragod. The
appear on the basal portion of the stem as small out turn with this device is 60 kg of husked
discoloured depression. Later, these spots nuts in the case of dry nuts and 30 kg in the
coalesce and cracks develop on the stem case of green nuts.The cost of the device is
leading to disintegration of the fibrous tissues about Rs. 250/-
156 BETEL VINE

BETEL VINE (Piper betle)

Betel vine requires a tropical climate with maintain good soil structure, which is essential
high atmospheric humidity. It can be for the proper development of the root system.
cultivated in the uplands as well as in
Planting material and planting
wetlands. In Kerala, it is mainly cultivated in
Top portions of mature vines (2-3 years old)
arecanut and coconut gardens as an intercrop.
are used for planting. Healthy cuttings of about
The crop grows best on well-drained fertile
1 m length with three nodes are used as planting
soils. Waterlogged, saline and alkali soils are
material. For planting one hectare, 20000-
unsuitable for its cultivation. The crop also
25000 cuttings are required. Furrows are
comes up very well in lateritic soils. Proper
irrigated prior to planting. Cuttings are planted
shade and irrigation are essential for successful
in holes 20 cm apart in furrows. While planting,
cultivation of this crop. An annual rainfall
one node shall be buried in the soil and the
ranging from 200 to 450 cm is ideal. The crop
second node should be at the ground level. The
tolerates a minimum temperature of 10o C
soil around the planted cutting must be pressed
and a maximum of 40oC. Extremely low
firmly to encourage quick germination. It is
atmospheric temperature leads to leaf fall. Hot
necessary to provide shade to the planted
dry winds are harmful.
cuttings. Coconut leaves are used as shading
Varieties material. To prevent excess moisture in the soil,
splashing water on the vines by hand is
The important types are Thulasi, Venmani,
preferable in the early stages. In the absence
Arikodi, Kalkodi, Karilanchi, Karpuram,
of rain, light irrigation, four times daily, is given
Chelanthikarpuram, Koottakkodinandan,
till establishment. Cuttings establish in three
Perumkodi, Amaravila and Pramuttan.
weeks time and the first leaf emerges in about
Season a month.
There are two important planting seasons. Irrigation and drainage
The Edavakodi is planted in May-June and the
Betel vine needs constantly moist soil, but
Thulakodi in August-September.
there should not be excessive moisture. Hence,
Preparation of land frequent light irrigations are given. The quantity
of irrigation water should be such that the
Areas with good shade and irrigation
standing water should not remain for more than
facilities are preferred for this crop. The land
half an hour in the bed. If waterlogging by
is dug well and laid out into furrows of
heavy rains or excess irrigation occurs,
10-15 m length, 75 cm width and 75 cm depth.
drainage should be arranged immediately. The
Such furrows are opened at a distance of 1 m
best time for irrigation is morning or evening.
apart. Well rotten farmyard manure and leaves
are thoroughly incorporated with the topsoil of Trailing the vines and weeding
the furrows, along with wood ash. High dose of The cuttings sprout and creep in about a
organic manure (20-50 t ha-1) is applied to month. At this time, they must be trailed on the
BETEL VINE 157

standards. Bamboo standards are erected at least once a year. Lowering is done
intervals and linked by tying at heights of during the months of August-September.
30 cm and 150 cm using coir rope. In the initial Before lowering, all the leaves in the basal
stages trailing is done on coir tied for the portion of the vines to a height of 15 cm are
purpose. Trailing is done further by tying the removed. Vine is untied from bottom
vines, at intervals of 15-20 cm along the upwards and coiled up carefully and laid flat
standards loosely with the help of banana fibre. on ground leaving 2.5 to 5 cm length of top
When vines come in contact with standards, shoots. Soil is put over the portion kept in the
they produce adventitious roots using which soil to about 5 cm thickness. Lowering is
they cling to support. Trailing is done every followed by light irrigation and manuring.
15-20 days depending on the growth of vines.
Plant protection
Gardens should be kept clean by weeding and
stirring as and when required. The insect pests include the mirid
bug (Disphincuts politus) which desaps
Manuring
the tender leaves and shoots, scale insects
Dried leaves and wood ash are applied to and mealy bugs (Lepidosaphes and
the furrows at fortnightly intervals and cowdung Pseudococcus), which occur on the stems.
slurry is sprinkled. This is repeated till four Insecticidal application is not recommended to
months after planting when the crop is ready avoid toxic hazards. In serious infestations,
for harvest. Application of different kinds of apply fish oil soap at 1.5 per cent against the
leaves (gliricidia, mango leaves etc.) at monthly mirid bugs and 0.05 per cent quinalphos against
intervals is found advantageous for the growth the scale insects and mealy bugs. Against
of the vines. scale insects, restrict insecticide application on
Harvesting the stem only. The leaves should be
harvested only after 15 days of insecticide
In about 3-6 months time, vines grow to a
application. The treated leaves should be
height 150-180 cm. At this stage branching is
consumed/marketed after thorough washing in
noticed in the vines. Leaves are removed along
water. Among the diseases, the bacterial leaf
with the petiole with the right thumb. Once
spot caused by Xanthomonas betlicola is
harvesting is commenced, it is continued almost
every day or week. The interval of harvesting most serious in southern Kerala.The initial
varies from 15 days to about a month till the symptoms appear as small watersoaked
next lowering of vines. After each harvest, regions, which enlarge and turn dark brown in
manuring has to be done. the centre with yellow halo. Profuse
bacterial ooze may be seen on the lower
Lowering the vines side of the lesion. In severe cases, defoliation
Under normal conditions, vines grow to a and stem injury occur, leading to wilting
height of about 3 m in one year time. When of the plant. The cultivars Karilanchi,
they reach this height, their vigour to Karpuram and Thulasi are found susce-
produce normal sized leaves is reduced and ptible to the disease. Spraying 1 per cent
the crop needs rejuvenation. This is done by Bordeaux mixture is recommended
lowering the vines down to the ground level at to control the disease.
158 COCOA

COCOA (Theobroma cacao)

The cocoa tree flourishes in the dense clones are tolerant to vascular streak dieback
shade of warm rain forests in its natural and have yield potential in the range from 55
habitat and hence can be cultivated in all to 180 pods per tree per year and mean yield
similar climatic conditions. The tree cannot from 38 to 78 pods per tree per year.
withstand high winds, drought or sudden fall in Hybrids : CCRP 8, CCRP 9, CCRP 10,
temperature. The crop requires well- CCRP 11, CCRP 12, CCRP 13, CCRP 14 and
distributed rainfall. The minimum requirement CCRP 15. These hybrids have mean yields of
of rainfall is about 100-150cm per annum. 90, 105, 79,114,138, 99, 120 and 86 pods per
Situations where the temperature falls below tree per year respectively. These are also
10°C or rises above 38°C are unfavourable tolerant/ moderately resistant to vascular streak
although minor deviations from the above limit dieback disease.
can be adjusted by shade and irrigation. High
Cocoa exhibits self incompatibility and is
wind velocity causes considerable mechanical
highly cross pollinated. Therefore growing of
damage to trees.
different varieties adjacent to each other must
Cocoa is grown at altitude up to 900 m be encouraged so as to achieve maximum fruit
above MSL though it is possible to grow the set and yield realization.
crop even in much higher elevations under
Selection of site
sheltered conditions.
Cocoa is usually planted under coconut and
The best soil for cocoa is forest soil rich
arecanut plantations in India. Shade
in humus. The soil should allow easy
levels under coconut canopy are highly
penetration of roots and capable of retaining variable depending mainly on the spacing of
moisture during summer. Clay loams, loams and coconut, extent of canopy development and age
sandy loams are suitable. Shallow soils should of palms. It is estimated that light infiltration
be avoided. through coconut canopy ranges from about 30
Varieties to 80 per cent depending upon these factors.
Based on this, the general recommendation is
Though three varietal types viz., Criollo,
as follows:
Forastero and Trinitario are recognized,
only Forastero types are known to perform 1. If a choice is possible, a coconut plantation
well under Indian conditions. Breeding that will let in about 50 per cent light through
work initiated at the Kerala Agricultural the canopy may be chosen for raising cocoa.
University since 1979 has resulted in the 2. If the light infiltration is over 50 per cent, it
release of seven improved clones of Forastero may be beneficial to provide additional
type. These are CCRP 1, CCRP 2, CCRP 3, shade using temporary shade plants like
CCRP 4, CCRP 5, CCRP 6 and CCRP 7. banana.
These improved clones are suitable for
Preparation of land
cultivation in different cocoa growing tracts of
the country and also in the warm tropical areas The seedlings / budded clones are usually
especially under the shade of coconut. All these planted in the interspaces of coconut/arecanut.
COCOA 159

Give a spacing of 3 to 4.5 m. The crop is best immediately after extraction from the pods.
grown with 50 per cent light intensity in the Viability of the beans can be extended for some
early stages. In the early life of the plants, more days if freshly extracted seeds are stored
planting of quick growing plants like banana in moist charcoal and packed in polybags.
and tapioca can provide temporary shade. Other alternative is extracting beans, removing
the testa and packing in polythene bags.
Planting materials
Time of sowing
Cocoa can be propagated by seed and
vegetative means. Though the seeds will germinate at any time
of the year, seeds may preferably be sown by
Seed propagation
December-January, so that 4-6 month old
It is desirable to collect seeds from biclonal seedlings become available for planting by
or polyclonal seed gardens involving superior May-June.
self-incompatible parents to ensure genetic
Method of sowing
superiority of planting materials. Polyclonal and
biclonal seed gardens have been established Seeds are to be sown with hilum-end down
at CCRP farm of the Kerala Agricultural or to be sown flat. Sowing is to be as shallow
University, Vellanikkara and Kidu farm of as to just cover the seeds with soil. Removal
CPCRI and seeds and seedlings are being of pulp may enhance the speed of germination,
supplied to growers. If seeds cannot be but the extent of additional advantage is only
procured from such seed gardens, mother plants marginal. Seeds germinating in about a week
for collection of seeds may be selected based and germination may continue for another
on the following criteria: week. Percentage of germination may be
around 90.
1. Trees of Forastero type having medium or
large pods of not less than 350 g weight or Cocoa nursery is to be located in a heavily
400 cc volume, green in colour when shaded area, which allows only 25-50 per cent
immature, having smooth or shallow sunlight. Regular watering is necessary to keep
furrows on the surface without prominent the soil moist.
constriction at the neck should be Seedlings are transplanted after 4-6 months.
selected. Yield of pods should be not less Only vigorous seedlings are to be used and
than 100 per year. based on height and stem girth, 25 per cent
2. Husk thickness of pods to be not more than poor seedlings may be rejected. When
1 cm. seedlings are grown under heavy shade,
hardening for 10 days by exposing to higher
3. Pod value (number of pods to give 1 kg
illumination may be necessary before
wet beans) to be not more than 12.
transplanting.
4. Number of beans per pod to be not less
Vegetative propagation
than 35.
In view of the high variability exhibited by
5. Bean dry weight to be not less than 1 g.
seedling progenies, vegetative propagation is
Seeds lose viability within a week of preferred for large scale planting. Though
harvest of pods. Seeds are to be sown vegetative propagation of cocoa by budding,
160 COCOA

rooting of cuttings and grafting are feasible, further period of three to six months after
the widely accepted method in India is budding. which they are transplanted. Under normal
conditions, success can be around 70-90 per
Scions for budding are to be collected from
cent.
high yielding, disease resistant elite plants.
Shoots having brown bark and just hardened Selection of planting materials
leaves are selected as bud wood. Scions are When seedlings are used for planting,
preferably pre-cured by cutting off lamina of select only vigorous and healthy seedlings
all the leaves of the selected scion shoot to a produced from polyclonal seed garden or
distance of about 30 cm from the tip. After selected mother plants as described earlier.
10 days when the petioles have fallen off, When budded plants are used, select two or
these scion shoots are cut and used for budding more clones for planting as the use of a single
immediately. Bud wood can be stored by clone can lead to poor production due to the
dipping in benzyl chloride followed by washing existence of self-incompatibility in cocoa.
in water and then sealing the cut ends using
molten wax. Bud wood is then wrapped in moist Time and method of planting
cotton wool and in turn in wet tissue paper or Raising cocoa as a pure crop is not
blotting paper and packed in boxes with wet recommended especially in Kerala due to high
packing material. The packet is then covered pressure on land. Cocoa is planted as an
using polythene sheets. Storage life of the bud intercrop in coconut and arecanut gardens. In
wood can be extended up to 10 days by this coconut, depending upon the spacing adopted,
method. As far as possible, bud wood is to be one or two rows of cocoa can be planted in
collected from chupons as those produced from between two rows of coconut i.e., two
fans may develop into bushy plants with rows where the spacing is more than 8 m and
spreading habit. Rootstock, six to twelve one row otherwise, the plant distance for cocoa
months old may be selected in such a way that being 2.7 to 3 m. When two-row system is
scion and rootstock are of the same thickness. adopted, the seedlings may be planted in zigzag
Different successful methods include T, or triangular manner.
inverted T, patch and modified Forkert
In arecanut where the normal spacing is
methods. Patch budding is adopted in the
2.7 m, cocoa is planted at the centre of four
Kerala Agricultural University.
areca palms along alternate rows of inter-
Patch budding method consists of remov- spaces only. Pits of 50 cm x 50 cm x 50 cm
ing a patch of about 2.5 cm length and are dug, allowed to weather for one month and
0.5 cm width from the rootstocks, preparing a refilled with topsoil and 15-20 kg of
bud patch of 2.5 cm length and 0.5 cm width compost or FYM to ground level. The
from the bud wood and inserting it into the planting hole should be sufficient to hold the
rootstock and tying firmly with polythene soil ball of the polybag. Tear off the polybags
tape. After three weeks, if there is bud-take, carefully, place the soil ball with the
polythene tape is removed; a vertical cut seedlings in the planting hole with minimum
is made half way through the stem above the disturbance and press the soil around firmly.
bud and is snapped back. The snapped Planting should coincide with the onset of
root stock portion is cut back after the bud has monsoon, but in places where irrigation is
grown to a shoot and at least two leaves have resorted to, flexibility in the time of planting is
hardened. It is then allowed to grow for a possible.
COCOA 161

Shaping of clonal plants derived from fan After cultivation

shoots
During the first three or four years after
Budded plants from fan shoots have planting, it is essential to keep the field free
diffuse branching system and bushy growth from weeds. Maintenance and regulation of
habit. This type of growth causes difficulties shade should be carried out promptly.
in carrying out cultural operations and During the establishment phase of the crop
harvesting. If a better shape of the plant is particularly in summer, provide mulching with
desired, appropriate formation pruning may be materials like chopped banana sheath,
necessary. This involves identification of a coconut husk, cocoa husk etc. to conserve
chupon arising from a fan shoot, allowing it to moisture in conditions of direct insolation. A
grow and removing the original, lower mature cocoa plantation should form a proper
fan-like shoots in stages. This, however, has canopy, which will be dense enough to
to be done slowly as an early drastic pruning prevent weed growth. Operations such as
will inhibit growth. pruning and regulation of shade should be
attended to in time.
Manuring
Pruning and training
Apply N:P2O5:K2O in two equal split doses
in April-May and September-October, @ Cocoa grows in a series of storeys, the
100:40: 140 g / tree / year. N:P2O5:K2O may chupon or vertical growth of the seedling
be applied @ 200:80:280 g / plant / year, in terminating at the jorquette from where four
trees yielding more than 60 fruits per year. to five fan branches develop. Further vertical
Dolomite @ 100 g / plant / year may be growth is continued through a side chupon that
applied to plants from the third year onwards. arises from a point just below the jorquette
which again jorquettes after growing to some
Under irrigated conditions, the yearly dose
height. Left for it, the plant will grow to a height
may be split into four and applied
of 8-10 m repeating this process of jorquetting
during April-May, September-October,
and chupon formation 3-5 times.
December and February-March.
When cocoa is grown as an intercrop in
Apply 1/3 of adult dose during the first year
coconut and arecanut plantation, it is desirable
of planting, 2/3 during second year and full dose
to restrict the growth to one tier formed at a
from the third year onwards.
convenient height preferably above the head
Apply fertilizers in circular basins with level of the workers. When jorquetting takes
a radius of 25 cm during the first year. place at lower levels this can be raised by
Gradually increase the radius of the basin to nipping off all the fan branches and
120 cm by the third year. Apply fertilizers in allowing one chupon to develop and grow
the entire area of 1.5 m radius around the tree further to jorquette at the desired height.
followed by forking in. After this is achieved, further vertical growth
is arrested through periodical removal of
Plants showing zinc deficiency symptoms
chupons.
(narrowing of leaves, sickle leaf formation,
green vein banding, chlorosis in the interveinal The intensity of pruning is to be decided by
areas) should be sprayed with 0.5 to 1.5 per the nature of growth of individual trees, shade
cent ZnSO4 three times a year. intensity, growth of the companion crops etc.
162 COCOA

In the early stages, pruning is done to give a system and the trunk with reserve food, the
particular shape to the tree. After the top worked trees grow much faster and give
establishment of the trees in the garden, prune prolific yield one year after the operation.
them to the extent of retaining only the required Though top working can be done in all seasons,
number of leaves (20-30 leaves per developing it is preferable to do it in rain-free period in
pod). Removal of secondary branches from irrigated gardens. For rainfed situations, it may
the centre should be restricted only to those preferably be done after the receipt of pre-
trees growing in excess shade. monsoon showers.
Irrigation Top worked trees start yielding heavily from
the second year onwards. About 50 per cent
Cocoa grows well as a rainfed crop
improved yield is obtained in the
under conditions of well distributed rainfall
second year and about 100 per cent improved
and irrigation is not necessary. If sufficient
moisture is not present in the soil due to yield in the third year. Loss of crop for one
prolonged drought or failure of rains, irrigation year during the operation is compensated by
is to be given once in five days. Irrigation, bumper crop in the coming years. The main
however, helps in better growth of plants and stem will continue to belong to the older plant
precocity in bearing. and fruits borne on this area belong to the poor
yielder. Better yields are however obtained
Top working from the fan branches of the high yielding clone
This technique is useful to rejuvenate old used for top working.
and unproductive cocoa plants and also to Plant protection
convert genetically poor yielders to high
Pests
yielders. This consists of snapping back the
desired trees below the jorquette after Red borer (Zeuzera coffeae)
cutting half way. The snapped canopy Larvae burrow into the main stem of young
continues to have contact with the trunk. A plants and fan shoots of older trees, causing
number of chupons would arise below the point drying up.
of snapping and this is triggered by the breakage
of apical dominance and continued connection Management
with the snapped canopy. Patch budding Prune off and burn affected fan shoots.
as described earlier may be done on three
Striped squirrel (Funambulus sp.)
to four vigorous and healthy shoots
using scions from high yielding, disease The squirrels gnaw the bronzing pods and
resistant clones and the remaining chupons are extract the beans along with mucilaginous pulp.
removed. The polythene tape is removed
Management
three weeks after budding and the stock
portion above the bud union is snapped back. Harvest the crop just when bronzing is
The snapped portion is removed after two visible in the pod furrows. Mechanical
hardened leaves develop from the bud. When protection of the pods can be ensured by
sufficient shoots are hardened, canopy of the covering them with punched polybags (150
mother tree can be completely removed. gauge) smeared with bitumen-kerosene
Because of the presence of an established root mixture.
COCOA 163

Rats (Rattus rattus) Diseases

Rats are serious pests in densely planted Seedling blight (Phytophthora palmivora)
coconut gardens with cocoa as an intercrop.
They inhabit the coconut palm crowns and The symptoms develop on the leaves and
descend during night and cause damage to stem of the seedlings or budded plants. On
pods. Nature of damage is similar to that leaves, small water-soaked lesions appear
caused by squirrels. which later coalesce resulting in the blightening
of leaves. On stem, water-soaked linear lesions
Management develop initially and later turn to black colour.
Baiting with anticoagulant rodenticides in Stem infection develops at any point on the
the garden is recommended. Rain-proof stem causing the death of seedlings / budded
preparations are to be used. Set up bamboo plants.
traps with bow attachment on the crown of Management
palms.
Remove and destroy severely affected
Myllocerus weevils (Myllocerus viridanus) seedlings. Improve drainage and adjust shade.
Adults skeletonise the foliage and this is Spray with 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture or
serious in young plants during July-September. 0.2 per cent copper oxychloride or 0.3 per cent
Spray undersurfaces of the foliage with potassium phosphonate just before the onset
quinalphos 0.05 per cent. of monsoon and thereafter at frequent
intervals.
Mealy bugs (Planococcus citri and
Phytophthora pod rot / black pod
Rastrococcus sp.)
(Phytophthora palmivora,
The bugs occur in cherelles, developing pods P. citrophthora, P. capsici)
and shoots and desap the tissues. This can be
controlled by spot application of quinalphos 0.05 Fruits at all stages of maturity may be
per cent or phosalone 0.07 per cent. attacked by P. palmivora. The first visible
symptom is the appearance of a circular brown
Aphids (Toxoptera aurantii)
spot, which enlarges concentrically and evenly
Colonies of pink aphids occur ventrally on to involve the whole pod surface. Ultimately
the leaves of chupon shoot. Tender shoots are the colour of the affected pod becomes dark
also damaged. brown or black. In immature pods, the
Management discolouration spreads internally with rotting of
the beans. The beans in mature pods may
Nip off the flaccid leaves along with the
remain partly or wholly unaffected.
shoots and destroy the colonies.
Management
Cockchafer beetle (Popillia sp. and
Leucopholis sp.) Periodically remove and destroy all dried
up and infected pods. Spray 1 per cent
Grubs feed on the roots of freshly planted
Bordeaux mixture with adhesive (rosin
seedlings causing wilting.
washing soda preparation) with the onset of
The pods are damaged by Helopeltis sp. monsoon and also at frequent intervals.
The pest can be controlled by spraying Provide proper drainage and regulate shade
quinalphos 0.05 per cent. to increase aeration.
164 COCOA

Lasiodiplodia pod rot / charcoal pod rot lesions, which later dry up to form a rusty
(Lasiodiplodia theobromae) deposit. The internal tissues beneath the outer
The disease occurs more frequently greyish brown lesion appear as reddish brown.
during dry season. Pods of all stages are The wood shows greyish brown discolouration
affected. The symptoms appear as pale with black streaks. Wilting occurs, when
yellow spots from the stalk-end or tip of the canker girdles the affected stem / branches.
pod. Later, the lesions enlarge and cover the Management
entire pod having chocolate brown colour. In
due course, the whole pod develops a black If the disease is detected early, remove and
sooty appearance due to formation of spores destroy the affected tissues completely
of the fungus. and apply Bordeaux paste. Wilted branches
should be cut and removed. Since canker
Management mainly develops from pod rot caused by
Since the disease is more common on pods Phytophthora, proper control measures of
of plants under stress, better management Phytophthora pod rot will help in reducing
practices will reduce the incidence of the incidence of the disease.
disease. Remove all affected pods and spray Pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor)
1 per cent Bordeaux mixture.
The disease appears as a pinkish powdery
Colletotrichum pod rot (Colletotrichum
coating on the stem of affected plants.
gloeosporioides)
The pink colour represents profuse conidial
The disease causes rotting of immature
production by the fungus. The fungal growth
pods. Infection starts from the stalk-end of the
may rapidly spread and girdle the stem, so that
pod and spreads towards tip as dark brown
the distal parts are affected. The extent to
discolouration with a diffused yellow halo.
which the leaf may wilt, turn brown and fall
Internal tissues of the pod also show
depends on the part of the tree, which is
discolouration. The whole pod turns to black
and remains on the tree in a mummified form. affected. The disease mainly affects the
Sometimes, infection may start from parts other forking region and the damage is localized.
than the stalk region as dark brown sunken Splitting of the bark on the affected region is
lesion. also noticed. Sometimes, the fungus produces
pustules (Necator stage), which are orange red
Management in colour and are arranged in rows along the
Remove all infected pods and spray with 1 stem.
per cent Bordeaux mixture or 0.2 per cent Management
copper oxychloride or mancozeb.
Remove all the infected and dried branches.
Phytophthora canker Apply Bordeaux paste at the fork region and
(Phytophthora palmivora) at the cut ends of the twigs and spray with
The earliest symptom is the appearance of 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture before the onset
greyish brown water-soaked lesion with dark of monsoon. Repeat spraying again once or
brown to black margin anywhere on the stem. twice during the monsoon season according to
A reddish brown liquid oozes out from the the intensity of the disease.
COCOA 165

Vascular Streak Dieback (VSD) found suspended by the mycelial thread.

(Oncobasidium theobromae) Extensive death of the young branches and
suspended leaves in rows are the common field
The first indication of the disease is the
symptoms.
characteristic chlorosis of one or two leaves
on the second or third leaf behind the tip. Management
Leaves on the tip show symptoms first only in Remove and destroy the affected plant
very young seedlings or in slow growing parts. Avoid heavy shade. Spray 1 per cent
seedlings or branches. The chlorotic patches Bordeaux mixture.
on the diseased leaves develop into small
sharply defined green spots scattered over a Harvesting
yellow background. Diseased leaves fall within It takes about 170 days for a cocoa pod to
a few days after turning yellow. Leaves above develop from formation to maturity.
and below the first diseased leaf soon begin to During the period from 70-140 days after
show yellowing with green patches and these pollination, the size of pods and their fat and
also fall off finally resulting in dieback of the sugar content increase rapidly. Ripening takes
infected branches. about 25 days, during which, the pods change
Leaf scars from the fall of chlorotic leaves colour depending on the variety. Pods remain
suitable for harvesting for fairly long time
are sometimes covered by a white, loosely
after they have ripened. Hence, it is possible
adherent fruiting body of the fungus. These
to have harvest of sufficient number of pods
fruiting bodies have been found only on leaf
at a time by either delaying the harvest of early
scars and adjacent bark in the diseased
ripened pods or harvest of pods, which are fully
region of cocoa stems. If the diseased stem is
ripened. Harvesting should be done at regular
split longitudinally, the xylem is found to be
intervals rather than daily, once in 7-10 days.
discoloured by brown streaks.
Avoid over ripening of pods. The discards at
Management the harvest can be left in the garden either in
Cut and remove all infected twigs. Prune the open during summer or in pits at different
off all affected branches 30 cm below the last sites in the rainy season or they can be
incorporated in the compost. Pod husks from
point of visible vascular streak of the stem to
the fermentary can also be used similarly as a
prevent further spread within the plant. Grow
good source of organic manure.
VSD tolerant cocoa types.
Pods are removed by cutting with a sickle-
White thread blight (Marasmiellus
sharp knife, without damaging the cushion from
scandens)
which it is developed. After 2-3 days, they are
The white mycelial threads of the fungus split by banging them against some hard objects.
spread longitudinally and irregularly along the Opening the pods with a knife damages the
surface of the stem of young branches and beans. During the period between harvesting
enter the leaf along the petioles. On the leaf and splitting, pre-fermentation activity inside
lamina it spreads extensively and forms a much the pod is hastened, which improves later
branched system of fine threads. The affected fermentation. Beans from the split pods are
leaves turn dark brown and such dead leaves scraped out with fingers. Portions of placenta
eventually get detached from the stem, but are broken, germinated, caked, parthenocarpic and
166 COCOA

undeveloped beans are removed. On an the stack to keep the beans warm. Mixing or
average, 10-12 pods give 1 kg of wet beans stirring of beans is not necessary and fermen-
and 3 kg of wet beans (from 30-36 pods) give tation gets completed in 4 to 5 days, whereas
1 kg of fermented and dried beans. 6 to 7 days are required for other methods of
Fermentation fermentation.
During fermentation, the pulp or mucilage Basket method
covering the fresh beans is removed and
characteristic chocolate flavour is imparted to In this method, bean lots ranging from
the final produce. The process is simple but 2-6 kg can be fermented successfully. Mini
must be carried out properly in order to get baskets may be made of bamboo matting,
beans of good quality. Heat is produced by closely woven and should have a diameter of
keeping the fresh beans compactly and this 20 cm and height of 15 cm for a capacity of
heat must be conserved so that chemical 2 kg. For slightly larger lots, proportionately
changes inside the bean can be completed. The deeper baskets may be used (e.g., for 6 kg,
four methods of fermentation usually employed the depth may be about 40 cm). The baskets
involve the use of baskets, heaps, boxes and
are lined with one or two layers of torn banana
trays for filling up the wet beans.
leaves to facilitate drainage of sweatings. Wet
Tray method beans are then filled, compacted and covered
with banana leaves. The baskets are placed
The best method suitable for small on a raised platform to allow the flow of
quantities of beans is the tray fermentation. drippings. After 24 hours, it is covered with
Wooden trays, 10 cm deep with slatted / split gunny-sack and apply weight (bricks). The
cane bottoms are divided into a number of beans are to be taken out and stirred well 48
sections by means of wooden partitions that hours and 96 hours after the initial setting.
fit into appropriate grooves at required Fermentation will be completed in six days and
distances. The capacity of the tray can be the beans can be taken for drying on the seventh
adjusted depending upon the availability of day.
beans by keeping the wooden plank in the
appropriate grooves. A convenient tray can be A number of factors influence the
25 cm wide and 60 cm long. Wet beans are duration of fermentation. Weather changes
filled in the tray and levelled. About and season are important through their
10 kg of wet beans may be required to load influence on temperature and atmospheric
one tray fully. moisture. Ripening also affects fermentation.
A single tray of beans will not ferment Beans from unripe pods cannot be
properly and at least four or five trays are fermented. Beans of Criollo ferment more
needed for successful fermentation. The quickly than those of Forastero. During the
trays are stacked one over the other in such early stages of fermentation, heat is produced
a manner that the cocoa filled portions are in a by the action of anaerobic microorganisms.
single row one above the other. The top The beans are killed by the combined effect
tray is covered with plantain leaves. After of heat and acetic acid and the cocoa aroma
24 hours, a close fitting sack is put to cover and flavour potential are developed.
COCOA AND COFFEE 167

Judging the end point of fermentation 6-8 per cent may be packed in polythene bags
Well-fermented beans will be plumpy and or polythene lined gunny bags. Some special
filled with a reddish brown exudate. The testa conditions have to be provided in storage in
becomes loosened from the cotyledons. When order to maintain the quality of the cured beans.
cut open, the cotyledons will have a bleached Properly dried beans can be kept in 200-300
appearance in the centre with a brownish ring gauge polythene covers if only small quantities
in the periphery. When above 50 per cent of
are involved or in polythene lined gunny bags
beans in a lot show the above signs, it can be
considered as properly fermented. in the case of larger stocks. Beans should be
cleaned of flat, broken and other defective
Drying beans before storing. The store should be
On completion of fermentation, beans are sufficiently ventilated and the bags should be
dried either in the sun or by artificial means. kept on a wooden platform with air space of
Sun drying can be done in thin layers 2-3 cm about 15-20 cm below the wooden planks set
deep and stirring from time to time. Under over the floor. The humidity should not exceed
normal sunny weather, drying can be
completed in four to five days. While drying in 80 per cent so as to prevent mould development
mechanical driers, care must be taken and pest incidence in the beans. Before storing
to avoid exposure of the beans to smoke, fumes cocoa, the store can be made clean and
etc. The most common method of determining insect free by application of pesticides well in
bean dryness is to take a sample and compress advance, but pesticides should neither be
this in the palm of the hand and listen for the applied nor be kept with the beans inside the
characteristic sound, which is associated with store. As cocoa beans can absorb and retain
correctly dried cocoa. The more scientific
permanently any odour from its surroundings,
method is to use a moisture meter.
other food-stuffs should not be kept with
Storage cocoa. So also, smoke or kerosene fumes
The dried beans with moisture content of should be prevented from entry.

COFFEE (Coffea spp.)

The soil and climatic requirements for Robusta

Arabica and Robusta varieties are as follows: Elevation : 500-1000 m above MSL
Arabica Annual rainfall : 1000-2000 mm
Blossom rain : Feb-March (2.0-4.0 cm)
Elevation : 1000-1500 m above MSL Backing rain : April-May (5-7.5 cm)
Annual rainfall : 1600-2500 mm Shade : Uniform thin
Blossom rain : March-April (2.5-4.0 cm) Temperature : 20-30ºC
Backing rain : April-May (5-7.5 cm) RH : 80-90 per cent
Shade : Medium to light In both cases, soil should be deep, friable,
Temperature : 15-25ºC and rich in organic matter with a pH of
RH : 70-80 per cent 6.0-6.5.
168 COFFEE

Preparation of land are tolerant. Araboca varieties recommended

for Nelliampathis & Idukki regions are S.6,
If it is a jungle, only selective felling of trees
Sln.9, Chandragiri while Cavery & S.795 are
is done maintaining the trees, which are
discouraged. Chandragiri should be planted at
desirable at appropriate spacing. The under
elevations of 3000 feet (915 meters) and above.
growth may be cleared to enable line
All Arabica varieties are discouraged in
marking with a base line and opening of pits.
Wayanad. Robusta varieties recommended for
The entire plot may be conveniently divided
Waynad, Nelliampathis & Idukki are S.274 &
into blocks with roads and footpaths.
CxR (Congensis x robusta hybrid). Generally
In April, pits of 45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm robustas are tolerant to leaf rust disease and
may be opened at appropriate spacing for resistant to White Stem Borer pest, which are
different coffee cultivars as described below. more on record in arabica. However, mealy
Tall arabica like S 795, S 288 : 2.1 m x 2.1 m bug incidence will be more in robusta.

Semi-dwarfs like Cauvery : 1.8 m x 1.8 m Propagation

Dwarfs like S 7 (San Ramon): 1.5 m x 1.5 m In coffee, generally the propagation is done
through seeds and of late in robusta, the clonal
Hybrids like Congensis x propagation was also established to be
Robusta (CxR) : 2.5 m x 2.5 m successful. To a limited extent, grafted plants
Robusta selections like are also being planted.
S 274, BR series : 3.0 m x 3.0 m From the selected and certified seed blocks,
The pits after digging will be kept open for healthy and fully matured fruits of normal
weathering for a couple of months until appearance with three quarters of
monsoon. In June, the pits are covered with ripening are harvested selectively from the
top soil and staked. In poor soils, 250 g of FYM marked plants during November-December in
or compost per pit may be added the case of arabicas and in January-
before filling. February in robustas. Discarding the floats, the
sound fruits are pulped and sieved to
Planting materials
remove the defective beans. The beans are
Old arabica varieties like Kents and Coorgs then mixed with wood ash @ 0.75 kg per kg
are more susceptible to the leaf rust disease of seeds and dried under shade stirring from
(Hemileia vastatrix). Arabica selections of tall, time to time to facilitate uniform drying.
medium and dwarf habit are grown on large To protect the seeds against any microbial
scale because of their proven performance in infection, the seeds are treated with
yield and comparatively better resistance to leaf either carbendazim @ 1 g or with vitavax
rust disease. In dwarfs, San Ramon (S 7, 7.1, @ 0.66 g per kg of seed coffee.
7.2 and 7.3) and in medium size bushes,
Sowing
Cauvery (Catimor) are the popular varieties.
Some of the arabica selections like Sln 5, 6 Germination bed (primary): Seeds are sown
and 7 are location specific while S.795 (tall) is in raised seed beds (15 cm above the ground
adapted to all areas. All arabicas are level) provided with proper drainage prepared
susceptible to leaf rust with varying degree of out of soil, compost and sand at 6:2:1 proportion.
susceptiblity. Sln.5, Sl.6, Sln.9 & Chandragiri A bed of 4 m x 3 m will be sufficient for 1.5 kg
COFFEE 169

of seeds, if sown 1.0 to 1.5 cm apart in rows, enable the plant to strike roots and make firm
with the flat side of the seed towards the soil. growth as quickly as possible. The shoot portion
A thin layer of soil is spread after sowing and of the transplanted seedling should be at the
covered with dry straw to a thickness of about same height above soil level as it was in the
5 cm to ensure uniform temperature and to germination bed. Transplanting is done
regulate moisture retention. Sowing is to be preferably in the early morning hours or late in
taken up in December-January for arabica and the afternoon. Seedlings uprooted from the
in February-March for Robusta. Watering of primary bed should not be stored for a long
the seed beds is to be done twice a day in the time but transplanted immediately.
initial week and thereafter regulated. The
Regular watering and aftercare of the
seeds sprout in about 40 days when the straw
seedlings should follow. Excess moisture and
mulch is removed. The primary beds are
watering in the afternoon should be avoided
provided with pandal covered with coir mats
as it may induce damping off.
or dry leaves.
Secondary nursery beds
Polybag (basket) nursery : Seedlings from
germination beds are transplanted to polythene In some areas, seedlings from the
bags in February-March when they are at the germination beds are transplanted to secondary
‘button’ stage. Polythene bags of 23 cm x nursery beds of the same soil composition as
15 cm and 150 gauge thickness with adequate that of germination beds. Transplanting is
number of holes of 3 mm in the bottom half of done at button stage. Seedlings are planted
the bag are preferred. The bags are filled with 30 cm apart. If the taproot is bent or
prepared mixture of 6 parts of sieved jungle excessively grown, it is nipped off while
soil, 2 parts of well rotten sieved cattle manure transplanting. The beds are mulched and
and 1 part of fine sand. The prepared mixture watered at regular intervals. Watering should
is thoroughly mixed and slightly moistened with be done during the early morning hours.
water to facilitate packing. The soil is filled Aftercare of seedlings
into the nursery baskets and pressed firm.
Seedlings are to be manured once in two
Nursery baskets are arranged conveniently in
rows of 10 within a rectangular frame with months with urea dissolved in water or
supernatant solution of fermented cowdung
bamboo reapers. These frames are held in
slurry. For an area of 1 m 2 , 20 g urea
positions with bamboo or wooden props driven
dissolved in 4.5 litres water is sufficient.
into the ground at suitable distance.
Adequate protection is given against
Coffee seedlings at the button stage are nursery diseases and pests. Overhead shade
transplanted into nursery baskets. The in the nursery has to be thinned and finally
seedlings are gently lifted from the germination removed after the onset of monsoon (this is
beds with minimum injury to roots. Prior to not applicable to northeastern areas). The
transplanting, the nursery basket is watered and seedlings grow vigorously if watered
a vertical hole of 5 cm deep is made in the soil judiciously and protected against afternoon sun.
at the centre of the basket. At the time of
Planting in field
transplanting it is preferable to slightly nip off
the taproot of the seedling. The taproot and Disease free and vigorous seedlings are
the feeder roots should be so disposed as to selected for planting. Seedlings with stunted
170 COFFEE

and twisted roots are discarded. Rooted plants (orthotropic) shoots are marked after harvest
(aged 16-18 months) with and without ball are is over in any selected plant. Single node green
planted during June and bag plants are generally wood (semi-hardwood) cutting of 10 cm length
planted during September-October. A hole is and three to six months old are planted in
made at the centre of the pit after levelling the polythene bags with the medium of jungle soil,
soil. The seedling is placed in the hole with its sand and cattle manure in the proportion of
taproot and lateral roots spread out in proper 6:3:1. The bags with cuttings are arranged in a
position. The hole is then filled. The soil around propagation chamber made of a trench of size
the seedling is packed 3 cm high above the 2 m x 1 m x 0.5 m covered over with a thick
ground to prevent stagnation of water around polythene sheet (500 gauge) spread over a
the collar. The seedlings are provided with cross framework of bamboos.
stakes to prevent wind damage and mulched A trench could accommodate about 108
properly. filled up bags of size 22 cm x 15 cm.
Ball and bag seedlings are planted Preplanting treatment of the base of cutting
towards the end of the heavy monsoon rains with IBA (indole butyric acid) at 5000 ppm
and commencement of northeast rains, i.e., in enhances early rooting. Under South Indian
September. First the bottom portion of the bag conditions, cuttings collected during June-July
is cut and the tip of the root is nipped. The recorded the highest per cent of rooting.
seedling is gently removed from the bag with Cuttings will root in 3-4 months after planting.
its soil and root system intact and planted in Rooted cuttings should be hardened by keeping
the hole. The hole is covered with soil and the them under shade for about two months and
plant is firmly fixed similar to ball plants. It is then can be transplanted into the field.
wise to maintain both types of nurseries and
Manuring
have planting seasons, June and September.
The recommended doses of fertilizers for
Planting shade trees\
coffee (kg ha-1) are furnished in Tables 29 & 30.
Dadap is commonly used as a lower canopy
shade only in arabicas which require two tier After cultivation
canopy. Stakes of 2 m length are planted for Grass and other weeds should be
every two plants of coffee. Silver oak and eradicated in the first year itself by digging or
dadap are planted during June when the using appropriate weedicide depending on the
southwest monsoon commences. During the nature of the weeds. The soil around the
dry seasons, stems of young dadap are either seedlings should be mulched properly and
painted with dilute lime solution or wrapped in shade has to be provided to individual
agave leaves to protect them from sun scorch. seedlings to protect against direct sun.
Clonal propagation Training and pruning
In the case of robusta, which is highly cross The plant is trained either on single stem or
pollinated clonal propagation is more adaptable. multiple stem system. Under South Indian
In the case of arabica, the stabilization of conditions periodical handling and pruning are
desirable characters in the selected plants could essential. The type and frequency of pruning
be easily maintained by adopting clonal or have to be decided based on a number of
vegetative propagation method. The vertical factors like the type of vegetative growth,
COFFEE 171

Table 29. Fertlizer dosage for young coffee plants (in grams per plant/year) and the
quantity of straight & complex fertilzers (in grams)

Variety & NPK dose Combination - A Combination -B Combination -B Complex Complex

age of (gram/plant/
Urea R.P MOP Urea R.P MOP Urea DAP MOP 17:17:17 19:19:19
Plant year)
20% 30%
ARABICA
1 Year 20:10:20 43 50 33 43 33 33 35 22 33 117 100
2 Year 20:10:20 43 50 33 43 33 33 35 22 33 117 100
3 Year 25:15:25 54 75 42 54 50 42 41 33 42 147 130
4 Year 25:15:25 54 75 42 54 50 42 41 33 42 147 130
ROBUSTA
1Year 38:28:38 83 140 63 83 93 63 59 61 63 223 200
2Year 38:28:38 83 140 63 83 93 63 59 61 63 223 200
3 Year 38:28:38 83 140 63 83 93 63 59 61 63 223 200
4 Year 40:30:40 87 150 67 87 100 67 61 65 67 235 210

Note: RP - Rock Phosphate DAP - Di-ammonium Phosphate MOP - Muriate of Potash

Table 30. Recommended dose of N:P:K fertilizers (kg/year) at different levels of yield and
the quantity of straight fertilizers (in kgs) for yielding coffee plants

Sl.No. Yield Suggessted Combination - A Combination - B Combination -C

level dose Urea RP MOP Urea RP MOP Urea RP MOP
(Kgs) (NPK kg) 16% 30%
1 100 30:27:30 65 135 50 65 90 50 43 58 50
2 200 40:34:40 87 170 66 87 113 66 58 73 66
3 300 50:41:50 114 205 83 114 136 83 73 88 83
4 400 60:48:60 142 240 100 172 160 100 88 103 100
5 500 70:55:70 170 275 116 170 183 116 104 119 116
6 600 80:62:80 198 310 133 198 206 133 119 135 133
7 700 90:69:90 225 345 150 225 230 150 134 149 150
8 800 100:76:100 253 380 166 253 253 166 149 164 166
9 900 110:83:120 281 415 183 281 276 183 164 179 183
10 1000 120:90:120 308 450 200 308 300 200 180 196 200
Note : The suggested dose may be applied in minimum of 2-3 splits or as many splits as possible. In
addition to the suggested dosage, 50 kg Urea per acre may be broadcasted during break in mon-
soon to combat fruit drop due to saoil saturation.
172 COFFEE

incidence of pests / diseases, pattern of Spraying schedule

blossom showers etc. Centering and 1 st spray: 45 days after the last rainfall
desuckering are to be carried out for about (usually the 2nd fortnight of January)
5 or 6 years after planting. Removal of the
2nd spray: 30-45 days after the first spray
dead and whippy wood is essential during the
early years. Mature plants may require Foliar application of anti-transpirants like
Ralli Dhan 110 @ 200 ml in 200 litres of water
medium to severe pruning once in four years.
(0.1per cent) is also useful for drought
Usually coffee, both arabica and robusta, management in coffee.
is trained on single stem. When the plants reach
Fruit drop
a desired height of 75 cm for arabica and
105-120 cm for robusta, they are topped i.e., During the developmental stage of berry,
growing apex of the stem is severed. Low 10 to 50 per cent premature fruit drop
topping (60-70 cm) is advocated in areas of occurs due to insufficient carbohydrate, auxin-
severe wind and exposure. Under certain carbohydrate imbalance, nutritional
circumstances, multiple stem system is also disorders and waterlogging. Many growth
adopted as in the case of replanted fields or regulators have been tried to increase the
when under-planting is taken up keeping the fruit set and for controlling the pre-mature
fruit drop. Following growth regulators could
old plants under multiple stem system.
increase the yield when they are given as
Irrigation foliar application 10-15 days after blossom (first
Wherever water is available, overhead spray) and during last week of May before
irrigation by sprinkler system is adopted to a the onset of southwest monsoon (second
spray).
greater advantage during November-
January to keep the soil moisture level and in Fruit ripening
February-April for ensuring blossom as well Hastening of fruit ripening in coffee could
as backing, if necessary. be achieved by spraying ethephon (Ethrel) on
Drought management in coffee mature berries when 10 per cent natural
ripening is observed. By this, ripening can be
Plants affected by drought limit vegetative hastened by 2-4 weeks and in two rounds about
growth, show floral abnormalities and poor fruit
set resulting in reduced yield. Therefore,
Growth In 200 ml Dose/ha
drought tolerance is an important aspect of
regulators of water (for 1.5 l)
coffee productivity. Arabica coffee is more
tolerant to drought than robusta. For inducing Planofix 50 ml 375 ml
tolerance in robusta the following nutrient Hormonol 50 ml 375 ml
solution can be sprayed @ 1 litre per plant. Agrona 50 ml 375 ml
Nutrient in 200 litres of water Miraculan 50 ml 375 ml
Urea 1 kg Atonik 50 ml 375 ml
Super phosphate 1 kg Cytozyme crop 60 ml 450 ml
Muriate of potash 750 g
Ascorbic acid 20 g 150 g
Zinc sulphate 1 kg
COFFEE 173

96 per cent ripe fruits could be harvested. The establishment of dadap is difficult due to poor
following concentrations are standardized for rooting, application of rooting hormones and
arabica and robusta plants. manuring have been found useful.
Arabica : 100 to 120 ml per 200 litres of water Diseases
per 400 plants Leaf rust (Hemileia vastatrix)
Robusta : 40 to 54 ml per 200 litres of This is an important disease causing
water per 267 plants
economic loss particularly in arabica coffee.
Lower concentrations are to be used in On the lower surface of the infected leaves,
lower elevations and thin shaded places, small pale yellowish spots appear early
whereas higher concentrations are to be used after the first rains in the season. These spots
in higher elevation and thick shaded soon increase in size and number, and many
plantations. such spots coalesce at severity causing
Dieback premature defoliation. Severe defoliation leads
to debilitation of the bushes and results in poor
Dieback refers to death of younger tertiary cropping in the succeeding seasons.
branches starting from apex progressing
downwards as well as dieback from below the Management
tip of branches and proceeding forward and a. Spraying of Bordeaux mixture 0.5%
backward from the point of defoliation. The before the onset of south west monsoon
occurrence of dieback is mainly due to adverse and during post monsoon.
climatic and edaphic factors such as higher b. Systemic fungicides, Triadimefon (Bayleton
temperature, higher light intensity and low
25 WP) at 160 g per 200 l of water),
moisture status of soil.
Hexaconazole (Contaf 5% EC) at 400 ml
Management per 200 l of water are recomended as
1. Removal of dead and whippy wood alternatives to Bordeaux spray.
2. Providing judicious shade by both Bordeaux mixture 0.5 per cent in February-
temporary and permanent shade trees as March as pre or post-blossom spray,
70 per cent of daylight is found to be Oxycarboxin 20 EC 0.03 per cent ai in May-
optimum June as pre-monsoon spray, Oxycarboxin 20
3. Conservation of soil moisture with thick EC 0.03 per cent ai or Bordeaux mixture 0.5
mulch per cent in July-August in mid-monsoon spray
4. Foliar application of nutrients (if incidence of leaf rust is severe), and
Oxycarboxin 20% EC 0.03 per cent ai or
5. Correcting the soil acidity by application
Bordeaux mixture 0.5 per cent in September-
of lime
October as post-monsoon spray.
Shade and shade management
Black rot (Koleroga noxia)
Dadap (Erythrina lithosperma) is
generally used as a lower canopy in India. It is A disease more in occurrence in endemic
always planted along with coffee in new areas with heavy rainfall, saturated atmos-
clearings. When stakes are planted in June phere with 95-100 per cent RH, thick overhead
they grow quickly since sufficient moisture shade, low over-hanging branches, sheltered
will be there in the soil. In areas where the from sunlight and wind in valleys or continuous
174 COFFEE

mist during monsoon. The affected bushes have Management

blackening and rotting of leaves, twigs and
1. Timely and complete harvest, collection of
developing berries. There will be defoliation
gleanings, burying the infested berries and
and berry drop in the affected branches. The
maintaining optimum shade and good
entire block affected looks totally debilitated
drainage can control the pest.
with heavy damage to crop.
2. Timely & clean harvest using picking mat
Management and phytosanitary measures like removal of
left over berries on the plant and gleanings
Centering and handling of the bushes prior
(berries fallen on the ground) are the most
to the onset of monsoon and protecting
effective measures to contain the CBB.
endemic patches with spraying Bordeaux
mixture 1 per cent. If incidence is observed 3. Release of parasitoid C. stephanoderis and
during the monsoon, remove the affected twigs application of entomopatheogen B.
and burn them. bassiana and installing Broca traps @ 60
nos. per ha.for mass trapping are more
a. In endamic areas spray 1% Bordeaux effective in containing the pest.
mixture on both the surfaces of leaves and 4. Although a number of pesticides have been
also to the developing berries just before the tried against this pest, only a few are
onset of monsoon. effective. Pesticides should be used with
b. If disease is noticed, remove and destroy extreme caution and only if no other option
the affected leaves and berries along with is available.
strands of mycelia to prevent further spread. For spot sprays, Chloropyriphos 20 EC at
c. Spray Carbendazim 0.03% (Bavistin at 600 ml in 200 l of water along with 200 ml of
120g/200 l of water in black rot affected any wetting agent may be used at the right time
areas during break in the monsoon. ie 120 to 150 days after blossom. (Aug-Sept for
Arabica and Sept-Oct for robusta) can control
Pests the pest.
Coffee berry borer White stem borer
(Hypothenemus hampei) (Xylotrechus quadripes)

Coffee berry borer is the most serious pest The adults have two flight periods as they
of coffee world over. The female beetle bores emerge from the pupae during April-May and
into the berries through the navel region and in September to December/January. As the
makes tunnels in the hard bean and lays about beetles are active and females lay eggs in the
15 eggs. The larvae feed on the beans, making crevices on the main stem of coffee.
small tunnels. A typical pinhole at the tip of the 1. Tracing, collar prunning/uprooting the
berries indicates the presence of the pest and infested plants and burn prior to flight
it damages young as well as ripe berries. In periods ie. before the end of March &
case of severe infestation, 30 to 80 per cent September every year. If the uprooted
berries may be affected resulting in heavy crop stems are intended for fuel purpose, then
loss. The coffee berry borer can be controlled such stems should be immersed under
by the following methods. water for atleast 10 days.
COFFEE 175

2. Spraying of Chloropyriphos 20 EC at 600 Mealy bugs (Planococcus sp.)

ml in 200 lit of water along with 200 ml Mealy bugs damage coffee plants by
wetting agent on the main stem and thick sucking the sap from the tender branches,
primaries during early part of flight nodes, leaves, spikes, berries and roots
period; April and October every year. leading to the debilitation of the plant. In case
of root infestation, plants (especially young)
3. In hot spot areas; in open patches and
become weak, leading to death.
estate borders with badly managed estates
adopt bark scrubbling or 10% lime Management
coating or stem wrapping with 5’’ wide 1. Release natural enemies like the
strips cut from fertilizer bags after removing parasitoid Leptomastix dactylopii
the affected plants by tracing. against Planococcus citri or the
predator, ladybird beetle, Cryptolaemus
Apart from this, it is necessary to build up montro- uxieri against all species of
good shade and regularly trace, uproot stump mealybugs.
and burn the infested plants. Storing of cut 2. Control ants by dusting Quinalphos 1.5%
stems is not advisable, as it will advance the or Methyl parathion 2% or Malathion 5%
flight period. dust around the base of the plant.
3. Spray the affected patches with 2%
Shot hole borer (Xylosandrus compactus)
Kerosene emulsion (4 l of kerosene in 200
This is a major pest in robusta coffee l of water along with 200 ml of any wetting
affecting the secondary and tertiary branches agent). Care should be taken to emulsify
causing considerable damage. Injury to the kerosene thoroghly.
coffee plants is primarily by the extensive tun- 4. Quinalphos 25 EC at 300 ml in 200 l of
neling within the branches, which limits the flow water with 200 ml wetting agent can be
of sap. The affected branches dry up. The used as spot spray.
presence of withering and dead branches with 5. If the root is affected, drench the root
shot holes is the symptom of attack. zone with Dimethoate at 0.09% a.i.
(600ml in 200 l of water.
Management
Green scale (Coccus viridis)
1. Prune the affected twigs 5-8 cm beyond
the shot hole and burn. This operation The green scale is a serious sucking pest
should commence from September of coffee particularly arabica.
onwards, as soon as the first symptom of Management
attack like dropping of leaves is noticed
The chemical control measures include
and continued as a routine measure at spraying the affected patches with any one of
regular intervals. the following insecticides viz. cythion
2. The pest prefers to breed in the suckers 50 EC @ 200 ml, quinalphos 25 EC @ 120 ml
during dry period. So remove and destroy or dimethoate 30 EC @ 170 ml.
all the unwanted/infested suckers during (Source: Central Coffee Research Institute,
summer. Balehonnur, Chikmangalur Dt., Karnataka).
176 TEA

TEA (Camellia sinensis)

Tea grows best in areas with a maximum In the case of replanting, remove old
temperature of 16-32 ºC and a well distri- Grevillea (silver oak) after ring barking, leaving
buted rainfall of about 150 cm per annum. the young ones in the field. Level the land into
Relative humidity should be around 80 per cent an even slope to facilitate easy cultural
most of the time and should never be less than operations and proper drainage.
40 per cent. The area should not be prone to
Style of planting
frost. The soil should be acidic (around pH
5.0) having good drainage facility. Up and down :1.2 m x 1.2 m (6800
plants ha-1)
Varieties
Contour planting, single hedge:1.2 m x 0.75 m
Clones : UPASI-2, UPASI-8, UPASI-9,
(10,800 plants ha-1)
UPASI-17, TRI-2025, TRF-1
Contour planting, double hedge: 1.35 m x
Seedlings : BSS-1, BSS-2
0.75 m x 0.75 m
Propagation (13200 plants ha-1)
The seed viability extends up to 6 months. The double hedge planting will
Before sowing, seeds are put in water and only accommodate more number of plants per unit
the sinkers will be used and floaters area. Early high yield, better soil conservation,
rejected. Seeds germinate in 4-6 weeks and less weed growth, efficient cultural practices
the cracked seeds are transplanted in polythene and better supervision are other advantages
sleeves. The plants will be ready for planting in of double hedge planting.
the main field in nine months.
Pitting
Manuring of nursery plants
Pits of size 30 cm x 45 cm are taken. Keep
Composition of tea nursery mixture is as
the top and bottom soil separately. In clayey
follows:
soil and drought-prone areas, deeper pits
Ammonium phosphate (20:20) 60 parts (60 cm) or trench planting will be advanta-
Potassium sulphate 24 parts geous.
(or) Muriate of potash 20 parts
Magnesium sulphate 16 parts Planting seasons

Stock solution Dissolve 30 g of the Southwest monsoon areas: June-July

mixture in 10 litres of water. This can be sprayed Northeast monsoon areas: September-
over 2 m2 (450 plants) at weekly interval. October

Field preparation Planting

In the case of new planting, in order to avoid If the soil pH is more than 5.5, apply
the incidence of root diseases, after felling the 100 g of powdered aluminium sulphate per pit
trees, remove the root system to the extent and thoroughly mix with soil. Select
possible. Clear the jungle growth but do not seedlings of 12 months old. After planting the
burn, the ash being alkaline will increase the seedling, compact the soil surrounding the plant
pH. and apply mulch @ 25 t ha-1. While mulching
TEA 177

care should be taken to keep the mulch material mature tea varies with yield and soil test
away from the collar region of the plant by values while the N:K2O ratio varies with the
putting a peg above the plant on the slope. stage of pruning.
Wherever mulch material is a problem, intercrop
or cover crop could be raised.
N:P2O5:K2O No. of
Age
Manuring kg/ha/annum splits
Manuring of young tea commences
1st year 180:60:180 5
two months after planting. The ratio and source
of nutrients vary according to soil reaction 2nd year 240:80:240 6
(pH).
3rd year onwards 300:100:300 6
Rates of fertilizer application for young
up to 1st pruning
tea in soils with pH below 4.5 are given
below:
Method of application
Age N:K2O:MgO No. of
Apply the recommended quantity of
kg/ha/annum splits
mixtures along the drip circle of plants. In the
1st year 180:270:30 5 semi-circular furrow taken above the plant on
nd
2 year 240:360:40 6 the slope, using a Kokra-eyebrow method,
rd
3 year 300:450:50 6 apply the fertilizers when there is adequate soil
th
moisture and when the fields are free from
4 year & above 300:300:50 6 weeds. Punch holes of 15-22 cm depth in the
soil on either side of the plants and place the
Apply phosphorus at 90 kg ha-1 every year
rock phosphate.
in one application. The quantity of fertilizer per
bush may be calculated assuming a Training of young tea
population of 13,000 per ha. Proper training of young tea is essential to
Rates of application for soils with pH encourage good spread of the bushes, proper
between 4.5 and 5.5 are as follows: development of frames and high density of
plucking points.
Age N:K2O No. of
kg/ha/annum splits Centering
1st year 180:270 5 Cut the leader stem of the plants with
secateur to arrest the apical dominance and to
2nd year 240:360 6
induce the secondary branches. Cut as low as
3rd year 340:450 6 possible leaving 8-10 mature leaves
th
4 year & above 300:300 6 below the cut. Ensure proper recovery.
Centering should be done 4-6 months after
Apply phosphorus at 90 kg ha-1 every year planting during humid weather when there is
in one application. adequate moisture in the soil.
Rates of application for soils with pH above Tipping
5.5 are as follows (use water soluble P):
First plucking of the periodic shoot is done
The rate of fertilizer application for after centering / pruning. Two-tier tipping
178 TEA

ensures proper spread. First tipping at 35 cm required further thinning may be done to
height will induce the tertiaries. Second 12 m x 12 m at later stages (12 years
tipping at 50 cm height will increase the from planting). Always thin out shade prior to
density of plucking points. Tipping should be pruning.
done at green, semi-hardwood branches.
Pollarding
Tipping should be done in shoots having
3-4 leaves and a bud. Cutting the main stem with the objective of
Plucking developing lateral branches is pollarding. Com-
mence pollarding when the trees attain a girth
Mother leaf / step-up plucking is of around 50 cm at elbow level. Pollarding
practiced during lean seasons. Level plucking depends on altitude (8 m height for higher
is done during high cropping months. This is altitude, 9 m for low elevation). Leave one
essential for better frame development. branch in each direction and 3 to four tiers of
Shade management branches, below the pollarding height.
The best permanent shade tree for tea plan- Annual lopping
tation in South India is silver oak (Grevillea
robusta). Cutting the erect growing branches on the
laterals is lopping, which should be done
Planting of silver oak before the onset of monsoon and lop only the
The silver oak can be propagated through erect branches and retain the laterals.
seeds. The seeds should be sown within Shade removal
six months after collection. Seed should be sown
in raised beds of 1 m width and of convenient Potential age of Grevillea is 40-60 years.
length using sandy loam soil with a pH around Remove old trees after establishing new shade.
6.0. Seed should be covered with thin layer Temporary shade
of sand / ash. Germination takes place in
For frost prone areas: Acacia mearnsii
2-3 weeks. Use 6-9 month old seedlings for
For mid elevations: Indigofera teysmanii
planting. Plant along tea rows at a spacing of
6 m x 6 m (275 plants/ha). Apply a mixture of For higher altitude: Sesbania cinerescens,
100 g rock phosphate and 400 g dolomite per Crotalaria agathiflora and Acacia elata
pit and thoroughly mix with soil prior to Planting at 3 m x 3 m spacing is adopted.
planting. Apply NK mixture @ 100 g/tree twice Temporary shade should be removed after
in a year; rock phosphate at 250 g/tree and establishment of Grevilliea after 3 years.
borated lime 1.1 kg (1 kg dolomite + 100 g
boric acid) during alternate years. Plucking
Ten commandments for plucking
Shade regulation
1. Harvest two to three leaves and a bud
Tea requires only sparse shade. So retain
and / single and two-leaf banjis.
optimum stand of shade based on the growth
of the tree, altitude of the garden and aspect 2. Pluck the mother leaf during January-
of the field (south and west slopes require more March.
shade). Thin out shade initially to 12 m x 6 m 3. Pluck the new level during rest of the
after 8-10 years of planting and if month.
TEA 179

4. Pluck at 7-10 days interval during high Mature tea

cropping months. Neem cake 2 kg per bush is recommended.
5. Pluck at 12-15 days interval during low
White/cockchafer grubs (Holotrichia sp.)
cropping months.
6. Removal of banjis and breaking-back The creamy white grub eats away the roots.
should be a part of plucking operation. The main symptoms are ring barking of stem,
7. Do not pluck below the level. chlorosis and defoliation. The pest is a serious
problem in areas where un-decomposed farm-
8. Leave immature shoots.
yard manure is used.
9. Shear-harvest during rush periods.
Management
10. Cut lanes in older fields.
Nursery : Heat treatment of soil is effective.
Pruning
New clearing : Drench chlorpyriphos or quinal-
Type of pruning Season Height phos 0.05 per cent.
Rejuvenation April/May <30 cm (1) At the time of planting: 500 ml per pit.
Hard pruning April/May 30-45 cm (2) Post-planting treatment: Loosen the soil
Medium pruning Aug/Sept 45-60 cm around the bush and pour one litre per bush.

Light pruning Aug/Sept 60-65 cm Root mealy bug (Dysmicoccus sp.)

Skiffing October >65 cm The pest is a problem in the nursery. It sucks

sap from the callusing region, mother leaf peti-
Post-pruning care ole and axillary buds. This arrests root devel-
opment; leads to mother-leaf fall and finally
Apply copper oxychloride or sulphur+ death of plant.It can be controlled by spraying
linseed oil (1:1) to large cut-ends after and soil drenching with chlorpyriphos or
rejuvenation and hard pruning. quinalphos 0.05 per cent.
Plant protection Stem borers
Nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.)
Red coffee borer (Zeuzera coffeae)
These microscopic worms infest roots,
which develop to knots or galls. Affected roots Mostly seen in new clearings as batches.
become defunct and devoid of lateral roots. Young stems are bored and larvae tunnel
Plants exhibit chlorosis and stunted growth. downward, make holes at intervals to eject
excreta and wood particles. Frass and
Management excreta are seen around plants. Alternate host
Nursery of the pest is coffee and cocoa.
Heat treatment: Spread soil sand mixture
Large hepialid borer
(5 cm thick) on a G.I. sheet. Heat it from
(Sahyadrassus malabaricus)
below. Sprinkle water periodically. Mix the soil
thoroughly by turning. Optimum temperature This is a polyphagous pest attacking teak,
is 60-65ºC. Soil should not be too hot to hold in eucalyptus and lantana. Thick branches
the hand. Over heating of soil will lead to man- (3 cm diameter) are preferred by the pest.
ganese toxicity. Callus tissue and wood form food for
180 TEA

larvae. Entrance holes are covered with frassy wilting, chlorosis, drying without defoliation and
mat formed with chewed wood and silk. death of bush.
Management Management
Cut the affected stem and pour quinalphos Remove surface mulches around 10
using ink filler. The holes are plugged with clay metres. Drench soil with mancozeb 30 g per
paste. 10 litres of water. Follow phytosanitary
Mites measures. Biocontrol agents Trichoderma or
Gliocladium (200 g per pit) may be incorpo-
Several species of mites attack tea plants. rated at the time of planting.
They are dry weather pests mostly attacking
mature foliage except pink and yellow mites. Other root diseases are red root disease
(Poria hypolateritia), brown root disease
Management (Fomes noxius), root splitting disease
If infestation is more, quinalphos will be (Armillaria mellea) and xylaria root disease
effective. (Xylaria sp.). Phytosanitary measures, use of
biocontrol agents and chemical control (drench
Thrips (Scirtothrips bispinosus)
soil with tridemorph or hexaconazole 0.5 per
This is a major pest in all tea growing coun- cent) are recommended.
tries. Feeding causes lacerations of
tissue and appears as streaks. Leaf surface
Stem diseases
becomes uneven, curled and matty. Feeding Collar canker (Phomopsis theae)
marks in bud appear as parallel lines on
Seen mostly on young tea. The pathogen
either side of mid-rib when leaf unfolds. Leaf
invades stem mostly through open
margins turn yellow.
wound. The predisposing factors for the
Management disease are deep planting, planting in
Phosalone, quinalphos and dimethoate can gravelly soils, mulching closer to collar,
be used for the pest control. wounds caused by weeding implements,
fertilizer application close to collar, pegging,
Tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis theivora) low moisture status in bark and surface
Adults and nymphs suck the sap from buds, watering during dry weather. The main
young leaves and tender stems. Due to inten- symptoms are chlorosis, cessation of growth,
sive feeding, leaves curl up, badly profuse flowering and canker on stem.
deform and shoots dry up. Chemical control Management
involves spraying quinalphos + dichlorvos at
spray intervals depending on the intensity of Remove affected portion by pruning the
incidence. healthy wood and apply copper fungicide to
cut ends.
Root diseases
Other stem diseases are branch
Black root disease (Rosellinia arcuata)
canker (Macrophoma theicola),woodrot
Common in areas, which were previously (Hypo-xylon serpens) and dieback
under jungles. The common symptoms are (Leptothyrium theae).
TEA AND TOBACCO 181

Leaf disease infection leads to goose-neck shape, dieback

and snapping at the point of infection.
Blister blight (Exobasidium vexans)
The fungus affects only tender leaves and Management
stems (pluckable shoots). Translucent spots Copper oxychloride 350 g + plantamycin
occur in three to ten days and well developed 70 g per ha at 3 to 4 days interval can control
lesions are seen in two weeks. Lesions are the disease.
sunken on the upper surface and convex at
lower surface. Affected leaves are (Source: UPASI Tea Research Foundation,
distorted and irregularly rolled. Stem Coonoor)

TOBACCO (Nicotiana tabacum)

Tobacco is generally raised as a cold Main field planting

weather crop, the optimum temperature range
Seedlings are transplanted on flat beds. The
being 18 to 27ºC. The crop prefers well-drained
nursery is irrigated well a day before planting
fertile soil. Acidic soils are also suitable. It is to facilitate easy pulling out of the seedlings.
sensitive to waterlogging. Seedlings are planted 10-15 cm deep in the
Season main field at a spacing of 85 cm x 85 cm.

October-February Manuring
Seeds and sowing Cattle manure @ 5-10 t ha-1 for cigarette
tobacco and 50-60 t ha-1 for hookah tobacco
Raised nursery beds of 1 m width and of may be applied as basal dose. Apply
convenient length should be prepared for fertilizers (kg ha-1) as shown below:
raising seedlings. The beds should be
manured with well rotten FYM @ 1 kg/m2. Tobacco N P2O5 K 2 O
About 75 g seeds sown over an area of
100 m2 will give the required number of Cigarette tobacco 100 50 100
seedlings for planting one hectare. Seeds may Cigar tobacco 75 50 100
be mixed with fine sand or ash @ 1:15 by
weight and broadcasted. It is covered by Beedi tobacco 100 50 100
raking or by brushing. Watering may be done Cheroot tobacco 50 50 100
using rose-can. It is desirable to apply 1 kg of
ammonium sulphate per 100 m 2 of Chewing tobacco 75-100 50 100
nursery in liquid form and the application is
repeated at tri-weekly intervals. Seedlings will After cultivation
be kept in the nursery for about 8-10 weeks. The first intercultivation may be done
Pandal may be provided for shade. 12-15 days after transplanting. Thereafter,
182 TOBACCO

three hoeings are to be given at fortnightly Tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera litura)

intervals. Keep the field free of weeds. 1. Destroy egg masses and groups of
Irrigate as and when necessary. caterpillars found on the leaves.
Topping and de-suckering 2. Prevent oviposition on nursery plants by
covering the beds at night with gunny
Remove the terminal bud at the time of sheets.
flowering. In the case of chewing tobacco, the Bacterial wilt
number of leaves to be maintained varies from
1. Use resistant / tolerant varieties.
8-15. Remove the suckers as and when
produced. 2. Rotate with resistant crops.
3. Do not let in irrigation water or drainage
Harvesting water from infested fields.
Harvesting is done either by removing the 4. Discard all seedlings from infested
mature leaves or by cutting the stalk when nursery.
maximum leaves are matured. The harvested Damping off
leaves are cured for the purpose for which the
1. Drench the nursery bed with cheshunt
produce is meant. compound solution 3-4 days before
Plant protection sowing.
2. Spray the seedlings with mancozeb 0.3 per
Important pests and diseases of tobacco and
cent
their control measures are given below:
Powdery mildew
Stem borer (Phthorimoea spp.)
Dust sulphur at 45 kg ha-1. Before dusting
Use healthy seedlings for planting. mix sulphur with sand or ash.
AMARANTH 183

VEGETABLES

Under this chapter, package of practices for trol of pests of vegetables with the help of non-
amaranth, okra, cucurbitaceous vegetables, chemical insecticides and tips for vegetable
solanaceous vegetables, cool season vegetables seed production are also given under seperate
and minor vegetables are furnished. A seperate titles. Certain recommendations given under
the non-chemical control of pests have not
table showing the waiting period for insecti-
been included under the respective crops to
cides on vegetables has been included. Con-
avoid repetition.

AMARANTH (Amaranthus spp.)

Amaranth is the most popular leafy is 100:50:50 kg ha-1. After preparing trenches,
vegetable of Kerala. It can be grown apply N:P2O5:K2O @ 50:50:50 kg ha-1. Another
throughout the year. Avoid sowing or planting 50 kg of N can be applied at regular intervals
of red leaved varieties during periods of as top dressing. Spraying 1 per cent urea
heavy rain. immediately after each harvest will increase
Varieties the yield.
Red: Kannara Local, Arun and Krishnasree. Plant protection
Green: Co-1, Co-2, Co-3, Mohini and
Renusree As far as possible, avoid use of insecticides
or fungicides. In severe cases of leaf webber
Note : Kannara Local is a season bound
attack, spray malathion 0.1 per cent or dust
variety, which comes to flowering in
November-December. malathion 10 per cent DP.

Seed rate: 1.5 to 2.0 kg ha-1 Diseases

Preparation of land For controlling leaf blight following
Prepare the land by ploughing or digging practices are recommended
followed by levelling. Then shallow trenches
of width 30-35 cm are made 30 cm apart. Well 1. Pseudomonas fluorescens - 2% (foliar
rotten FYM is mixed with soil in the trenches. spray + Trichoderma viride - 2% (soil
Transplant 20-30 day old seedlings in the application)
shallow trenches at a distance of 20 cm in two
rows. During rainy season planting shall be 2. Turmeric powder + baking soda mixture
done on raised beds. (5:1 ratio/litre) (foliar spray and soil drenching).

Manuring 3. Cow dung slurry supernatant 2% +

Apply 50 tonnes of FYM per ha as basal Pseudomonas fluorescens 2% (foliar spray
dose before planting fertlizer recommendation and soil drenching).
184 OKRA

OKRA (Abelmoschus esculentus)

The three main planting seasons for 1 kg / 10 litre (50 kg ha-1) at fortnight intervals
Okra are February-March, June-July and upto flowering. Groundnut cake soaked for 3
October-November. days and the supernatant solution serve as the
Varieties spray fluid.

Green / light green fruited: Pusa Sawani, After cultivation

Pusa Makhmali, IARI Selection 2, Kiran, Give pre-sowing irrigation, if soil is not moist
Salkeerthi. enough. During summer, irrigate at
Red fruited: Co-1, Aruna intervals of 2 to 3 days. Conduct weeding
regularly and earth up rows during rainy
Yellow vein mosaic resistant/tolerant: Arka
season.
Anamika, Arka Abhay, Susthira, Anjitha,
Manjima (all green fruited). Plant protection
Seed rate The important pests are jassids, fruit and
The seed rate is 8.5 kg ha-1 for the summer shoot borer and root knot nematode.
crop sown in February-March and Against jassids, use quinalphos 0.05 per
7 kg ha-1 for kharif crop. cent or imidacloprid 17.8% SL20g ai/ha or
Storage of seeds thiamethoxam 25% WG 25g ai/ha as
foliar sprays. For controlling fruit and shoot
Packing of okra seeds in polythene cover
borers, remove all drooping shoots and
(700 gauge) increases the storage life upto
damaged fruits. Spray emamectin benzoate
7 months.
5% SG @ 10 g ai/ha or chlorantraniliprole 18.5
Planting SC @ 30 g ai/ha at an interval of 15 days.
For kharif crop, sow the seeds at a For the control of nematodes, apply
spacing of 60 cm between rows and 45 cm sawdust or paddy husk at 500 g/plant or
between plants. For the summer crop, soak neem leaves or Eupatorium leaves at 250 g/
the seeds in water for 24 hours before plant in basins one week prior to planting and water
sowing and give a spacing of 60 cm x 30 cm. daily. The effect of this treatment persists up to
Manuring 75 days after sowing in summer season.
Apply FYM @ 20 t ha-1 as basal dose. At For managing root knot nematode, seed
the time of sowing apply N, P2O5 and K2O @ treatment with Bacillus macerans
55, 35and 70 kg ha-1. Another 55 kg N ha-1 @ 3 per cent w/w. (2.5kg ha-1) and in heavily
may be applied one month after sowing. infested area seed treatment with B. macerans
Note: For reclaimed soils of Kuttanad, a @ 3 per cent w/w. and drenching with B.
fertilizer dose of N:P2O5:K2O 75:5:15 kg macerans @ 3 per cent solution 30 days after
ha-1 is recommended. sowing can be recommended.
Apply FYM or compost @ 25t/ha as basal In general, insecticides of plant origin may
dose. Top dressing with groundnut cake be used, as far as possible.
OKRA 185

Yellow vein mosaic Destruction of weeds (Croton sparsiflora

and Ageratum sp.) is very necessary.
This is a common disease in okra, which
shows vein clearing and vein chlorosis of leaves. Cercospora leaf spot
The yellow network of veins is very For the management of Cercospora leaf
conspicuous and veins and veinlets are spot, foliar spraying of Trichoderma viride
thickened. Fruits become small and yellowish 2 % thrice at fortnightly interval on both surface
green in colour. White fly (Bemisia tabaci) is of leaves on symptoms appearance or
the vector. Cultivate resistant varieties like Arka Pseudomonas fluorescens 2% thrice at 14
Anamika, Arka Abhay and Susthira. days interval.
186 BITTER GOURD

CUCURBITACEOUS VEGETABLES
BITTER GOURD (Momordica charantia)

Bitter gourd is an important cucurbit- After cultivation

aceous vegetable of Kerala. During the initial stages of growth,
Season irrigate at 3-4 days interval and alternate days
during flowering/fruiting. Irrigation at 15 mm
January-March and September-December CPE (approximately at 3 days interval for sandy
are the ideal seasons. For the rainfed crop, loam soils) is more economical than irrigating
sowing can be started after the receipt of first once in two days especially during summer
few showers during May-June. months for water economy. Erect pandals
when the plants start vining. Conduct weeding
Varieties
and raking of the soil at the time of fertilizer
Priya, Preethi, Priyanka and Arka Harit are application. Earthing up is done during rainy
high yielding varieties. Priyanka is recom- season.
mended for acid alluvial soils of Kerala. Pests
Seed rate: 5.0 – 6.0 kg ha -1
Fruit fly (Bacterocera sp.)
Soacking seeds in 1:10 solution of 150 ppm
In homestead gardens the fruits may be
Pottasium Nitrate for 3 hrs increases germi- covered with polythene, cloth or paper bags to
nation and seedling vigour. ensure mechanical protection. In large gardens
Spacing: 2.0 m x 2.0 m apply malathion 0.15 per cent suspension
containing sugar or jaggery at 10 g/l at
Sowing fortnightly intervals at flowering and fruit
Pits of 60 cm diameter and 30-45 cm depth initiation. Spray as coarse droplets on the
are taken. Well rotten FYM and fertilizers are ventral surface of leaves. Remove and destroy
mixed with topsoil in the pit and seeds are sown affected and decayed fruits. It can also be
effectively controlled by the use of banana fruit
@ 4-5 per pit. Unhealthy plants are removed
traps coupled with the removal and destruction
after two weeks and only 3 plants are retained
of infested fruits. It is more efficient than two
per pit.
sprayings with insecticides. Traps are to be set
Manuring at a distance of 2 m after a border row and
they may be replenished after 7 to 9 days. Start
Fertlizer dose recommended is 70:25:25 Kg
bait trapping just before flowering.
ha-1. Apply FYM @ 20-25 t ha-1 as basal dose
along with half dose of N (35 kg) and full doses IPM Package
of P2O5 (25 kg) and K2O (25 kg). The remain- Collection and destruction of fallen fruits,
ing dose of N (35 kg) can be applied in several setting up pheromone traps (cue lure trap) @
split doses at fortnightly intervals. one trap per 15 cents, banana jaggery food
BITTER GOURD AND SNAKE GOURD 187

bait 100ml (20g banana +10 g jaggery + 0.2 Diseases

ml malathion) mashed in 100ml water, kept in Downy mildew
plastic bottles with 3 holes) @ one trap per 8
It is severe during rainy season. This can be
plants. Also spot application of 10% jaggery
checked by spraying mancozeb 0.2 per cent
containing 0.1% malathion @ 1 spot/40m2on
(waiting period of mancozeb is three days).
the under side of leaves at fortnightly intervals
during fruiting season and application of Foliar sprayings of combination fungicide
Beauveria bassiana @ 10 litres/40m 2 Cymoxanil + Mancozeb 2 g l-1 or two sprayings
(containing 20 g formulation/litre) in soil during of Pseudomonas fluorescens 2% (20 g l-1)
fruiting season is recommended. thrice at fortnightly interval on the appearance
of symptoms.
Epilachna beetle
Remove and destroy egg masses, grubs and Powdery mildew
adults occurring on leaves. Can be controlled by spraying Dinocap
Leaf feeders and sucking pests 1 ml l-1or Trichoderma viride 2 g l-1 or neem
oil 2% as 3 foliar sprays at 14 days interval on
Spray 2% talc based formulation of symptom appearance.
Beauveria bassiana + 0.1% teepol at
fortnightly intervals for the management of Mosaic
pumpkin caterpillar, leaf footed bugs and plant
Control the vectors by spraying dimethoate
lice.
0.05 per cent. Uprooting and destruction of
Plant lice affected plants and collateral hosts.
Apply 1.5 per cent fish oil soap. First Harvesting can be done only after 10 days
dissolve soap in hot water and then make up (at least) of insecticide / fungicide application.
the volume. Alternatively apply dimethoate 0.05 The fruits should be washed thoroughly in
per cent. water before cooking.

SNAKE GOURD (Trichosanthes anguina)

Snake gourd is a common cucurbitaceous Sowing

vegetable of Kerala.
Pits of 60 cm diameter and 30-45 cm
Season depth are taken. Well rotten FYM and
fertilizers are mixed with top soil in the pit and
January-March and September –
December are the main growing seasons. seeds are sown @ 4-5 per pit. After two
weeks remove the unhealthy plants
Varieties : Kaumudi, Baby, Harithasree and retaining three plants per pit.
Manusree.
Manuring
Seed rate : 3.0 – 4.0 kg ha-1
Fertlizer recommendation is 70:25:25 kg ha -1.
Spacing : 2.0 m x 2.0 m Apply FYM @ 20-25 kg ha-1 as basal dose
188 SNAKE GOURD AND CUCUMBER

along with half dose of N (35 kg) and full dose Red pumpkin beetle
of P2O5 (25 kg) and K2O (25 kg). The remain- Adult beetle eats the leaves, makes hole
ing dose of N (35 kg) is applied in several split on foliage and causes damage on roots and
doses at fortnightly intervals. leaves.
After cultivation Leaf feeders and sucking pests
During the initial stages of growth irrigate at Spray 2% talc based formulation of
an interval of 3-4 days. Irrigate on alternate days Beauveria bassiana + 0.1% teepol at
during flowering and fruiting periods. fortnightly intervals for the management of leaf
feeders (snake guard caterpillar, pumpkin
Erect pandals for trailing snake gourd. Con-
caterpiller, pumkin beetle and leaf footed
duct weeding and raking of the soil at the time
bugs).
of fertilizer application.
In severe case of infestation of pumpkin
Pests caterpiller, apply chlorantraniliprole 18.5 SC @
The important pests attacking snake gourd 30 g ai ha-1.
are fruit flies, epilachna beetle, pumpkin
caterpillar, red pumpkin beetle and snake gourd Diseases
caterpillar. Control measures recommended The important diseases are downy mildew
for fruit flies and epilachna beetle in bitter gourd and mosaic. The control measures as stated
can be followed in this case also. under bitter gourd can be adopted.

CUCUMBER (Cucumis sativus) &

ORIENTAL PICKLING MELON (Cucumis melo var. conomon)

Cucumber and oriental pickling melon are Seed rate: 0.5 – 0.75 kg ha-1
important cucurbits grown in Kerala. Spacing: 2.0 m x 1.5 m
Cucumber is mainly used as a salad crop
whereas oriental pickling melon is largely used Preparation of land
after cooking. Pits of 60 cm diameter and 30-45 cm depth
Season are taken. Well rotten FYM and fertilizers are
mixed with topsoil in the pit and four or five
The ideal seasons are January-March and seeds are sown in a pit. Remove unhealthy
September-December. plants after two weeks and retain three plants
Varieties per pit.
Mudicode, Arunima and Saubhagya are Manuring
high yielding varieties of oriental pickling melon.
Cucumber varieties such as Subhra, Heera, Apply FYM @ 20-25 t ha-1 as basal dose
Pusa Sheethal, Poinsette, Poona Khira are along with half dose of N (35 kg) and full dose
exclusively used for salad purpose. of P2O5 (25 kg) and K2O (25 kg ha-1). The
CUCUMBER AND WATER MELON 189

remaining dose of N (35 kg) can be application. Earthing up may be done during
applied in two equal split doses at the time of rainy season.
vining and at the time of full blooming. A
Pests
fertilizer dose of 70:25:25 kg N:P2O5: K2O/ ha
in several splits is recommended in Onattukara The important pests are epilachna beetle
region. The fertilizer dose per pit would be and red pumpkin beetle. They can be controlled
28:10:10 g N:P2O5:K2O. by adopting the measures recommended for
After cultivation bitter gourd.
During the initial stages of growth, Diseases
irrigate at an interval of 3-4 days. Irrigate in
alternate days, during flowering and fruiting. The important diseases are downy
For trailing cucumber and melon, spread dried mildew, powdery mildew and mosaic. The con-
twigs on the ground. Conduct weeding and trol measures as recommended for bitter gourd
raking of the soil at the time of fertilizer can be adopted.

WATER MELON (Citrullus lanatus)

Season : The ideal season is Dec-April. two equal splits at the time of vining and full
blooming.
Varieties : Sugar Baby, Arka Jyothi
After cultivation
Seedless Varieties : F1-Shonima and
F1-Swarna During the initial stages of growth,
irrigate at an interval of three or four days.
Seed rate : 1 to 1.5 kg ha-1 Irrigate on alternate days during flowering and
Spacing : 3.0 m x 2.0 m fruiting. When fruits mature, the
frequency of irrigation may be reduced.
Preparation of land For trailing the water melon, spread dried twigs
Pits of 60 cm diameter and 30-45 cm depth on the ground. Conduct weeding and raking of
the soil at the time of fertilizer application.
are taken. Well rotten FYM and fertilizers are
mixed with topsoil in the pit and four or five Pests
seeds are sown in a pit. Remove unhealthy
The important pests are red pumpkin beetle
plants after two weeks and retain two or three and epilachna beetle. They can be controlled
plants per pit. by adopting measures suggested for bitter
Manuring gourd.

Fertlizer recommendation is 70:25:25 kg ha Diseases

. Apply FYM @ 20-25 t ha-1 as basal dose
-1
Downy mildew and powdery mildew are
along with half dose of N (35 kg) and full doses important diseases affecting water melon.
of P2O5 (25 kg) and K2O (25 kg ha-1). The Control them by adopting measures
remaining dose of N (35 kg) can be applied in recommended for bitter gourd.
190 BOTTLE GOURD AND PUMPKIN

BOTTLE GOURD (Lagenaria siceraria)

Season with half dose of N (35 kg) and full dose of

Bottle gourd can be successfully grown P2O5 (25 kg ha-1) and K2O (25 kg ha-1). The
during January-March and September- remaining dose of N (35 kg) can be applied in
December. For the rainfed crop, sowing can several split doses at fortnightly intervals.
also be started after the receipt of the first After cultivation
few showers during May-June.
During the initial stages of growth,
Varieties irrigate at an interval of three or four days.
Pusa Summer Prolific Long, Arka Bahar Irrigate on alternate days during flowering and
fruiting periods. Trailing can be done
Seed rate: 3 – 4 kg ha-1 either on pandals or on the ground.
Preparation of land
Conduct weeding and raking of the soil at
Pits of 60 cm diameter and 30-45 cm depth the time of fertilizer application. Earthing up
are taken at 3 m x 3 m spacing for growing on may be done during rainy season.
pandals. For trailing on the ground, make pits
at a spacing of 2 m in rows 3-4 m apart. Well Pests
rotten FYM and fertilizers are mixed with The important pests are epilachna beetle
topsoil in the pit. and red pumpkin beetle. They can be
Sowing controlled by adopting measures recommended
Four or five seeds are sown per pit. under bitter gourd.
Remove unhealthy plants after two weeks and
Diseases
retain three plants per pit.
Downy mildew, powdery mildew and
Manuring mosaic are important diseases in bottle gourd.
Fertlizer recommendation is 70:25:25 kg ha -1. Refer control measures recommended for bitter
Apply FYM @ 20-25 t ha-1 as basal dose along gourd.

PUMPKIN (Cucurbita moschata)

Season are taken at a spacing of 4.5 m x 2.0 m. Well
Pumpkin can be successfully grown rotten FYM and fertilizers are mixed with
during January-March and September- topsoil in the pit.
December. For the rainfed crop, sowing can Sowing
also be started after the receipt of the first few Four or five seeds are sown per pit.
showers during May-June. Remove unhealthy plants after 2 weeks and
Varieties : Ambili, Suvarna, Saras and Sooraj retain three plants per pit.
Seed rate: 1.0 to 1.5 kg ha-1 Manuring
Preparation of land Fertlizer recommendation is 70:25:25 kg
Pits of 60 cm diameter and 30-45 cm depth ha -1. Apply FYM @ 20-25 t ha-1 as basal dose
PUMPKIN AND ASH GOURD 191

along with half dose of N (35 kg) and full dose Earthing up may be done during rainy season.
of P2O5 (25 kg) and K2O (25 kg ha-1 ). The
Plant protection
remaining dose of N (35 kg) can be
applied in two equal split doses at the time of Pests
vining and at the time of full blooming. Fruit flies, epilachna beetle and red
After cultivation pumpkin beetle are important pests affecting
pumpkin. They can be controlled as in case of
During the initial stages of growth,
bitter gourd.
irrigate at an interval of three or four days.
Irrigate on alternate days during flowering and Diseases
fruiting periods. For trailing, spread dried twigs Downy mildew, powdery mildew and
on the ground. Conduct weeding and raking of mosaic are important diseases affecting pump-
the soil at the time of fertilizer application. kin.

ASH GOURD (Benincasa hispida)

Season with half dose of N (35 kg) and full dose of
P 2O 5 (25 kg) and K 2O (25 kg ha-1 ). The
Ash gourd can be successfully grown remaining dose of N (35 kg) can be
during January-March and September- applied in two equal split doses at the time of
December. For rainfed crop, sowing can also vining and at the time of full blooming.
be started after the receipt of the first few
showers during May-June. After cultivation
During the initial stages of growth, irrigate at
Varieties: KAU Local, Indu and Thara an interval of three or four days. Irrigate on
Seed rate: 0.75-1.0 kg ha-1 alternate days during flowering and fruiting. For
trailing, spread dried twigs on the ground.
Preparation of land Conduct weeding and raking of the soil at the
time of fertilizer application. Earthing up may be
Pits of 60 cm diameter and 30-45 cm depth done during rainy season.
are taken at 4.5 m x 2.0 m spacing. Well rotten
FYM and fertilizers are mixed with topsoil in Pests
the pit. Fruit fly, epilachna beetle and red pumpkin
beetle are important pests affecting ash gourd.
Sowing They can be controlled as given under bitter
Seeds are sown @ four or five per pit. gourd. Aphids can be controlled by spraying
Remove unhealthy plants after two weeks and malathion 0.01 per cent or quinalphos 0.05
retain two or three plants per pit. per cent.
Diseases
Manuring
Powdery mildew, downy mildew and
Fertlizer recommendation is 70:25:25 kg ha -1. mosaic are important diseases in ash gourd.
Apply FYM @ 20-25 t ha-1 as basal dose along They can be controlled as in bitter gourd.
192 BRINJAL

SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES
Brinjal, chilli and tomato are the important state. The cultural operations of the above three
solanaceous fruit vegetables grown in the crops are similar with only slight variations.

BRINJAL (Solanum melongena)

Varieties organic manure is incorporated in the soil and
Surya, Swetha and Haritha (bacterial wilt seedlings are transplanted in shallow
resistant open pollinated varieties), Neelima trenches/pits during May or on ridges/levelled
(bacterial wilt resistant F1hybrid), Pusa Purple lands during rainy season. Transplanted
Cluster and Ponny. seedlings may be given temporary shade for
3-4 days during summer.
Seed rate : 370-500 g ha-1
Raising seedlings Spacing

Brinjal is a transplanted vegetable. Seeds Transplant less spreading varieties like

are sown in the nursery and one month old Swetha and Surya at 60 cm x 60 cm. For
seedlings are transplanted to the main field. spreading varieties Haritha and Neelima,
For sowing the seeds, raised seed beds of provide wider spacing of 75-90 cm x 60 cm.
90 to 100 cm width and convenient length are Manuring
prepared in open space with fertile
topsoil to which well decomposed organic Apply well rotten FYM / compost @
matter has been incorporated. Solarization of 20-25 t ha-1 at the time of land preparation and
nursery beds for 30 days prior to sowing is mix well with the soil. A fertilizer dose of
effective in managing damping off disease. 75:40:25 kg N:P2O5: K2O per ha may be given.
After sowing the seeds, mulch with green Half the dose of nitrogen, full phosphorus and
leaves and irrigate with a rose-can daily in the half of potash may be applied as basal dose
morning. Remove the mulch immediately after before transplanting. One fourth of nitrogen
germination of the seeds. Restrict and half of potash may be applied 20-30 days
irrigation one week before transplanting and after planting. The remaining quantities may
irrigate heavily on the previous day of be applied two months after planting.
transplanting. Protray seedling can also be used. Application of 75:25:25 kg N:P2O5:K2O per ha
Time of planting is optimum for getting maximum yield of
For rainfed crop, transplant the seedlings fruits for the variety Swetha in the reclaimed
during May-June before the onset of southwest alluvial soils of Kuttanad. However, the
monsoon. Planting can also be done during economic optimum dose was found to be
September-October for irrigated crop. 60:20:25 kg of N:P2O5:K2O per ha.
Land preparation and transplanting After cultivation
Land is prepared to a fine tilth by Irrigate at three or four days interval
thorough ploughing or digging. Well rotten during summer. Stake the plants if necessary.
BRINJAL AND CHILLI 193

Weeding followed by fertilizer application and When infestations of sucking pests like
earthing up may be done at one and two months mite, jassids and white fly are severe, spray
after transplanting. thiamethoxam 25 WG @ 50 g ai ha -1 or
diafenthiuron 50 WP @ 300 g ai ha -1 or
Plant protection spiromesifen 22.9 SC @ 96 g ai ha-1. Uproot
For avoiding damping off of the seedlings plants affected by little leaf and spray
in the nursery, sow the seeds as thin as insecticides for further control.
possible in the raised beds prepared in the open Cultivate resistant varieties like Surya,
area during summer months. Soil solarization Swetha and Haritha and the hybrid Neelima in
of nursery buds for 30 days prior to sowing bacterial wilt prone areas. Soil solarization
and seed treatment with Trichoderma (5 g kg-1 method and Trichoderma application is also
seed) is effective in managing the disease. recommended.
Follow mechanical removal and destruction For managing root knot nematode,
of pest / disease affected portions for control nursery treatment with Bacillus macerans/
of fruit and shoot borer and Phomopsis fruit Paecilliomyces lilacinus @ 25 g/m 2 and
rot. Spray emamectin benzoate 5% SG @ 10g mainfield treatment with P. lilacinus
ai ha-1 or chloran traniliprole 18.5 SC @ 30g @ 5g/m2 can be recommended.
ai ha-1 at an interval of 15 days to control fruit In general, insecticides of plant origin may
and shoot borer under large scale cultivation. be used, as far as possible.

CHILLI (Capsicum spp.)

Varieties Remove the mulch immediately after germi-

High yielding varieties: Jwalasakhi, nation of the seeds. Restrict irrigation one week
Jwalamukhi, Jwala, Pant C-1, K-2, before transplanting and irrigate heavily on the
Vellayani Athulya, Keerthi, Vellayani Thejus previous day of transplanting. Protray seedlings
and Vellayani Samrudhi. can also be used.
Bacterial wilt resistant varieties: Ujwala, Time of planting
Anugraha. For a rainfed crop, transplant the seedlings
Seed rate: 1.0 kg ha-1 during May-June before the onset of south-
Raising seedlings west monsoon. Planting can also be done
during September-October for an irrigated
Chilli is a transplanted crop. Seeds are sown
crop.
in the nursery and one month old
seedlings are transplanted to the main field. Land preparation and transplanting
For sowing the seeds, raised seed beds of
90 to 100 cm width and of convenient length Land is prepared to a fine tilth by
are prepared to which well decomposed thorough ploughing / digging. Well rotten
organic matter has been incorporated. After organic manure is incorporated in the soil and
sowing the seeds, mulch with green leaves and seedlings are transplanted in shallow
irrigate with a rosecan daily in the morning. trenches / pits during May or on ridges / level
194 CHILLI AND TOMATO

lands during rainy season. Transplanted Plant protection

seedlings may also be given temporary shade
Damping off : Soil solarization of nursery
for three to four days during summer.
buds for 30 days prior to sowing and seed
-1
Spacing treatment with Trichoderma (5 g kg seed) is
effective in managing the disease.
Transplant less spreading varieties at
45 cm x 45 cm. For spreading cultivars like Uproot and destroy the plants affected by
White Kanthari provide a wider spacing of 75 mosaic and bacterial wilt. Cultivate resistant
cm x 45-60 cm. varieties like Ujwala and Anugraha in
bacterial wilt prone areas.
Manuring
Apply well rotten FYM / compost Spray quinalphos 0.05 per cent or
@ 20-25 t ha-1 at the time of land preparation Dimethoate at 0.05% for managing sucking
and mix well with the soil. A fertilizer pests like mealy bugs, lace wing bugs and
dose of 75:40:25 kg N:P2O5: K2O per ha may aphids. Apply spiromesifen 22.9 SC @
be given. Half of nitrogen, full phosphorus and 96 g ai ha-1 or fenpyroximate 5 EC @ 15 g ai
half of potash may be applied as basal dose ha-1 against thrips
before transplanting. One fourth of Chilli mite
nitrogen and half of potash may be applied
It is an important sucking pest infesting all
20-30 days after planting. The remaining quan-
stages of plant. Feeding of mite causes down-
tity may be applied two months after planting.
ward curling of the leaves and become brittle
After cultivation and tubular. Spray dimethoate at 0.05% or
Irrigate at three to four days interval spiromesifen 22.9 SC @ 96 g ai ha -1 or
during summer. Stake the plants if necessary. fenpyroximate 5 EC @ 15 g ai ha-1
Weeding followed by fertilizer application and It can also be managed by the application
earthing up may be done at one and two months of neem oil 5 per cent and neem oil+garlic
after transplanting. emulsion 2 per cent.

TOMATO (Solanum lycopersicum)

Varieties are sown in the nursery and one month old

seedlings are transplanted to the main field.
Bacterial wilt resistant varieties: Sakthi, For sowing the seeds, raised seed beds of
Mukthi, Anagha and Vellayani Vijai, 90 to 100 cm width and of convenient length
Manulekshmi and Manuprabha.
are prepared to which well decomposed
Rain shelter variety : Akshaya organic matter has been incorporated. After
Seed rate : 400 g ha-1 sowing the seeds, mulch with green leaves and
irrigate with a rose-can daily in the
Raising seedlings morning. Remove the mulch immediately
Tomato is a transplanted vegetable. Seeds after germination of the seeds. Restrict
TOMATO AND VEGETABLE COWPEA 195

irrigation one week before transplanting and A fertilizer dose of 75:40:25 kg N:P2O5:K2O
irrigate heavily on the previous day of per ha may be given. Half the dose of
transplanting. Protray seedlings can also be nitrogen, full phosphorus and half of potash may
used. be applied as basal before transplanting. One
fourth of nitrogen and half of potash may be
Time of planting applied 20-30 days after planting. The remain-
Transplant the seedlings during October- ing quantity may be applied two months after
November for an irrigated crop. planting.
Land preparation and transplanting After cultivation

Land is prepared to a fine tilth by Irrigate at two or three days interval.

thorough ploughing or digging. Well rotten Stake the plants if necessary. Weeding followed
organic manure is incorporated in the soil and by fertilizer application and earthing up
seedlings are transplanted in shallow may be done at one and two months after
trenches / pits / levelled lands. Transplanted transplanting.
seedlings may be given temporary shade for Plant protection
three to four days during hot days.
Damping off : Management as in Brinjal.
Spacing Soil solarization of nursery buds for 30 days
prior to sowing and seed treatment with
Transplant the seedlings at 60 cm x 60 cm
Trichoderma (5 g kg-1 seed) is effective in
Manuring managing the disease.
Apply FYM @ 20 t ha-1 along with AMF, Uproot and destroy the plants affected by
Pseudomonas, Trichoderma and Azoto- bacterial wilt and mosaic. Cultivate resistant
bacter each @ 5 kg h-1 as basal dose and cul- varieties like Sakthi, Mukthi and Anagha in
tivate cowpea as a catch crop in these fields. bacterial wilt prone areas.

VEGETABLE COWPEA (Vigna unguiculata)

Varieties For vegetable type

1. Vegetable type: Bush : 20-25 kg ha-1
Trailing : 4-5 kg ha-1
(a) Bushy: Bhagyalakshmy, Pusa Barsathi,
Pusa Komal., Kashi Kanchan. Spacing : 25 cm x 15 cm Dibbling two
seeds per hole
(b) Semitrailing: Kairali, Varun, Anaswara,
Bush : 30 cm x 15 cm
Kanakamony (PTB-1), Arka Garima.
Trailing : 2 m x 2 m (on pandal @ three
(c) Trailing type: Sharika, Malika, KMV-1, plants per pit)
Lola, Vyjayanthi, Manjeri Local, Vyalathur Plant protection
Local, Kurutholapayar, Vellayani Jyothika and
Geethika. Apply Glyricidia @4.5t ha-1 along with
neem cake @ 1 t ha -1 and Trichoderma
Seeds and Sowing (1 kg/ 100 kg FYM) to manage root rot and
Seed rate collar rot.
196 CABBAGE AND CAULIFLOWER

COOL SEASON VEGETABLES

CABBAGE (Brassica oleracea var. capitata)

Cabbage can be grown successfully in the Manures and Fertilisers

plains as well as high ranges of Kerala. Well
Apply 25t/ha FYM or compost. Fertiliser
drained soil with open sunlight is ideal for
dose is N:P2O5:K2O 150:100:125 kg/ha. Apply
growth of the crop.
half the dose of N, K and full dose of P2O5 5-
Varieties 7 days after transplanting. Apply the remaining
NS 43, NS 160, NS 183. N & K after one month of planting.
Planting requirements After cultivation
Since it is a cool season crop sowing is to A continuous supply of moisture is
be done during October – November. Seed necessary for proper development of curds.
rate is 600 – 750 g/ha-1. Seeds are to be sown Very shallow hoeing should be done at weekly
in nursery beds or in protrays. The trays should intervals to remove weeds and better aeration
be filled with a mixture of well decomposed of soil. Earth up the plant one month after
cocopeat, perlite and vermiculite (3:1:1 by transplanting.
volume). Germinated seedlings should be
fertigated with 19:19:19/20:20:20/30:10:10 Plant protection
water soluble fertilizer @ 0.05 – 0.2% Army worms and semi loopers are the
depending on the stage of growth of seedlings. major pests. Spraying quinalphos 0.25%
The seedlings will be ready for transplanting controls the pests. Black rot is a serious
within 3-4 weeks. Damping off disease in problem which can be controlled by spraying
nursery beds can be controlled by applying streptocyclin 300 ppm. Weekly application of
copper oxy chloride (0.3%). Pseudomonas fluorescens 2% solution after
The main field is prepared by ploughing the the head initiation also controls the disease.
soil well. Trenches of 20 cm depth should be Collar rot is observed in soils with poor
taken at a spacing of 60 cm. Apply the basal drainage and aeration. Incidence of collar rot
dose of organic manures and fill the trenches can be managed by weekly hoeing. Drenching
up to 10 cm using top soil. Plant the seedlings Pseudomonas fluorescens 2% controls the
in trenches at a spacing of 60 cm. disease.

CAULIFLOWER (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis)

Cauliflower can be grown successfully in Planting requirements
the plains as well as high ranges of Kerala.
Since it is a cool season crop sowing is to
Well drained soil with open sunlight is ideal for
growth of the crop. be done during October – November. Seed
rate is 600 – 750 g/ha. Seeds are to be sown
Varieties in nursery beds or in protrays. The trays should
Basant, NS 60, Pusa Meghna. be filled with a mixture of well decomposed
CAULIFLOWER AND CARROT 197

cocopeat, perlite and vermiculite (3:1:1 by half the dose of N, K and full dose of P2O5 5-
volume). Germinated seedlings should be 7 days after transplanting. Apply the remaining
fertigated with 19:19:19/20:20:20/30:10:10 N & K after one month of planting.
water soluble fertiliser @ 0.05 – 0.2%
After cultivation
depending on the stage of growth of seedlings.
The seedlings will be ready for transplanting A continuous supply of moisture is
within 3-4 weeks. necessary for proper development of curds.
The main field is prepared by ploughing the Very shallow hoeing should be done at weekly
soil well. Trenches of 20cm depth should be intervals to remove weeds and better aeration
taken at a spacing of 60 cm. Apply the basal of soil. Earth up the plant one month after
dose of organic manures and fill the trenches transplanting.
up to 10 cm using top soil. Plant the seedlings
in trenches at a spacing of 60 cm. Plant protection
Manures and Fertilisers Damping off disease in nursery beds can
Apply 25t ha FYM or compost. Fertiliser
-1 be controlled by applying copper oxy chloride
dose is N:P2O5:K2O 150:100:125 kg ha-1. Apply (2 g l -1).

CARROT (Daucus carota)

Carrot can be grown in high ranges from Fertilizer recommendation is 75:62.5:50 NPK
-1
August to January. Well-drained sandy loam kg ha . A fertilizer dose of 37.5 kg N, 62.5 kg
soil is best suited for the crop. P 2 O 5 and 50 kg K 2 O per ha as basal.
Varieties Topdressing with 37.5 kg N per ha may be
Pusa Kesar, Nantes, Pusa Meghali, Pusa done one month after sowing.
Nayanjyothi F 1 (suited for commercial
cultivation in the tropical plains of Kerala). After cultivation

Planting requirements It is necessary that enough soil moisture is

available to help uniform seed germination
Seed rate is 5-6 kg ha-1. It is usually sown and growth of plant. Uproot excess
on ridges to facilitate good root production seedlings (thinning) three weeks after
Ridges of about 20 cm height are made
sowing leaving a plant to plant spacing of
45 cm apart and seeds sown 10 cm apart on
the rows. The seed is mixed with fine sand 10 cm to facilitate better tuber growth.
and sown in rows by hand and covered with Weeding should be done at regular intervals to
soil to make it firm around it. keep down the weeds. Shallow hoeing is
necessary to facilitate root growth. When the
Manures and fertilizers root starts growing, earthing up should
Apply 25 t ha -1 FYM before sowing. be done.
198 BEET ROOT AND RADISH

BEET ROOT (Beta vulgaris Var. esculenta)

Beet root can be grown in high ranges from 75:37.5:37.5 kg ha-1 is recommended. Full dose
August to January. Well-drained sandy loam of P 2O 5 and K 2O and half dose of N are
soils are best suited for the crop.
applied as basal. Remaining half dose of
Varieties: Detroit Dark Red nitrogen is applied as topdressing when the plant
Planting requirements starts growing vigorously.

Seed rate is 7 to 8 kg ha-1. It is usually grown After cultivation

on ridges to facilitate good root
production. Ridges of about 20 cm height are It is necessary that enough soil moisture is
formed 45 cm apart and seeds sown 15-20 cm available to help uniform seed germination and
apart on the rows. The seeds are mixed with growth of plant. Thinning the population may
fine sand and placed in rows by hand and
be done as in carrot. Weeding should be done
covered with soil to make it firm
around it. at regular intervals to keep down the weeds.
Shallow hoeing is necessary to facilitate root
Manures and fertilizers
growth. When the root starts growing, earthing
Apply FYM 20 t ha-1 as basal. N:P2O5: K2O up should be done.

RADISH (Raphanus sativus)

Radish can be grown in high ranges from Manures and fertilizers

June to January. Well drained sandy loam
Apply 20 t ha-1 FYM as basal. N: P2O5:
soils are best suited for the crop.
K 2O 75:37.5:37.5 kg ha -1 is the fertilizer
requirement. Full dose of P2O5 and K2O and
Varieties
half dose of N are applied as basal. Remaining
Japanese White, Arka Nishanth, Pusa half dose of nitrogen is applied as topdressing
Chethki, Pusa Reshmi and Pusa Desi. when the plant starts growing vigorously.
After cultivation
Planting requirement
It is necessary that enough soil moisture is
Seed rate is 7 to 8 kg ha-1. It is usually available to help uniform seed germination and
grown on ridges to facilitate good root growth of plant. Thinning may be done at
production. Ridges of about 20 cm height are 10 cm distance as in carrot. Weeding should
taken 45 cm apart and plants are grown be done at regular intervals to keep down
10 cm apart on the rows. The seed is mixed weeds. Shallow hoeing is necessary to facilitate
with fine sand and sown in rows by hand, root growth. When the roots start growing,
covered with soil to make it firm around it. earthing up should be done.
POTATO AND ONION 199

POTATO (Solanum tuberosum)

Potato can be successfully cultivated in the planting 1 ha, 1000-2000 kg seed tubers are
high ranges of Kerala. It is being required. Seed tubers are treated with 1 ppm
cultivated in the rain shadow areas of Idukki of GA 3 for one hour and then dried in shade
district throughout the year. A day temperature for getting uniform sprouting. Tubers are filled in
of 20-30 o C is optimum for growth and gunny bags after drying and kept in vertical
tuberisation in potato. Tuber formation is position in well-ventilated dark room for 10
adversely affected, if the temperature goes days for encouraging sprouting. Seed pieces
above 30oC. should be treated with mancozeb (@ 1 kg in
450 litres of water) before planting to protect
Season
them from soil borne diseases.Tubers can be
Crops can be raised as shown below in the planted on ridges 50-60 cm wide at a spacing of
eastern part of Idukki district. 15-20 cm between the plants. Earthing up is
Summer : March-April needed during the growing phase (30 days after
Autumn : August-December planting) and 70 days after planting.
Spring : January-February Manuring
Varieties A basal application of FYM (20 t ha-1) is
required during field preparation. Fertilizer
Among the high yielding varieties, Kufri
recommendation is 120:100:120 kg NPK
Jyothi (early), Kufri Muthu (medium) and Kufri
ha-1. Apply 60 kg N, 100 kg P2O5 and 120 kg
Dewa (late) can be tried in the high ranges of
K2O as basal. Top dressing with 60 kg N, 30
Kerala.
days after planting at the time of first earthing
Soil up is essential.
Loose friable sandy loam or silt loam, rich Plant protection
in organic matter are ideal for potato. Hard Early blight and late blight are the
clay should be avoided. Optimum pH range is important fungal diseases. Copper fungicides
5.2-7.0. can control both diseases.
Planting Cut worms, aphids and jassids are common
Whole potato tuber or cut pieces (50-60 g pests of potato. To control aphids and
size) longitudinally cut from bud-end to jassids spraying dimethoate (0.05 per cent) is
stemend can be used for plating. For effective.

ONION (Allium cepa L.)

(Ad hoc recommendation)

Onion can be successfully cultivated in mid of bulbs. Fertile and well drained soils are ideal
lands of Kerala during October - November. for cultivation. The crop will not tolerate water
It requires a cool climate during vegetative logging. Open sunlight is essential for good
growth phase and a dry spell during maturity yield.
200 ONION AND GARLIC

Varieties: Agri Found Dark Red and Arka Planting on ridges or raised beds can also
Kalyan are suited to Kerala conditions. be adopted to ensure good drainage. Gap filling
if necessary may be done at 10-15 days after
Nursery preparation and transplanting planting. Weeding and hoeing may be done at
The nursery should be raised in a rain 10 days intervals up to 30- 40 DAP. A fertilizer
dose of 80:40:60 N: P2O5: K2O kg/ha may be
shelter. Seeds can be sown in nursery beds or
applied in two split doses, half N and K and
pro-trays during September. Incorporate well
full P basally and remaining N and K at one
rotten compost mixed with Trichoderma in the
month after transplanting. Only light earthing
nursery beds. Six to eight week old seedlings
up may be done after fertilizer application.
having 0.6 - 0.8 cm collar girth can be Need based irrigation must be given. Irrigation
transplanted to the main field during October should be withheld one week before harvest.
– November. About 1500 – 2000 seedlings
will be required to plant one cent (40 m2) area Harvesting
in the main field. The crop will be ready for harvest by 3.5 - 4
Plough the land thoroughly, incorporate months after transplanting (February –March)
FYM @ 20 t/ha. Liming should be done so as when the bulbs are fully matured and 75%
leaves are dried off. The individual plants are
to maintain a pH range of 5.8- 6.5. Seedlings
raked out or pulled out from the soil. The tops
can be transplanted in flat beds at the rate of
are cut form the bulb leaving 2 cm length
one seedling per hill. A spacing of 15 – 20 cm
from the bulb and dried in shade for 3-5 days.
between rows and 10 cm between plants
should be given. Average yield of bulbs is 6-8 t ha-1.

GARLIC (Allium sativum)

Garlic requires cool and moist period required. The cloves for planting should be
during vegetative growth and a dry spell stored for 2-3 months after harvest and cloves
during maturity of the bulbs. Fertile, weighing 4 g are ideal for planting. The cloves
well-drained loamy soils are ideal for garlic should be soaked in water followed by dipping
cultivation. Heavy clay soils may result in for 15 minutes in a solution containing 1 g of
deformed bulbs. In high ranges of Kerala carbendazim dissolved in 1 litre of water for
garlic can be planted during October- 15 minutes. After drying in shade, cloves can
November. be used for planting. Dig the land thoroughly
Varieties: Ooty-1, G 50 and prepare beds of 15 cm height at a width of
1 m and of convenient length. The cloves should
Planting requirements
be dibbled at a spacing of 15 cm x 8 cm.
Cloves or bulbils are used for propagation. Germination will start on the fifth day and it
For planting one hectare, 500 kg of cloves is will be completed within 10-15 days.
GRALIC AND MINOR VEGETABLES 201

Manuring Plant protection

Apply N:P2O5: K2O @ 60:120:120 kg ha-1 To control blast, spray mancozeb (2 g l-1).
20 days after transplanting (DAP). Top dress-
ing of N should be done @ 60 kg ha-1, 45 DAP. Harvest
After cultivation Harvesting can be done 120-130 DAP.
Earthing up should be done 60 DAP. Yield may vary from 5-10 t ha-1.

MINOR VEGETABLES

Dolichos bean (Lablab purpureus) common varieties. Seeds @ 10 to 12 kg ha-1 are

planted at a spacing of 45-60 cm x 20-30 cm in
Pole varieties : Hima, Grace and Pusa
February-March and June-July. During rainy
Early Prolific
season, the seeds are sown 2-3 cm deep on
Bush variety : Arka Vijay ridges and in furrows during summer months.
Pole varieties are sown in pits (three plants FYM is applied @ 25 t ha-1. N, P2O5 and K2O
per pit) at a spacing of 1.25 m x 0.75 m and recommendation for the crop is 20:60:80 kg ha-1.
Aphids and powdery mildew are the common
bush varieties in ridges and furrows at a
pest and disease of the crop. Average yield is
spacing of 60 cm x 15 cm. Seeds are to be
5 to 6 t ha-1.
sown during July-August. The plants are trailed
over pandals, trellis or stakes. FYM is Sword bean (Canavalia gladiata) and Jack
applied @ 20 t ha-1. N:P2O5: K2O recommen- bean (Canavalia ensiformis)
dation for the crop is 50:100:50 kg ha-1. The
Sword bean is trailing and red seeded while
leaf caterpillar is a common pest of the crop. Jack bean is bushy and white seeded. Sword
It is also affected by Fusarium wilt, collar rot, bean is to be planted at a spacing of
anthracnose and powdery mildew. 4 m x 3m whereas Jack bean is to be planted
Average yield is 6-10 t ha-1. at 60 cm x 60 cm.
Winged bean May-June and September - October are the
(Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) usual sowing time and the seed rate
The common varieties in use are Revathy, followed is one or two seeds per pit. FYM is
PT-62, PT-16, PT-49 and PT-2. Seeds @ 15 to applied at the rate of 5 t ha-1. The N:P2O5:K2O
20 kg ha -1 are planted at a spacing of mixture (7:10:5) may be applied as basal dose
125 cm x 50 cm during August-September and top dressing at several splits. There is no
and are trailed over pandal, trellis or stakes. serious pest or disease incidence in the crop.
FYM is applied @ 20 t ha-1. N, P2O5 and Average yield is 10-15 kg per plant.
K2O recommendation for the crop is 50:100:50 Clove bean (Ipomoea muricata)
kg ha-1. The crop is comparatively free from
pests and diseases. Average yield is 10-15 t ha-1. The crop can be grown throughout the year
and are trailed over trellis or stakes. The seeds
Cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba) @ 6-7 kg ha-1 are planted at a spacing of
Pusa Naubahar and Pusa Sadabahar are the 1.0 m x 0.6 m. FYM is applied @ 10 t ha-1.
202 MINOR VEGETABLES

N:P2O5:K2O recommendation for the crop is varieties. Plant the crop during September-
35:50:25 kg ha-1. There is no serious pest or October at a spacing of 60 cm x 30 cm. The
disease incidence in the crop. Average yield is seed rate is 400-600 g ha-1. Raising of seed-
5-6 t ha-1. lings, transplanting, irrigation etc. are same as
Ivy gourd (Coccinia grandis) in chilli. FYM @ 25 t ha-1 and N:P2O5:K2O @
150:75:50 kg ha-1 are to be given. The average
Variety - Sulabha
yield is 12-15 t ha-1.
Local varieties are grown in May-June and
Drumstick (Moringa oleifera)
September-October by trailing over pandals
and stakes. Stem cuttings with three or four Variety: Anupama (Early flowering habit and
nodes and 30-40 cm length, selected from high suitable for Central Zone).
yielding female vines are used as planting
The major planting season is May-June.
material. These are planted at a spacing of
Stem cuttings of 1.0-1.5 m length and
4 m x 3 m. FYM @ 25 kg per pit is given in
15-20 cm girth are used as planting material.
two doses. No serious pests or diseases are
Plant the cuttings in polybags and later sprouted
reported except mild attack of fruit flies and
cuttings can be shifted to main field. For one
gall insects.
hectare, 625 cuttings are required. These are
Smooth gourd (Luffa cylindrica) planted at a spacing of 4 m x 4 m. FYM @
Pusa Chickni is the common variety in use. 10-20 kg per pit and N: P2O5:K2O @ 60:80:40 g
The crop is planted in February-March and per pit are recommended. Green caterpillar and
May-June at a spacing of 2 m x 2 m. The seed hairy caterpillar are the common pests. The
rate is 2.5-3 kg ha-1. The crop is trailed over average yield is 10-15 kg per tree per year.
pandal, stakes or trellis. FYM @ 25 t ha-1 Chekkurmanis (Sauropus androgynus)
is given in two doses. N:P 2 O 5 :K 2 O
recommended for the crop is 70:25:25 kg ha-1. Stem cuttings of 6-12 months old,
No serious pests or diseases are reported. The 20-30 cm length are to be planted in
average yield is 10-15 t ha-1. May-June. These are usually grown on
borders of kitchen gardens. To check the height
Ridge gourd (Luffa acutangula)
of the plant and to get frequent harvests, the
The important varieties are Haritham, Pusa tips are clipped off intermittently. FYM @ 5
Nasdhar Co-2 and Deepthi. The crop is kg per plant per year and N:P2O5:K2O (7:10:5)
usually sown during February-March and mixture @ 30 g per plant are recommended.
May-June. Seed rate recommended is The average yield is 2 – 5 kg per m2 per year.
2.5-3.0 kg ha-1 with a spacing of 2 m x 2 m. FYM
@ 25 t ha-1 and N:P2O5:K2O @ 70:25:25 kg ha-1 Indian spinach (Basella sp.)
are recommended. It is usually trailed over Seeds or stem cuttings of 20-30 cm length
pandals or trellis. Average yield is 10 to 15 t ha-1. are to be planted during May-June and
Bell pepper September-October. The spacing recom-
mended is 1.0 m x 0.6 m. These are usually
(Capsicum annuum var. grossum) trailed over pandals or stakes. FYM
Hungarian Wax, California Wonder @ 2-5 kg per m2 is to be given. The average
and Early Calwonder are the promising yield is 1-2.5 kg per m2.
MINOR VEGETABLES AND TIPS FOR VEGETABLE SEED PRODUCTION 203

Water leaf (Talinum triangulare) mended spacing is 4 m x 4 m with 625 plants

per hectare. FYM @ 10 kg per plant per year
This is a shade loving leafy vegetable grown
is given. N:P2O5:K2O @ 60:80:40 g per adult
in May-June and September-October. Semi plant per year is recommended. Major pests
hard stem cuttings of 10-15 cm length are are citrus butterfly and psyllid. Diaphorina pink
planted at a spacing of 30 cm x 10 cm. FYM disease is also seen. The average yield is
@ 2-5 kg per m2 is given. The average yield is 2-2.5 kg per m2.
2.0-2.5 kg per m2.
Waiting periods for insecticides on
Curry leaf (Murraya koenigii) vegetables
It is usually planted in May-June. Root suck- Waiting periods for insecticides on veg-
ers are used as planting material. The recom- etables are given in the Table 31.

Table 31. Waiting periods for insecticides on vegetables

Spiro- Fenpyro- Thiame- Diafen-

Vegetable Quinal- Mala- Dime- mesifen ximate thoxam thiuron
phos thion thoate 22.9 SC 5 EC 25 WG @ 50 WP @
@ 96 @ 15 g 50 g 300 g ai/ha
g ai/ha ai/ha ai/ha

Okra 3 days 3 days 3 days - - - -

Bitter gourd 5 days 4 days 2 days - - - -
Brinjal 3 days 3 days 3 days 5days - 3 days 3 days
Snake gourd 6 days 1 days 3 days - - - -
Tomato - 1 days 5 days - - - -
Chilli - 1 days 4 days 7 days 7 days - -

Note: Washing vegetables in 2 percent table salt solution or 2 percent vinegar and thorough washing in water using
scrubber were found to remove residues of contact insecticides.

TIPS FOR VEGETABLE SEED PRODUCTION

General principles seeds. A commercial seed production
programme has three aspects-seed production,
The seed production programme envi-sages
seed processing and seed storage.
to produce genetically pure quality seeds and
to store them in a viable condition for a a. Seed production
reasonable period of time, until it reaches the
farmers. The seeds should have genetic Important aspects of seed production are
purity, uniformity in size and shape, high as follows:
germination and vigour. The seeds should be 1. Basic knowledge on the specific require-
free from mechanical damages, insect and ment of the crop (climate, soil requirement
fungal infestation and other crop and weed etc.), specific characteristics of the
204 TIPS FOR VEGETABLE SEED PRODUCTION

variety, pests and diseases and their seeds from the fruits and reducing the seed
control measures are essential before moisture content to a level of 6-8 per cent.
taking up the seed production programme.
2. Wet and dry methods of seed extraction
2. In general, September to January is the are adopted depending on the nature of the
most suitable season for taking up seed crop. Slow drying at low temperature
production in Kerala. (below 38ºC) is advisable rather than quick
3. Site selected for seed production should be drying at high temperature.
open, receiving good sunlight, well drained 3. Exposing seeds to open sunlight during
and fertile soil, free from infectious pest and peak hours of sunshine (12 noon to 3 p.m.)
disease organisms. should be avoided.
4. Spread the seeds in thin layer and give
4. Seeds for multiplication should be
frequent raking for aeration while
obtained from reliable sources.
drying to avoid fungal infestation.
5. Proper isolation distance should be
5. Clean the seeds by removing inert
maintained between varieties and related matter, damaged and underdeveloped
species. seeds etc. to get uniform quality seeds.
6. Scientific roguing (removal of off-types at c. Seed storage
nursery stage, vegetative phase, flowering, 1. Store seeds under cool and dry
fruiting and harvest stages) should be conditions to maintain the viability.
practiced. 2. Seed moisture content of 6-8 per cent,
7. All plants infected by diseases should be atmospheric temperature of 22ºC and
removed from the seed production plot. No relative humidity of 45 per cent are the most
objectionable weeds are permitted in seed ideal conditions for seed storage. The sum
production plot. of storage temperature (ºC) and humidity
(per cent) should not exceed 80.
8. In general, for most vegetable crops,
3. Pre-storage seed treatment with fungi-
taking one or two vegetable harvests is
cides (captan or thiram @ 2.5 g kg-1 of
found ideal for economic seed production.
seeds) would protect the seeds from
9. Provide one additional topdressing with N various fungal and insect infestations.
and K 2O at fruit development phase,
4. Store the treated seeds in 700 gauge
adequate irrigation and plant protection
polythene bags in sealed conditions.
measures.
Specific recommendations for seed
10. General cultivation and plant protection production of the individual crops other than
practices recommended for vegetable pro- the general aspects mentioned above are
duction can be adopted in seed crop also. given below:
11. Harvest the crop at optimum fruit Solanaceous vegetables
maturity, since immature and over
Tomato
mature fruits affect the seed quality.
The best time for planting tomato for seed
b. Seed processing production is October. Give an isolation
1. Seed processing involves extraction of distance of 50 m for foundation seed (FS)
TIPS FOR VEGETABLE SEED PRODUCTION 205

production and 25 m for certified seed (CS) diseases and damping off in chilli and to get
between varieties. Rogue out off-types and maximum germination and seedling vigour.
virus infected plants. Maximum off-types and Okra
diseased plants permitted is 0.1 per cent each
Provide an isolation distance of 400 m for
only. Seeds should have a minimum purity of
FS and 200 m for CS. Remove off-types and
98 per cent and germination of 70 per cent.
plants infected by yellow vein mosaic disease.
Maximum permitted inert matter content is
No objectionable weeds are permitted in the
2 per cent, other crop seeds 0.1 per cent, weed
seed production plot. Maximum level of
seeds 0.1 per cent, and maximum moisture
off-types and plants infected by yellow vein
content 8 per cent. mosaic is 0.1 per cent each. It is economical
Brinjal to take two vegetable harvests and then
retain the crop for seed production. Fruits of
Give an isolation distance of 200 m for FS
36 days maturity may be harvested for seed
and 100m for CS. Remove off-types and plants extraction in the case of Arka Anamika. At
infected by little leaf disease. No this stage the pod colour completely turns to
objectionable weeds are permitted in the seed brown and tips dry. Seeds can be stored in
production plot. Maximum level of off-types polythene bags of 700 gauge thickness. Seeds
and plants infested by designated diseases are should have a minimum purity of 99 per cent
0.1 per cent each. Seeds should have a and germination of 65 per cent. Maximum
minimum purity of 98 per cent and germina- inert matter content permitted is 1 per cent; no
tion of 70 per cent. Maximum inert matter seeds of other crops or weeds are
content permitted is 2 per cent, other crop permitted and maximum moisture content
seeds 0.1 per cent, weed seeds 0.1 per cent permitted for open storage is 10 per cent and
and maximum moisture content 8 per cent. for storing in moisture proof containers is
8 per cent.
Chilli
Provide an isolation distance of 400 m for Cucurbits
FS and 200 m for CS. Remove off-types and General
plants infected by virus diseases. No
An isolation distance of 800 m for FS and
objectionable weeds are permitted in the seed 400 m for CS is required between varieties
production plot. Maximum level of off-types and and related species. Remove off-types, wild
plants infested by designated diseases are 0.1 cucurbits and plants infected by designated
per cent each. Fruits of 45-50 days diseases. No objectionable weeds are
maturity may be harvested for seed extraction permitted in the seed production plot.
in the case of Jwalasakhi and Ujwala. Seeds Maximum level of off-types and plants
should have a minimum purity of 98 per cent infected by yellow vein mosaic diseases is 0.1
and germination of 70 per cent; maximum inert per cent each. Seeds should have a minimum
matter content permitted is 2 per cent, other purity of 99 per cent and germination of 60 per
crop seeds 0.1 per cent, weed seeds 0.1 per cent. Maximum inert matter content permit-
cent and maximum moisture content 8 per cent. ted is 1 per cent. No seeds of other crops or
Seed treatment with Trichoderma @ 5 g/kg weeds are permitted and maximum moisture
seed is effective in managing seed borne content should not exceed 7 per cent.
206 TIPS FOR VEGETABLE SEED PRODUCTION

Bitter gourd thick ashy coating on the fruits dries into white
powder, which can be removed on
Taking two vegetable harvests and then
rubbing. Fruits of medium and large size (above
leaving the crop for seed production is 5 kg in KAU Local) give bolder, quality seeds.
economical. Fruits of Preethi variety should It is advisable to have a post-harvest storage
be harvested 21-24 days after anthesis to get of fruits for three months to get higher
maximum recovery of good quality seeds. At germination.
this stage, lower one third of fruit turns
yellow. Ripe fruits of 24 days maturity in Manual extraction of pulp from the fruits
Preethi, when the whole fruits turn to bright and fermenting the pulp for 48 hours is
orange colour, can be harvested for seed better to get quality seeds without mechanical
extraction. Seeds may be dried in the sun, damage.
avoiding peak sunshine hours of 12 noon to
Acid treatment of pulp using 2 per cent HCI
3 p.m. Seeds can be stored in 700 gauge thick
(1:10) for 30 minutes followed by
polythene bags. Soaking seeds for 3 hours in drying under shade to 8 per cent moisture also
1:10 solution of 150 ppm KNO3 increases gives good quality seeds.
seed germination and seedling vigour.
Pre-storage treatment of seeds with
Snake gourd captan @ 2.5 g kg-1 and storing in sealed
Fruits can be harvested for seed extraction polythene bags of 700 gauge thickness is the
36 days after anthesis (Harithasree), when best for seed storage.
yellowing of fruits start from the stylar end.
Water melon
Big and medium sized fruits (above 85 cm
length and 2 kg weight in Kaumudi) give Manual extraction with acid treatment
maximum quantity of quality seeds. using 1 per cent HCl (1:10) for 30 minutes
and drying under shade for one day and
Oriental pickling melon then in sun, avoiding peak hours (12 noon to
Harvest fully ripe fruits with deep orange 3.00 p.m) to 8 per cent moisture gives good
colour (30 days after anthesis in Mudicode), quality seeds.
when the vines wither. Select big and medium
sized fruits (above 1.25 kg in Mudicode) for Vegetable cowpea
quality seeds. Dried pods can be harvested for seed
Machine extraction (without fermentation purpose. These pods are further dried in the
of pulp) and drying under shade for one day sun before seed extraction. Good drying and
and then in sun avoiding peak hours pre-storage seed treatment of seeds is essen-
(12 noon to 3.00 pm) to 8 per cent moisture tial to protect them from Bruchus and fungal
gives good quality seeds. infestations.

Ash gourd Amaranth

Ash gourd fruits of 70 days maturity It is economical to take one vegetable
after anthesis are suitable for seed extraction. harvest at 30 days after planting and then
At this stage the vines wither and the sticky leaving the crop for seed production.
GUIDELINES FOR HOMESTEAD CULTIVATION OF VEGETABLES IN RAIN SHELTERS 207

GUIDELINES FOR HOMESTEAD CULTIVATION OF

VEGETABLES IN RAIN SHELTERS

Site selection: Shade free areas in garden Varieties:

lands with good drainage. Tomato : Manuprabha, Manulakshmi,
Rain shelter Size: 40 m (9.0m length and
2 Anagha, Akshaya
4.5m width), Centre height 3.8 – 4.0m and side Brinjal : Neelima
height 2.5 m (Length and breadth can be Bhindi : Arka Anamika, Varsha
varied according availability of suitable land). Uphaar
Chilli : Anugraha
Roof: 200 µ UV stabilized polythene sheet with
Amaranth : CO 1, Arun, Renusree
sides open.
Bitter gourd : Preethi, Priya
Cropping sequence: 10 – 12 rows of crops, Snake gourd : Baby
crop arrangement with no mutual shading.
OP melon : Sowbhagya
Ist crop: (June – July to Sept. – Oct.) Cucumber : AAU C 2
Yard long bean : Vellayani Jyothika
Bush : Cowpea, Bhindi , Tomato, Chilli,
Amaranthus, Cluster beans. Spacing: Row to row - 60 cm for non trailing
types and 1m for trailing types.
Trailing: OP melon, Cucumber, Bitter gourd,
Yard long bean, Snake gourd. 10 plants each of bhindi, brinjal, chilli, tomato
and cluster bean in each row
IInd crop: (Oct – Dec – Jan)
15 – 20 plants of bush cowpea, cabbage,
Bush: Cabbage, Cauliflower, Bhindi, Brinjal, cauliflower and amaranthus in each row
Chilli, Tomato and Amaranthus. 4 - 5 plants of trailing crops in each row
Trailing: Bitter gourd, Snake gourd, Yard long Crop management: Mulching, trailing on
bean. trellis and drip/channel irrigation reco
mmended. In summer 25% shade to be
IIIrd crop: (Jan – May) provided and non chemical methods for plant
protection are effective.
Bush: Amaranthus, Brinjal and Chilli.
Maintenance: After 3 years replacement of
Trailing: Yard Long Bean and Cucumber. UV sheet recommended.
208 BANANA

FRUITS
BANANA (Musa spp.)
Banana prefers tropical humid lowlands and kadali, Poovan, Palayankodan, Njalipoovan,
is grown from the sea level to 1000 m above Amritsagar, Grosmichael, Karpooravally,
MSL. It can also be grown at elevations up to Poomkalli, Koompillakannan, Chinali,
1200 m, but at higher elevations growth is poor. Dudhsagar, BRS-1, BRS-2 and Yangambi.
Optimum temperature is 27oC. Soils with good Culinary varieties: Monthan, Batheesa,
fertility and assured supply of moisture are best Kanchikela, Nendrapadathy
suited. Njalipoovan, Robusta, BRS-1 and
BRS-2 are particularly suitable for
Season intercropping in coconut gardens both under
Rain fed crop : April-May rainfed and irrigated conditions. Dudhsagar is
Irrigated crop : August-September highly resistant to major pests and diseases.
The variety Bodles Altafort is recommended
Adjust planting season depending upon for high range region (ad hoc).
local conditions. Avoid periods of heavy Preparation of land
monsoon and severe summer for planting.
Prepare the field by ploughing or digging
Adjust the time of planting so as to avoid high
and dig pits for planting. Size of pits depends
temperature and drought at the time of
upon soil type, water table and variety.
emergence of bunches (7-8 months after
In general, pit size of 50 cm x 50 cm x 50 cm
planting).
is recommended. In low-lying areas, take
Varieties mounds for planting suckers.
Nendran (Clones): Nedunendran, Selection of suckers
Chengalikodan, Manjeri Nendran, Zanzibar,
Select 3-4 month old disease free sword
Big Ebanga. Growth and yield characteristics suckers from healthy clumps. In the case of
of popular banana Nendran varieties are given Nendran variety, cut back pseudostem to a
in Table 32. length of 15-20 cm from corm and remove old
Table varieties: Monsmarie, Robusta, roots. The rhizomes are to be smeared with
Giant Governor, Dwarf Cavendish, Chen- cowdung solution and ash and dried in the sun

Table 32. Growth and yield characters of Nendran

Clonal name Plant Pseudostem No. of Crop Bunch No. of No. of Fruit
height girth (cm) leaves duration weight hands fruits weight
(cm) (days) (kg) (g)
Nedunendran 292.0 46.0 14.0 290.0 10.50 5.53 47.6 157.6
Chengalikodan 332.0 49.0 14.0 333.0 12.60 6.25 65.0 172.3
Zanzibar 351.0 56.0 15.0 331.0 11.75 2.30 23.0 390.0
Big Ebanga 346.0 53.0 15.0 335.0 12.70 7.00 45.0 250.0
Manjeri Nendran 327.0 52.0 16.0 336.0 14.00 6.86 65.0 180.5
BANANA 209

for about 3-4 days and stored in shade upto 15 2. Apply N:P2O5:K2O at the following dose
days before planting. (g/plant/year).
Spacing Nendran (irrigated): 190:115:300
Spacing may be provided as indicated Other varieties depending upon soil fertility
below: level: 160-200 : 160-200 : 320-400
Palayankodan (rainfed): 100:200:400
Variety Spacing (m) Suckers/ha Palayankodan (reclaimed alluvial soils of
Poovan Kuttanad)
Chenkadali Plant crop : 100:200:400
Palayankodan 2.1 x 2.1 2260 First ratoon : 150:200:800
Second ratoon : 150:200:800
Monthan
Nendran 2.0 x 2.0 2500 Apply the fertilizer 60-75 cm around the
plant in two equal split doses; the first, two
Grosmichael 2.4 x 2.4 1730
months after planting and the second, four
Robusta,
months after planting. For ratoon crop, the
Monsmarie, 2.4 x 1.8 2310
Dwarf Cavandish entire fertilizers have to be applied in a single
dose immediately after the harvest of the
preceding crop. Irrigate immediately after
Planting
manuring.
Plant suckers upright in the centre of pits Note: For Nendran, apply the fertilizers in six
with 5 cm pseudostem remaining above soil split doses as detailed below which will
level. Press soil around the sucker to avoid be beneficial to improve the finger size
hollow air spaces. and bunch weight, provided the farmers
Manuring can afford the cost of application.
1. Apply compost, cattle manure or green Time of fertilizer N:P2O5:K2O
leaves @ 10 kg/plant at the time of application g/plant
planting. One month after planting 40:65:60
For double sucker planting at a spacing of Two months after planting 30:50:60
3 m x 2 m, 133 per cent of recommended dose
Three months after planting 30:00:60
for single sucker planting in six splits is needed
Four months after planting 30:00:60
when farm yard manure is used as the organic
source. The recommended dose for single Five months after planting 30:00:60
sucker itself is sufficient with vermicompost Just after complete 30:00:00
as organic source. This should be accompanied emergence of bunch
with in situ green manuring @ 15 g cowpea Total 190:115:300
seeds per pit (25 kg ha-1) at the time of planting. In Onattukara, for Njalipoovan, apply N,
Incorporate the cowpea crop into soil 40 days P2O5 and K2O @ 200:200:400g/plant/year in
after sowing. two equal split doses: the first, two months
Plant crop followed by two ratoon crops after planting and the second, four months after
gives maximum yield. Two suckers per clump planting.
should be retained for ratooning. For Palayankodan (rainfed), planting may
210 BANANA

be done in January and the suckers may be after plants start producing bunches.
given pot irrigation @ 9 litres of water once in If green manure crop is grown, weeding
15 days until April-May. operations can be reduced to 1-2 diggings.
After planting banana, sow sun hemp / Desuckering
daincha / cowpea adopting a seed rate of Remove side suckers produced till the
50 kg ha-1. Incorporate the crop into the soil emergence of bunch. Retain one or two
40 days after sowing. Repeat sowing of green suckers produced after the emergence of
manure crop and incorporate into soil 40 days bunch.
after sowing. Intercropping in Nendran variety
Incorporation of cowpea in the inter-spaces Cucumber and amaranth can be cultivated
of banana cv. Nendran with 75 per cent profitably with banana raised in September-
recommended dose of fertilizer (143:85:225 g October without affecting the bunch weight.
N: P2O5: K2O /plant) can be done as INM For vegetable purpose, cucumber may be
practice for highest BC ratio. harvested within 95 days and for seed
Irrigation purpose the duration may be about 130 days.
1. During summer months, irrigate once in Greater yam and elephant foot yam can be
three days. profitably intercropped with Nendran.
2. Ensure good drainage and prevent water Pre harvest bunch spray
logging. Pre harvest bunch sprays of 3 per cent
3. About 6-10 irrigations per crop may be K2SO4 (3 g in 100 ml of distilled water) twice,
given depending upon soil conditions. the first two weeks after bunch emergence
4. Banana var. Nendran (October planting) and the second four weeks after bunch
grown under deep water table conditions emergence increases the fruit yield
(below 2 m from ground level) needs substantially and consumer preferences in
10 mm (40 l/plant) irrigation once in two Nendran banana.
days during summer season to ensure higher Tissue culture Nendran banana
bunch yield and better water use efficiency. (Ad hoc recommendation)
Mulching the basin with 3.5 kg paddy straw Tissue culture offers a rapid method of
(waste quality) will considerably improve multiplication of quality, uniform, pest and
the bunch yield. disease free production of planting materials
Weed control in large quantities in banana. The productivity
During early stages, complete control of of banana can be increased by cultivation of
weeds could be obtained by raising cowpea in tissue culture plants of selected elite ecotypes
the interspaces. In gardens where this is not of different varieties.
possible, pre-emergence application of diuron Spacing
1.5 kg ha-1 or oxyfluorfen 0.2 kg ha -1 is Give spacing of 2 m x 2 m (2500 plants/
effective. Weeds emerging later could be ha). Tissue culture plants can also be used for
controlled by the application of glyphosate 0.4 high density planting in Nendran banana to
kg ha -1. If hand weeding is resorted to, achieve higher returns.The spacing
give 4-5 surface diggings depending on weed recommended for high density planting is
growth. Avoid deep digging. Do not disturb soil as follows: (a) 2 m x 3 m with two plants / pit
BANANA 211

(3332 plants in 1666 pits per ha) (b) 1.75 m x • Dip suckers in cow dung + ash slurry
1.75 m with one plant per pit (3265 plants / ha). containing neem oil 5% to control rhizome
Pit size weevil
50 cm x 50 cm x 50 cm b. Manurial practices at planting
Method of planting • Neem cake @1 kg/plant
Prepare pits 15 days in advance of • FYM @ 10 kg/plant+10 g Azospirillum
planting. Fill the pits with topsoil and FYM 15- c. Plant protection
20 kg per plant per pit. Plant the tissue culture
plants on the top of the pit at ground level. • To control pseudostem weevil uniform
Remove the polythene cover completely before spray of neem seed oil 5% + garlic to the
planting without damaging the roots. Planting leaf axils and pseudostem during third and
may be done preferably during evening hours. fourth MAP
Provide partial shade to plants to protect • Lime 500g /plant
against sun scorching for about two weeks. • Sow green manure seeds around the
Irrigate the crop daily during initial days of banana sucker. Pseudomonas flurescens.
establishment. spray @ 2% at two MAP
Plant protection Nutrient recommendation
Adopt integrated plant protection Any of the following combinations of
measures to control major pests and diseases. organic manures can be applied as two splits
Manures and Fertilizers (planting and 3 MAP)
Apply FYM @ 15-20 kg per plant and lime • FYM 28 kg/plant+ash 4kg/plant - best
1 kg per plant at the time of land preparation. treatment
Apply N:P2O5:K2O @ 300:115:450 g per plant • Poultry manure 14 kg/plant+ash 4 kg/
in six split doses as shown below. plant
• Coir pith compost 10 kg/plant+ash 5 kg/
Time of application N:P2O5:K2O g/plant
plant
1 month after planting 50:65:65 • Vermicompost 10 kg/plant+ash 4 kg/plant
2 months after planting 50:00:65 Plant protection
3 months after planting 50:50:65 Pests
4 months after planting 50:00:65 Banana pseudostem weevil
5 months after planting 50:00:65 The weevils resemble the rhizome
weevil. Adult female weevil punctures and
7th month (i.e. after 50:00:125 inserts eggs into the pseudostem. Grubs
bunch emergence) emerging out feed extensively on the
pseudostem and thereby the entire plant
Organic production package for Banana collapses.
var. Nendran Management
a. Sucker treatment 1. Field sanitation is the most important
• Select healthy, disease and insect free factor in the prophylactic and curative
suckers control of this pest.
212 BANANA

2. Remove affected plants along with the 5. Set traps using pseudostem of approxi
rhizome in full and destroy them by mately 0.5 m length, which are split
burning the life stages of the insect using lengthwise and laid in the field. Adults
kerosene or by burying the material in deep attracted to it during nights may be collected
pits in soil. and destroyed.
3. Destroy the parts of rhizome and 6. Application of Thiamethoxam 25 WG 0.2
pseudostem of harvested plants in the field g/l or 1g/5 l or Fipronil 0.3 G 10 g formulation /
as described above. plant at planting followed by two
4. Remove the dry outer sheaths of the applications 2 and 5 months after planting.
pseudostem of all infested and un-infested 7. Sucker treatment with Pseudomonas
plants in the endemic areas and spray any fluorescens @ 20 g/l + Sucker treatment
of the recommended insecticides. with entomopathogenic nematode,
Drenching all the leaf axils, rhizome and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora @ 4 infected
surrounding soil and all round the entire wax moth larvae/plant at planting followed
pseudostem inserting the nozzle through the by two applications 2 and 5 months after
bore holes made by the larvae if any and planting.
also within the outer sheathes by slightly Aphid
raising the same at different spots is also
effective. Apply quinalphos 0.05 per cent Act as vector for the transmission of the
or chlorpyrifos 0.03 per cent. Repeat the dreadful bunchy top disease in banana.
treatment after 3 weeks if the infestation Spindle leaf miner
persists. Spray dimethoate 0.05 per cent on the
Banana rhizome weevil spindle for controlling the leaf miner.
The attack by this pest is reported to be Nematodes
serious in all localities where banana is Major species are burrowing nematode,
cultivated. Female adults puncture healthy root knot nematode, root lesion nematode and
rhizomes and insert eggs through it. Grubs cyst nematode.
tunnel into the rhizome and feed on it In case of severe infestation there will be
resulting in the stunting of rhizome. If the severe reduction in number of leaves, total
infestation occurs on a mature rhizome, bunch weight and number of fruits.
damage symptoms such as reduction in leaf
number, bunch size and the fruit number Management
appear. Pare the rhizomes and apply neem
cake @ 1 kg/plant at the time of planting.
Management
For managing nematodes paring+ banana
1. Adopt strict field sanitation. sucker treatment with Bacillus macerans/
2. Select only healthy planting material. Paecilomyces lilacinus @ 5g/sucker + pit
application @10g/pit 45 days after planting can
3. Deep ploughing of the land so as to be recommended.
expose the inner soil layer to sun.
Diseases
4. Cut and remove the outer layer of the
Bunchy top disease
rhizome and sundry for 3-4 days after
smearing it with slurry of cowdung and ash. This is a virus disease transmitted by aphids.
BANANA 213

Management 5. Spraying of cow’s urine (10%) / sucker

1. Eradicate disease affected plants. treatment with Pseudomonas fluore scens
5% + Spraying 2% Pseudomonas
2. Use disease free suckers for planting. fluorescens and vegetable oil ( 2.5 ml l-1) +
Karpooravally, Kanchikela, Njalipoovan and
baking soda (2.5g l-1).
Koompillakannan are less susceptible
varieties. Kokkan disease (Banana bract mosaic virus)
3. Use of virus indexed tissue culture plants. Kokkan disease was found to affect other
Panama wilt (Fusarium wilt) (Fusarium varieties like Palayankodan, Kodappanilla-
oxysporum f. cubense) kunnan, Monthan, Kanchikela, Poovan
(Rasthali), Karpooravally, Chenkadali and
1. Dip suckers of susceptible varieties in
2 g l-1 carbendazim solution to prevent Nendran. Nendran is a highly susceptible
spread of the disease. variety.
2. Drench the soil around affected clumps with During the young stage of Nendran
2 g l-1 carbendazim solution to prevent banana plant (two months old), pinkish streaks
spread of disease. can be seen on the pseudostem. All the kokkan
3. Remove and destroy affected clumps along affected plants may not show this symptom.
with corms. Necrotic streaks are another important
symptom of the disease. The streaks are
4. Apply lime @ 1 kg pit-1 and allow to initially brown, which later turn black. It occurs
weather. Varieties such as Palayankodan,
on all aerial parts of the affected plant except
Robusta and Nendran are resistant to the
disease. on lamina, the length being a few mm to 10
cm. All the kokkan-affected plants will exhibit
Sigatoka leaf spot (Mycosphaerella sp.) the necrotic streaks from third month onwards
1. Cut and burn all severely affected leaves. at one stage or other. Some of the affected
2. Spray 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture with plants retain the necrotic streaks throughout
sticker soon after the appearance of the the growth period. In certain cases it disappears
initial symptoms of the disease. The disease with the senescence of the affected portion.
appears with the commencement of Leaves of the infected plants also show
southwest monsoon. Five to six sprayings travellers palm like leaf arrangements.
at fortnightly intervals are to be given
The affected plant produces only a small
depending upon the severity of the
disease. bunch. The fingers are small, curved and
widely divergent with pale green to ashy green
3. Petroleum based mineral oil 1 per cent colour as compared to. healthy ones. The
emulsion is also effective in controlling the abnormal colour and reduction in the size of
disease.
bunch depend upon the severity of the disease.
4. Spray carbendazim 1 g l - 1 or give
alternate sprays of mancozeb (2 g l-1) and Suckers should not be taken from
carbendazim (1 g l - 1) soon after the affected plants, which show necrotic streaks
appearance of initial symptoms of the or abnormal colour of the pseudostem.When
disease. Three to four sprays at fortnightly the young plants show the symptom of
intervals are to be given depending on the pinkish streaks, they should be uprooted and
severity of disease. destroyed.
214 BANANA

Infectious chlorosis (Cucumber mosaic linear lesions appear on petiole, midrib,

virus disease) pseudostem and bunches. Under severe
The disease is noticed in varieties such as conditions, necrosis and death of cigar leaf is
Nendran, Palayankodan, Karpooravally, noticed and such plants fail to flower and lead
Kosthabontha, Peykunnan, Bhimkhel, to total yield loss.
Mottapoovan, Dakshinsagar, Madhuraga, For the control of the disease, eradicate
Rasthali and Musa ornata. diseased plants, do not select planting materials
The most characteristic symptoms are the from infected clumps. Avoid growing colocasia
loss of leaf colour in patches, appearance of as intercrop and control of mealy bug vectors.
parallel chlorotic streaks on the younger leaves Process Protocol for Banana flour
giving a striped appearance of the leaves. As production
the disease progresses, leaves emerge
distorted, margins become irregularly wavy, The banana powder is prepared by drying
often with blotches of necrotic tissues and the banana slices at 70oC for 24 h, which was pre-
lamina is reduced in width. In severe cases, treated with 0.5% citric acid for 10 min, in a
rotted areas are found throughout the leaf convective dryer. An ethnic health mix was
sheath and pseudostem. The affected plants also developed out of Nendran banana flour
produce only small bunches. This is a virus and sugar (75:25). The best proportion of
disease transmitted by aphids. Nendran banana flour and sugar were
selected based on the nutritional and sensory
1. Use disease free suckers for planting.
quality parameters. The new product could be
2. Eradicate disease affected plants. stored for more than six months using suitable
3. Avoid growing leguminous and cucurbi- packaging technology.
taceous vegetables as intercrop in banana RTE Snacks from starch based food
in disease prone areas. products
Banana streak disease An extruded Ready To Eat (RTE) snack
Banana streak disease is caused by Banana food product was developed out of starch
streak badna virus and transmitted by based food products such as rice, cassava and
pineapple mealy bug (Dysmicoccus brevipes Nendran banana at optimized process
Cockerell) and striped mealy bug (Ferrisia parameters viz; temperature (180oC), screw
virgata Cockerell). It is predominant on speed (100 rpm) and moisture content (16%)
Palayankodan variety, also noticed on other using a single screw exruder. The best
varieties like Nendran, Chinali and proportion of rice: banana and cassava
Mottapoovan. The symptoms appear on (10:80:10) was selected based on the
different parts of the plant such as leaf lamina, nutritional, engineering, textural and sensory
midrib, pseudostem and on bunches. Linear quality parameters. The new RTE product
chlorotic streaks appear on leaf lamina which could be stored for more than six months using
later turned brown streaks. Such dark brown suitable packaging technology.
GUAVA 215

GUAVA (Psidium guajava)

Guava thrives well in places receiving Manuring

medium rainfall not exceeding 100 cm. In
A fully grown-up bearing plant should be
heavy rainfall areas, plants grow luxuriantly,
manured with about 80 kg of FYM, 200 g N,
but produce insipid and low quality friuts.
80 g P2O5 and 260 g K2O. These may be
It grows well on any type of soil. Red sandy
applied in two or three split doses when there
loam soil with good drainage is the most ideal
is sufficient moisture in the soil.
for commercial cultivation of guava.
Yield
Varieties
Guava layers start bearing from 3-4 years
Allahabad Safeda, Sardar (Lucknow-49),
after planting. About 500-800 fruits per year
Red Fleshed, Apple Coloured and Pear Shaped.
can be obtained from a 10 year old tree.
Planting material Plant protection
Air layering is widely adopted for Fruit rot disease
propagation of selected varieties. Layers strike
roots within 3-5 weeks. When the roots grow This is a serious disease of guava especially
through the ball of moss, the stem may be during rainy season. The symptoms are
severed below the girdled area in stages. The manifested as development of dark brown
polythene film is removed from the circular spots at the blossom end of the
finally severed rooted stem, which is then immature green fruits.
potted and kept in the shade until new leaves
Guava wilt
appear. When the new flushes are produced,
the plant can be hardened in full sunlight In affected trees, the branches wither and
preparatory to transplanting in the field. die one after another and in a few weeks or
months the tree, which seemed entirely healthy
Planting will be dead. Remove such trees as soon as
Pits of one metre cube are made 6 m apart. the symptoms are identified to prevent the
Fill the pits with topsoil, sand and cowdung. spread of the disease.
Layers are planted in the centre of the pit. Fruit fly
Staking of plants is also done, if necessary.
After planting, mulching with dry leaves should This is a serious pest of guava. The insect
be done to conserve moisture. June-July is the affects the fruit when it matures. The infested
ideal time for planting. Plants should be irrigated fruits show depression with dark green
in summer. Square system of planting punctures. As a precautionary measure, the
facilitates easy orchard operations. Guava can crop should be sprayed just before fruit
be grown as an intercrop in coconut gardens. maturity with dimethoate (0.05 per cent).
216 INDIAN GOOSEBERRY AND JACK

INDIAN GOOSEBERRY (Phyllanthus emblica)

Indian Gooseberry/Emblica/Nelli is quite 2-3 days till they split open releasing the seeds.
hardy and can be grown with little care in all The seeds can be directly sown. Gooseberry
types of soil except very sandy type. It can be vegetatively propagated through root
prefers a warm dry climate and is found in the suckers also.
dry deciduous forests of Kerala. One year old seedlings can be planted in
Varieties the field during rainy season at a spacing of 8
m x 8 m. It can be planted as windbreak around
Much genetic variability exists in this the orchard.
species. However, a high yielding larger fruited
No serious pests or diseases are
variety was located from the rain shadow
generally found in this crop.
region of the Western Ghats and popularized
as “Chambakad Large”. Other varieties are Harvesting
Banarasi, Krishna and Kanchan. Seedlings will commence bearing from the
th
10 year and the grafts in 3-4 years. The
Cultivation vegetative growth of the tree continues from
Emblica is usually propagated by seeds and April to July. Along with the new growth in the
vegetatively by wedge grafting. The seeds are spring, flowering commences. Fruits will
enclosed in a hard seed coat, which renders mature by January-February. Yield ranges
the germination difficult. The seeds can be between 30-50 kg per tree per year when full
extracted by sun drying ripe fruits for about grown.

JACK (Artocarpus heterophyllus)

Jack comes up well in humid regions up to 1. Muttom varikka which is a firm fleshed,
an elevation of 1000 m. Soil should be deep sweet scented variety.
and well drained. Any rise in water table or
2. Singapore or Srilanka jack which is an
poor aeration of the soil is detrimental to the
introduced variety from Srilanka. It bears
crop.
fruits in 3 years after planting and is
Varieties / types extremely precocious in habit. The fruits
Jackfruit differs in size, shape and are more or less the same size as the
quality. The jackfruit may be classified into two common jack fruit. A tree may yield as many
groups: (i) soft fleshed (koozha) and (ii) firm as 250 fruits.
fleshed (varikka).The firm fleshed type is
highly tasty, sweet and crisp. The two groups 3. Sindhoor - Higly sweet variety with
are further classified depending on the taste, attractive sunset orange coloured flakes.
size of fruit, odour of flesh and also the nature, Bear medium sized fruits (11-12 kg) twice
shape and diversity of prickles on the rind. a year.

Two distinct types with desirable Planting materials

qualities recommended for Kerala are: Use grafts for planting. For grafting, raise
JACK 217

seedlings in polythene bags and when they are protection, especially to young trees. Jack is
9-12 months old, do inarching. One month after rarely manured. Even without fertilizer
grafting, behead the rootstock above the graft application, the jack trees come up well under
joint. Kerala conditions.

Epicotyl grafting can be undertaken Harvesting

successfully in jack. Three to four month old,
The seedlings generally bear after eight
10 cm long scions are grafted on five days old years and the grafted plants after three years
rootstocks in polythene bags by the cleft method of planting. The fruiting season lasts about four
during the month of June and keep under moist months from January-February to May-June.
conditions. The scions should be pre-cured 10 The average yield from one tree is about
days before grafting by clipping the leaf blades 50-100 fruits per year.
and keeping the petioles intact on the twig. The
graft union establishes by 80 days after grafting Plant protection
operations. The important pests of jack are
A new method of approach grafting utilizing shoot borer caterpillar, mealy bug and jack
scale.
sprouted jack seedlings (maximum 20 days old)
as root stock and tender shoot tips of 2 to 3 The common diseases that attack the tree
weeks old with one or two tender leaves as are the pink disease, stem rot and fruit rot.
scion is successful, fast and cost affective. Pruning of affected plants and protecting
the cut ends with Bordeaux paste are
Season
recommended against these diseases.
Plant one year old grafts at the onset of Ready to cook tender jack fruit
monsoon showers.
A process protocol developed for canning
Planting of tender jack fruit involves treatment
Prepare pits of size 60 cm x 60 cm x combinations like blanching process, thermal
processing parameters viz; time, temperature
60 cm at a spacing of 12-15 m. Fill pits with
and preservatives were optimized based on the
mixture of topsoil and 10 kg compost or FYM
quality analysis and shelf life studies. The
per pit to a level higher than the adjoining
study concluded that the samples which were
ground. Plant the grafts in the same depth as
blanched for one minute at 100 o C and
they were in the containers, preferably in the
pasteurized at 90oC for F value 10 were found
late evening. Deep planting results in poor to be superior. A shelf life of 2 years could be
growth of the graft. Ensure that the graft joint achieved for pasteurised and sterilised tender
is above the soil level. Stake the plants to jack fruit at refrigerated storage and ambient
prevent snapping at the graft joints. Excellent condition respectively, using this new
drainage and adequate watering result in better technology. The product resembled the fresh
performance. At no stage it should be exposed sample, available to the consumers in a ready
to drought or frost. It is useful to provide some to cook form throughout the year.
218 MANDARIN ORANGE

MANDARIN ORANGE (Citrus reticulata)

Mandarin orange is a subtropical fruit Manuring

growing in the high ranges of Kerala. It The manuring schedule recommended is
requires deep soil rich in humus. The crop given below.
cannot withstand waterlogging. It is grown in
Time after FYM N:P2O5:K2O
regions having good drainage. planting kg/plant g/plant/year
Preparation of land 1st year 2 40:20:25
Dig pits of size 70 cm x 60 cm x 70 cm at a 2nd year 4 80:35:50
spacing of 7-8 m at least one month in rd
3 year 6 160:75:100
advance of planting.
4th year 8 300:100:150
Planting material
5th year 10 600:175:300
Use budded plants for planting. For
th
raising seedlings, extract seeds from selected 6 year 10 800:275:750
fruits by squeezing. Wash the seeds free of th
7 year onwards 10 800:275:1000
pulp and dry them. Make seedbeds 1.5 m long,
1 m wide and 15 cm height. Sow the seeds Apply organic manure in May and
giving a spacing of 13 cm in a row and 3 cm fertilizers in two equal split doses during June-
between the rows. Thin the seedlings if July and in September-October. In addition to
necessary or plant selected seedlings in the above manures and fertilizers, spray
secondary nursery. For budding, use rough micronutrients such as zinc sulphate 500 g,
copper sulphate 500 g, manganese sulphate
lemon (jambhiri) seedlings as rootstock. Raise
300 g and lime 500 g in 100 litres of water per
the rootstock seedlings in a nursery and when
ha twice in a year during March and October-
they are 18-24 months old, budding may be
November.
done by the inverted “T” method. The best
time for budding is from July to September. A After cultivation
month after insertion, lop off the vegetative Give a light digging or ploughing when the
growth of the seedling above the bud joint rains start.
completely. The budded plants are ready for
Pruning
planting in 6-12 months.
In the early stages, give some formative
Time and method for planting pruning to establish a strong framework.
Planting is done during July-August. Lift the Remove all shoots arising from rootstock
plants carefully with a ball of earth around the below the bud union. Remove dead branches
roots and plant them carefully without and smear the cut ends with Bordeaux paste.
disturbing the roots. While planting, remove the Do not prune the roots.
bandage around the bud joint and keep the bud Intercropping
joint at least 10-15 cm above soil surface. Crops like coffee, cardamom, banana and
Remove the vegetative growth arising below pineapple can be planted as intercrops
the bud union periodically. depending on soil fertility status.
MANDARIN ORANGE AND MANGO 219

Plant protection Cutting and burning of the affected

branches and injecting petrol during May is
For controlling citrus butterfly, hand
recommended against the borers.
picking of caterpillars and spraying with a
contact insecticide are to be done. Among diseases, dieback, root and
collar rot are important. Periodical removal of
To control stem borer incidence, chip off
dried twigs and application of Bordeaux paste
the affected new shoots inject 1 per cent on cut ends and application of Bordeaux
dichlorvos into the tunnels. To control aphids mixture 1 per cent can control dieback disease.
apply dimethoate 0.05 per cent.
Against root and collar rot, removal of soil
Stem borers (Chelidonium sp., from the base of the trunk, scraping of the dead
Chloridolum sp. and Nupserha sp.) cause bark and application of lime sulphur
withering of branches. Gum exudes from holes are to be done. As an alternative, smear
on stems and branches. Accumulation of wood Bordeaux paste over the treated roots and
dust on ground around the base is another stem. Exposing the main roots to a depth of
symptom of borer damage. about 30 cm is also advised.

MANGO (Mangifera indica)

Mango is adaptable to a wide range of Vegetative propagation

climate and soil conditions and grows well from Stone grafting is successful in mango.
sea level up to about 1500 m above mean sea August is ideal for the operation. Select four
level. It withstands both fairly dry month old scion materials. Defoliation of scion
conditions and heavy rainfall. shoots 10 days prior to grafting is
Varieties beneficial. Grafting of 8 cm long scion on
rootstocks at a height of 6 to 8 cm is most
Alphonso, Kalapady, Neelum, Mundappa,
successful. The dieback disease of grafts
Pairi, Baneshan, Alampur Baneshan, Mulgoa,
caused by Colletotrichum can be controlled
Suvarnarekha, Bangalora, Bennet Alphonso by spraying 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture.
(Sindhuram), Prior (Priyur), Muvandan,
Vellaikolamban (Kolambu mavu), Chandra- Planting
karan (Juicy/suitable for tender mango pickle). Select good grafts for planting. Planting can
Hybrids be done in square system or hexagonal
system. Prepare pits of size 1 m x 1 m x 1 m at
Hybrid No.45 (Bennet Alphonso x
a spacing of 9 m, one month before
Himayuddin), Hybrid No.87 (Kalapady x
planting and allow to weather. Refill pits with
Alampur Baneshan), Hybrid No.151 mixture of topsoil and 10 kg of compost or
(Kalapady x Neelum), Ratna. FYM per pit to a level higher than the adjoining
Season ground. Plant the grafts at the same depths as
Plant one year old grafts with the onset of they were in the containers, preferably in the
monsoon showers so that they get established late evening. Deep planting results in poor
before the rains. If rainfall is heavy, planting growth of the plant. Ensure that the graft joint
should be done during August-September. is above the soil level. Tie the plants to stakes
220 MANGO

to prevent snapping at the graft joints. ii) Keep the soil moist by watering at an
Manuring interval of 15-20 days.
Apply FYM/compost and fertilizers at the iii) Proper management practices should be
rate indicated below: followed to maintain the health of the
trees.
Age of FYM N:P2O5:K2O After cultivation
plant kg/plant/year (g/plant/year)
Base banding technique for Loranthus
1st year 10 20:18:50 management: To manage the mistletoes in
mangoes, base banding with a strip of cotton
2nd year 15 50:27:75 cloth (20cm long, 1cm width) soaked in 2%
2,4-D on a fresh wound, either on the root
3-5 years 25 100:36:100
system or lower most portion of the parasite
6-7 years 40 250:172:200 stem will be effective.
Irrigate twice a week during summer
8-10 years 50 400:144:400
months till the plants are 4-5 years old. Grow
Over 10 years 75 500:360:750 vegetables, horse gram, black gram,
pineapple and banana as intercrops in young
orchards. Carry out intercultural operations by
Green leaves (25 kg/plant) and wood ash
ploughing or digging twice during the year in
(10-15 kg/plant) may be applied additionally.
June and October. For reducing fruit
Apply organic manures in May-June with
drop and to improve productivity, NAA at
the onset of monsoon. Apply the fertilizers in
10-30 ppm concentration may be sprayed to
one dose during May-June until bearing stage the entire inflorescence at the peak stage in
and thereafter in two equal split doses, the second week after fruit set.
the first during May-June and the second during
Plant protection
August-September. Apply manures and
fertilizers in trenches 30 cm deep taken at a Base banding technique for Loranthus
distance of 2.5 to 3 m from the base management: To manage the mistletoes in
of the tree. mangoes, base banding with a strip of cotton
cloth (20 cm long, 1cm width) soaked in 2%
Induction of flowering and improvement of
2,4-D on a fresh wound, either on the root
yield in adult mango trees (> 15 years old)
system or lower most portion of the parasite
Apply Paclobutrazol @ 5.0 g / tree, stem will be effective.
Time of application : September avoiding rainy The important pests of mango are
periods hoppers, stem borers, shoot midges, leaf
Method of application: Dilute in 10 litres of feeding insects, fruit flies and psyllids. The
water and drench soil at about 60 cm away common diseases are the powdery mildew,
from tree trunk. anthracnose and dieback. To control mango
hopper spray malathion 0.1 per cent at the time
Precautions
of flowering. To control mango stem borer,
i) Soil should be wet at the time of apply paste made of crude carbolic acid (130
application. ml), soft soap (1 kg) and hot water (3.7 litres)
MANGO AND PAPPAYA 221

to holes in the bark and plug the holes.To B. bassiana formulation @ 10 litre solution /
control fruit fly, spray malathion 0.1 per cent 40m2 under tree canopy (containing 20 g
emulsion / suspension containing 2 per cent formulation/litre) during fruiting season and
sugar. Collect and destroy attacked fruits that post harvest treatment of harvested fruits with
rot and drop down. Fruit flies can be effectively luke warm water (48oC) containing 1% salt
managed by keeping Ocimum trap @ 4/tree for 15 minutes is recommended.
and collection and destruction of fallen fruits To control shoot midge, which causes the
by taking deep pits having at least 60 cm depth, drying of tender shoots, spray dimethoate 0.05
setting up of Pheromone trap (methyl eugenol per cent. Apply wettable sulphur for the
trap) @ 1trap per 15 cents, swabing the tree control of powdery mildew. To control dieback
trunk with jaggery 10% containing malathion of twigs and branches,cut the affected twigs
0.1% @ 1 litre/tree during fruiting season below the infected region and apply Bordeaux
at fortnightly intervals, soil application of paste to the cut ends.

PAPAYA (Carica papaya)

Papaya thrives well in tropical climate. The of 5 cm in rows 15 cm apart. To raise seedlings
occurrence of low temperature and frost limits for planting in a hectare, 250 g seeds are
its cultivation. The optimum temperature for required. Seed beds should be watered daily,
the growth and development of papaya is 22- if there is no rain.
26ºC. In Kerala, the limiting factors for
commercial cultivation are high rainfall and Papaya seedlings raised in polythene bags
severe drought in summer. However, this is can stand transplanting better than that raised
best suited as a homestead fruit crop. The in seedbeds. Polythene bags of 20 cm x 15 cm
papaya prefers a rich, well-drained soil. It will size and 150 gauge thickness are used as
not tolerate waterlogging around the trunk. containers. They are filled with a mixture of
FYM, soil and sand in equal proportions.
Varieties Two seeds are sown in each bag and after
Washington, Honey Dew, Coorg Honey germination, only one seedling is retained.
Dew, Solo, Pusa Dwarf, Surya, Co-7, Pusa Vegetative propagation by mound layering is
Nanha, Pusa Giant; Co-2 and Co-5 are also possible.
suitable for papain extraction. Planting
Propagation Two months old seedlings are transplanted
Papaya is propagated almost entirely by in the main field in May-June at a spacing of 2
seeds. The best time for raising papaya m x 2 m. Pits of size 50 cm x 50 cm x 50 cm
seedlings is from February to March. The are taken and filled with topsoil. Male plants
seeds are sown in raised seedbeds of 2 m x are removed as soon as they flower and the
1 m made 15 cm above the ground level or in female and hermaphrodite plants are
polythene bags. A mixture of sand, leaf mould retained. In pure female plantations, one male
and dried FYM is spread over the seedbed. plant is retained for every 10 female plants.
The seeds are sown 2-3 cm deep at a distance Seedlings are shaded to protect them from
222 PAPPAYA

excessive sunlight until they establish. In preferred for papain extraction. Tapping of
hermaphrodite or monoecious types male plants fruits can be done early in the morning by giving
may not be required. longitudinal skin depth incisions (3 mm) on the
surface of the fruits from the stalk end to tip.
Manuring Stainless steel blades or knives or bamboo
Organic manure may be applied @10 to splinters are used for incising papaya fruits.
25 kg/plant/year at the onset of southwest The milky latex is collected in arecanut spathes
monsoon in basins around the plant. Each or aluminium or glass vessels. The incisions
papaya plant should also be supplied with are repeated in two or three subsequent
occasions at 3 to 4 days intervals. The latex
40 g N, 40 g P2O5 and 80 g K2O at bimonthly
collected in this way is dried in the sun or in an
interval.
artificial drier at 50-55oC. A small quantity of
Intercultivation and intercropping potassium metabisulphite is added to the
Keep the papaya plot free of weeds. Two liquid latex to extend the storage life of
hand diggings, one in the beginning of papain. The dried latex can be stored in
the rainy season and another in January- airtight polythene or glass containers for a
February are necessary. When papaya is grown period of six months. Tapped fruits are equally
as the main crop, vegetables can be profitably tasty as untapped fruits, although impaired in
cultivated as intercrop for about six months appearance.
from planting of papaya seedlings. Plant protection
Irrigation Papaya mealy bug
The crop should be irrigated in summer. The Bio-control of papaya mealy bug using
ring system of irrigation is better for parasitoid - See page 332.
papaya than the basin system because the ring Damping off
system prevents irrigation water coming into It causes rotting of seedlings in the
contact with the stem, thus preventing collar nursery. This can be prevented by sterilizing
rot. the soil of the seedbed with 2.5 per cent
Harvesting formaldehyde solution and covering it for 48
The seedlings flower and set fruit hours with polythene sheets. This treatment is
within 3-5 months after transplanting. The given 15 days before sowing.
number of fruits harvested per tree per year Collar rot or stem rot
varies from 25 to 30. Fruits showing Waterlogging and poor drainage are
streaks of yellow colour are harvested. the chief contributing factors. Application of
Although papaya trees bear flowers and Bordeaux paste on the stem and soil
fruits continuously for many years, it is drenching with Bordeaux mixture 1 per cent
not economical to retain the trees after are control measures.
2.5 to 3 years. Anthracnose
Extraction of papain It causes premature fruit fall and leaf
Papain is an active enzyme present in the fall. To control, spray 1% Bordeaux mixture.
latex or milky secretion of papaya plants and Papaya mosaic and papaya leaf curl are two
immature fruits. Half to three-fourth matured serious virus diseases of papaya. Remove the
fruits (about 70 to 100 days from fruit set) are affected plants and burn them immediately.
PINEAPPLE 223

PINEAPPLE (Ananas comosus)

Pineapple is mostly grown at low another 7 days. Dip the cured suckers in 1per
elevations in areas with a temperature cent Bordeaux mixture at the time of planting.
range of 15 to 30ºC. Pineapple is tolerant
Planting
to drought because of the special water
storage cells. They can be grown with a Rake the soil and plant the suckers in double
wide range of rainfall from 600-2500 mm/ rows at spacing of 45 cm x 30 cm.
annum, the optimum being 1000-1500 mm.
Limit the depth of planting to 7.5 to 10 cm.
Pineapple can be grown in a wide range of Adopt triangular method of planting in each
soils, but does not tolerate waterlogging. It can trench so that the plants in two adjacent rows
be grown as a pure crop on plantation scale or are not opposite to each other (plant population
as an intercrop in coconut gardens. 40400 / ha).
Season Manuring
The planting season is May-June. Apply compost / cattle manure at 25 t ha-1
Planting should be avoided during the as basal dressing. Apply fertilizers at the
periods of heavy rains. following dosage:
Varieties Dose N:P 2O 5:K2O
There are three varieties viz., Kew, Amritha Per plant per year (g) 8:4:8
and Mauritius. Per hectare per year (kg) 320:160:320
1. KEW Apply full dose of P2O5 at the time of
Kew is a variety recommended for planting. Nitrogen and K2O may be applied in
large scale commercial cultivation in Kerala. four splits, during May-June (at planting),
The Package of Practices recommendations August-September, November and May-June
for its cultivation is detailed below. (2nd year).
Note: In places where rains are scanty
Preparation of the land
during November, N and K 2 O may be
Prepare the land for planting by applied in three equal splits - two doses in 1st
ploughing or digging followed by levelling. year (May-June and August-September) and
Depending on the nature of land, prepare the third in May-June of the second year. After
trenches of convenient length and about application of fertilizers, cover with soil by
90 cm width and 15-30 cm depth. The trenches scraping the sides of trenches.
are to be aligned at a distance of 165 cm from
Irrigation
centre to centre.
During summer months, pineapple should
Selection and treatment of suckers be irrigated wherever possible at 0.6 IW/CPE
Select healthy suckers of uniform size ratio (50 mm depth of water). It requires five
weighing 500-1000 g. Keep suckers in open or six irrigations during dry months at an
space under shade in a single layer for about 7 interval of 22 days. Mulching the crop with
days for drying. Strip off a few lower old dried dry leaves at 6 t ha-1 will help to conserve
leaves. Allow the suckers to dry and cure for moisture.
224 PINEAPPLE

Weed control August-September, but can also be planted in

For effective and economic weed control, all months except during heavy rain of June-
use weedicides. Pre-emergent spray with July. The best time for planting is
diuron 3 kg or bromacil 2.5 kg in 600 litres of August. For getting maximum price and
water per hectare completely controls all types better keeping quality, the best planting time is
of weeds in pineapple plantation. If there is April-May. During summer months, if there are
subsequent growth of weeds, herbicide no summer showers after planting, irrigation
application may be repeated at half the above should be given three weeks after planting for
dose. Spraying should be done when there is proper establishment.
adequate moisture in the soil. Avoid periods of
Cropping system
heavy rainfall for spraying.
Induction of flowering Mauritius can be grown as a pure crop in
garden land, reclaimed lowlands and
For inducement of uniform flowering,
wetlands and as an intercrop in coconut and
apply 25 ppm ethephon (2-chloro ethyl
newly planted rubber plantations. In
phosphonic acid) in aqueous solution
rubber plantation, it can be grown for the first
containing 2 per cent urea and 0.04 per cent
3-4 years only.
calcium carbonate as follows:
The mixture (50 ml/plant) is to be applied Land preparation
pouring into the heart of 10-12 months old Pure crop : Prepare the land by digging the
plants (39-42 leaf stage) during dry weather. area to be planted at 90 cm width in rows/
For treating 1000 plants, 50 litres of the strips, leaving the interspaces undisturbed.
solution would be required. (The ingredients
However, ploughing can be adopted in level
for preparing 50 litres of the aqueous
land. Planting is done in paired rows of
solution are ethephon 1.25 ml, urea 1 kg and
calcium carbonate 20 g, made up to 50 litres 45 cm distance between rows and 30 cm
with water. The dosage has to be fixed between suckers. Suckers may be planted in
depending on the availability of commercial triangular method in the paired rows.
formulation and the active ingredient Interspace between the paired rows is kept at
contents). Fruits will be ready for harvest by 150 cm. Contour planting may be adopted in
5 ¼ - 5 ¾ months after the application of sloppy areas.
growth regulator. Intercropping in coconut garden: Land
Flowering will commence from 40th day preparation, spacing and planting are the same
after application and complete by 70th day. as described above. There can be three-paired
2. MAURITIUS rows in between two rows of coconut.
Mauritius is recommended for Intercropping in rubber plantations:
commercial cultivation for table purposes and System of planting is in paired rows at
distant marketing, due to its shorter duration, 45 cm x 30 cm. There will be only one paired
better fruit quality, keeping quality and row of pineapple in between two rows of
transportability. rubber.
Season Cowpea, sunhemp or daincha can be sown
Main season of planting is April-May and in the interspaces and covered with soil soon
PINEAPPLE 225

after planting the suckers. The biomass can 30 cm between plants in the rows. There is no
be uprooted at flowering and applied to need to plant the suckers in trenches.
pineapple plots as manure. This will also help Manuring
to control the weeds by smothering them up to Apply compost / FYM @ 25 t ha-1 at the
four months. time of planting. Application of 10 t ha-1 (250g/
Wetlands / lowlands: Pineapple is highly plant) of poultry manure or vermi-
sensitive to water stagnation and high compost., or 2 t ha-1 (50g/plant) of neem cake
moisture regimes. Hence it is important to along with 2.5kg of Azospirillum (1g/plant) and
provide good drainage, if grown in wetlands. 2.5kg of Phosphobactor is also equally
In paddy lands, pineapple is planted in paired effective. Apply fertilizers @ 8:4:8 g
rows at 45 cm x 30 cm spacing on ridges taken N:P2O5:K2O per plant per year. Full dose of
at 60-90 cm height, depending on the water P 2 O 5 is applied at the time of planting.
table and drainage requirement. The ridges are Nitrogen and K2O are applied as four equal
separated by drainage channels having 60 cm split doses after planting. First dose may be
width. The width of the ridges varies from 120- applied at 40-50 days after planting and
150 cm. Wherever water stagnation and poor thereafter at 60-70 days intervals.
drainage are expected, a wider and deeper Intercropping
channel is given in between ridges.
Vegetables and tuber crops can be grown
Selection of suckers as rainfed intercrops. Plant ginger or coleus
Suckers are selected from disease and pest (in four rows at 30 cm x 30 cm spacing in raised
free healthy plants. Suckers are to be graded beds) or brinjal or bhindi (in two rows at 75 cm
into those having 500-750 g and 750-1000 g. x 60cm spacing) in the inter space in May last
The graded suckers are planted in different week. This will help to obtain additional returns
blocks or plots, to get uniformity in growth and and also control weed growth.
flowering. Bigger suckers give early yield. Irrigation
Dipping in 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture and Wherever irrigation facilities are available,
0.05 per cent quinalphos will protect the suckers providing irrigation in summer months at two
against diseases and pests. weeks intervals results in good fruit size and
Prophylactic treatment of suckers: A high yield. If there is no irrigation facility, the
combination of Mancozeb (0.03 per cent a.i.) crop should be scheduled for harvest before
and Chlorpyrifos (0.05 per cent a.i.) can also summer months (before March).
be used for sucker treatment. Dipping Weed control
suckers in 0.2 per cent Pseudomonas is also
Pre-emergence (within a few weeks
effective to control suckers from diseases.
after planting) spray of diuron @ 1 kg ha-1 in
Planting 600 litres of water can keep the field free of
After preliminary land preparations, weeds for about four months. For subsequent
planting is done in small pits of 10-15 cm depth weed control, herbicide application is
at a spacing of 45 cm between rows and repeated. For controlling Mikania micrantha
226 PINEAPPLE

(vayara valli or American valli), spot plants should be destroyed and the remaining
application of diuron can be adopted. Spraying plants should be drenched with 1 per cent
should be done in moist soil, but avoid rainy Bordeaux mixture in the soil. Leaf spot can be
periods. Weeds in interspaces can be controlled controlled by spraying 1 per cent Bordeaux
by spraying glyphosate 0.8 kg ha-1. While mixture or mancozeb 2 g l-1.
spraying in interspaces, care should be taken
Pests
that the weedicide shall not fall on pineapple
plant. Mealy bugs (Dysmicoccus brevipes/
Pseudococcus bromeliae): Spray quinalphos
Flower induction 0.05 per cent, chlorpyriphos 0.05 per cent or
For inducing uniform flowering, 25 ppm dimethoate 0.05 per cent. Care should be taken
ethephon is applied on physiologically that the spray shall reach the base and also
mature plants having 39-42 leaves (7-8 months the sides of the plant. The plot should be kept
after planting). The solution for application weed free. For the control of mealy bugs,
in 1000 plants is prepared by adding 1.25 ml of control of ants is a must.
ethephon (3.2 ml of 39 per cent ethrel or 12.5 Pineapple wilt associated virus is
ml of 10 per cent ethrel), 1 kg urea and 20 g transmitted by mealy bugs (Dysmicoccus
calcium carbonate to 50 litres of water. Pour brevipes Cockerell). Mealy bugs are
50 ml of the prepared solution to the heart of mobilized by ants. For the management
the plant during dry weather conditions (when of the disease, preventive methods like,
there is no rain during the time of application). destruction of diseased plants, treating
Flowering starts by 30 days and suckers by dipping in chlorpyrifos 0.05 per cent
completes within 40 days of growth before planting, keeping pineapple fields weed
regulator application. Fruits will be ready for free and control of mealy bugs by spraying/
harvest by 130-135 days after the application drenching with chlorpyrifos 0.05 per cent are
of growth regulator. Harvest over to be adopted.
different months / seasons could be obtained Scale insects (Diaspus bromeliae):
by carefully phasing / planning the planting and Spraying of chemicals for the control of mealy
growth regulator application. bugs, mentioned above, will be sufficient for
the control of scale insects.
Plant protection
Ratoon cropping
Sun burn: During summer months it is
necessary to protect the fruits from The plant crop after harvest can be
scorching sun by putting dried grasses, retained as ratoon crop for two more years.
coconut or arecanut leaves. After the harvest of the plant crop, chopping
the side leaves of the mother plant should be
Diseases
done for easy cultural operations. The
Root rot / heart rot / fruit rot caused by suckers retained should be limited to one or
Phytophthora sp. is common in poor two per mother plant. Excess suckers if any
drainage conditions. Providing drainage is most should be removed. Earthing up should be
essential. The water table should be at least done. Other management practices are same
60 cm below the soil surface. Badly affected as for the plant crop.
SAPOTA AND WEST INDIAN CHERRY 227

SAPOTA (Manilkara zapota)

Sapota requires a temperature range of 11 Apply the manures and fertilizers in

to 34 oC and an annual precipitation of trenches 30 cm deep taken at a distance of
225-375 cm. It can be grown in all types of 1 m from the base of the tree.
soil, but well drained soil is necessary for good Irrigation
growth.
Varieties Irrigation may not be necessary except
during the early stages and in the hot
Cricket Ball, Oval, Kalipatti, Badami,
weather; but good crops can be obtained
Baramasi, Calcutta Round, Pala and PKM-1
with irrigation.
Propagation
Training and pruning
It is propagated through layers and grafts.
Manilkara hexandra (khirni) is the best No pruning is necessary; but in old trees,
rootstock for inarching sapota. lower branches can be removed up to 1 m
Season height.
The season of planting is May-June. Flowering and fruiting
Planting should be avoided during the The tree flowers continuously in several
periods of heavy rains. flushes at short intervals throughout the year.
Planting But there are two seasons when flowers will
Planting is done in pits of 60 cm x 60 cm x be produced profusely i.e., October to
60 cm at a square spacing of 7-8 m. November and February to March. Grafted
Manuring sapota begins to bear in the third year after
The recommended nutrient dosage for a planting. Fruit production increases with age
full-grown sapota tree per year is: up to 30 years followed by a decline. Fruits
mature about 4 months after flowering.
FYM 55 kg
Harvesting
N:P2O5:K2O 500:360:750 g
Apply FYM in May-June with the Mature fruits, which are dull brown in
onset of monsoon. Apply the fertilizers colour, are harvested and stored for about five
in two equal split doses, the first during days before they are fully ripened for
May-June and the second during August- consumption. Ripe fruits can be kept for about
September. 5 to 7 days.

WEST INDIAN CHERRY (Malphigia punicifolia)

West Indian cherry, also known as Varieties
Barbados cherry is the richest source of
Two distinct types are seen.
vitamin C. It is a medium sized shrub, which
thrives well in tropical climate. It is best suited Pink flower type
as a homestead fruit crop and prefers a rich Flowers are pink and are born in
well drained soil. clusters in leaf axils. Fruits are large in size
228 WEST INDIAN CHERRY AND APPLE

(about 6 g) and red coloured when ripe. dressed with fertilizers @ 100 g N,
White flower type 160 g P2O5 and 260 g K2O. These may be
Flowers are white and are borne in applied in two splits, in June-July and again in
clusters in leaf axils. Fruits are small (about January, when there is sufficient moisture in
1 g) and orange coloured when fully ripe. the soil.
Planting materials Pruning
West Indian cherry is usually raised from Pruning is done once in a year to
layers. Vegetative propagation by means of maintain regular shape. Pruning consists of
hardwood cuttings along with leaves is removal of dried and diseased wood and also
feasible, though the percentage of rooting is the drooping branches.
very low. Air layering is highly successful when
Flowering, fruiting and harvesting
treated with IBA. Layers strike roots within
3-4 weeks. When the roots peep out through Rooted cuttings and layers flower in six
the ball of moss or coir pith, the stem may be months. Flowering commences in the middle
severed in stages. The rooted layer is potted of May and extends up to August. The
after removing the polythene film and kept in harvest of fruits commences from August and
shade till new flushes appear. Plants may be continues up to November. Rarely, flowering
hardened in full sunlight prior to transplanting. is noticed in March and the crop comes to
Chip budding, shield budding, side grafting and harvest in April / May.
veneer grafting are also successful to a
Yield
limited extent.
The average yield during fourth year is
Planting
2 kg per plant.
For planting, pits of size 0.5 m x 0.5 m x 0.5 m
are made, 6 m apart. Fill the pit with topsoil Processing
and 10 kg cowdung. After planting, mulching The fruits may be consumed fresh or its
may be done with dry leaves to conserve mois- pulp can be used for preparation of juice, jam,
ture. July to December is considered to be the jelly, preserve, syrup etc. The juice or pulp may
best time for planting. Irrigation once in four also be used to fortify ascorbic acid
days during early stages of growth up to one content of various other products. Its juice can
year of planting and later on, once in 7-10 days be used to blend with other fruit juices to give
is necessary. delicious mixed fruit cocktails and
Manuring also to improve their nutritive value. As the
A fully grown, bearing plant should be top richest natural source of vitamin C.

APPLE (Malus sylvestris)

Apple is an important temperate fruit suited Preparation of land

for growing in the high ranges of Kerala. Slop- The planting distance in India varies from
ing sites to allow free drainage are considered 7-10 m, depending upon the vigour of plant.
more suitable than level tops. The ideal soil The pit should be of 1 m wide and 20 cm deep
types are loam, sandy loam and silt loam with so that all roots may be accommodated in a
open porous and well-drained subsoil. well spread condition.
APPLE 229

Planting material secondary branches. During the second

Apples are ordinarily propagated by dormant pruning, the crowded, misplaced or
budding or grafting on seedlings of Crab apple, diseased secondary branches are removed and
Yellow Newton or Golden Delicious. Winters the extra vigorous ones headed back. This pro-
are best for whip grafting. Shield budding is cess is continued for 4 or 5 years, at the end of
done in June with the season’s bud. Both whip which there are 8 to 10 scaffold branches.
grafting and shield budding are widely prac- It is desirable to add 100-150 g of nitrogen
ticed in India. Low chilling varieties are suit- as sulphate of ammonia. Similar quantities of
able for Kerala. phosphate and potash should be added when
Time and method of planting required. Five quintals of bone meal and 10
quintals of wood ash per hectare are given
Apples are planted in the ground free of
annually besides the fertilizers. Fertilizers should
weeds. Regularly irrigated for about two years
be mixed with the soil at a radius of 1 m from
in the beginning. Planting is done late in win-
the plant.
ter. For adequate root development a
temperature of 7oC is considered ideal. Thinning of fruit
Pruning Thinning of fruit is also practised in
order to improve fruit colour and fruit size. It
Pruning and training are important in apple
is desirable to retain one fruit for every
cultivation. One year old plants are cut back
40 leaves. This spaces the fruit at about
at about 80-100 cm above ground. If branches
15-20 cm apart and there will be only one fruit
are present at this time, only 4 to 5 of them
per spur.
ought to be retained and shortened in length.
No shoot is retained upto 50 cm from ground. Harvesting
At the time of first dormant pruning, the main
Much of the success in apple production
scaffold branches are cut back to about half a
depends on proper picking, storage and
metre in length.
disposal. When a fruit separates easily from
Secondary branches arise from these main the spur, firmness of flesh and taste are
limbs. Some of the new shoots arising early in desirable. The harvested fruits may be stored
the second summer are rubbed off in for 120-150 days at 4-5oC, provided there is
order to develop only a few vigorous good circulation of air.
230 ANTHURIUM

ORNAMENTAL PLANTS
ANTHURIUM (Anthurium spp.)

Anthurium is one of the important separating suckers from flowering plants as

economic flowers of export potential. There and when available and planted in the
are more than 500 species and several varieties. medium. Cutting the thick main stem into
Few of them are commercially important. 3-4 cm long discs and then into vertical bits
Anthurium andreanum, is economically can also be done. Each bit should have
cultivated for cut flowers. They are partially minimum two lateral buds. Cut-pieces are
epiphytic in growth habit. Plants prefer to grow treated with a fungicide solution and planted
under shade. The tolerable level of light in the on a medium of clean river sand. Cuttings will
tropical region during summer is 20-30 per cent. take 1-2 months for sprouting.
Excess light causes yellowing and scorching Seedlings and sprouted cuttings of
of leaves. Very low light intensity causes 5-10 cm height are transferred to the main field
excessive vegetative growth and low or pots. Planting in pots is preferred in the plains.
flowering. It is preferable to grow anthurium Cultivation in beds is good at higher altitudes
in the open, under artificial shade structures (about 1000 m above MSL). A loose medium
for better growth and yield. Plant prefers to above the ground is suitable for
grow under a relative humidity of not less than anthurium. Old and chopped coconut husk (3
60 per cent and a temperature of not more cm size) mixed with brick pieces and
than 18-28oC. charcoal are filled in narrow trenches 10 cm
Propagation below and above ground level.

Anthurium is multiplied by seed and Pots can also be filled with the same
vegetatively by stem cuttings or by separation of mixture. An ideal pot should be 30 cm
basal sprouts. Propagation by seed is not diameter at top with 3 large holes at the bottom
recommended as a commercial propagation on sides. One plant can be planted in a pot. On
method as it results in high variability. Plants ground, the spacing is 45 to 60 cm depending
can be multiplied in large number by upon the variety. Fresh cowdung or neem cake
micro-propagation techniques from the mixed with 10-15 times of water, kept for 4-5
tender leaf bits. days, can be sprayed on the plants after
filtering. Cow’s urine can be sprayed or
Varieties drenched after mixing with 25 times of water.
The economic varieties suitable for Kerala Water soluble fertilizer (19:19:19) 2 g / l is
condition are Lima White, Cuba, Agnihotri, applied in the medium once a week. Slow
Liver Red, Can Can, Tropical, Nitta, Sunburst, release fertilizers, if used, need be given only
Linda-de-Mol, Tinora, Acropolis, Gino Orange once in 2-3 months. Pruning of older leaves,
and Midori. removal of suckers at young stage, cleaning of
crown before rains etc. are other operations to
Planting and after care be carried out in order to have a better growth
Plants are propagated vegetatively by and flowering.
ANTHURIUM AND ORCHIDS 231

Plant protection Root rot caused by Pythium and

Phytophthora can be controlled by the
Diseases application of potassium phosphonate 0.3 per
The two major diseases are bacterial blight cent.
and anthracnose. Blackening of the stem and Pests
decay of leaf axils are the symptoms of
The major pests are scales and bugs, which
bacterial blight. Spraying a mixture of
are controlled by spraying malathion @ 2 ml
turmeric powder and sodium bi carbonate in
per litre of water. Snails also cause damage to
the proportion 10:1@ 0.15 per cent at weekly
young roots. Use of metaldehyde can prevent
interval from the initiation of the disease is
the attack of snails.
effective for the management of bacterial blight
of anthurium. Harvesting
Tiny circular black spots appear on leaf and The flowers are harvested with its long stem
spadix in case of anthracnose. Spraying when 1/4th to 3/4th flowers on the spadix are open,
mancozeb 0.3 per cent or carbendazim 0.05 indicated by the change of colour. Colour
per cent can control the disease. change varies with the varieties.

ORCHIDS

Orchids are noted for their bewitchingly the atmosphere. Both terrestrial and epiphytes
beautiful, long lasting flowers, widely grow under varying levels of shade. Plants
differing in shape, size and colour. They grown under deep shade will have good
belong to the family Orchidaceae, reported to vegetative growth and poor flowering. Hence
comprise over 600 genera, 30000 species and shade and light regulations are very important
about 1.5 lakhs man made hybrids. They have operations for better flowering. A humid and
varying habitats but epiphytic orchids warm atmosphere is congenial for the growth
dominate the trade. They are also classed as of most of the tropical orchids. Better results
monopodials (stems having a vertical growth, are obtained when the atmospheric humidity
non branching, with aerial roots) and sympodials is 50 to 80 per cent. Orchids require proper
(stems having a horizontal growth, producing temperature for good growth and flowering.
pseudobulbs in clusters, no aerial roots). Accordingly there are tropical, subtropical and
temperate orchids.
The ideal location for orchid growing is in
the open conditions, under appropriate level of Genera/varieties
shade. In Kerala certain orchids are grown The popular genera of orchids
under the shade of old coconut trees. that are suitable for growing in Kerala are
Most attractive orchids belong to the group Arachnis, Aranthera, Vanda, Phalaenopsis
of epiphytes, which require free (monopodials); Aranda, Mokara (inter-
moving air at all times. They produce aerial generic monopodials); Dendrobium,
roots, which absorb water and nutrients from Cattleya, Oncidium (sympodials).
232 ORCHIDS

Dendrobium is the most popular genus of Meristem culture is very effective in

Kerala. Some of the important varieties large scale propagation of orchids.
belonging to this genus are given below,
Planting
grouped according to colour.
Terminal cuttings of monopodial orchids are
Purple and white : Sonia 17, Sonia 28, Sonia planted loosely on old coconut husks at a
Bom Jo and Earsakul spacing of 30 cm between plants and
Purple : Renappa, New Wanee, Sabine Red, 45 cm between rows in long beds. There can
Jurie Red, Master Delight and Velvet Soft be two or three rows in a bed. Basal cuttings
will sprout within a period of two months.
White : Emma White, Fairy White, Kasem
Partial shade up to 50 per cent is required for
White and Snow White
sprouting. Basal cuttings are planted close to
Pink : Sakura Pink, New Pink, Lemon Glow each other in nursery beds for sprouting. After
and Pink Cascade sprouting they are planted at the
Yellow : Sherifa Fatimah, Kasem Gold and recommended spacing. Monopodial orchids
Tongchai Gold can be grown on ground above soil level. A
thick bed of 15-20 cm height is loosely
Magenta : Deep Blush arranged. Well-dried coconut husks are
Propagation better than fresh husks. Sympodial orchids are
grown on benches above ground level or
The conventional method of propagation is suspended from above. Slotted wooden baskets
by vegetative means. Monopodial orchids are filled with small pieces of dried coconut husk
propagated by stem cuttings. Terminal cuttings or partially burnt charcoal is good for plant
with one or two healthy aerial roots are ideal growth. Planting is done above the medium
as planting material. Basal cuttings of 30 cm with a support for proper anchorage.
length with a few roots and leaves are also
good. But they take longer time to sprout and Planting can also be done in pots or other
grow. Sympodial orchids are propagated by containers. Mud pots of 10-20 cm diameter
separation of pseudobulbs. A plant with with several large holes on the side and
minimum two or three pseudobulbs with the bottom, filled with tile bits, chopped coconut
basal root is ideal for planting. Some of the husk or charcoal are used for planting. A clear
sympodial varieties produce sprouts at the top solution of fresh cowdung can be used for
of pseudobulb called as keikis. Keikis when irrigation for a few days. Dipping in fresh
fully grown can be separated and planted. cowdung solution before planting also gives
Besides, back-bulbs or spent canes (shoots that good results.
have ceased to produce flowers) before they Manuring
get shrivelled can be severed from the mother
Monopodial orchids grown on ground can
plant and placed horizontally over the medium
be given cowdung slurry once in a month. One
to stimulate sprouting of new shoots.
kg fresh cowdung mixed in 5 litres of water is
Seed propagation is possible only under sufficient for one square metre. Two to three
aseptic conditions. Seedlings produced by applications can be given in a year. Sympodial
embryo culture will take 2-5 years for orchids are sprayed with the supernatant liquid
flowering, depending on the genus. of cowdung slurry. Nutrition of plants from the
ORCHIDS AND JASMINE 233

natural sources is not sufficient to support the monsoon. Important virus diseases are
plants for economic production. Hence mosaic and ring spot. Destroying the affected
additional feeding is required. Foliar feeding is plants can control spread of these diseases.
very effective in orchids. Fertilizer mixture of Pests
N:P2 O5 :K 2O 3:1:1 can be applied during
vegetative period and 1:2:2 can be applied The common pests attacking orchids are
during flowering period. The usual dose of such thrips, aphids, spider mite, soft scale, mealy
bugs, orchid weevil, ants etc. Other very
mixture is 2-3 g per litre of water,
serious pests of orchids are snails and slugs.
applied twice a week.
They feed on the tender young shoots, roots
Plant protection and buds. Hand-picking is effective, if the
number of plants is less. They move out
Diseases
during late night and hide before early morning.
The important fungal diseases are leaf spot, Damage is caused during this period. All the
leaf blight, collar blotch, collar rot and orchid pests can be controlled by application of contact
wilt. and systemic insecticides at appropriate
concentration.
These can be controlled by application of
mancozeb, carbendazim etc. at the Harvesting
recommended dose. Spraying should be done The spikes are harvested before the
prior to the commencement of monsoon and opening of all the buds of the spike, depending
at fortnightly intervals during heavy on the genus.

JASMINE (Jasminum spp.)

Jasmine is an important flower crop that Co-2 Mulla, Long Point, Long Round, Short
could be grown on a commercial scale in Point, Short Round.
Kerala. Jasminum sambac is the most ideal Soil and climate
species for cultivation in Kerala. The
Jasmine can be planted on a wide range of
flowers are used for preparing garlands. The
soils. Well-drained sandy loams and red loams
jasmine oil has great export potential in
are ideal for its cultivation. In clayey soils, there
addition to its use for medicinal purpose.
is increased vegetative growth and reduced
Important cultivars flowering. They give good yield in low rainfall
There are trailing, climbing and erect grow- conditions.
ing species and cultivars. Three important Propagation
species and their varieties are given as follows:
Layering and cutting are the main
1. Jasminum sambac: Gundumalli, Motia,
propagation methods. Better rooting of
Virupakshi, Sujimalli, Madanabanam,
cuttings can be obtained by planting in coarse
Ramabanam.
sand and also by using any of the rooting
2. Jasminum grandiflorum: Co-1 Pitchi, hormones like IBA (5000 ppm), IAA (1000
Co-2 Pitchi, Thimmapuram, Lucknow. ppm) and NAA (5000 ppm). Simple and
3. Jasminum auriculatum: Co-1 Mulla, compound layering methods are followed
234 JASMINE AND GLADIOLUS

during June-July to October-November. Layers December-January.

will be ready for planting within 90-120 days.
Weed control
Planting
Manual weeding is usually done which is
After ploughing the land, pits of about
effective but expensive. Mulching also
40 cm x 40 cm x 40 cm size are taken and
reduces weed population.
filled with topsoil and 15 kg well rotten FYM.
Planting distance depends on the species as Irrigation
given in table below and also on soil and envi- Constant and adequate water supply
ronmental conditions. during peak flowering season (March-Octo-
ber) is essential for high yield of flowers. Af-
Species Planting distance ter flowering is over, water supply can be cut
J. sambac 1.2 m x 1.2 m off. During summer, irrigate twice a week.
J.auriculatum 1.8 m x 1.8 m Diseases
J.grandiflorum 2.0 m x 1.5 m Leaf blight: Can be controlled by spraying 0.2
per cent mancozeb.
Planting is usually done during June-
August. Fusarium wilt: Prevented by drenching the soil
with 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture.
Manuring
Yield
Each plant requires a fertilizer dose of
Yield of flowers and jasmine oil vary
120 g N, 240 g P2O5 and 240 g K2O. The
according to the species and management
fertilizers are mixed together and applied in two
practices as presented below.
split doses during January and July. This has
to be supplemented with organic manures like
Species Flower Oil yield
neem cake, groundnut oil cake etc. @ 100 g yield (t ha-1) (kg ha-1)
per plant per month.
J. sambac 5 15.44
Pruning
J. auriculatum 5 28.00
Pruning is essential and is done at a height
J.grandiflorum 6 29.00
of 45 cm from the ground level during mid

GLADIOLUS (Gladiolus spp.)

Gladiolus is grown for its attractive Friendship are some of the common
flower spike having florets of huge form, varieties. Varieties evolved in India are Sapna,
dazzling colour and varying sizes, with long Poonam, Nazrana, Apsara, Agnirekha, Mayur,
vase life. Suchithra, Manmohan, Manohar, Muktha,
Archana, Arun and Shobha.
Varieties
Soil
Friendship, Spic and Span, Mansoer Red,
Dr. Fleming, Peter Pears and White It can be grown in a wide range of soils,
GLADIOLUS AND TUBEROSE 235

light sandy to clay loam. Deep well-drained three days depending upon soil and weather
acidic soils with a pH of 5.5-6.5 are the best conditions.
for cultivation.
Plant protection
Propagation
Several species of aphids like green peach
Gladiolus is propagated by corms and aphid, potato aphid and melon aphid damage
cormels. Size of the corm markedly influences developing foliage and flowers. They can be
the growth and flowering of gladiolus. Medium controlled by using dimethoate. Thrips and
and large sized corms are preferred for planting, caterpillars can be controlled with dimethoate.
as small corms produce only small flower
Brown and Fusarium wilts are the
spikes.
major diseases. Spraying the crop with
Planting 0.3 per cent copper oxychloride or drenching
The land is ploughed two or three carbendazim 0.05 per cent is recommended
times and FYM @ 25 t ha-1 is applied and when diseases are noticed.
mixed well with the soil. Ridges are made Harvesting and yield
20 cm apart. Fertilizer application is made
@ 50:60:60 kg N:P2O5:K2O per ha. The corms The plant starts flowering in 2-3 months
are planted at a distance of 30 cm and at 5 cm after planting based on the variety. The
depth. About one lakh plants can be entire spike along with two leaves is cut, when
accomodated in a hectare. Top dress the crop the basal flower bud starts opening. Nearly
with 50 kg N, 45 days after planting and earth 2 lakh flower spikes can be obtained from one
up. Best season for planting is September- hectare.
November. After harvest of flowers, the plants are left
Irrigation undisturbed in the field. When they start
yellowing, the plants are uprooted for
The crop has to be irrigated once in two or harvest of corms and cormels.

TUBEROSE (Poliantha tuberosa)

Tuberose occupies a very special position 2. Double: Flowers are white, tinged with
among the ornamental bulbous plants because pinkish red. Petals are in several whorls.
of its prettiness, elegance and fragrance. It has Cultivars are Suvasini, Culcutta Double
good economic potential for loose/cut flower and Pearl.
trade and essential oil industry.
3. Semi-double: Similar to double but with
Cultivars
only 2 to 3 rows of corolla segments.
There are three groups of cultivars as given This classification is based on floral
below:
characters.
1. Single: Flower is pure white and has only
a single row of corolla segments. Soil
Cultivars are Sringar, Culcutta Single, Porous, well-drained sandy loam soils are
Mexican Single and Suvarna Rekha. best suited for tuberose cultivation.
236 TUBEROSE AND CROSSANDRA

Propagation Ratoon crop

Propagation is by bulbs. Boat shaped bulbs After the harvest of the main crop, the
of size 2 to 3 cm are preferred for flower stalks are headed back and the plot is
planting. About 1.25 to 1.50 lakh bulbs manured and irrigated. Three or four ratoon
(800 to 900 kg) are required for planting one crops can be taken from single planting.
hectare.
Plant protection
Cultural practices
Slugs and grass hoppers, which feed on the
Land is prepared well by ploughing two or leaves and thrips which damage and cause dis-
three times. FYM @ 30 t ha-1 is mixed well tortion of the spikes are the major pests.
with soil. Best time for planting is May-July. The Malathion is effective against these pests. No
bulbs preferably those of size 2-5 cm or above major disease is noticed.
are to be planted at a depth of 7-10 cm, with a
Harvest and yield
spacing of 20 cm x 25 cm. A fertilizer dosage
of 100:50:50 kg ha-1 N:P2O5:K2O is recom- Tuberose is harvested by cutting the spikes
mended. Of these, half N, full P2O5 and K2O from the base for table decoration or the
are applied at the time of planting. individual flower is picked from the spike for
Remaining N is applied when the flower spikes making garlands and other floral ornaments:
start to appear. A heavy irrigation once in 5-10 The average yield of flower is as follows:
days is necessary depending upon the weather Plant crop: 5-10 t ha -1
conditions. The peak flowering is between June First ratoon: 9-12 t ha -1
and October. Second ratoon: 4-6 t ha-1

CROSSANDRA (Crossandra infundibuliformis)

Crossandra flowers are very popular for have four or five pairs of leaves. In the case
their bright orange colour, light weight and of triploid varieties like Delhi, cuttings are used.
keeping quality. The flowers are of great Cuttings should be transplanted when sufficient
demand for garlands and hair adornments. roots are developed.
Cultivars Cultural hints
Yellow Orange, Lutea Yellow and Delhi The land has to be ploughed three or four
(triploid) are the important varieties. times. FYM @ 25 t ha-1 is incorporated and
Soil mixed well in the soil. Ridges are prepared
60 cm apart. A fertilizer dose of 33.3:60:60 kg
Crossandra can be cultivated in a ha -1 N:P 2 O 5 :K 2 O is applied as basal.
wide range of soils. Fertile, red loamy soils with The seedlings or cuttings are transplanted at a
pH range of 6.0 to 7.5 are ideal. spacing of 30 cm.
Propagation The crop is topdressed twice with
Propagation is by seeds or stem cuttings. 33.3 kg N per ha each time, the first at
Seedlings are ready for transplanting when they 3 months after transplanting and the second
CROSSANDRA AND MARIGOLD 237

8-9 months after transplanting. The application plants. The incidence of the disease is found
of fertilizers is to be necessarily followed by to be more in the presence of root lesion
irrigation. Weeding, application of fertilizer and nematode.
earthing up are combined together for easy
Harvest and yield
maintenance of the crop.
Crossandra flowers within two to three
Plant protection months after planting and continues to bear
flowers throughout the year with a lean
Scales, plant bugs and white flies are the
production season during rainy months.
important insect pests, which can be
Flowers are to be picked early in the morning
controlled by phosalone (0.07 per cent).
by pulling the corolla out of the calyx. Harvesting
Wilt caused by Fusarium solani will of flowers is to be done on alternate days. The
result in yellowing of leaves and death of the yield of flowers is about 5 t ha-1.

MARIGOLD (Tagetes spp.)

Marigold is a popular annual flower that can Soil

be grown on a commercial scale. It has gained
A wide range of soils with good drainage is
popularity on account of its easy
cultivation and wide adaptability. Free suitable for cultivation of marigold. Sandy loam
flowering habit, short duration to produce soil with pH 5.6 to 6.5 is ideal.
marketable flowers, wide spectrum of colour, Propagation
shape, size and good keeping quality make
marigold an acceptable commercial crop. Seeds are used for raising the crop.

Cultivars Cultural practices

There are two species of marigold, namely, Prepare nursery beds of 6 m length,
African marigold (Tagetes erecta) and French 1.2 m width and 10-20 cm height. Apply
marigold (Tagetes patula). Inter-specific 30 kg FYM along with 0.5 kg of 15:15:15
hybrids between these two species also have fertilizer mixture and mix them well in the soil.
been evolved, which are known as Red and Sow the seeds in rows 7.5 cm apart. Cover
Gold hybrids. Varieties under this group are the seeds with fine FYM and irrigate. The
Nugget, Show Boat and Red Seven Star. seedlings will be ready for transplanting within
African marigold varieties one month.

Apricot, Primrose, Sun Giant, Guinea Gold, For the main-field, the land should be
Fiesta, Golden Yellow, Hawaii, Crown of Gold, ploughed well and FYM @ 20 t ha-1 should be
Honey Comb, Cupid, Pusa Narangi Gaintha incorporated to the soil. Apply a basal dose of
and Pusa Basanti Gaintha. fertilizers @ 112.5 kg N, 60 kg P2O5, and 60
kg K2O per ha. Transplant the seedlings at a
French marigold varieties spacing of 30 cm x 30 cm in case of French
Rusty Red, Naughty, Marietta, Flame, Star marigold and 45 cm x 45 cm in case of African
of India and Harmony. marigold on one side of the ridge and irrigate.
238 MARIGOLD AND CHINA ASTER

Top dress the crop with 112.5 kg N per ha at diseases. In poorly drained soils, foot rot caused
the time of pinching (30-45 days after by Phytophthora may occur. Stem rot caused
transplanting) and earth up. Pinching is done by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum is also reported.
to increase the total yield. It consists of Soil drenching with copper oxychloride 0.3 per
removing terminal portion of the plant 30-45 cent is helpful in checking foot rot, while stem
days after transplanting. rot is controlled by drenching with fungicides.

Irrigate once in 4-6 days depending Harvest and yield

upon soil moisture and weather conditions. Marigold flowers will be ready for
Weeds have to be removed at monthly harvest in about 21/2 months time from the date
intervals. of transplanting. The plant continues to bear
Plant protection flowers for another 2-2 1 /2 months. The
flowers are harvested when they have
Marigold is not attacked by many pests. attained full size. Harvest the flowers in the
However, flower beetles, leaf hoppers, evening along with a portion of stalk. Yield of
stalk borers, mites etc. cause occasional French marigold will be 8-12 t ha-1 and that of
problems. These plants are rarely attacked by African marigold 11-18 t ha-1.

CHINA ASTER (Callistephus chinensis)

China aster is a free blooming, colourful covered with fine FYM. The seedbeds are
annual flower. It is grown on a commercial irrigated immediately after sowing. The
scale in many parts of India. Bright coloured seedlings will be ready for transplanting in
flowers of China aster are in much demand about four weeks.
for the preparation of bouquets and flower For transplanting, prepare the main field by
arrangements. ploughing land three or four times. FYM is
Varieties applied @ 10-15 t ha-1 and mixed well with the
soil. Chemical fertilizers @ 90 kg N,
Ostrich Plume, Comet, Poornima, Kamini,
120 kg P 2O 5 and 60 kg K 2O per ha are
Sasank, Violet cushion etc. are some of the
required as basal dose. Seedlings of 4 weeks
commercial varieties. are transplanted at a spacing of 30 cm x
Soil 30 cm. The crop has to be top dressed with
Though it could be cultivated on a wide 50 kg N at 40 days of transplanting. The crop
range of soils, well-drained red loamy soil is has to be irrigated once in 4-5 days depending
ideal. upon the soil and weather conditions. Earthing
up has to be done twice at 30 days intervals.
Propagation
Harvest and yield
Commercially propagated by seeds.
China aster blossoms will be ready for
Cultural practices
harvest within 10-12 weeks of transplanting.
Seedlings are to be raised in nursery beds Generally the entire plant is harvested when
of size 7.5 m long, 1.2 m wide and 10 cm height most of the flowers in the plant are opened
for preparing planting materials for an area of and made into bundles of 10-12 each. The yield
one hectare. The seeds are sown thinly and will be 10-12 t ha-1.
EUCALYPTUS AND KACHOLAM 239

MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS

EUCALYPTUS (Eucalyptus citriodora)

Eucalyptus thrives both in the tropics and third year onwards is found to be useful in
subtropics. High humidity and plenty of increasing leaf yield.
rainfall are conducive to its luxuriant growth. After cultivation
It can be grown in varied types of soils. The During first year, cultivate the rows in both
essential oil is used in the preparation of directions to prevent weed growth. Hand
cosmetics, hair oil and soap. weeding is done around the seedlings. Fire
Preparation of land belts are to be provided all around.
Clear the land of jungle growth. Take pits Intercropping
of size 45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm at a spacing Eucalyptus can be grown along with
2 m x 2 m at least one month prior to planting coffee, lemongrass and palmarosa. In the first
and allow to weather. Fill up the pits with soil four years, intercropping with pineapple, yam
completely so as to prevent water stagnation. and vegetables can be done.
Planting Harvest and curing
Nursery is raised and 4-5 months Pruning of side branches may be started
old seedlings are planted with the from second year onwards. Lopping at a height
commencement of southwest monsoon. of 2 m is done during third or fourth year and
After planting, press the soil around the thereafter lopping is resorted to at half-yearly
seedling and form mound to prevent intervals leaving only one branch. For
stagnation of water. extracting oil, steam distillation is resorted to.
Optimum time for distillation is two hours and
Manuring the average recovery of oil is 1.5 – 1.8 per
Manuring is not usually done. However, cent of the net weight of leaves. Wilting of the
application of 400 g ammonium sulphate, cut leaves under shade for 24 hours before
60 g superphosphate and 25 g muriate of distillation will increase the oil recovery
potash per plant per year during August from percentage.

KACHOLAM (Kaempferia galanga)

An attractive medicinal plant used in Kacholam is a plant adapted for tropical
various medicines. The aromatic essential oil climate. Fertile loamy soil having good
of the rhizome is widely used in perfumery, as drainage is ideal for the crop. Laterite soil with
a condiment and as a folk medicine. Asians heavy organic manure application is also well
employ the rhizomes and leaves as a perfume suited.
in cosmetics, hair washes and powders.
Rhizomes are used to protect the Preparation of land
clothing against insects and are chewed with Prepare the land to a good tilth during
betel nut. March by ploughing or digging. On receipt of
240 KACHOLAM

pre-monsoon showers in April, prepare beds green leaves @ 15 t ha-1.

of 1 m width 25 cm height and of
convenient length with spacing of 40 cm After cultivation
between beds.
Remove weeds as and when necessary.
Seed materials Apply fertilizers and earth up the crop
during the first and second weeding (45 and
Whole or split rhizome with at least one 90 days after planting). Avoid water stagnation
healthy sprout is the planting material in in the beds. Further weeding is not necessary
kacholam. Select well developed healthy and
as the spreading leaves smother the soil
disease free rhizomes. Rhizomes can be stored
surface.
in cool dry place or pits dug under shade,
plastered with mud or cowdung. Two weeks Plant protection
before planting of the new crop, smoking the
rhizomes by spreading it on Glycosmis During heavy rains, leaf rot disease
pentaphylla (panal) leaves is practised in occurs in certain localities. For controlling
certain localities. this disease, drench the beds with 1 per cent
Bordeaux mixture or thiram 0.2 per cent.
Varieties
For controlling nematodes (Meloidogyne
Rajani and Kasthuri are high yielding
varieties with an yield potential of more than incognita and Radopholus similis) associated
2 tonnes dry rhizomes per ha and have good with Kacholam, rhizome treatment with
aroma and flavour. Local types are also under Pseudomonas fluorescense @ 3 per cent
cultivation. weight by weight of seed material or by green
leaf mulching with neem and glyricidia @ 5kg/
Season and method of planting m2 at 30 DAP can be recommended.
Planting is done during the month of May Harvesting and curing
with the receipt of pre-monsoon showers. Take
small pits in the beds in rows with a spacing of The crop can be harvested seven months
20 cm x 15 cm and at a depth of 4-5 cm and after planting. Drying of the leaves is the
plant rhizomes with at least one viable healthy indication of crop maturity for harvest.
bud facing upwards. Adopt seed rate of Harvest the crop carefully without damaging
700-800 kg ha-1. the rhizomes, remove dried leaves and roots,
wash the rhizome in water and dry. With sharp
Manuring
knife, chop the rhizomes into circular pieces
Apply FYM or compost as basal dose of uniform size except the end portion, which
@ 20 t ha -1, either by broadcasting and has to be cut separately. Spread the cut
ploughing or by covering the rhizome in pits rhizomes uniformly on clean floor and allow
after planting. Apply N, P2O5 and K2O @ 50, drying for four days. On fourth day, heap the
50 and 50 kg ha-1 at the time of the first and rhizomes and keep it overnight. On the next
second weeding. day it is again spread and dried. Clean the dried
Mulching produce, bag and store in cool dry place or
market it. Prolonged storage can cause insect
After planting, mulch the beds with dry or and fungus attack.
LEMONGRASS 241

LEMONGRASS (Cymbopogon flexuosus)

Lemongrass prefers warm climate with a or slips per hill are transplanted on the beds at
well-distributed rainfall and well-drained soil. a spacing of 15-20 cm in 4-5 rows. Before
Usually it is grown on poor, gravelly soils. Lem- planting, the top leafy portion of the seedling is
ongrass is a perennial grass mainly cut off leaving the plant stalk about 15-20 cm
cultivated on hill slopes as a rainfed crop. The length.
crop provides maximum yield from the Manuring
second to fourth year of planting and
economic yield up to the sixth year. Application of compost made of spent
Thereafter, the yield declines considerably. The lemongrass (refuse obtained after distillation)
leaves yield an aromatic oil, containing 70-90 and wood ash @ 2500 kg ha-1 and 1875 kg ha-
per cent citral. The oil is used in soaps,
1
respectively is found beneficial. Application
cosmetics and disinfectants and is a raw of nitrogenous fertilizers @ 100 kg ha-1 in four
material for manufacturing ionones and splits (each after 1st to 4th harvest) has been
vitamin A. found to increase oil yield considerably.
Seeds and sowing After cultivation
The crop is propagated mostly through Regular weeding depending on weed
seeds. It can also be propagated vegetatively growth and earthing up at least once in a year
through planting of slips. along with manuring is recommended.
Serious pests or diseases do not generally
Sugandhi is the improved variety of lemon-
infest the crop.
grass recommended for cultivation.
Harvesting
Seeds can be sown directly in the field or
seedlings are raised in a nursery and then Harvesting is done by cutting the grass
transplanted. Transplanted crop is found 10 cm above ground level. During the first year
superior to direct-sown crop in respect of grass of planting, three cuttings are obtained and
yield, oil content and citral content in oil. Seeds subsequently five to six cuttings per year are
are sown in well prepared nursery beds during taken subject to weather conditions. The
April-May with the onset of pre-monsoon rains harvesting season begins in May and
and covered with thin layer of soil. The seed continues till the end of January. The first
rate is 3 to 4 kg ha-1. Seeds collected in the harvest is taken about 90 days after planting
season should be sown latest by August of the and subsequent harvests at intervals of
same year. The seedlings will be ready for 40-50 days. The optimum interval between
transplanting in 2 to 2.5 months. harvests to obtain maximum quantity of oil is
40-45 days for local types of lemon grass. For
Preparation of land Sugandhi, the optimum interval was found to
The land is prepared by digging. Raised beds be 60-65 days when grown in hill tops and
of 75-80 cm width and of convenient length 45-55 days in valleys and lower areas.
are formed with a spacing of 30-35 cm between
beds. On sloppy terrain, the beds are formed Seed collection
along the contours. At the early southwest The crop for seed production is left
monsoon (June-July), two or three seedlings without cutting to get maximum seeds. The
242 LEMONGRASS AND PALMAROSA

crop flowers during November-December and adverse effect on yield or quality of oil.
the seeds are collected during January- Storage of oil
February. The whole panicle is cut and dried
for one or two days and then threshed and Lemongrass oil can be stored up to 3 years
sieved to collect the seeds. without affecting the quality of oil, if kept in
aluminium containers sealed air-tight using
Distillation wax. The containers are to be kept in
Essential oil from lemon grass leaves is darkness.
extracted by hydro-steam distillation. Time Yield
required for distillation is two hours including
the time required for charging and discharg- The grass yield during the first year
ing. A light yellow, lemon scented volatile oil is will be about 10 t ha-1, which gives about 28 kg of
oil. From the second year onwards, the grass
obtained. When crop area is large enough,
yield will be about 25 t ha-1 giving about
steam method is found to be more economi-
75 kg of oil. The average recovery of oil is 0.30-
cal. Coal is used as fuel.
0.35 per cent with 70 per cent citral for local
The cut grass is chopped into smaller pieces types of lemongrass while OD-19 variety gives
before feeding to the distillation unit. It can be 0.40-0.45 per cent oil recovery and 85-90 per
stored up to 3 days under shade without any cent citral content.

PALMAROSA (Cymbopogon martinii var. motia)

Palmarosa (rosha grass) is adapted to Planting

marginal areas and poor soils. The flowering
Prepare the main field for planting, form beds
tops and foliage contain sweet smelling oil
emitting a rose like odour and is widely used in and plant the seedling, two on a hill, at a
soaps, cosmetics and perfumery industries. spacing of 30 cm x 20 cm. Apply organic
The oil is also used as a raw material for manures like compost made of spent grass and
producing geraniol, which is extensively used wood ash @ 6 t ha -1 and 2.5 t ha -1
in the perfumery industry. respectively at the time of formation of beds.
Propagation Harvesting
The crop can be propagated by seeds and By about 3.5 to 4 months, the plants
slips. Seedlings establish quicker and are attain a height of 150-200 cm and they start
better than slips. So seedlings are preferred as producing inflorescence. The grass is cut one
planting materials under Kerala conditions.
week after flowering. Generally two cuttings
Prepare the seedbed in well pulverized soil after
15th April. Seed rate is 4-5 kg ha-1. Seeds are made during the first year of planting. From
collected in January-February must be sown second year onwards 3 to 5 cuttings are
latest by August. possible.
PALMAROSA AND VETIVER 243

Distillation hours during the post-monsoon will increase

the oil recovery.
As in the case of lemongrass, extraction of
palmarosa oil is done by the hydro-steam Plant protection
method. It takes two hours to complete one Pink globular root aphids (Tetraneura)
occur on the roots and cause withering
distillation. The average recovery of oil from
of the crop in patches due to desapping.
ODP-1(Amaravathy type) is 0.40 to 0.45 per Dig out and burn the affected patches and
cent. Allowing the cut grass to wilt in shade irrigate with water charged with fish oil
for 24 hours during monsoon season and 48 soap or emulsion spray oil to control the aphids.

VETIVER (Chrysopogon zizanioides)

Vetiver is a perennial grass, commonly Planting

known as ‘khus’ and mainly cultivated on hill
The crop is propagated through slips. June-
slopes as a rainfed crop. The essential oil is
extracted from the roots and known as ‘khus July is the optimum period for planting. Two to
khus oil’. three ploughing are given so that the soil is well
loosened and ridges or beds of convenient
It prefers a warm climate and grows in
length are made. Slips are planted in two rows
areas up to 600 m elevation. Even though
on 1 m wide beds.
vetiver grows almost in all soils, a rich and fairly
well drained sandy loam is the best. An annual Manuring
rainfall of about 100 to 200 cm,
Usually 5 t ha-1 of FYM or compost is
temperature ranging from 25 to 40ºC and
applied at the time of bed preparation.
moderate humidity are ideal for its growth.
Application of 22.5 kg each of P2O 5 and
Its root contains fragrant oil, which is a K2 O per ha is found to be beneficial for
perfume by itself. The dry aromatic roots are increasing root and oil yield.
made into curtains, mats, fans, etc. to emit
scented cool aroma when moistened. The oil Harvesting and distillation
is used as a valuable fixative for blending The optimum period of harvest of
perfumes and cosmetics. roots to get the maximum oil yield is 18 months.
Varieties Harvesting is done with the digging forks. The
Two types of vetiver namely, South roots are washed gently to remove the earth
Indian and North Indian (khus) are and are chopped into bits of 4-5 cm length.
generally under cultivation. South Indian types The oil is extracted by hydro-distillation.
produce higher root and oil yield, but North Vetiver as a soil binder
Indian types have superior oil quality. Among
Vetiver has a deep, dense and strong
the South Indian types, the Nilambur type fibrous root system. The perennial and
(ODV-3) on an average produces sterile characteristics of the crop with its
5 t ha-1 of root, yielding 20-30 kg oil ha-1. hardiness and unpalatability to livestock make
244 VETIVER, CHETHIKODUVELI AND NEELA AMARI

it an excellent soil-conserving crop. It may be can be used to protect the banks of major
planted as a contour hedge on sloppy lands or irrigation canals.

CHETHIKODUVELI [CITRAKA] (Plumbago rosea)

This is an attractive erect rambling Manuring

shrub with long tuberous roots and bright red
Cattle manure or compost @ 10 t ha -1
flowers in long terminal spikes. The root
may be applied as basal dose at the time
tubers are the medicinally important parts. This
of land preparation. The fertilizer dose
is an esteemed remedy for leucoderma and
for chethikoduveli is N:P 2 O 5 :K 2 O
other skin diseases. The synonyms of fire like
‘agni’, ‘analah’ etc. are attributed to this drug 50:50:50 kg ha -1. Entire P 2 O 5 has to be
to indicate the caustic action of roots causing applied as basal dose and N and K2O in two
blisters on the skin. The drug is used only after split doses, 2 months and 4 months after
adequate curing and purification. Roots planting.
contain plumbagin, which is responsible for the After cultivation
therapeutic action of the drug.
Weeding has to be done two or three times
Varieties: Mridhula and Agni. depending on weed growth. Earthing up may
Planting materials be done two times along with topdressing of
fertilizers.
Propagated by single, double or three node
semi-hard wood stem cuttings. Cuttings are For controlling nematodes (Meloidogyne
planted in nursery beds of convenient length incognita and Radopholus similis)
and 1 m width for rooting. associated with Chethikoduveli, apply
Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 10g/plant at the
Land preparation
time of transplanting rooted cuttings.
Prepare the land to a good tilth by plough-
Harvesting
ing two or three times. Make ridges of about
30 cm height and 50 cm apart for planting The crop can be harvested in about
rooted cuttings. Two to three month old rooted 12-18 months after planting. After digging out,
cuttings can be planted on the ridges at a the root tubers are cleaned by washing in
spacing of 15 cm in June-July. water and marketed.

NEELA AMARI [NILI] (Indigofera tinctoria)

Nili is a reputed drug for the promotion of are important in medicine and form a major
hair growth. Due to antitoxic property it is also ingredient of preparations like ‘Nilibhringadi’.
a good remedy for poisons. This plant, which Land preparation
is the original source of natural indigo, is an Prepare the soil to fine tilth by ploughing
erect shrub with imparipinnate leaves. Leaves two or three times.
NEELA AMARI AND CHENGAZHINIRKIZHANGU 245

Seeds and sowing After cultivation

Seeds are very small and the seed rate is Weeding has to be done twice, three weeks
3 kg ha-1. Seeds require pretreatment for good and six weeks after sowing.
germination, as the seed coat is hard. Seeds
are mixed with sand and ground gently to break Harvesting
the seed coat. An alternate method for Plants start flowering 2-3 months after
enhancing germination is dipping the seeds in sowing. Harvesting is done by cutting the plants
boiling water for a second. After pre-treatment at this time, at a height of about 20 cm from
seeds are broadcasted. Broadcast the seeds ground level. Irrigate plants after harvest.
preferably mixed with sand 2-3 times its volume Subsequent harvests can be made at 1.5 – 2
to ensure uniform coverage. Seeds germinate months interval. Four to five cuttings can be
within a week. Alternatively, 1 to 1.5 months taken in a year depending on the growth.
old seedlings raised on beds or in polybags
can be transplanted at a spacing of Seed collection
45 cm x 30 cm.
A few plants per plot are left without
Seasons cutting to set seeds. Ripe pods are to be
harvested in the early morning to prevent loss
The best time for sowing is September-
of seeds by shattering during harvest.
October.
Manuring Pests

Apply cattle manure @ 10 t ha-1 as basal The psyllid Arytaina puctipennis infest top
dressing and incorporate into soil along with shoot causing curling up and drooping of leaves
last ploughing. and shoots and wilting of plants.

CHENGAZHINIRKIZHANGU (Kaempferia rotunda)

Indian crocus, also known as bhucampaka subtropics of Asia and Africa. It grows wild in
in Sanskrit, abhuyicampa in Hindi and wet, humid or shaded forest ecosystems of
chengazhinirkizhangu in Malayalam is a South India. It is also cultivated as an
medicinal herb with aromatic rhizome. The intercrop with other commercial crops. Moist
rhizomes are used for the treatment of tumours, loamy soil is ideal for the crop. Laterite soil
swellings and wounds. It helps to remove blood with heavy organic manure application is also
clots and other purulent matters in body. It is well suited.
used in many ayurvedic formulations including
‘Chyavanaprasam’ for improving complexion Propagation
and curing burning sensation, gastric It is propagated through rhizomes.
complaints, mental disorders and insomnia.
Varieties
Climate and soil
At present, only local types are available
The plant is distributed in the tropics and for cultivation.
246 CHENGAZHINIRKIZHANGU AND KASTHURIMANJAL

Season planting and again after two months along

with weeding and topdressing. Mulching is
The optimum time of planting is with the
receipt of pre-monsoon showers in May-June. absolutely essential for good growth.
Fertilizer application
Land preparation
Fertilizer application can be skipped in
Plough the field to good tilth. Incorporate
organic manure at 10-15 t ha-1. Prepare raised fertile soils. In poor and marginal soils a
seed beds of 1 m breadth and of moderate dose of 50:50:50 N:P2O5:K2O kg ha-1
convenient length. may be applied; P2O5 as basal and N and K2O
in two or three split doses.
Seed rate
After cultivation
Use rhizome bits of size 10-15 g for
planting. About 2500-3000 kg rhizomes are Remove weeds, apply manure and
required for planting one hectare. Smoking the fertilizers and earth up two and four months
rhizomes for 2-3 weeks is good for the devel- after planting, followed by mulching.
opment of healthy sprouts. At times, Plant protection
rhizomes are stored in Glycosmis pentaphylla
During rainy months, rhizome rot is
leaves in underground pits covered with
noticed which can be prevented by
coconut fronds.
drenching 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture.
Planting
Harvesting and yield
Pits are made at 20 cm spacing on the seed
bed. Whole or split rhizomes with at least one The crop matures in 7-8 months. Drying
healthy sprout is planted 5 cm deep with the up of the leaves is the indication of maturity.
sprout facing upwards and covering the pit with Dig out the rhizomes carefully, remove leaves
FYM. and clean. The rhizomes with attached
tubers are usually marketed afresh.
Mulching
Prolonged storage may cause insect and
Mulch the beds thickly with green leaves fungus attack. The average yield is
or straw @ 15 t ha -1 immediately after 12-15 t ha-1.

KASTHURIMANJAL (Curcuma aromatica)

Curcuma aromatica known as vanharidra Climate and soil

in Sanskrit and kasthurimanjal in Malayalam
is a rhizomatous herbaceous medicinal plant. It is distributed in Southeast Asia. The plant
The rhizome is an odoriferous ingredient of the grows wild in the eastern Himalayas and in
cosmetics used for the cure of chronic skin moist deciduous forests of Kerala and
diseases caused by impure blood. It is used as Karnataka. It is grown as a subsistence crop
appetizer and tonic to women after childbirth. in backyard, kitchen garden and interspaces
It is also useful against high fever and worm of other crops in areas with good rainfall. Well-
infestation. drained rich loamy soils are ideal for the crop.
KASTHURIMANJAL AND CHITTARATHA 247

Propagation kg ha-1; entire P2O5 as basal and N and K2O

in two equal splits at planting and two months
It is propagated vegetatively by rhizomes. after planting.
Varieties After cultivation
At present, only local types are available Carry out gap filling if necessary within one
for cultivation. month. Remove weeds two months
Land preparation after planting followed by topdressing, earthing
up and mulching.
Clear the area, remove all the pebbles and
Plant protection
stones and plough the field to good tilth.
Incorporate FYM or organic manure @ 10-15 t No serious pests and diseases are
ha-1. Prepare raised seedbeds of 1.2 m breadth encountered in the crop.
and of convenient length.
Harvesting and yield
Seed rate
The crop matures in 7 months. Drying up
A healthy disease free mother rhizome with of leaves is the indication of maturity. Dig out
at least one germinated sprout is the the rhizomes without causing damage. Remove
planting material. It is required @ 1500 kg ha-1. the dry leaves and roots. The cleaned rhizomes
are either marketed or dried and stored. The
Planting
average yield of fresh rhizome is 28 t ha-1 which
Take small pits at 60 cm x 40 cm spacing on drying gives 27 per cent recovery.
on the seedbed and plant seed rhizomes with
Processing
the germinating sprout facing upwards. Cover
the rhizome with FYM and mulch the bed with The rhizome is thinly sliced and steam
leaves or straw. distilled for 3-4 hours for extracting the
essential oil and the yield is 90 litres per ha. Oil
Fertilizer application
recovery is 0.33 per cent on fresh weight
Apply fertilizers @ 100:50:50 N:P2O5:K2O basis and 1.05 per cent on dry weight basis.

CHITTARATHA (Alpinia calcarata)

Alpinia calcarata is also known as rasna formulations of indigenous system of medicine

in Sanskrit, kulainjan in Hindi and chittaratha for relieving throat inflammation, stimulating
in Malayalam. It is a perennial herb with digestion, purifying blood and improving voice.
non-tuberous pungent rootstock. It grows to a
Climate and soil
height of 1.5 m and produces around 24 suckers
per clump per year. The economic part is Alpinia comes up well in tropical climate.
rhizome, which is a major constituent of many It grows on a wide range of climate and soil.
248 CHITTARATHA

Well-drained hilly areas and places up to Application of biofertilizer Azospirillum @ 10

1400 m altitude are good for its cultivation. kg ha -1 and in situ green manuring with
Fertile red loams to forests soils are suitable. cowpea are beneficial for the crop.
Propagation After cultivation
It is propagated vegetatively by rhizomes. Carry out gap filling, if required, within one
month; remove weeds two months after
Varieties
planting followed by topdressing, earthing up
At present, only local types are available and mulching. Thereafter no weeding is
for cultivation. required as the crop smothers the weeds.

Season Plant protection

Rainfed crop is planted with the onset of Usually pests and diseases are not
monsoon in May-June. Irrigated crop can be serious enough to take up any control
planted at any time. measures. Occasionally shoot borers and leaf
eating caterpillars are observed. Blight
Land preparation
disease can be controlled by spraying 1 per
Plough the field to good tilth. Remove all cent Bordeaux mixture.
pebbles and stones. Incorporate FYM or
organic manure at 10-15 t ha-1. Prepare raised Harvesting and yield
beds of convenient length and breadth to Though the crop can be harvested after 18
facilitate drainage. months, the optimum stage of harvest for
Seed rate obtaining maximum rhizome and oil yield is
36-42 months after planting. Cut and remove
Fresh healthy disease-free rhizome bits with the shoot portion and carefully dig out the
at least one shoot is the planting material, rhizomes and roots. Harvesting is very
which is required @ 1000-1500 kg ha-1. arduous due to strong and extensive root
Planting ramification. Separate the roots, clean the
rhizomes and cut into 5 cm long pieces, which
Take small pits on the seedbed and plant 5 are dried in the sun for 3-5 days to
cm long rhizome bits. Cover rhizome with 10 per cent moisture for marketing. The
FYM and mulch the seedbed with leaves or average yield of rhizomes is about 23 t ha-1,
straw. The optimum spacing is 40 cm x 30 cm which on drying gives 25 per cent recovery.
under good fertility and 30 cm x 20 cm
under poor fertility conditions. Processing

Fertilizer application The fresh rhizomes on steam distillation for

3-5 hours give 0.22 per cent essential oil. The
Apply fertilizers @ 100:50:50 N:P2O 5: oil recovery on dry weight basis is
K2O kg ha-1 per year in two or three split doses. 0.93 per cent.
NILAPPANA 249

NILAPPANA (Curculigo orchioides)

Black musli or Nilappana, one of decomposed poultry manure at 2.7 t ha-1 or

the ayurvedic dasapushpas, is a small FYM 20 t ha -1 . Prepare raised beds of
geophilous herbaceous plant with cylindrical convenient length and breadth to facilitate
rhizome. Rhizome is the economic part. It is a drainage.
rejuvenating and aphrodiasic drug. It
improves complexion and is useful in Seed rate
general debility, deafness, cough, asthma, piles, Fresh healthy disease free rhizome with at
skin diseases, impotency, jaundice, urinary least one shoot is the planting material, which
disorders etc. It is an ingredient of ayurvedic is required at 750 kg ha-1.
formulations like Vidaryadighrita, Vidaryati
lehya, Murma gulika, Musalyadi churna, etc. Planting

Climate and soil Fresh rhizome bits of 1.5-2 cm are planted

at a spacing of 10 cm x 10 cm. 25 per cent
The plant is found through out India from shade is required for proper growth.
near sea level to 2300 m altitude, particularly
in rock crevices and laterite soil. It grows well Fertilizer application
in moist humus – rich soils especially in shady
Apply fertilizers at 10:8:5 kg N, P205 and
forest areas and rubber plantations. It is a
K2O ha-1 for maximizing nutrient use efficiency
shade loving plant and its growth, yield and
and realizing highest yield of quality rhizome.
quality are optimum under 25 percent shade.
It can be grown as an under story crop or After cultivation
intercrop in plantations.
Carry out gap filling, if any, within one
Propagation month. Soil should be sufficiently moist to
The plant is propagated through rhizome. get maximum rhizome development. Two to
New propagules also emerge from leaf tips in three weedings are essential to control weeds.
contact with soil during monsoon. As the rhizome development is upward
regular earthing up is required for high yield.
Varieties
Plant Protection
At present only local types are available
for cultivation. Seedling rot is found during rainy season
and spraying 1 per cent Bordeaux mixture can
Season control it. Rhizomes are found eaten by rodents
Rain fed crop is planted with the onset of and hence proper measures are to be taken
monsoon in May-June. Irrigated crop can be for their control.
planted any time.
Harvesting and Yield
Land preparation Production of secondary rhizomes starts
Plough the field to good tilth. Remove all from fourth month. The plant grows actively
pebbles and stones. Incorporate well upto 7 months, after which it could be
250 NILAPPANA AND JEEVAKOM

harvested for rhizome. During summer, the yield is 3-4 t ha-1. Rhizomes are sliced to 1cm
above ground portion dries up. Harvesting is size, dried in sun and marketed or stored in
done by digging out the rhizomes. The shoot gunny bags. The dried rhizome yield is 1-1.5 t
portion and the roots are removed and the ha-1 (35-45 per cent driage). Higher yield is
separated rhizomes are cleaned. Fresh rhizome obtained if harvested during second year.

JEEVAKOM (Seidenfia rheedii Sw. Szkch)

Jeevakom is a medicinal orchid widely used Season
in Ayurveda. It is available in the market in
Crop is raised as rainfed. Best time for
two forms. ‘Jeevakom’ and “Edavakom’. planting is after the receipt of summer showers
Jeevakom belongs to the ‘astavarga’ group of (May-June).
drugs mentioned in Ayurveda. It is a short-
Land preparation
stemmed fibrous rooted lithophytic herb with
5-7 leaves. Stem is swollen at the base forming Select an area receiving 50-75 percent
a conical pseudo balbil which is the part used shade (natural or artificial shade provided by
in medicine. Jeevakom is a rejuvenating drug shade net). Plough the field to good tilth.
and an ingredient of many Ayurvedic Incorporate dried FYM at the rate of 20t/ha-1.
formulations viz. Chavanaprash, Dhanwa- Prepare raised beds of convenient length and
breadth to facilitate drainage.
ntharam kashayam, Dhanwantharam
kuzhambu and Ashtavargam kashayam. Seed rate
Climate and soil Stored pseudobulbils of previous year are
used as planting material. Small side bulbils
The plant is present in select pockets of weighing 1 g or mother bulbils cut into 2g bits
India, mainly in the forests. In Kerala it occurs having single node can be used. Seed rate is
at altitudes ranging from 650 to 1000 m above 250 kg/ha-1.
MSL. In the forests jeevakom colonizes on
Planting
decomposed organic matter on wet rocks
amidst moss and grass. It is a shade loving Bulbils are planted at a spacing of
plant and prefers 50%-75% shade for better 10x10 cm. Bulbils are placed horizontally over
growth, yield and quality. The crop can be the beds, they are just pressed gently into the
soil. Beds are mulched heavily after planting
grown under natural as well as artificial shade
with green or partially decomposed dry leaves.
provided by shade net.
Manuring
Propagation
Crop responds well to organic manures.
The plant is propagated through Powdered FYM/leaf compost/vermicompost
pseudo- bulbils. Mother bulbils cut into single is applied @ 100g/m2, 60 days and 90 days
node bits can also be used. after planting.
Varieties After cultivation
Only local cultivars (ecotypes) are available Carry out gap filling if any within 30 days.
for cultivation. Remove the weeds as and when they come
JEEVAKOM AND ADAPATHIYAN 251

up. The crop performs well under moist the beds manually. Bulbils covered with the
condition. Cover the soil with mulch for the leaf sheaths are separated, roots removed.
first 4-5 months, keep the soil moist always. Mother and daughter bulbils are separated.
Crop flowers 1-2 months after planting. Side Since the part used as drug and the propagule
bulbils start emerging from 4 th month are one and the same, the mother bulbils are
onwards. used as drug and the side bulbils can be used
as planting material for next season.Total yield
Harvesting and yield
from a bed is 6.0 kg/3m2. The bulbils which
After six months of planting, aerial parts are succulent in mature can be stored in
start yellowing. Leaves turn yellow and earthern containers in a cool room for a period
ultimately dry up. Bulbils are gathered from of 4-5 months without loosing viability.

ADAPATHIYAN (Holostemma adakodien)

Holostemma or Adapathiyan is a large, and irrigated. About 1–1.5 month old seedlings
glabrous, laticiferous twining shrub, much are ready for transplanting.
branched, with shining stem and large
Varieties
conspicuous flowers. Root is the economic
part. It is useful in ophthalmopathy, orchitis, Jeeva is a high yielding variety. It has purple
cough, burning sensation, stomachalgia colored stem with a yield of 4.5 t ha-1 of fresh
constipation, fever and tridoshas. It is used tubers.
in preparations of Vidaryadi ganam,
At present, only local varieties are available
Dhanwandharam thaila, Manasa mithra
for cultivation.
vatakam, Balarishta and Anuthaila. It is also
useful in eye diseases and it imparts resistance Seasons
to diseases.
Rainfed crop is planted with the onset of
It grows on a wide range of climate and monsoon in May-June. Irrigated crop can be
soil. Well-drained hilly areas with an planted any time.
underlying hard pan is good for its cultivation.
Fertile red loams to forest soils are suitable. Land preparation
Plough the field to good tilth. Remove all
Propagation
pebbles and stones. Incorporate FYM or
The plant is propagated vegetatively by stem organic manure at 20 t ha-1.
cuttings and by seeds. The seeds are collected Planting
from the plant in November-December before
being dispersed. Seeds are cleaned, dried and Pits of 30 cm3 size are taken at a spacing
stored for sowing. The stored seeds after of 60 cm x30 cm distance and filled with 10 kg
soaking in water for 4-5 hours are sown on dried cowdung and top soil and formed into a
seedbeds. About one month old seedlings are mound. Seedlings are transplanted on to the
planted in polybags, which are kept in shade mounds from the polybags carefully.
252 ADAPATHIYAN AND ASOKA

Fertilizer application Plant protection

Application of NPK @ 100:50:50 kg ha-1 is Aphid infestation is seen in the crop, which
beneficial. can be controlled by spraying 0.05 per cent
After cultivation quinalphos.

Carry out gap filling, if any, within one Harvesting and yield
month; remove weeds two months after
planting followed by top dressing, earthing Flowering and fruiting occurs in November-
up and mulching. Thereafter no weeding December. Harvesting can be done one and
is required as the crop smothers the half to two years after planting and it is better
weeds. Since the crop is twining in nature, to harvest in January – February. The tubers
pandal or stakes are to be provided to aid are cut into pieces of 10 cm length and dried
trailing. Regular irrigation is to be given till in sun before sale. Yield of dry tubers is about
flowering. 1. 5 t ha-1.

ASOKA (Saraca asoca)

Asoka or Asokam is a medium sized They are sown after soaking in water for
beautiful evergreen tree growing upto 9 m in 12 hours on the prepared beds. Seeds
height with numerous spreading and germinate within 20 days. The seeds are then
drooping glabrous branches. The bark is planted in polybags. 2 month old seedlingsfrom
useful in dyspepsia, fever, burning sensation, the polybags are used for transplanting. Air
visceromegaly, colic, ulcers, menorrhagia, layering in Asoka is found successful. Coir pith
metropathy, leucorrhoea and pimples. The compost is the best rooting media. June-July is
well-known Ayurvedic preparations are the ideal time for air layering.
Ashokarishta and Ashokaghrita. Varieties
Climate and soil Aswani-1 is an improved variety that give
high bark yield. Local varieties are also
Asoka grows well in areas with
cultivated.
well-distributed rainfall and in slightly shady
areas. The tree is grown throughout India Season
except in northwestern part of the country upto The crop is planted with the onset of
an elevation of about 750 m. It grows on a monsoon in May-June.
wide range of soils.
Planting
Propagation
Square shaped pits of 60 cm depth are taken
The plant is seed propagated. Seeds are at 3 m spacing and filled with topsoil, sand and
formed usually during February-April. Seeds dried cow dung. 2 months old seedlings are
are collected when they are ripe and fall down. then transplanted.
ASOKA AND KANJIRAM 253

After cultivation Harvesting and yield

The base of the trees is to be cleared of Asoka can be cut after 20 years for
weeds and FYM at 2 kg/tree/year may be collection of bark, the medicinally useful part.
applied twice; first in May-June and again in
It is cut at a height of 15 cm from soil level. If
October-November. The dose is to be
irrigation and fertilizers are given the stump
increased gradually to 10 kg from 5th year
will produce new shoots and it can be
onwards. Chemical fertilizers are not
harvested again after 5 years. Alternatively,
usually applied. However its application
the bark can be collected without cutting
during the initial years will help in better
establishment of the plant. NPK at 90:45:45 g/ down the tree. The bark is peeled off first,
tree/year is recommended. vertically from one side of the main trunk. The
excised area is renewed with fresh bark in
Plant protection 1-2 years. Then, the bark on the other side
No serious pests or diseases are generally can be peeled off. The process can be continued
noted in this crop. over years.

KANJIRAM (Strychnos nux-vomica)

Strychnos or kanjiram is a large Season

deciduous tree with a fairly straight and
cylindrical bole having dark grey or Seedlings can be planted in main field with
yellowish grey bark and minute tubercles. the onset of South-West monsoon in
Strychnos is highly toxic to man and animals May – June.
producing stiffness of muscles and Planting
convulsions, ultimately leading to death. In
small doses it can serve as efficacious cure Seeds are sown in poly bags. The saplings
for paralysis and other nervous disorders. are later transplanted to the main field on to
Root and root bark is used in fever and pits of about 1m x 1m taken at a spacing of
dysentery. 6m x 6m, filled with top soil and organic
manure.
Climate and soil
After cultivation
The plant is distributed throughout India in
deciduous forests up to 1200 m. It prefers The basins of the trees are cleared of weeds
tropical and subtropical climate. It is grown in and after application of manures and fertilizers
different soil types such as laterite, sandy and covered with soil. FYM at 2 kg per tree is to
alluvial. be applied during early stages and the dose is
gradually increased to 20kg from 5th year
Propagation onwards.
It is propagated through seeds. Germination
Plant protection
can be substantially increased by treating the
seeds with hot water (500 C) for a period of No serious pests or diseases are generally
six to twelve hours prior to sowing. noted in this crop.
254 KANJIRAM AND THIPPALI

Harvesting and yield months to mature. Mature pods are collected

and seeds are extracted, washed, dried and
Flowering is during March-April and fruiting stored for later use. The yield is 50-75 kg dry
during May-December. Fruits take about 8-9 seed per tree per year.

THIPPALI (Piper longum)

Thippali is one of the important medicinal shaded conditions. It recorded 800 to 850 kg
plants used in many of the Ayurvedic drugs. dry spikes per hectare in open condition and
Fruits as well as roots of the plant are 350 to 400 kg in coconut gardens during
attributed with numerous medicinal second year of planting.
properties and are used for diseases of
respiratory tract, carminative and as a Season, method of planting and
general tonic for maintaining health, vigour manuring
and vitality. In a well ploughed land, beds of 1m width
It is a slender aromatic climber with and of convenient length may be taken and
perennial woody roots. It is a dioecious plant pits are taken at a spacing of 60 cm x 30 cm.
with female and male spikes seen in different FYM @ 20 t ha-1 is needed for one hectare.
plants. Male spikes are long and slender with Between the beds channel of about 30 cm
green colour during immature stage and depth have to be provided for easy drainage
yellowish during mature mage. Female spikes of water. Two rooted cuttings per pit have to
are short and thicker and greenish in be planted during the month of May-June
immature stage and deep black in mature after the receipt of 4-5 pre-monsoon showers.
stages. Dried mature female spikes are
commercially marketed. Irrigation

Preparation of land If it is a sole crop irrigation may be

provided once in a week and as an intercrop in
Thippali is highly adapted for warm irrigated gardens, irrigation for the main crop
humid tropical climate. Fertile, loamy soil will be sufficient for this crop also. If irrigation
having good drainage is ideal for this crop. is not possible during summer months
Sandy soil with high organic content is also well mulching using dried leaves is recommended.
suited. It is a shade loving plant and can be
cultivated in middle aged coconut gardens and Weeding
also in similarly shaded plantations.
During the first year the field should be free
Seed materials from weeds and second year onwards the
3-5 noded rooted cuttings are used for whole field will be covered by the growth of
planting in the field. vines.

Varieties Plant protection

Variety ‘Viswam’ is recommended for For controlling nematodes (Meloidogyne
higher spike yield both in irrigated open and incognita and Radopholus similis) apply
THIPPALI, NEEM AND PATHIMUGHAM 255

Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 10 g plant-1 is female spikes can be harvested at weekly

recommended. intervals.The spikes are to be dried under
Harvesting and curing shaded conditions for two weeks. The dry
th
Mature female spikes can be harvested spike yield will be 1/5 of the fresh weight of
seven months after planting. Black matured the spike.

NEEM (Azadirachta indica)

Neem is known as Aryavepu in Propagation

Malayalam, Neem in Hindi and Nimba
It is propagated through seeds. Seeds are
in Sanskrit. All parts of the plant viz. stem,
to be extracted from fresh fruits after pulping
bark, leaves and root bark are useful. The
and sown without delay.
bark gives bitter tonic and is an astringent
and is useful for fevers and skin diseases. Cultivation
It is also having insecticidal property.
Plough the field and pits of size 60 cm x
Climate and soil 60 cm x 45 cm are taken at a distance of
The tree is well distributed throughout 4 m. The pit is covered with FYM @1 kg/pit
the tropics and subtropics. It is also grown in and top soil. The seedlings are planted in the
homesteads of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka centre of pit. Irrigate the crop regularly.
etc. Well drained loamy soils are suitable for Mulching the crop in the early stages is found
its cultivation. to be good.

PATHIMUGHAM (Caesalpinia sappan)

The Heart wood is the economic part Plough the field and pits of size
used for medicinal purpose. Natural dye 60 cm x 60 cm x 45 cm are taken at a
extracted from the heart wood of the tree is distance of 2.5-3 m. It is best grown as a fence
used for coloring textiles, liquors etc. on a crop.
commercial scale.
Management
Cultivation Prune the side branches from 1st year
onwards and allow one or two branches to grow.
It can be grown in any type of soil
but cannot tolerate waterlogging. Seeds Harvesting
are used for propagation. The seeds are dipped The harvesting can be done from 7-8 years
in water for 12 hours before sowing in the after planting. About 20kg heart wood is
nursery. Six months old seedlings can be obtained on an average from a single plant.
transplanted to the field by the onset of South The stump regenerates and a ratoon crop is
West monsoon. also obtained.
256 CHITTADALOTAKAM AND KOOVALAM

CHITTADALOTAKAM (Adathoda beddomei)

Chittadalotakam is known as ‘vasa’ in planted in poly bags and when they attain 4-5
Sanskrit. It is used in many ayurvedic prepa- leaves in 2 months, they aretransplanted in the
rations against cough, rheumatic complaints, main field. FYM @ 10 t ha-1 is applied at the
bronchitis etc. The whole plant, leaves and time of planting. Cuttings are planted at a
roots are the economic parts. spacing of 60 cm x 30 cm. Irrigate the crop at
Varieties an interval of 4 days. The crop can be
harvested 2 years after planting.
Ajagandhi and Vasika.
Harvesting
Propagation
The leaves can be collected one year after
It is propagated by soft woodcuttings. Well-
drained loamy soils are best suited for planting. The roots are harvested two years
cultivation. It can tolerate shade and can be after planting and it is better to harvest in
grown as inter crop in coconut and rubber December- January. After the harvest the roots
gardens. It can be planted on mounds or ridges are washed in water, dried and can be stored
in levelled field. In sloppy areas pits can be in air tight steel containers upto five months
taken for planting. The soft wood cuttings are without quality deterioration.

KOOVALAM (Aegle marmelos)

In Sanskrit it is known as vilwam and it is under sun. The seeds are dipped in water for
one of the ingredients of “Dasamoola”. The 6 hours and are sown in furrows. Mulch the
drug comprises of ripe or half ripe fruits of the furrows with dried leaves. The seeds will
tree. The fruit is very useful in chronic diarhoea germinate within 15 - 20 days after planting
and dysentery. The unripe or half ripe fruits and they are transplanted to poly bags at 5 - 6
improve appetite and digestion. The leaves and leaf stage. 2 months old seedlings are used for
roots are effective against stomach complaints field planting.
and diabetes. There are 2 types of Koovalam,
North Indian type and South Indian type, of Land preparation and planting
which North Indian type is suitable for
Plough the field, and pits of size 60 cm x
cultivation. The fruits of these are edible.
60 cm x 45 cm are taken at a distance of
Propagation 4 m. The pit is covered with FYM @1 kg/pit
The fruits mature by December-January. and top soil. The seedlings are planted at the
The seeds are extracted from the fruit and dried centre of pit. Irrigate the crop regularly.
THULASI, KARINOCHI AND KATTARVAZHA 257

THULASI (Ocimum tenuiflorum)

Indians are having age-old practice of germinate by 8 – 12 days and are ready for
growing thulasi in their homes. The whole plant transplanting by 6 weeks after planting.
of thulasi is used for medicinal purpose. It is The field is ploughed to a fine tilth and ridges
used for extraction of oil and as an antibiotic are taken at a distance 40 cm. Apply FYM or
and astringent. It is effective against cough compost @ 10t ha -1. The 2 months old
complaints. seedlings are transplanted at a spacing of
30 cm. Irrigate the crop in alternate days up to
Cultivation 2 weeks after planting. After 2 weeks, irrigate
the crop @ 2 irrigations/week. Remove the
It is grown in well-drained soil and cannot weeds 2 or 3 times. Earth up the field at
tolerate waterlogging. The propagation is by 2 months after planting.
seeds. The seeds are sown in nursery beds Harvesting can be done 90–95 days
two months before planting. Apply FYM /com- after planting. The above ground portion is cut
post @ 2 kg/bed and mix well with soil. The at a height of 15-20 cm from the ground level.
seeds are sown at a depth of 1-2 cm and cover Harvest the crop in a sunny day to
with soil or FYM. Irrigate using sprinkle hose. increase the oil content of the plant. Keep the
Since the seeds are very small, mix with sand harvested produce in the field for 4-5 hrs to
@ 4 times the quantity of seeds for sowing reduce the water content and weight of the
and the seed rate is 500 g ha-1. The seeds produce.

KARINOCHI (Vitex negundo)

In Sanskrit it is known as Nurgundi. The Propagation and planting
flush as well as the stem portion are used for Propagated by rooted cuttings. Plough the
medicinal purpose. It is effective against field and pits of size 45 cm3 are taken at a
distance of 3 m. From second year onwards
rheumatic and cough complaints and used in up to 10th year after planting the leaves can be
several ayurvedic preparations. harvested at regular intervals.

KATTARVAZHA (Aloe vera)

Kattarvazha is known as kumari in compost @ 5t ha-1 at the time of land prepara-

Sanskrit. The leaves are used for medicinal tion. The mature leaves can be harvested from
purpose. It is grown well in open areas recei- the bottom of the plants. After each harvest
ving good amount of sunlight. The suckers are apply FYM along with earthing up. The
used for propagation. The field is ploughed to harvesting of leaves can be done up to 3 years
a fine tilth and the suckers are planted at a at 2 months interval. The side suckers can be
spacing of 45 cm x30 cm. Apply FYM or used as planting material.
258 ARROW ROOT, DANTAPPALA AND BRAHMI

ARROW ROOT (Maranta arundinacea)

Rhizomes are used for the production of seed bed are taken and plant seed rhizome with
starch. Starch grains are small and easily germinated sprout facing upwards. Cover the
digestible. Hence it can be used as food for rhizome with FYM and mulch the bed with
infants. It has also medicinal value against leaves or straw. Weeding is done 2 or 3 times
dysentry. along with earthing up and mulching.
Propagation
The crop matures in 7 months. Drying of
It is propagated vegetatively by rhizomes. leaves is the indication of maturity. Dig out
Healthy disease free rhizomes with at least rhizomes without damage. Remove the dry
one germinated sprout is the planting material. leaves and roots. The cleaned rhizomes are
Small pits at 50 cm x 30 cm spacing on the either marketed or dried and stored.

DANTAPPALA (Wrightia tinctoria)

Dantappala, known as Vettuppala in Tamil size of 60 cm x 60 cm x 45cm covered with

and Ivory wood in English has much farm yard manure @ 2kg/pit and top soil.
importance in both Ayurveda and Siddha Irrigate the plants regularly till it establishes.
medicines. It is very effective medicine for Mulching the plant in early stages is found to
the dreadful skin disease psoriasis. be good.
Climate and Soil Dantappala oil
The tree is well distributed in Western Dantappala oil prepared from the leaves
Ghats, Deccan, parts of Gujarat and Konkan of this plant is used for curing psoriasis.
areas. Well drained forest soil and laterite Mature leaves plucked from the trees will be
loamy soils are suitable. crushed immediately and exposed to sunlight
Propagation in fresh coconut oil in the ratio of 1kg
It is propagated through seeds. The seeds dantappala leaves and 1kg coconut oil for
can be collected from the trees during psoriasis and 500g dantappala leaves and 1kg
August-September. The seedlings can be coconut oil for dandruff and pre-mature
raised in polybags containing potting mixture greying. The exposure of leaves to sunlight
and will be ready to transplant after three may be repeated for three days consecutively
months of growing. The seedlings are till the coconut oil will turn into deep violet
transplanted at a spacing of 5m x 5m in pits of colour. It is filtered and stored.

BRAHMI (Bacopa monnieri)

Brahmi is used as a memory booster It grows in moist and marshy areas. It
and nerve tonic. It is a safe cardiac stimulant. comes up well on borders of water channels,
Brahmi is used in ayurvedic preparations wells and irrigated fields. It is propagated
like Brahmigritham, Saraswatarishtam, vegetatively through stem cuttings.
Brahma thailam etc. The field is prepared by ploughing and
BRAHMI, KURUMTHOTTI AND MEDICINAL PLANTS AS ...... 259

shallow beds of about 5 cm deep are prepared takes place from nodes above soil. Apply
to maintain the moist condition during the crop farmyard manure after each harvest.
growth. Two-three nodded healthy disease Subsequent harvests can be done at three
free vine cuttings are planted at a spacing of months interval. Three cuttings can be taken
20 cm x10 cm in the field. Apply farmyard in a year depending on growth and can be
continued up to two years after which it is
manure @10 t ha -1 at the time of field
replanted. The marketing is done in fresh form
preparation. During crop growth period wet
as well as after drying depending on the
condition should be maintained by providing fluctuation of price in the market. The fresh
irrigation. Weeding is done two times along form is marketed immediately after harvest.
with slight raking of soil during the first The harvested produce is washed and dried
weeding. The optimum stage for harvesting is under shade. The dried material can be stored
five months after planting. Harvesting is done up to 6 months without damage in air tight
by uprooting the whole plant and by cutting containers. The weight of herbage is reduced
the plants. When harvested by cutting regrowth to 1/4th of the fresh weight after drying.

KURUMTHOTTI (Sida alnifolia)

Sida prefers open condition for maximum Optimum spacing : 50 x 25 cm.

yield and quality. The best time for planting Optimum stage of harvest is 8 months
Sida is before the onset of monsoon. after planting.

MEDICINAL PLANTS AS INTERCROPS

IN HOMESTEADS

Neelamari is recommended as intercrop in intercropping situation with 20 to 60 per cent

homesteads of coconut based intercropping shade intensity.
situation with 20 to 40 per cent shade intensity. Kasthurimanjal is recommended for
Thulasi, Panikoorka and Kiriyath are cultivation under intensive homestead system
recommended as intercrop in homesteads of with Coconut + Arecanut + Pepper based
coconut and coconut + arecanut based intercropping situation.
260 GUINEA GRASS

FODDER CROPS
GUINEA GRASS (Panicum maximum)

Guinea grass is a popular fodder grass of of planting is with the onset of south west
the tropics suited to the agro-climatic monsoon during May-June. As an irrigated
conditions of Kerala. It can be profitably grown crop planting can be done at any time of the
as a component of agro-forestry systems and year.
comes up well under coconut and other trees.
Seeds and slips can be used as planting
As an excellent fodder it is much valued for its
material. Since seed germination is poor
high productivity, palatability and good
vegetative propagation is preferred. To
persistence.
obtain slips for planting, old clumps are
It is a perennial bunch grass, 0.5 to 4.5 m uprooted and slips with roots are separated.
high. The stem is stout to slender, erect or For planting one hectare, 1.25 lakhs of slips
ascending, glabrous or hairy. Leaves are 10 to are required. If seeds are used (3 kg ha-1), it
100 cm long and 3.5 cm wide. Panicle loose should be sown in nursery and the seedlings
and much branched, the lower most branches transplanted in the main field.
being in a distinct whorl. The small seeds are The grass requires thorough cultivation to
enclosed in smooth glumes. The seeds shatter. prepare a weed-free seedbed for establishment.
The root system is deep, dense and fibrous. For this, two or three ploughings and one
levelling are sufficient. In the prepared field,
The important varieties are Makueni,
trenches of 10 cm width and 20 cm depth are
Riversdale, Hamil, PGG-4, FR-600, Haritha,
made. In these trenches, FYM should be
Marathakom and Harithasree. Makueni is a
applied along with phosphorus and potassium
drought resistant cultivar suited to rainfed
fertilizers. Mix with soil and cover the trenches
situations in the state.
and form ridges of 15 cm height for planting
Guinea grass thrives well in warm moist slips. In acid soils, application of lime @ 500
climate. It can grow from sea level to 1800 m kg ha-1 in alternate years is desirable.
altitude. It is frost sensitive. It thrives Slips are planted on ridges @ three
between a temperature range of 15 to 38ºC. slips per hill. The spacing of 40 cm x 20 cm is
The grass tolerates shade and grows under followed when grown as an intercrop.
trees and bushes and is best suitable as an For a pure crop, a wider spacing of 60 cm x 30
intercrop in coconut gardens. The grass is cm is required.
adapted to a wide range of soils. It usually
grows on well-drained light textured soil, A basal dose of 10 tonnes of FYM, 50 kg
preferably sandy loams or loams, but is P2O5 and 50 kg K2O ha-1 (applied in trenches)
better suited to medium to highly fertile loams. is recommended. For top dressing, use 200 kg
It cannot tolerate heavy clays or prolonged N ha -1 in two split doses, the first dose
waterlogging. immediately after first cutting and the second
dose during the northeast monsoon period. If
Under Kerala conditions, the best season irrigation facilities are available, topdressing can
GUINEA GRASS, GAMBA GRASS AND SETARIA GRASS 261

be given in more splits. The fertilizer may be or four cuttings.

applied on The crop is ready for harvest when it
either side of the plants, along the row and reaches 1.5 m height. Cutting at 15 to 20 cm
earthed up. above the ground level is advised. The first
At planting two irrigations are required cut is usually ready in 9-10 weeks after
within seven to ten days for quick planting and subsequent cuts are taken at
establishment. The crop should be subsequently 45 to 60 days intervals. About six to seven
irrigated depending upon the rainfall and soil harvests can be made in a year.
type. Usually irrigation once in 7-10 days is Approximately 80-100 t ha-1 of green
required. Irrigation with cowshed washing or fodder is obtained per year.
sewage water within 3-4 days after cutting Guinea grass can be grown mixed with
gives better growth. leguminous fodder crops such as cowpea, stylo
The delicate seedlings or newly emerged and siratro.
shoots from slips or cuttings require The grass is nutritious, palatable and free
protection from weeds in the first from oxalates. It makes good hay and silage.
two months. Two intercultivations The crude protein and the crude fibre content
should be given during this period. Later, of this grass vary from 8 to 14 per cent and 28
intercultivation may be necessary after three to 36 per cent respectively.

GAMBA GRASS (Andropogon gayanus)

Gamba grass is also known as ‘Sadabahar’. after burning. The crop comes up well in partial
It is a tufted perennial grass and the stems are shade and is a good intercrop in coconut
usually 1-2 m high. The inflorescence is a large gardens. The crop can be propagated through
spathe or panicle. rooted slips or seeds lightly drilled.
Cultural operations and management are
The grass tolerates drought and suits similar to that of guinea grass.
areas where dry season lasts for five months
In general about 50 to 80 t ha-1 of green
or so. In areas with less severe drought it can matter is produced in the first year. From the
remain green throughout the year. It second year onwards there is a slight increase in
tolerates deep seasonal flooding. The grass green fodder yield. The grass has excellent
avoids heavy soil, is resistant to grass fires and palatability with 5.5 per cent crude protein
develops new leaves and shoots a few days and 32.6 per cent crude fibre.

SETARIA GRASS (Setaria anceps)

Setaria anceps is also called as Golden Important varieties are Nandi, Narok and
Timothy. The grass comes up well in the Kazungula.
medium rainfall areas in the tropics and The grass is a tufted perennial with erect
subtropics. stems and grows 1-2 m in height. Leaves are
262 SETARIA GRASS

about 40 cm long, 8-20 cm wide and green to preparation. The crop responds well to
dark green in colour. Panicle is dense, application of fertilizers especially N. The
cylindrical, about 10 to 30 cm long and fertilizer requirement depends on the initial
orange to purplish in colour. Spikelets are nutrient status of the soil.
two in number, the lower one is the male or
The grass flourishes in moist, but not wet
sterile and the upper one is bisexual. soils. Setaria plots should be well drained during
rainy season. At establishment, the crop
Usually the grass grows under an annual
requires two successive light irrigations in
rainfall of over 750 mm. It grows vigorously
7-10 days interval. Subsequent irrigation should
under high annual rainfall ranging from
be given as and when necessary.
1000 to 1500 mm. It can also survive long, hot
and dry seasons.The grass grows well at 20 to One or two weeding or intercultivation
25oC. It is more cold tolerant than most of is given in the first 2 to 3 months. To control
other tropical and subtropical grasses. It can weeds and to encourage fresh sprouts, one
come up in a variety of soil types. or two intercultivation has to be carried out
every year.
This perennial grass requires thorough land
The crop is ready for harvest by 9-10
preparation; two or three ploughings/diggings
weeks. Subsequent cuts can be taken after
followed by one levelling. The land should be
every 40 to 60 days depending on the crop
free from weeds.
growth. At harvest, a stubble height of about
Propagation is through rooted slips as well 8 to 10 cm is left for good regeneration.
as through seeds. Seedlings can be raised in Generally, about 25-40 t ha -1 of green
nursery and transplanted during rainy fodder can be harvested per year under
season under rainfed conditions. If irrigation rainfed situation. Irrigated crop yields about
facilities are available, planting can be 75-150 t ha-1 per year.
done at any time between February and
November. The grass can be used as green cut
fodder, silage and hay. The grass gives
As a pure crop it is planted at 50 cm x 30 satisfactory silage with molasses. The crude
cm spacing. The row-to-row distance may be protein and crude fibre content of the grass
increased to 60-70 cm when the soil is poor range from 4.8 to 18.4 per cent and 24 to 34
and irrigation facility is absent. For per cent respectively.
intercropping with legumes, 100 cm x 30 cm Seed yields are low due to prolonged
spacing is followed. If seeds are used, seed emergence of panicles, prolonged flowering of
rate varies from 3.5 to 4.0 kg ha-1. In case of the same panicle, early shedding of
rooted slips, the number of slips required spikelets, bird damage etc. Denser stands give
varies from 33500 to 67000 per ha. Organic more uniform panicle emergence than widely
manure, either FYM or compost @ 10 t ha-1 spaced plants. Fertilizer application is
may be applied at the time of land compulsory in seed production.
HYBRID NAPIER 263

HYBRID NAPIER (Pennisetum typhoides x P. purpureum)

Napier grass is also called as elephant grass Gajraj, NB-5, NB-6, NB-21, NB-35, Suguna
due to its tallness and vigorous vegetative and Supriya.
growth. The plants tiller freely and a single
clump may produce 50 tillers under favourable Planting is done with the onset of southwest
climatic and soil conditions. Unfortunately, the monsoon. Being a sterile hybrid, the grass is
grass is coarse-textured, the leaf blade and planted by rooted slips or by stem cuttings.
sheaths hairy, leaf margins sharply toothed and Cuttings of moderately mature stems (3 months
stems less juicy and fibrous. In 1953, a cross was old) and preferably from the lower two thirds
made in India with bajra which is more of the stem length sprout better than the older
succulent, leafy, fine textured, palatable, fast stems. The cuttings with three nodes are stuck
growing and drought resistant than Napier to into the soil with the basal end down, either
combine these qualities with its high yielding vertically or at an angle to such a depth that
potential. two nodes remain within the soil and one above
the soil surface. The under ground nodes
Compared to Napier grass, Hybrid Napier develop roots and shoots while the upper ones
produces more tillers and numerous leaves. It develop shoots only.
grows faster and produces more herbage but
the stems are hard and the plants less persistent. A spacing of 60 cm x 60 cm is recom-
Pusa Giant Napier has larger leaves, softer and mended for pure crop of Hybrid Napier. In
less persistent hairs on leaf blades and sheaths intercropping system, spacing is adjusted to
and less sharp leaf edges. The stems are also accommodate the companion crops. The
less fibrous than Napier. The tillers are more planting rate depends upon the spacing and the
numerous and grow faster. weight of the cuttings or rooted slips used. It is
modified in crop mixtures or intercropping with
The grass grows throughout the year in the other forage crops.
tropics. The optimum temperature is about
31oC. Light showers alternated with bright Farm yard manure @ 25 t ha-1 and P2O5
sunshine are very congenial to the crop. Total and K2O @ 50 kg ha-1 each may be applied at
water requirement of the grass is about the time of land preparation. Apply N @ 200
800-1000 mm. Hybrid Pennisetum can grow kg ha -1 in two or three split doses
on a variety of soils. Light loams and sandy followed by gentle raking, if possible.
soils are preferred to heavy soils. The grass
does not thrive well on waterlogged and flood The field should be provided with good
prone lands. Phenomenal yields are obtained drainage during the rainy season, as the
from very deep fertile soil rich in organic crop cannot withstand water stagnation.
matter. It tolerates pH ranging from 5 to 8. Frequency of irrigation depends upon the
rainfall and weather conditions.
Hybrid Napier requires a deep, thorough
weed free and compact seedbed. Three or four Early intercultivation once or twice
ploughings followed by disc harrowing is ideal. is necessary before the plants establish and
grow vigorously. Subsequently, intercultivation
The popular hybrids are Pusa Giant Napier, should be given as and when necessary.
264 HYBRID NAPIER AND PARA GRASS

The first cut is taken 9-10 weeks after hence the herbage is more palatable. It is juicier
planting. Subsequent cuts are taken after four and succulent at all stages of growth. It is less
to six weeks or when the plant attains a height fibrous and more acceptable. The oxalate
of 1.5 m. Annually at least six to eight cuts are content of some of the varieties may be high.
possible. In order to encourage quicker It can be mitigated if harvested at longer
regeneration from the basal buds, stubbles of intervals (45 to 60 days).
10-15 cm is left out at harvest.
The grass is ideal for green fodder, silage
Green fodder yield ranges 200-250 t ha-1 and hay.
per year from 6-8 cuttings.
The fodder may be cut into pieces using a
The grass can be intercropped with chaff cutter and ensiled. Legume fodders may
legumes such as cowpea, Calapogonium, be mixed with the grass in the ratio of 1:2 to
Centrosema and Glycine. Intercropping with produce balanced silage. The fodder can also
legumes improves the quality of fodder. be converted into hay during the dry summer
Hybrid Napier is superior in quality than periods. The chaffed material is exposed in the
Napier grass and contains about 10.2 per cent sun by spreading uniformly for a day. Further
crude protein and 30.5 per cent crude fibre. drying is done under the shade to preserve
The leaves are larger and greener, the sheaths colour. The quality of the silage or hay remains
are softer and the margins less serrated and more or less the same as green fodder.

PARA GRASS (Brachiaria mutica)

This grass is also known as buffalo grass, It can withstand short term flooding and
water grass, Angola grass and Mauritius grass. waterlogging but cannot be grown in dryland
The crop responds well to sewage irrigation in arid and semi-arid regions. It is sensitive to
and is usually grown near large sewage disposal cold. It makes no growth during winter months.
farms.
The grass grows in moist, but not in highly
It is a coarse, trailing perennial that wet soils. It thrives best on highly fertile clay
spreads by surface runners which root loam to clayey textured soils with high
profusely at the nodes with flowering stems moisture retention capacity. It can be grown
1 to 2 m high. The culms are erect, leafy, hollow, even on sandy soils with good irrigation
succulent and glabrous with hairy nodes. The facility. It tolerates slightly acid to alkaline soils.
leaf blades are dark green in colour, 25 to It is highly tolerant to saline or sodic soil
30 cm long and 1 to 2 cm broad. Inflorescence conditions. It grows well on field bunds, banks
is a panicle. Flowering is hastened in shorter of streams and canals, lowlands and soils too
photoperiods. wet for normal farm crops.

The grass prefers hot and humid climate of Prepare the land thoroughly by three or four
the tropics and subtropics with high annual ploughings and remove weeds.
rainfall ranging between 1000 and 1500 mm. Planting can be done at any time other than
PARA GRASS AND CONGOSIGNAL GRASS 265

winter months. The rainfed crop is planted with Later on, irrigation once in 10 to 15 days in
the first monsoon showers. summer is advantageous.
Stem cuttings or pieces of creeping shoots The land should be kept weed free for the
15 to 30 cm long with about three joints are first two months. Since it is a sturdy and
generally planted in a slanting position. In order aggressive grass, once it gets established, the
to save time and labour, the planting materials weeds that appear later are suppressed.
are scattered in the field and covered by
ploughing crosswise during monsoon season. The competitive vigour of para grass
Seeds can also be used for direct sowing or interferes with the co-existence of legumes.
sowing in nursery for transplantation. However, First harvest is done about three months
poor seed setting usually discourages seed after planting when the grass attains a height
propagation. of about 60 to 75 cm. Subsequent cuts are
Slips can be planted 50 to 60 cm apart both taken at 30 to 40 days interval. Annual yield of
ways between plants and rows. The growing about 70 t ha-1 is obtained.
runners quickly root at the joints, tiller profusely As para grass herbage dries slowly when
and cover the field. cut, it is not suitable for hay-making. However,
The requirement of slips for planting ranges it can be used for ensiling. It is a nutritious
from 27000 to 40000 per ha. The seed rate high yielding and palatable forage grass. The
recommended is 2.5 to 3.5 kg ha-1. grass appears to be free of any toxic effect.
The crop is highly responsive to irrigation Nutritive value is comparatively less. The crude
with cattle-shed washing or sewage water. protein ranges from 2.8 to 16.1 per cent and
Apply 40 tonnes of FYM or compost along crude fibre from 28 to 34 per cent.
with 30 kg P2O5 and 30 kg K2O per ha as Seed yields are generally low. It is observed
basal dose. Topdressing N 40 kg ha-1 after that shorter or longer day lengths hasten
each harvest is found to enhance the forage flowering. The correct stage of harvest is soon
production. after the end of anthesis. Germination is
Two or three light irrigations are to be affected if the seed is harvested late. There is
provided for the initial establishment of the crop. no post-harvest dormancy for seed.

CONGOSIGNAL GRASS (Brachiaria ruziziensis)

Congosignal can be grown as a sole crop cannot tolerate waterlogging. It also

in open areas and as an intercrop in coconut tolerates shade. So it is recommended as an
gardens. It is a creeping perennial with dense intercrop in coconut garden. It can be grown
foliage and therefore can be used for soil either as a pure crop or mixed with other
conservation purpose as strip crop. It grows grasses and legumes.
to a height of about 50 to 100 cm and
The crop is generally planted in May-June
produces 30 to 40 tillers on an average.
and September-October with the onset of rains.
It prefers a warm moist tropical climate. It Prepare the land by ploughing one or two
can be grown in almost all types of soils but times, removing weeds and levelling. Both
266 CONGOSIGNAL GRASS AND SUBABUL

seeds and slips can be used. A seed rate of Intercultivation during early growth stages
2-5 kg ha-1 is recommended. For sowing, a fine is advisable to check weed growth.
seedbed is required and seeds are broadcast
at 1-2 cm depth. To protect the seeds from It can also be grown as a crop mixture with
ants, dusting carbaryl 5 per cent DP at the leguminous fodder crops.
time of sowing is effective. When slips are
used, they are planted at a spacing of 40 cm x The first harvest can be done 50 days
20 cm. after planting and subsequently at 30-40 days
Basal application of 5 t ha-1 of FYM along interval. Rainfed crop yields about 35-45 t ha-1
with 50 kg ha-1 each of P 2O 5 and K 2O is of green fodder whereas the yield will be
recommended. Nitrogen @ 100-150 kg ha-1 increased to about 50-100 t ha -1 under
may be applied in two or three splits. irrigated conditions.

FODDER TREES
SUBABUL (Leucaena leucocephala)
Subabul is also known as leucaena or Cunningham: It is a cross between Salvador
ipil-ipil. It had its origin from Mexico and is and Peru types.
now widely spread throughout the tropical and Subabul is best suited for warm regions
subtropical countries of the world. and grows well between 22 and 30ºC in
It is a perennial hardy evergreen shrub. It regions of 500 to 2000 mm annual rainfall.
has deep and strong taproot and even the Because of its strong and deep root system,
seedlings are deep rooted. The leaves are the tree is highly drought resistant. It is
restricted to elevations below 500 m but it
bipinnate, 15 to 20 cm long with 10 to 15 pairs
withstands variations in rainfall, sunlight,
of pinnate leaves. Inflorescence is globular and
windstorm, slight frost and drought. It
the flowers are white. There are four types of
cannot withstand waterlogging. It requires a
subabul as described below. deep well drained neutral soil and can
Hawaiian type: The plants are short bushy tolerate saline and acid soil. It can also be
and remarkably drought tolerant. It is suited to grown in steep slopes, hilly terrains, gravelly
hilly terrains in drought prone areas. It is a areas and sandy loams.
prolific seed producer and is good for Planting of seedlings can be done with the
fodder purpose. K-341 is a Hawaiian variety. onset of rains in May-June or September-
October.
Salvador type: Tall, tree like and fast
growing having maximum annual biomass Seed viability is high, but possess
production. Possesses large leaves, pods and dormancy because of hard seed coat. To hasten
seeds than Hawaiian types. Responds to high germination seeds are to be dipped in
concentrated sulphuric acid for four minutes
fertilization. Variety K-8 is useful for fodder.
and then washed or put in hot water at 80ºC
Peru: Tall and extensively branching type and for four minutes. Sundry the seeds afterwards
is ideal for fodder purpose. for about one hour before sowing.
SUBABUL, HEDGE LUCERNE AND AGATHI 267

A seed rate of 3-4 kg ha-1 is recommended. grasses like guinea, pangola, dinanath, Hybrid
Sowing is preferably done during February- Napier etc.
March in a nursery or polythene bags or in
Subabul is a highly nutritious leguminous tree
situ at 2-3 cm depth. Give irrigation if there is
fodder with 27-34 per cent protein. The fodder is
no rain. Seedlings (1.5 to 3 months old with
rich in carotene and vitamin A. Pro vitamin A
6-8 leaves) are planted in the main field. A spacing
content is the highest among all plant species.
of 1 m x 0.1 m is recommended for a pure
The foliage contains an uncommon amino acid,
crop of fodder, 1.5 m x 0.2 m for planting in
mimosine, which is toxic to non-ruminants at levels
boundaries and borders of coconut gardens and
2 m x 0.2 m when raised along boundaries. of about 10 per cent of the diet.

It can grow under a wide range of Subabul starts flowering at 125-150 days
conditions as a range plant, roadside plant, in after planting. First cutting is done after
pastures etc. The land should, however, be 5-6 months at a height of 70-80 cm from the
cleared of bushes, ploughed and levelled ground level at a time when the plants reach a
before sowing. height of 1.5-1.75 m. Subsequent harvests
can be made at 50-60 days interval depending
A basal application of N:P2O 5:K 2O @ on the re-growth. When planted in boundaries,
20:50:30 kg ha-1 is recommended. the main shoot is not cut; only side branches
Since the early growth of the crop is slow, are cut for fodder, leaving the top three
the tender plants are to be protected from branches.
aggressive weeds. Two or three inter-row In gravelly soil and in low rainfall areas, a
cultivation is essential to check weeds in early yield of 25-30 tonnes per ha per year may be
life. Once established, even vigorous grasses obtained. The irrigated crop may produce
seldom smother the plants. 100 t ha-1 of green fodder per year in seven to
Leucaena combines well with many eight cuttings.

HEDGE LUCERNE (Desmanthus virgatus)

It is a small shrub, 2 to 3 m tall and roughly highly productive, yielding about 40 to
resembles leucaena. It is a native of tropics 70 tonnes of green fodder per ha per year. No
and subtropics of the new world, palatable, poisonous principle is observed in the foliage.
aggressive, persistent and tolerant to Because of its pithy stem, the harvesting is
heavy grazing. It has 22 per cent protein in easier. It is an ideal plant for wasteland
leaves and 10-15 per cent in stems. It is development.

AGATHI (Sesbania grandiflora)

The outstanding feature is its extremely fast per ha is commonly achieved. It is easy to
growth rate, especially during the first three to propagate by direct seeding. Prolific
four years. Average wood yield of 20 to 25 m3 nodulation and extremely large nodules are
268 AGATHI, SHEVRI AND FODDER COWPEA

its characteristic features. Cattle relish both 36 per cent crude protein. Agricultural crops
its leaves and pods. After cutting, shoots continue to grow well when intercropped
re-sprout with vigour. It is not toxic to cattle. with S. grandiflora whose open crown allows
It can be planted very densely @ 3000 sunlight to pass. It is adapted to the moist
stems per ha. It has been viewed as a source tropics with annual rainfall in excess of
of pulp for paper industry. Leaves contain 1000 mm.

SHEVRI (Sesbania aegyptica)

It is a promising perennial fodder shrub for nutritious forage to animals. The plants can be
both dry and wet areas. The sub-marginal lands sown at a spacing of 100 cm x 50 cm. When
that are not suited for agricultural cut at 50 cm height at 60 days
purposes can be used for growing this interval, green fodder yield of 12 tonnes per
fodder plant. The leaves and young twigs form ha per year can be obtained.

FODDER LEGUMES
FODDER COWPEA (Vigna unguiculata)
Cowpea is the most important leguminous 9805 are recommended for cultivation for
fodder crop suitable for both summer and rainy fodder purpose.
seasons, mainly due to its quick growing habit
and high yielding ability. Cowpea is best suited for moderately
humid areas of the tropics and subtropics. It
Cowpea is indigenous to Africa and usually grows in latitude between 30oN and S
India. It has been cultivated from very early and up to 1500 m elevation. The plant
times for human consumption. Fodder cannot withstand frost, excessive and
cowpea can be profitably grown as a prolonged waterlogging, while some varieties
summer crop in rice fallow of sandy loam soils are resistant to heavy rains. The optimum
where water is not available to raise a temperature required for its growth varies from
subsequent crop. It can be considered as a 15 to 27oC. Cowpea can be grown on a wide
complementary crop in the rotation sequence range of soils from heavy to sandy loam with
of rice-rice-cowpea because of the leguminous a pH range of 5.0 to 6.5. Saline, alkaline or
organic residues available for fertility waterlogged soils should be avoided. Heavy
enrichment. clays encourage vegetative growth with less
seed production.
Cowpea is grown as a seasonal crop, which
is bushy, trailing or climbing. Stems are 1 to 3 Cowpea for fodder purpose can be grown
m long, glabrous or slightly hairy. Leaves are in any month if irrigation facilities exist. In
trifoliate, inflorescence auxiliary having a few Kerala, it is raised as a rainfed crop during
to several flowers. Pods are linear and May and also as summer crop in rice
cylindrical. fallows.
A number of varieties like Karnataka Two to three ploughings are required to
local, RS-9, UPC-1956, UPC-5287 and UPC- produce a coarse seedbed for the crop.
FODDER COWPEA AND STYLO 269

Shallow furrows at 3 m apart for leading Cowpea is tolerant to moderate shade. So

irrigation water may also be provided. It can it can be successfully grown as intercrop with
be broadcasted or drilled in lines. For seed maize, sorghum, bajra, guinea grass, napier
crop, line sowing is preferred. Seed rate grass etc. to get high yields. In Kerala
recommended is 40 to 50 kg ha -1 for a cowpea is also raised as an intercrop in
broadcast crop and 15 to 40 kg ha-1 for drill coconut gardens.
sown crop. For drilling, spacing of 30 to 40 cm As a fodder crop, the first cutting can be
between rows and 6 to 15 cm between plants given 45 days after planting and subsequent
is recommended. two cuttings at 30 days intervals. A single
cut crop yields 25 to 30 t ha-1 whereas green
For rainfed crop, at the time of land
matter yield of 40 t ha-1 is obtained from
preparation, FYM @ 10 t ha-1 is applied and
multi-cut cowpea.
basal application of N, P2O5 and K2O @ 25,
60 and 30 kg ha -1 is recommended. For Cowpea is used as fodder crop for green
irrigated crop in addition to the basal dose of feeding, hay-making, grazing and also for
40: 30: 30 kg N: P2O5: K2O ha-1, topdressing ensiling in mixtures with sorghum or maize. The
grains are used as human food as well as
of N and K2O each at 10 kg ha-1 after each
animal feed. Cowpea is also used as green
cut is to be given.
manure crop and as cover crop in plantations.
A pre-sowing irrigation is important for the The feeding value of cowpea forage is high. It
proper germination of the crop. If there is lack is superior to other legumes like soybean
of soil moisture, shallow irrigation at 3-4 cm because of its low fibre content and
depth once in 15 days during summer and once minimum wastage in feeding livestock. It has
in a month during post-monsoon period is good. about 16 per cent crude protein and 20 per
One or two weeding may be required in cent crude fibre.
the early growth stages to combat weed Cowpea is a self-pollinated short day plant.
problems. Usually high seed rates are The percentage of hard seed is low and viability
effective in smothering weeds. under storage lasts for 3 years.

STYLO (Stylosanthes spp.)

Stylosanthes is a genus of summer The genus Stylosanthes consists entirely

growing perennial pasture / fodder legumes. of herbs and small shrubs. Usually they have
Most of its species are native of south and a crown of growing points near the soil
central America and the Caribbean Islands. surface. This enables the plants to overcome
the excessive damage caused by grazing
This is a fodder cum leguminous cover crop,
animals. They have indehiscent seeds,
which is suited for intercropping in coconut
regulating dormancy. The seed has hooks for
gardens, either alone or in combination with dispersal through animals. The seeds can also
other fodder grasses. The crop controls soil pass through the digestive system of animals.
erosion by giving a protective soil cover. In some species due to the presence of
It also helps to smother weed growth. viscid hairs, they are not eaten in some
270 STYLO

seasons of the year. The plant thrives well in should not be sown below 7 to 13 mm. A seed
light soils due to its deep rooting system. rate of 2 kg ha -1 is usually satisfactory.
Although Stylo is usually nodulated by naturally
The crop is suited for growing in warm,
occurring Rhizobium strains, these however,
humid tropical climate. It is fairly drought
resistant and shade tolerant. It can be will not be as effective as the commercial
cultivated in areas receiving less than strains. The main variety commercially grown
1000 mm of rainfall and in less fertile soil, acid is Schofield. This is an erect variety and very
soils, gravelly sandy soils and also in late in flowering. Other varieties are Cook,
ill-drained soils. Endeavour and Graham.

In humid tropical environments, Townsville stylo (Stylosanthes humilis) : This

S. guianensis thrives very well and can annual type stylo is also found suitable for
withstand flood and drought lasting for short growing in Kerala.
periods. Germination and growth are favoured Caribbean stylo (Stylosanthes hamata cv.
at high temperatures. Verano): This is a short-lived perennial
In less fertile soils like sandy coastal soils, legume similar to Townsville stylo. It is slow
phosphorus fertilizer should also be added along growing and develops a flat crown under
with sowing of seeds so as to help the grazing. Erect stem may grow up to 80 cm.
development of root nodules. The stems of Verano are smooth. As against
the bristly stems of Townsville stylo it has a
Sowing is to be done with the onset of line of very fine, short white hairs on one side
southwest monsoon during May-June. only. The flowering spike of Verano
Irrigation is required if there is no proper soil produces double seeds; the upper has a reduced
moisture at the time of sowing. hook about 3 to 5 mm long, while the lower
The following are the perennial types of seed has no hook. Verano combines many of
stylosanthes, ideally suited for growing in the the virtues of both annuals and perennials.
state. Shrubby Stylo (Stylosanthes scabra) : This is
Brazilian lucerne (Stylosanthes a perennial shrub. Its deep root system enables
guianensis) : This is used as a pasture legume the plant to remain green even in very dry
in a number of tropical countries; Varieties are season. The recommended varieties of shrubby
usually erect to semi-erect. They are generally stylo are Seca and Fitzroy.
not profusely branched at the base. It can grow
Seeds of stylo are very small. The seed rate
up to 1.5 m in height, particularly when it gets
is 2 to 3.5 kg ha -1 when grown as an
support from the associate grasses. The
intercrop in coconut gardens. For grass
trifoliate leaves are long, rather narrow and
legume mixtures, 1.5 kg ha-1 is sufficient. Seeds
pointed. The stems are coarse and hairy. In
are soaked in water overnight and mixed with
some of the varieties the leaves are sticky. The
Rhizobium culture before sowing.
flowers are small and yellow producing single
seeded pods. It does not tolerate shade and Prepare a fine seedbed. Seeds are mixed
can grow very well in areas receiving 900 to with sand when sown as a pure crop or mixed
4000 mm of rainfall. It is very tolerant to low with grass seeds for mixtures. Seeds are sown
fertility, but responds well to phosphate and is broadcast and covered with thin layer of
sensitive to copper deficiency. Stylo seed soil or dibbled at a spacing of 30 cm
STYLO AND FODDER MAIZE 271

between rows. The depth of sowing should be subsequent years. Application of lime
5-10 mm. Seeds germinate within a week. @ 375 kg ha-1 is also recommended in acid soils.
The variety Cook produces seeds well. Gap filling may be done 15 days after
A seed rate of 5 kg ha-1 is better for seed sowing. First weeding is given 45 days after
production. Apply phosphorus @ 120 kg and sowing. A second weeding and hoeing may also
lime @ 375 kg per ha for maximum yield. For be done after the first harvest. Gentle raking of
seed production, irrigate with 33 mm of water the interspace after the application of
once in 9 days during summer months from fertilizers in the subsequent years may be done.
January to March. A total of 10 such irrigations First harvest is taken 3-4 months after
are required during the period. sowing and subsequent harvest at 45 days
Recommended dose of N, P2O5 and K2O intervals or according to the growth of the crop.
for both annual and perennial stylosanthes are A maximum of 4-5 harvests can be taken in a
20, 80 and 30 kg per ha respectively. For year for a perennial crop, which will remain in
perennial crops, phosphorus @ 80 kg ha-1 and the field for 3 years. The crop yields 25-30 t
potash @ 30 kg ha -1 may be applied in ha-1 green fodder per year.

FODDER CEREALS
FODDER MAIZE (Zea mays)

Maize grows best in warm climate where Hybrid varieties are Deccan, Ganga-5,
the day temperature is fairly light. Heavy rains Ganga safed-2, and Ganga-3 and composite
and dry hot winds are not suitable. Favourable variety Vijay.
annual rainfall is 60-100 cm. The crop comes Seed rate for broadcasting is 80 kg ha-1 and
up well in soils with good drainage and fair for dibbling 40-60 kg ha-1 (to be dibbled at 5-6
moisture status. cm depth @ two seeds per hole).
The optimum season for sowing is the FYM @ 10 t ha-1 may be applied at the
last week of June to second week of time of preparation of land as basal dressing.
July and September to October. The crop N, P2O5 and K2O at the rate of 120, 60 and
can be raised throughout the year in areas 40 kg/ha respectively, may be given as
where irrigation facilities are available. topdressing. Weeding may be done according
The land is ploughed two or three times and to necessity.
beds and channels are formed. Seeds can be First cutting of maize can be taken after
either broadcasted or dibbled at a spacing of 60 days of planting or at the milky stage of the
30 cm between rows and 15 cm between crop. A second cut can also be taken if there
plants. is sufficient moisture in the soil.
272 FODDERV SORGHUM AND GREEN MANURE CROPS

FODDER SORGHUM (Sorghum sp.)

Fodder sorghum is an ideal tropical soils are suited for the crop. Apply N, P2O5
forage crop. It is fairly drought resistant and and K2O fertilizers @ 60, 40 and 20 kg per
suited for areas where moisture is a limiting ha, respectively. Important varieties are
factor for crop growth. The crop can be raised M.P.Chari, MPKV-1, JS-20, S-1049 and
during both monsoons. All soils except sandy JS-3.

GREEN MANURE CROPS

Sunn hemp (Crotalaria juncea) sulphuric acid for 15 minutes and then washed
thoroughly with fresh water and sown immedi-
It is a vigorous growing green manure crop,
ately. A green matter yield of 15 to 20 t ha-1
which can be incorporated at 10 weeks after
equivalent to 150-180 kg N ha-1 is obtained
sowing. It does not withstand waterlogging.
within a period of 8 to 10 weeks.
The seed rate is 25-35 kg ha-1. The green matter
yield is 15-20 t ha-1. Quantity of nitrogen fixed Wild indigo or kolingi
by the crop is 75-80 kg ha-1. (Tephrosia purpurea)

Daincha (Sesbania aculeata and S. rostrata) It is a slow growing green manure crop
suitable for light soils. It resists drought but does
Sesbania aculeata not withstand water stagnation. The seed have
a waxy, impermeable hard seed coat and do
It is a quick growing succulent green
not quickly germinate. To hasten germination,
manure crop, which can be incorporated at
the seeds are to be abrased with sand or
about 8 to 10 weeks after sowing. This crop
steeped in hot water at 55ºC for two to three
adapts to varying conditions of soil and climate.
minutes. The seed rate is 20-25 kg ha-1 and
It can be grown even under adverse condi-
the green matter yield varies from 8 to 10 t ha-1.
tions of drought, waterlogging, salinity etc.
When kolingi is sown in an area for two or
Recommended seed rate is 20 to 25 kg per ha.
three seasons continuously, scattered seeds will
The green matter yield is 10-20 tonnes per ha. give rise to volunteer plants and there is no
Quantity of nitrogen fixed is 75 to 80 kg per ha. need for further sowing.
Sesbania rostrata Indigo / Bengal indigo
It is a green manure crop, which has (Indigofera tinctoria)
nodules both on the stem and root. It thrives Indigo resembles kolingi, but has more leafy
well under waterlogged condition. The normal habit. It shows resistance to drought. Better
seed rate is 30 to 40 kg per ha. To get early, yield is obtained when two irrigations are given
uniform germination and vigorous seedlings, and when grown in clayey soil. Seed rate is 20
seeds have to be scarified with concentrated kg ha-1. Green matter production is 8-10 t ha-1.
GREEN LEAF MANURE CROPS 273

GREEN LEAF MANURE CROPS

Gliricidia (Gliricidia maculata) Subabul (Leucaena leucocephala)

It is a shrub, which takes up a tree habit This species, a native of Central America,
under favourable conditions of soil and occurs as a branched shrub. It is a promising
climate. For green leaf purposes, the shrub forage tree crop, the leaves of which
should be kept low by pruning or lopping at a contain about 3-4 per cent of N. Leucaena fixes
about 500-600 kg N ha-1 per year.
height of 2-3 m. The shrub can be pruned two
or three times a year and it withstands repeated Cassia (Cassia auriculata)
lopping. Within two years after planting, the Propagated by seeds. During flowering tree
plants are ready for lopping. Each plant gives is topped (stem and branches cut) and loppings
5 to 10 kg of green leaves annually. used for green leaf manuring.
274 AGROFORESTRY AND AILANTHUS OR MATTI

AGROFORESTRY
Agroforestry refers to land management concurrent production of wood and livestock.
systems that integrate agricultural crops with They also refer to situations in which trees are
forest crops. It is a collective term for all land scattered in pasture/grasslands, protein banks/
use systems and practices in which woody cut and carry fodder production system
perennials are deliberately grown on the same involving woody perennials and the like.
land management unit as crops or animals,
Agrosilvopastoral systems, the most
either in some form of a spatial arrangement
intensive form of land management, are
or in a time sequence and in which there is a
systems in which the land is managed
significant interaction between the woody
concurrently for the production of agricultural
perennials and the crops or animals.
and forest crops and for rearing of domesti-
Types of Agroforestry cated animals.
The major classes of agroforestry include, In addition, there are many agricultural
agrisilviculture, silvopastoral, agrosilvopas- practices associated with forest that strictly do
toral and other (miscellaneous) systems. not fall under the above categories. These
Agrisilviculture refers to systems in which include, collection of non-timber forest
agricultural crops are integrated with trees on products from forests, growing trees around
the same land management unit wetlands and other water bodies in which fish
either in time or space. Examples include culture is practised, apiculture with trees and
taungya, alley cropping, multipurpose trees multipurpose woodlots etc.
either as woodlots or as scattered trees on Trees in Agroforestry
farmlands or on farm boundaries, crop
Many tree species (woody perennials) are
combinations involving woody perennial
encountered in agroforestry. These include
plantation crops, growing commercial crops in
common timber species such as ailanthus
association with planted shade trees or trees
(matti), teak, wild jack and multipurpose tree
in natural forests, shelterbelts, energy planta- species such as mango, jack, tamarind,
tions, enriched fallow and so on. erythrina, gliricidia etc. Species-specific
Silvopastoralism represents land manage- recommendations for some important
ment systems in which forests including timber (softwood and hardwood) trees are
forest plantations are managed for the given below.

AILANTHUS OR MATTI (Ailanthus triphysa)

Ailanthus trees flower in February-March germination. The procedure involves soaking

and the fruit, a reddish brown samara, the entire quantity of seeds in cold (room
ripens in March-April, which represents the temperature) water in the evening and draining
ideal time for seed collection. The seeds can the water next morning, followed by
be stored only for a few months. Alternate drying the seeds under shade during the day.
wetting and drying improves seed The cycle is repeated for two to three days.
AILANTHUS OR MATTI AND CASUARINA 275

Nursery practices homestead or farm boundries either in single

or staggered paired rows at a spacing of
Raised beds of 10 m x 1 m are formed.
2.5 m x 2.5 m.
Preferably sand, soil and FYM (1:1:1 ratio)
must form the top layer of the beds. Sowing is Two to three weedings may be necessary
done after the bed is watered. Usually in the initial years to keep the plantation
sowing is done by broadcast method (or weed - free. Fertilizers may be applied @
dibbling) in Nov-December, for June 30-40 g N, 15-20 g P2O5 and 15-20 g K2O per
planting and March-April, for October- year per sapling from the second year to the
November planting. After sowing, a thin layer fifth year and thereafter once in three years
of soil is sprinkled on the beds to cover the for a pure plantation.
seeds. The beds are also mulched with green
In case too many lateral branches are
leaves to reduce the evaporation losses and
produced, pruning may be practised. The trees
dusted with carbaryl 10 per cent to prevent
can be felled/harvested over a period of 8 to
insect attack. Seed rate is 1 kg per bed. After
10 years.
sowing, watering is done with a fine rose-can
twice a day for 10-15 days and once a day Pests
afterwards. The nursery beds also must be Nursery: The two major pests are shoot
weeded as and when necessary. webber (Alteva fabriciella) and defoliator
Pricking out (Eligma narcissus). Shoot webber is
economically more important because it will
Germination takes place in about 8-10 days
damage the terminal shoot and can result in
after planting and the seedlings attain a height
epicormic branch formation. It can be
of 10-15 cm in six weeks time. They are then
controlled by application of quinalphos at
pricked out into polythene bags containing
0.05 per cent.
1:1:1 mixture of sand, soil and FYM.
Planting practices Young plantations: The above two are the
major pests in young plantations also, but
Containerised stock (commonly in polybags, control measures may not be cost effective.
but also in root trainers) is planted in pits (15- If required, 0.1 per cent quinalphos can be
20 cm cube) at 2 m x 2 m spacing with the applied using rocker sprayer. Shoot webber
onset of rains, in the case of monospecific affects seed production. Usually control
woodlots. To suit the requirements of measures are not adopted but any insecticide,
intercropping, the row-to-row spacing can be which is recommended under the nursery, can
altered. Ailanthus is ideal for planting in the be used.

CASUARINA (Casuarina equisetifolia)

Casuarina is a large evergreen tree with a green and perform the functions of leaves.
straight bole and numerous, long, slender, Leaves are minute scale like and arranged in
drooping, jointed, leafless branchlets arising the form of a cup at the joints of the branchlets.
from rough woody branches. The jointed Bark is brown, rough, fibrous and exfoli-
branchlets, which are partly deciduous, are ating in longitudinal strips. Wood is very
276 CASUARINA

hard, but liable to crack and split. It is used as ranging from arid regions to coastal zones.
timber, poles, pulp and paper besides fuel- Being an actinorhizal plant, casuarina is
wood. Casuarina is grown as an ornamental capable of biological nitrogen fixation.
tree throughout the tropical and subtropical Therefore, it thrives best on sandy soils low in
parts of India. In addition, it can be grown in nitrogen and has the potential to improve the
agroforestry combinations involving diverse nitrogen capital of impoverished sites.
crops. Fodder grasses, other agronomic crops
Site preparation includes ploughing the land
such as pulses, oil seeds and vegetables,
2-3 times and making 30 cm x 30 cm x 30 cm
coconut palms and tree crops such as teak and
pits before the onset of monsoon. The pits are
ailanthus are important in this respect.
filled with FYM and topsoil. Planting is done
Propagation immediately after the first rain. Block planting,
row planting and line or strip planting are
Propagation is by seeds or through
common. Spacing varies depending on the
vegetative means. For seedling production,
objective and the end product. Usually a
about half kg seeds are sown on raised nursery
spacing of 75 cm x 75 cm is adopted. One or
beds of 10 m x 1 m. This will produce about
two weeding is done immediately after the
10,000 good quality seedlings. If the soil is
rains. When the trees are about 3 m in height,
sandy, mix farmyard manure with the
the lateral branches are pruned to a height of
topsoil. After sowing the seeds, a thin layer of
about 2 m. Pruning is usually done at the end
sand is sprinkled to cover the seeds.
of the second year or after the beginning of
Usually sowing is done in Nov-December.
the third year. In plantations established at close
Regular watering and shading of the
spacing (75 cm x 75 cm), one thinning in the
nursery beds are necessary to facilitate rapid
second year or third year depending on tree
seed germination. Germination takes about 10
growth is desirable, where 25-50 per cent of
days and seedlings attain a height of
the trees are felled. In mixed species systems
10-15 cm in 6 weeks. They are then pricked
such as agroforestry, spacing and thinning
out into polythene bags or transplanted into
practices are mainly dependent on the cropping
beds of size 1 m x 10 m in January-February.
systems and the nature of the associated
Vegetative propagation is by branch
species. If the associated crops are shade
cuttings, stump cuttings and layering. For
intolerant generally wider spacing and or
vegetative propagation by rooting of branch
intensive thinning are recommended.
cuttings, treat 5-7 cm long cladode cuttings with
Fertilizers may be applied at the rate of
rooting hormones. The hormone- treated
20-25 g N, 15-20 g P2O5 and 15-20 g K2O per
cladodes are transferred to presoaked
seedling per year from the second year to the
vermiculite and kept in a mist chamber. About
fifth year.
hundred per cent rooting is obtained within 15
days. The rooted cuttings are then Injuries and protection
transferred to a mixture of sand, soil and farm
yard manure (2:1:1) for hardening. After Damping off, seedling blight, stem
15 days, the hardened propagules can be canker and seedling rot are encountered
transferred to the field. in the nurseries. Stem wilt or bark
blister disease caused by Trichosporium
Planting and stand management vesiculosum is a serious disease in the
Casuarina has a wide environmental plantations. The disease affects trees of 3-4
adaptability and hence occupies sites years and causes mortality up to 80 per cent.
CASUARINA AND EUCALYPTUS 277

Maintaining a soil pH of 6.5 to 6.8 and treating epidemic infestations inflicting extensive
the plantation with fungicidal sprays can control economic losses rarely occur in casuarina.
this disease. Other diseases include stem
Harvest
canker and dieback caused by Phomopsis
casuarinae, pink disease caused by Corticium Casuarina seedlings growing rapidly at the
salmonicolor, root rot disease caused by rate of about 1.2 to 1.5 m per annum
Ganoderma lucidum and heart rot caused by during the initial seven to eight years are
Polyporus glomeratus, Fomes fastuosus and usually harvested in about 7-10 years. Yield
F. senex. Stem canker and dieback can of high density fuel-wood plantations varies
be controlled by spraying carbendazim @ from 10-20 tonnes per ha per year on 7-10
0.05per cent. years rotations. Higher yields are reported
Insect pest problems to the tune of regular from irrigated and fertilized sites.

EUCALYPTUS (Eucalyptus spp.)

Eucalyptus is an Australian genus E. tereticornis one gram contains

comprising of 140 species. They are evergreen approximately 540 seeds.
species, all more or less aromatic and Planting stock
containing oil glands in their leaves. Mysore
gum (Eucalyptus tereticornis), flooded Three-month-old containerized stock
gum (Eucalyptus grandis), blue gum (polybag seedlings or root trainer seedlings) is
(Eucalyptus globulus) and lemon-scented recommended for planting. For seedling
gum (Eucalyptus citriodora) are the important production, sow the seeds in seed tray in
eucalyptus species grown in Kerala. Of these, February. Trays should be kept moist with a
Mysore gum and flooded gum are important fine spray of water until germination begins.
timber species in the low- and mid-altitudinal Germination begins 7-9 days after sowing. The
zones of the state, respectively. The cultivation seedlings should be pricked out when they have
practices of these two species are described two pairs of leaves into polybags of size
below. 22 cm x 10 cm or root trainers. Planting stock
of high yielding disease resistant clones are
E. grandis grows best in deep, permanently available at the KFRI / Kerala Forest
moist, well-drained soils. E. tereticornis also Department nurseries.
prefers moist and well-drained soils such as
Planting and stand management
loamy sands or alluvial loams, with high nutrient
availability. A certain degree of salinity is Best time for planting is the beginning of
tolerated, but strongly acid soils are ill suited. rains. Planting is usually done in 20 cm x
E. tereticornis adapts to a variety of sites, but 20 cm x 20 cm pits (for clones use 30 cm cube
responds poorly to excessively long dry periods. pits) at 3 m x 3 m spacing. For production of
It is very easy to regenerate both species and pulpwood and fuel-wood, 6 -10 year rotations are
they are good coppicers. The number of seeds used without thinning. Depending on site
per kilogram for E. grandis is 2.5 million, conditions, E. grandis and E. tereticornis may
whereby roughly 630 viable seeds can be respond to mineral fertilization with
expected per gram. In the case of accelerated growth. Fertilizers may be
278 EUCALYPTUS AND MANGIUM

applied at the rate of 30 g N, 30 g P2O5 and recommended against pink disease. Use
15g K2O per sapling per year during the disease tolerant clones for, preventing the
second, third and fourth years. incidence of both diseases.
Injuries and protection Uses
Polyphagous insects seem to attack the
E. grandis wood is pink to pale reddish
nursery stock. Quinalphos or malathion 0.05
brown in colour. It has good bending properties.
per cent is recommended against them.
It is used for housing construction, floors,
Drenching the containers with chlorpyrifos is
furniture, crates, and veneers, in the paper
a preventive measure against termite attack in
industry and as fuel-wood. E. tereticornis
plantations. Quinalphos 0.05 per cent
produces dark red wood. It is hard, strong,
solution is recommended to control stem borer
tough, heavy, very durable and resistant to
attack.
termite attack. It is used for a wide range of
Cylindrocladium leaf blight and pink construction applications, suited for trench
diseases are common in eucalyptus trees. To linings and fuel-wood. E. globulus and E.
control Cylindrocladium leaf blight, spray citriodora leaves are used for commercial
carbendazim 1 g l -1. Bordeaux paste is production of Eucalyptus oil.

MANGIUM (Acacia mangium)

Mangium is a major fast-growing tree Pre-sowing treatment and nursery
species in forestry plantation programmes in practices
Asia and the Pacific. It tolerates varied site To break dormancy of mangium seeds, hot
conditions and has adaptability to different water treatment is recommended. The seeds
planting objectives. Mangium shows most are tied in porous cloth and immersed in near
vigorous growth on well-drained, fertile soils boiling water (90°C) removed from the heat
in high rainfall areas (>2000 mm annually) in source for not more than 30 seconds. Pour off
the humid tropics. the water. Add cold water (room temperature)
Propagation 20 times of the seed volume. Let stand
overnight to imbibe and sow the seeds in the
Flowering in mangium is precocious. It nursery beds/seed trays. Seed inoculation with
starts to flower and produces seeds 18-20 appropriate rhizobial strain is recommended
months after planting. Pods can be collected before sowing. Mangium seedlings are ready
from the trees in January-February under for pricking out in 6-10 days after sowing.
Kerala conditions, when the pods turn very Polythene bags are the most common
dark-green to light-brown in colour. Seeds are containers used in the tropics for pricking out.
extracted manually after sun-drying. Pods and Mangium seedlings attain a target size of
seeds should not be left to dry in the sun for 25-40 cm height in about 12 weeks. Seedlings
long. Store the seeds under dry and are hardened by progressively reducing
insect/rodent-free conditions. The number of watering and removing shade in the nursery.
seeds in one kg of pure seed varies among If the seedlings have grown larger than the
trees (mean: 125,000 seeds per kg). target size in the nursery, they may be lopped.
MANGIUM 279

Planting and stand management operations in general are not required for pulp
wood production on 6 to 8 years rotation.
Planting is usually done in pits of 20 cm
depth and 10-12 cm diameter. In monospecific However, multi-stemed seedlings may be
stands, spacing of 2 m x 2 m or 2.5 m x 2.5 m ‘singled’. In pruning, branches are carefully
is common. However, if saw - log production removed in one or more steps along the bottom
(large diameter stems) is the objective, wider trunk up to about 6-7 m height. For saw log
spacing (3-3.5 m between rows and between production regimes is given as Table 33.
plants) should be followed. In agroforestry Silvicultural schedule is recommended. The
situations, spacing within rows and between average wood yield per tree3 on a 15 years
rows must consider the effect of shade and rotation is about 0.7 to 1.0 m .
root competition on the yield of associated Injuries and protection
crops. Shade tolerant crops such as turmeric Although root rot disease caused by
and ginger can be intercropped with Mangium
Ganoderma sp. (red rot), Phellinus sp.
trees planted at 2 m x 4 m or 4 m x 4 m spacing.
(brown rot) and Rigidoporus lignosus are
The crops can be raised in one meter wide
major problems in mangium stands, there are
beds laid in between the planting rows of
Mangium. no specific control recommendations against
these fungi. Signs of the disease are evident
First weeding must be carried out two on the roots after the tree has fallen or upon
months after planting and thereafter at excavation. Depending on, which fungus
regular intervals depending on weed growth.
causes the disease, there may be dark
On favourable sites, mangium plants emerge
reddish granular rusty brown encrustation or
and dominate the weeds within two years, thus
white thread-like rhizomorphs on the surface
not requiring any further weed control.
of the rots. The usual method of controlling
Fertilizers may be applied @ 30-40 g N,
15-20 g P2O5 and K2O per seedling per year root rot caused by fungi that spread by root
from the second year to the fifth year. contact is to remove and destroy all diseased
Mangium needs regular pruning and thinning roots and woody debris.
if the plantation objective is to produce Chemical protection against pink disease
quality saw logs on 15 to 20 year rotation. These (Corticium salmonicolor), especially in

Table 33. Silvicultural management schedule for mangium saw log regime
Age Activity Remarks
4 months after planting General slashing Uproot all climbers within 45 cm radius of each
plant. Remove branches at height less than 30 cm
from the ground.
6 months after planting General slashing As above
12 months after planting General slashing Remove all branches up to 1.5-2.0 m height.
and first pruning
2 years after planting First thinning and Remove 300 trees/ha, retaining 600 trees per ha.
high pruning Prune branches up to 6 m height of the
200 selected trees (to be retained till end).
4-5 years after planting Second thinning Remove another 200 trees/ha retaining 400 trees/ha.
8-9 years after planting Final thinning Remove another 200 trees/ha.
280 MANGIUM AND TEAK

endemic areas, can be achieved by using chlorpyrifos application to the soil or

copper fungicides. The best way to prevent seedbeds. To prevent branch and twig borer
pink disease, however, is to plant tolerant (Sinoxylon anale) occurrence, remove and
varieties. burn all broken branches in which breeding
Progressive decay of the heartwood (heart takes place. The only effective method to
rot) is another malady afflicting mangium trees. control red coffee borer (Zeuzera coffeae)
Normally, fungi that decay heartwood do not damage is to inject insecticide into the holes
attack sapwood; such trees continue to grow where larvae push out their frass.
to maturity and may outwardly appear healthy Utilization of mangium wood
and vigorous. However, since heart rot is
Timber is used for a variety of purposes
progressive, there will be considerable decay
like wood-based panels, pulp and paper
cull at the end of the rotation. A variety of
industry etc. Mangium wood gives attractive
basidiomycete fungi have been associated with
furniture, cabinets, moulds and door/
this malady. At present there are no control
window components. However, the presence
measures against mangium heart rot. The best
of flutes and incidence of rots and termite attack
way is to avoid injury to trees and wound
will detract both the quality and
dressing.
quantity of sawn timber from mangium logs.
Although about 30 insect species are Therefore, mangium has greater potential as a
reported to be pests of mangium, only a few component of composite wood products such
such as root feeders, branch and stem as veneer and plywood, laminated
borers and the red coffee borer are considered veneer lumber, fibre boards etc. and for
economically important. Root feeders chemical uses such as pulp, paper and
(Sternocera aequisignata) can be controlled by tannin production, besides fuel-wood.

TEAK (Tectona grandis)

Teak is the paragon among Indian Being a strong light demander it does not
timbers. It is a large tree that attains a height tolerate overcrowding and does not withstand
more than 30 m. Teakwood is extensively waterlogging.
used in construction, for making door/ Propagation
window shutters and frames, furniture,
Seeds (fallen fruits) should be collected from
cabinets, railway coaches and wagons, and
vigorously growing middle-aged trees
ship/boat building. It is an ideal wood for
characterized by straight boles, desirable
parquet and decorative flooring and excellent branching habit, good form and less fluting.
wood for wall panelling. The species is Freshly fallen intact fruits with inflated
indigenous to India and the Southeast Asian calyx from such trees can be collected
region. In India teak is distributed naturally in during December-February. The ground
the peninsular region. It prefers a warm moist must be cleared before hand by removing
tropical climate with mean annual precipitation litter and other materials to facilitate seed
of 1100-2000 mm and a well-drained fertile soil. collection.
TEAK 281

After cleaning and drying the seeds may be One-year-old seedlings of 1-2 cm (thumb
safely stored in gunny bags or sealed thickness) at the thickest portion below the collar
containers. Seeds of diameter greater than are uprooted from mother beds and used for
9 mm are usually collected. For convenience making stumps. Stumps with 15-20 cm of root
in storage and transport, the bladder like at 2-3 cm of stem prepared with sharp knife
calyx of the fruit is removed. This is done by are commonly used for planting. Teak
half-filling a bag with the fruits and seedlings can be produced in shorter duration
vigorously rubbing and shaking it or by by using polythene bags or root trainers. Three
beating with sticks, after which the remains of to four month old teak seedlings are pricked
the calyces are separated from the nuts by out from the germination beds into polythene
winnowing. Due to hard seed coat, bags (30 cm x 20 cm) in the month of March/
germination of one-year old seeds is better than April. Three- month-old root trainer seedlings
that of fresh seeds. are also popular, of late.
Pre-sowing seed treatment
Planting
1. Teak seeds kept in jute sacks should be
soaked in water during night time and dried With the pre-monsoon showers, stump
in sun during day time. This practice is to planting is done in crowbar holes during April-
be continued for one week. May (four to six weeks before the onset of
regular monsoons). The site must be cleared
2. Termite feeding: Spread the teak fruits on of stubble or other competing vegetation, if any.
the ground in a 5 cm layer immediately If containerized planting stock (polybags, root
after collection. After about five weeks trainer) is used, then optimal time of
the termites remove the exocarp planting may be after the onset of southwest
and subsequent germination after monsoon in June-July. They are usually planted
alternate wetting and drying is found to be in pits of size 30 cm x 30 cm x 30 cm. Spacing
better. recommended for monospecific woodlot is
Nursery practices 2 m x 2 m. However, if intercrops are proposed
Raised beds (30 cm high, supported with to be raised, then row-to-row distance can be
split areca stems) of 10 m x 1 m are formed. altered. For one or two row strip plantings at
Sand and soil mixed with FYM form the top farm boundaries, a closer plant-to-plant spacing
layer. Sowing is done after the bed is of 1 m could be employed initially and later
watered. Usually the sowing is done by thinned to attain better size.
broadcast method or dibbling in April-May.
Seed rate is 3-5 kg of seeds per bed. After Weeding and fertilization
sowing, the seeds may be pressed into the Six or seven weeding may be necessary
beds. A thin layer of soil also can be sprinkled during the first two years. Teak is very
to cover the seeds. The beds are also mulched susceptible to weed competition. Fertilizers
with green leaves to reduce evaporation losses. may be applied @ 30-40 g N, 15-20 g P2O5
The bed is then dusted with carbaryl 10 per and 15-20 g K2O per plant per year from the
cent to prevent insect attack.Traditional second year to the fifth year and thereafter
mulching materials may be substituted with a once in three to four years for 10-12 years. In
single layer of newspaper. agroforestry situations, if the intercrops are
282 TEAK AND THORNY BAMBOO

fertilized, the quantities of chemical fertilizers. However, manage (by lopping or

fertilizers applied to teak can be proportionately pruning) the nitrogen fixing tree component in
reduced or even skipped. Providing life-saving such a way that it does not compete with teak
irrigation during the summer season favours for light.
teak growth. Pests, diseases and their control
Thinning
White grubs feed on roots in the nursery.
For a fifty-year rotation, monospecific teak Vascular wilt disease (Burkholderia
plantation on a good site (initial spacing solanacearum) is noticed in nursery and young
2 m x 2 m), thinning may be carried out at plantations. As preventive measures against
4, 8, 12, 18, 26 and 36 years after planting. this disease, maintain proper drainage and avoid
Thinning in short rotation (25-30 years) high
root injury. Leaf spot disease (Phomopsis sp.
input plantations can be at 4, 8, 12 and
and Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) in
16 years. The thumb rule governing
nursery and young plantations can be controlled
thinning is that trees should not be allowed to
compete with each other for site resources, as by carbendazim 0.05 per cent application.
intense competition may depress teak growth. Against pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor)
Therefore, considering the site characteristics, in young plants, apply Bordeaux paste.
tree growth rate and merchantability of the
Defoliators (Hyblaea purea) and
thinned out materials, a flexible thinning
schedule can be adopted. A teak density skeletonisers (Eutectona machaeralis) can be
management diagram can be used for this controlled by quinalphos 25 EC 0.05 per cent
purpose. In general thinning is delayed on poor spray. However, only in small plantations /
sites. woodlots chemical control through
insecticide spray is advocated. For controlling
Mixed plantations
stem borer (Sahyadrassus malabaricus) apply
Fruit/spice/medicinal trees also can be 0.2 per cent quinalphos at the site of infection
successfully intercropped with teak throughout after removing the frass. Avoid injury to root
its growth. Additionally, inclusion of
and collar to prevent bud rot and heart rot
nitrogen fixing trees such as Gliricidia or
Leucaena (subabul) either in alternate rows occurrence. Cut and remove the parasitic
or every third row not only improves teak plants (Dendrophthoe falcata var.
growth but also saves chemical nitrogenous pubescens) before fruiting.

THORNY BAMBOO (Bambusa arundinacea)

Bamboos are woody perennial grasses that controlling soil erosion. One hundred and
occur in the tropical and subtropical thirty wild and cultivated bamboo species are
evergreen and deciduous forest formations of reported to occur in India. They exist under
Asia-Pacific. Important uses of bamboo include diverse ecological conditions, often as an
paper and pulp industry, fuel, food, feed, house under-storey in many forest types. In
construction and scaffolding, making agroforestry, thorny bamboo is perhaps the
several articles of everyday use, besides most important species in Kerala.
THORNY BAMBOO 283

Propagation in the middle of the inter node. Wrapping in

moist gunny bag or embedding in boxes
Bamboos are propagated either by seeds
containing moist saw dust might minimize
or vegetative means (offsets, division, culm/ exposure of the cuttings. Pour about 200 ml
rhizome cuttings or layering). In general, of NAA (1-naphthalene acetic acid) solution
bamboos are monocarpic, i.e. they flower only (100 ppm) carefully into the culm cavity through
once and die after producing seeds. Most of the slit and close the slit/hole by wrapping with
the economically important bamboos flower a polythene strip. Ensure that the polythene
gregariously at long intervals of 30-40 years. wrapping is tight so that the solution does not
Although large quantities of seeds are
leak out. After extraction, the culm cuttings
produced during gregarious flowering, they are
should be treated with NAA as quickly as
viable only for about six to eight months. Seeds
possible.
can be germinated in nursery beds and pricked
out into polybags of size 18 cm (flat width) x Prepare raised nursery beds of 10 m x 1 m
22 cm. One year-old seedling can be used for and fill with a mixture of soil and sand (3:1).
planting. However, when seeds are not One week prior to planting, drench the
available, bamboos are propagated nursery bed with 30 litres of carbendazim 0.05
vegetatively. per cent to prevent fungal attack. Place the
Propagation by offsets is the common cutting horizontally (the opening facing
method of vegetative propagation. One-year- upwards) across the nursery bed. About 50-60
old culms in a clump are given a slanting cut at cuttings may be conveniently planted in a raised
about 90 to 120 cm above the ground. The nursery bed. Cover the cuttings with a thin
rhizomes to which they are attached are dug layer of soil. Provide shade and water the
out with the roots intact. The shoot portion is beds regularly till the onset of monsoon
then cut off to a length sufficient to but avoid waterlogging. Rooted cuttings can
include a well-developed bud. These offsets be transplanted to the field in about four
are planted out sufficiently deep in the soil to months. Cuttings sprouted and rooted at both
cover the first two or three nodes. Planting the nodes of a culm cutting must be separated
should be carried out immediately before the carefully through the middle to get two plants.
rainy season. During extraction care must be Propagation by division is usually done in
taken to avoid damage to roots and the case of dwarf bamboos, which are easy to
rhizomes of mother clumps.
handle. It involves splitting / dividing the mass
Work at the KFRI has shown that using of rhizomes and planting out the culms in
rooted culm cuttings is a viable alternative to small clumps with two or three culms
the laborious offset method. For vegetative attached. Other methods of vegetative
propagation using culm cuttings, extract 2 to 3 propagation include rhizome cuttings and air
year old culms from healthy clumps by layers. Sections of fresh living rhizome of the
cuttings just above the first node during March- preceeding year about 15 to 30 cm long
April. Trim the leaves and side branches containing at least one bud and air layers form
without injuring the auxillary buds. Prepare successful means of propagating some bamboo
two-node cuttings (leaving about 5-7 cm on species.
either side of the nodes) using a sharp knife or
saw. Make a small slit (about 2 m long and Planting and fertilization
1 cm wide) or drill holes (about 7 mm diameter) Spacing recommended for mono-specific
284 THORNY BAMBOO, WILD JACK OR AINI AND ROSEWOOD

bamboo plantations is 10 m x 10 m. Propagules four year and above. Also remove the dry
can be planted in pits of size 45 cm x 45 cm x and dead culms from the centre of the clump to
45 cm. Fertilizers may be applied @ 40 g N, reduce congestion.
10 g P2O5 and 75 g K2O per plant per year in Pests and diseases
1-2 year old plantations.
The bamboo plantations in Kerala do not
Competitive interactions in bamboo- face any serious insect problems. Young plants,
based agroforestry however, are likely to be affected by shoot
Being perennial grasses, bamboos have borers and sap suckers. In bamboo nurseries,
higher root length densities than dicots. Thus damping off caused by Rhizoctonia solani is
in mixed species system, bamboos may out- a major disease. It can be controlled by
compete the field crops or other tree crops prophylactic fungicidal treatment and by
grown in association. However, interspecific regulation of shade and watering. In young
competition in bamboo-based agroforestry plantations, rhizome bud rot (Pythium sp.,
systems can be overcome by planting crop Fusarium sp.), rhizome decay (Pseudomonas
8-9 m away from the bamboo clumps. sp.) and basal culm decay (Fusarium sp.) are
Trenching (30-40 cm wide and 50-60 cm deep important.
at 5-6 m away from the clumps) to spatially
isolate bamboo roots from the rest of the crops Extraction of bamboo culms
is recommended, if crops are to be planted at Either all the old culms, i.e. those more than
shorter distances. Bamboo root competiti- three years old (six years in the case of clumps
veness is usually a function of its rooting regenerated from seedling) or a certain number
intensity with crown radius. Larger clumps of mature culms are removed annually. Older
have wider foraging zones usually extending culms in the interior of the clumps should be
to about 8 to 9 m. Therefore canopy reduction removed in a horseshoe pattern. The height of
treatments such as pruning and culm thinning cuttings is usually at 30-50 cm above ground.
are appropriate to surmount interspecific It is necessary that cuttings should leave at
competition. Pruning up to a height of 1.5 above least one node above the ground to prevent
the ground is recom-mended in plantations of rainwater soaking into the rhizome.

WILD JACK OR AINI (Artocarpus hirsutus)

Ideally suited for boundary planting and as the farm fields) can be collected during
scattered trees on the farm field. the monsoon season and planted at
Performance under monocultural the desired spots in the field. On farm
situations is not promising. Seeds or wildings boundaries, closer plant-to-plant spacing
(scattered seedlings found profusely on (1 m) can be adopted.

ROSEWOOD (Dalbergia latifolia)

Rose wood is an important timber yielding southern region of Western Ghats. It reaches
tree of South India. It is the costliest timber in to a maximum height of 40 m and a girth of 6.0
the world trade. It varies in size according to m. Uncontrolled felling caused the widespread
locality and attains its maximum growth in the removal of rose wood from our forests.
ROSEWOOD 285

Wayanad district of Kerala is famous for moist soil. For the further development of
the abundance of rose wood trees. saplings overhead light is necessary. The
seedlings should be protected from fire, weeds
Artificial Propagation
and cattle. The tree produces a large number
Propagation is possible both by direct of root suckers from its long, horizontal,
sowing and by planting seedlings, root superficial root branches. Root suckers can also
suckers and sections of lateral roots. Stump be used for propagation. Wounding of roots by
planting of nursery seedlings is favoured, digging around trees stimulates root sucker
particularly in the west coast. Mature production.
pods are collected from the trees during
Planting and stand management
November-December. For direct sowing it is
advisable to break the pods into one seeded Saplings of rosewood can be planted in pits
parts. It can be stored up to 6 months after of 30 cm cube made at a spacing of 5 x 5 m.
sun drying. Seed weight is 18000 seeds/kg. Pits are taken before the onset of monsoon
Soaking in cold water for 24 hours before and filled with 5 Kg of FYM and top soil. Initial
sowing will result in 80 per cent germination. growth of tree is found to be relatively low.
Instead of direct sowing, nursery raised Even though habitat is deciduous, it is evergreen
seedling or stumps are also used to raise in the moist zone of its distribution. In dry areas
plantations. Seeds are sown in raised nursery it shed leaves during February-March and then
beds during rainy season. Seeds start flushes soon. White flowers will be produced
germinating within one week. The beds are during January-February. Fruit will start
regularly watered and weeded. One year old developing during March and takes 7-8 months
seedlings are used to prepare stumps. Stumps to mature. It is drought resistant. It stands a
are prepared by pruning shoots having a fair amount of shade, especially when young,
diameter of more than 3 cm and roots at a but benefits greatly by overhead light. In too
length of 30 cm. Seedlings of 30 cm tall, 3 cm open situations, it tends to become crooked and
collar diameter, 30-40 leaves, 10-15 cm root branchy. Though it can withstand fire, fire
length are normally transplanted. Through tissue protection measures are beneficial for the
culture, good planting materials can be economic development of Indian rose wood
produced which was proved by the research forests. The growth of the tree is very slow. It
work carried at the Kerala Agricultural thrives best on well drained, deep, moist soil,
University, College of Forestry. During particularly in the neighbourhood of perennial
initial years, the seedlings should be protected streams. Weeding particularly during the early
from weeds, cattle and fire. stages are recommended. Depending up on the
age and size, about 50-70g of N, 30-50 g P2O5
Natural regeneration
and 30-50g K2O along with 30 Kg of FYM per
Under natural conditions, regeneration by plant is applied from second year onwards
seeds and root suckers takes place. Wind during monsoon.
dispersed seeds will germinate in the early
part of the rainy season. The conditions Plant protection
favourable for seed germination and seedling Fungi belonging to the genus Polystictus,
growth are moderate shade, loose and fairly Schizophyllum, Trametes etc. produce rot
286 ROSEWOOD AND SANDAL

diseases. Damping off disease by slightly higher elastic limit than Burma teak.
Phytophthora is also common particularly in Harvesting is done after 60-70 years. One cubic
nursery which can be controlled by drenching meter wood weighs about 880 kg.
Bordeaux mixture 1 per cent. Pests of Coccidae
Uses
and Membracidae family also attack these
plants. Shoot webber Atteva sp. and defoliator Indian rosewood ranks among the finest
Eligma is seen in some places which can be woods for furniture and cabinet work. It is
controlled by Quinalphos 0.05 per cent. also a valuable decorative wood suitable for
carving and ornamental ply boards and
Timber
veneers. It is used for making windows, doors,
The sapwood is narrow and pale yellowish agricultural implements etc. It is grown in
white in colour, often with a purple tinge. The coffee plantations as a shade tree. The bark
heart wood ranges in colour from golden of the tree contains tannin. Parts of the tree
brown through shades of light rose, purple with are reported to be useful as stimulant and
darker streaks to deep purple with rather appetiser and also used for the treatment of
distinct black lines, darkening with age. It is dyspepsia, diarrhoea, leprosy, obesity etc.
fragrant, heavy, narrowly interlocked grained Leaves are used as fodder. It increases the
and medium coarse textured. The timber is soil nitrogen content. So it is use in agro forestry
stronger and much harder than teak and has a and social forestry programmes.

SANDAL (Santalum album)

Sandal is a beautiful sacred tree and has water and dried well after removing fleshy
been widely described in the ancient Hindu portion.1 kg pod contains 6000 seeds.
scriptures and epics. The tree is a native of Dipping seeds in Gibberellic acid 50 ppm will
India. This crooked thin branched evergreen be effective for germination. Cold water
tree is one of the costliest timbers. The world dipping for 24 hrs will result in 30-40 per cent
famous sandal wood oil is extracted from its germination. Soil beds of size 10 x 1m are used
heartwood. Full grown trees will attain about for sowing. Before this, soil has to be
12-13 m height and 1-2 m diameter. It is found thoroughly mixed with Ekalux. 2 ½ kg seeds
in most parts of India. Sandal, which is can be sown in each bed. Beds have to be
distributed from sea level up to about 1800 m covered with hay. Healthy seedlings are to be
height, is found to grow in a variety of soils. transferred in polythene bags. If seedlings are
Sandal which grow on sandy soil are more to be retained in the polythene bags
fragrant. Places where average annual beyond one year, host plants are necessary.
rainfall is about 700-1600 mm is best suited Host plant will help it in its early stages of
for its growth.
growth. Branches of the host have to be cut
Artificial propagation down (removed) frequently.
Usually nursery raised seedlings are
Natural regeneration
transferred to field. Pods are collected
during the month of April, May, September and Natural regeneration is by bird dispersed
October. Collected pods are soaked in seeds. Seedlings are naturally seen in shrubby
SANDAL 287

areas / places well surrounded by thick plant will undergo total damage. In order to
vegetation. This is meant for protection against give protection from this, the surrounding
sun rays, animals, drought etc. Natural vegetation has to be retained. Fertilization is
propagation becomes easier if soil is wet and done with 30-50 g N, 25-50g P2O5 and 30-50g
a host plant like Lantana is available near. K2O in addition to 40 g FYM per plant per
Planting and management year depending upon the size and age of plant.

After a period of 8-10 months, seedlings of Plant protection

size of 20 cm tall, 5cm girth with 20-25 leaves
Sandal spike disease is a serious
with brownish stem and small branches are
problem. This is believed to be caused by
transferred to field. Three methods are used
mycoplasma like organisms.In affected plants,
for field preparation. In one method, seeds are
growth of leaves gets stunted (assumes a spike
allowed to germinate by placing in small pits.
like form and hence the name “spike disease”)
This method is practiced usually in shrubby
areas, where sprouting seedlings are well and later premature leaf fall occurs. Within
protected during rainy season. 2-3 years, plant will die. A preventive measure
is yet to be known. However, removal of
In the second method, seeds are placed in affected plant parts or plants as a whole from
large pits / soil mound along with host plants. the field is recommended against spike disease.
In the third method, seeds are allowed to Spike disease is transferred by pests like
geminate within polythene bags and transferred Jassidus indicus, Moono albimaculata etc.
to field in 50 cm x 50 cm x 50 cm pits with a These vectors can be controlled by quinalphos
spacing of 3 m between plants filled with 5kg 0.05 per cent. Sandal is also affected by stem
FYM. Host plant is also planted along with borers such as Zeuzera coffeae, Aristobia
each sandal seedling. This is the best method. octo-fasiculata etc. which can be controlled
Suitable host plants are Pongamia pinnata and by spraying dimethoate 0.05 per cent.
Casuarina equisetifolia.
Timber
Sandal is a semi root parasite. It means
that during the early stages of its development, Sapwood is whitish or yellowish white with
it absorbs food from another plant no smell. Heartwood changes in colour from
(host plant). Flowering begins after 2-3 years yellowish brown to reddish brown and has a
of vegetative growth. It happens twice in a good smell. Heartwood is produced only after
year from March to May and September to 20 years of growth.Usually trees are uprooted
December. As these two flowering seasons instead of cutting from the ground level as oil
coincide, both buds as well as mature pods are content in roots is greater. One cubic meter
found on the same plant. Simultaneously, shade wood weighs about 897-1137 kg. The “Kerala
bearing capacity changes gradually and the Preservation of Trees Act 1986” has put
tree later becomes a light dependent one. Small restriction on cutting this tree. Permit is needed
root suckers are seen arising from the cut for its collection, retention or sale. One can
portions. Sunlight will produce small cracks keep up to 3 kg of sandal for domestic purposes
on the outer skin surface of the plant especially without licence. A sanctioned certificate of
in the case of young trees. In extreme ownership from Tahsildar is to be submitted
conditions, the wood may get exposed and the before Divisional Forest Officer by people who
288 SANDAL AND KAMPAKAM

have sandal tree at home. About 75 per cent effective in skin diseases. Sandal wood oil from
of the selling price of a sandal tree goes to its heartwood and roots is useful for the synthesis
owner. On the basis of quality, grade 1 kg of powder, soap, perfumes and other cosmetic
sandal costs about Rs. 250-500/-. items. Sandal wood and oil are medicinal and
Uses also has religious importance. Sandal wood is
Dark red coloured oil from seeds is used in used in making small boxes, stationery items,
making varnishes. It is also found to be jewellery boxes etc.

KAMPAKAM (Hopea parviflora)

In Kerala, Kampakam is also known as sunny regions, seedlings are found to grow
Thampakam, Irippu, Irumpakam etc. This well.
round headed huge tree is found in the wet
Planting and management
evergreen forests of Western Ghats. Full
grown tree usually attains 30-37 m height and Seedlings of 14 to 16 months old plants are
4-4.5 m breadth at the end of 40 years. Mostly to be transferred to fields. Planting is done in
distributed in areas which are located in pits of 45 cm cube with the onset of monsoon
between sea level and 1100 m above it. Heavy at a spacing of 4m x 4m filled with 5 kg FYM.
rainfall and properly drained and aerated soil Weeding and thinning are necessary for
are necessary for its growth. Seen abundantly seedling growth. From second year onwards
along river banks and hill slopes with fertile soil. depending on size of plant, 50-70g N, 40-50g
Artificial propagation P2O5, 40-60g K2O along with 30 kg FYM are
applied to each plant. If the area is fertile,
Artificial propagation is by seeds.Seeds can within 40 years, timber of above 20 m height
be stored in sacks up to 20 days. 1 kg will and 150 cm diameter will be obtained.
contain about 2500 seeds. Both direct sowing
or by transferring nursery raised seedlings to Even though Kampakam is an ever green
fields are practiced. It is good to sow seeds tree, it will drop mature leaves during the months
soon after collection as they are recalcitrant. of December and April. They will produce pale
In the case of direct sowing, shady and weed yellowish flowers during January to February.
free localities are preferable. Shade trees Seeds attain maturity during the months of
should be removed after 4-5 years of growth. May-June. They can overcome drought as they
Usually a distance of 3m x 3 m or 4 m x 4m are deep rooted. They prefer wet areas.
are used. If nursery raised seedlings are used Although they are shade tolerant during their
for planting, shady areas have to be preferred. early stages of growth later it becomes a light
After sowing, soil covering of thickness not demander. Dense vegetation will destroy its
more than 4 mm is given. If there is no rainfall, seedlings. It is sensitive to fire and frost.
regular watering is essential.Germination takes Plant protection
place within 2-3 weeks.
Usually the tree is affected by fungi like
Natural regeneration Fomes lamaocnis, Tramelies spongi pellis
Seen in forests by germination of wind etc. which will cause rotting. Leaf spot by
dispersed seeds during rainy season. Only in Botryodiplodia theobrommae is serious in
KAMPAKAM AND IRUL 289

some parts. Plants are also affected by stem tiate heartwood and sapwood. Reddish brown
borers like Xyleborus, Mussicus etc. which timber possess white patches here and there.
can be controlled by quinalphos 0.05 per cent. Uses
Timber As bark contains tannin, it is used in
Timber is having more strength, weight and tanning industry. Termite and pest infections
hardness than teak. One cubic meter timber are rare, so it used in manufacture of furniture,
weights about 945 kg. It is not easy to differen- railway sleeper, buildings etc.

IRUL (Xylia xylocarpa)

Locally this is also known as Irumullu, Natural regeneration

Kadamaram, Iruppool, Panka, Pankali etc.
Large number of seedlings are naturally
These large sized trees are commonly seen in
found growing in forests. They are fire and
the deciduous forests. Mostly found in places
located about 600 m above sea level. In the drought resistant.
forest areas of malabar, a large number of Planting and management
trees having 30 m height and 2.5 m diameter
can be seen. Profusely branched stem is its Planting in the field is done at a spacing of
characteristic feature. Reddish ash bark is 4m x 4m. Standard pits are filled with rich top
very rough and cracky. In dry areas stunted soil and FYM 5 kg. In addition to FYM, from
growth is reported. Grows well in places second or third year onwards, 50-70g N,
where annual rainfall is above 1000 mm and 50-60 g P2O5 and 50-70g K2O is also added to
atmosphere is hot as well as humid. River each plant depending on size. Growth is
banks and places with red soil are best suited fast during favourable season. It attains a
for its growth. Lateritic soil is also found diameter increment of about 6 cm/year. Felling
to be good for this species. Poor growth in can be done after a period of 30-50
clay soil.
years growth.
Artificial propagation
At the end of the winter season, leaf fall
This is effected by direct sowing or by will start. Soon after new sprouts and
planting stumps and seedlings from nursery or
flowers will be produced. Light yellow flowers
seedlings from forest. Sun dried seeds are
possess a good smell. Pods are of length
used for sowing in the field. This method is
10-15 cm and diameter 4-5 cm and these
found to be the most efficient one. Soaking the
seeds in cold water overnight enhances brownish red pods have the shape of shoes.
germination. Seeds are sown on loose soil. 8-10 seeds are present in one pod. 1 kg pod
Avoid clay soil. Weeding is necessary during contains more than 3000 seeds. During the early
seedling stage. Soaking the seeds in growth stages of growth, shady regions are preferred.
hormones like IAA 250 ppm or GA 50 ppm Later they become light demanding. Root
for 30 minutes will enhance germination to suckers are abundantly produced in certain
70 per cent. regions. It is a very good coppicer also.
290 IRUL AND MAHAGONY

Plant protection Uses

In fire damaged areas, xylia trees are
found to be infected by fungi like Fomes, Due to the presence of resin in the wood,
Polystictus etc. Stem borers and defoliators they can resist the attack of fungi, termites etc.
also cause severe damage. Growing of trees Hopea timber was used in the manufacture
in healthy environmental conditions, preventing of railway sleepers. It is also used in making
fire, grazing etc. is found to be more effective pillars of huge building, bridges etc. It can resist
than using pesticides, fungicides etc. damage by water. Pulp is used in paper
Timber industry. During the ancient period, the timber
was used for making coal in iron furnace.
Reddish brown heartwood posses white
lines. Sapwood is pale coloured. Has more Bark is having medicinal value. Powdered
strength and hardness than teak. One cubic bark mixed with honey is a good medicine for
meter timber weights about 832-944 kg. Wood diarrhoea, vomiting, gonorrhoea etc. Skin
is termite resistant. Sawn wood can be stored contains tannin also. Pod is edible. Leaves can
for about 10-15 years without any preservative be used as a bio fertilizer. Suitable for rearing
treatment. Lac insect.

MAHAGONY (Switenia macrophylla)

It is an evergreen tree attaining a height of planting materials in the main field.

about 30-40 m and a diameter of about
Natural regeneration
3-4 m within a span of 30-35 years. This is an
exotic species with bark peeling feature. By the germination of fallen seeds.
Abundant growth occurs in places with Removal of shade is essential for its
average annual rainfall of 1500-5000 mm and germination.
in fertile laterite soil. Planting and management
Artificial propagation Poly bagged seedlings are the best planting
materials in the main field. Planting is done
Easiest method of propagation is by in pits of 35 cm cube filled with top soil and
using seeds.Seeds are obtained by drying the 10 kg of FYM. Pits are taken with the onset
collected pods. Viability lasts for only up to of monsoon and planting is done during
7 months. Seeds are placed in small pits at a June-July. Unlike other species slightly wider
distance of 7.0 cm x 7.5 cm or 10 x 10 cm. spacing of 3m x 3m is given in the main field.
Germination starts within 2 weeks. Though the trees are evergreen in nature, leaf
Seedlings of height of 30cm, 2cm diameter with fall occurs during the months of February,
about 20 leaves are transferred to pits in the March. Red coloured young leaves appear to
field. Direct sowing is found to be successful. develop at about the beginning of
Seedlings can also be transplanted in polythene April-May months. Pod maturation occurs in
bags. Polybaged seedlings having a height of a year. The tree is somewhat shade tolerant.
30cm with 20 leaves are found to be better Extreme shade is detrimental. Frost
MAHAGONY AND THEMBAVU 291

sensitive. Can be cultivated as a mixed crop with cashew tree will prevent the attack of
in teak plantations. Fertilization at the rate of stem borers.
30-50 g N, 40-50 g P2O5, 50-70g K2O along Timber
with 20-30 kg FYM per plant depending on
size is good from second year onwards. One cubic meter of timber with annual rings
weighs about 560 kg and is of light
Plant protection reddish in colour. The wood is durable,
attractive and has high demand in the
Fungi like Botryodiplodia theobromae and
market.
Coletotrichum gloeosporioides produce leaf
spot disease. This can be controlled by spraying Uses
carbendazim 0.05 per cent .The stem borer, Wood is used for making furniture and oil
Hypsophylla robusta is also found to infect from seed is used in soap industry. It is one of
the tree. Cultivating mahagony in blocks, along the best materials for staining and design works.

THEMBAVU (Terminalia tomentosa)

This tree is known as “Crocodile barked of plantation. Leaf fall occurs during
tree” as the thick, dark coloured, spitted bark January-February. Young leaves appear during
looks like the skin of a crocodile. Very March and April. Bunches of white flowers
suitable for afforestation purposes in open are produced during the months of May-June.
places with clayey soil. It grows to about Pods get matured within 5-6 months. Root
36 m height and attains a diameter of about system grows deeply in the soil. Small suckers
4 m if the climate is favourable. It grows are seen sprouting out from the exposed roots.
well in places located at about 800 m above Best coppicer also. Though the tree can grow
sea level. in almost all types of soils, laterite soil with
proper drainage is best suited. It is drought
Artificial propagation sensitive and frost resistant.
By direct sowing or by planting nursery Plant protection
raised seedlings. In the case of direct
Wood rot is caused by Dacdalea flavida,
sowing, seeds are sown in lines keeping a
Fomes melanoporus, Ganoderma lucidum
distance of 12 cm between. Soaking the seeds
etc. Metanestria hyrtaca, Denia litura etc.
in cold water for 24 h will result better
cause premature leaf fall. Fungal diseases can
germination. Weeding is necessary. Thinning
be controlled by spraying carbendazim
is also essential for their healthy growth.
0.05 per cent.
Planting and management Timber
Planting is done in pits of 30 cm cube Heartwood is dark ash coloured
along with onset of monsoon at a distance of with black spots and lines. Sap wood is
5m x 5m. Plants are generally sensitive reddish white. Though this is not good as that
and watering and weeding are important of teak, industrially it is very important. One
during the initial years of establishment cubic meter wood weights about 375-761 kg.
292 THEMBAVU AND VENGA

Uses used in tanning industry. Gum from the

Wood is used for making building, furniture, tree has medicinal value. Juice from bark
railway sleepers etc. Tassar silkworm moths is a good colouring agent for cotton and
eats its leaves. Bark contains tannin, hence silk cloths.

VENGA (Pterocarpus marsupium)

Venga is one of the largest trees of x 4m along with south west monsoon. Fertilizer
deciduous forests. Highly branched (spreading) mixture of 60-70 g N, 50-60 g P2O5, 50-70 g
crown is its characteristic feature. Reddish K2O along with 25-30 kg FYM per plant is
gum is seen flowing through the timber. It recommended from 2nd or 3rd year onwards.
attains a height of about 30 m and diameter of In the seedling stage shading is necessary.
about 2 ½ m. Grown in steep hill slopes and Lateral branches are pruned from third year
plain areas. In Kerala, it is found in regions onwards.
located about 1070 m above sea level. Even
though they grow in almost all types of soil, Plant protection
good drainage is essential. Regions having The fungi, Polyporus gilvus,Ganoderma
rainfall 75-200 cm is best suited.This light lucidum, Fomes fastuvosue etc. are commonly
dependent tree becomes frost sensitive during found to infect this tree. Common fungicides
the later stages of growth. can be used to prevent their attack.
Artificial propagation Timber
Artificial propagation is by seeds. Seeds are Sapwood is pale white. Yellowish brown
collected from full grown trees and soaked in heartwood possess dark lines. 1 m3 timber
cold water for about 2-3 days before sowing. weighs about 800 kg. The timber is highly
Germination stars with in 10-15 days.Seedlings durable upto or more than 20-22 years.
of 10cm height are transplanted in polythene Drying of timber in sun light, after soaking in
bags filled with potting mixture. Bagged water for about 6 weeks is effective in
seedlings are kept under partial shade in improving durability and also useful for
nursery. One kg of seed lot contains about 1000 removing stains.
seeds.
Uses
Natural regeneration
This tree is best suited for agroforestry and
Natural propagation is by seeds. In the social forestry. Used as a shade tree in the
seedling stage, shade is necessary. Protecting tea and coffee plantations of South India.
trees from animals and fire and also ploughing Gum-keno obtained from Pterocarpus is used
the soil enhances natural propagation. for dyeing, printing, tanning etc. Leaves are
Planting and management used as cattle feed and green manure. Flowers
and bark have medicinal properties also.
Site preparation includes ploughing the land
and making 30 cm cube pits before the onset Timber is used for the manufacture of posts,
of monsoon. Pits are filled with red soil and buildings, beams, furniture, boat, agricultural
5 kg FYM. Planting is done at a spacing of 4m instruments etc.
CHADACHI AND PUNNA 293

CHADACHI (Grewia tilifolia)

Chadachi, also known as Uthi, has Planting and management
the timber looks like that of teak and is
most commonly found in the moist deciduous Planting and management practices are
forests of Kerala. Usually they attain a similar to that of venga.
height of 12 m and 1.5 m diameter. But Plant protection
remarkable growth is seen in trees growing
along the Western ghats which possess a height In the case of old trees, wood rot is caused
of 24 m and a diameter of 2 m. This grows by the fungus Ganoderma sp. Therefore, aged
well on soil which is best suited for teak trees have to be cut and removed as early as
plantations. Even though best growth occurs possible. Grown up trees are also affected by
in full sun light, they are shade tolerant. It is stem borers and defoliators, which can be
also frost sensitive. Root suckers are produced controlled by spraying quinalphos 0.05 per cent.
abundantly. This species is also a good
Timber
coppicer. Leaf fall occurs during the month of
March and new leaves are produced during Heart wood is reddish brown with black
the month of April. Flower production is in patches. Brown colour of sapwood deepens
February and seeds begin to mature during with age. More strong and elastic than Teak.
May. One cubic meter timber has about 785 kg
weight. Easy for felling and sawing.
Artificial propagation
Uses
Seeds can be collected during the months
of June-August and can be stored up to Timber is used for making furniture,
4 months. Artificial propagation is possible by vehicle parts, windows, doors etc. Skin
direct sowing or by planting stumps or nursery and timber have some medicinal property. Coir
raised seedlings in the field. Warm water is made from skin fibres. Seeds are edible.
treatment of seeds are found to be good for Leaves are good cattle feed. Mucilaginous
better germination. extract from leaves is good for hair health.

PUNNA (Calophyllum ionophyllum)

This is a medium sized evergreen tree best Artificial propagation

suited for protecting sea shores. Ash coloured Artificial propagation is by direct sowing
or dark green leaves are its characteristic or by planting nursery raised seedlings. Pods
features. Grown well in sandy and alluvial soils. are collected during the month of March. One
Mostly distributed along sea shores and also in kilogram contains about 250 seeds. Hard coat
the tropical evergreen forests. Cultivated as is to be removed. Soaking the seeds in cold
shade giving plants along road sides and also water for 12 hours or warm water for
as ornamental one. 40 minutes is recommended for enhancing
294 PUNNA AND AGROFORESTRY SYSTEM

germination. Soaking in dilute sulphuric acid Plant protection

for 20 minutes is also found to enhance germi-
Rotting is caused by fungi belonging to the
nation.
genus Fomes. Young plants are also infected by
Planting and management fungi like Trichosoma which can be
controlled by spraying 1 per cent Bordeaux mix-
Planting is done mainly during the ture.
monsoon season. Pit planting is recommended
at a spacing of 3m x 3m. It prefers a sandy Timber
loam soil. Watering is essential in summer Sapwood has pale reddish white colour.
months particularly during initial stages of Heartwood is reddish brown with mottled dark
development. It can be raised both as pure lines. Felling and sawing are very easy. It
crop and also interplanted with banana or can be kept in water for a long period of time
pepper. Two to three weeding are necessary without any damage. One cubic meter timber
during the initial stages of development. weighs about 655 kg.
Fertilizers at the rate of 25-30 g N.,15-20 g
P 2 O 5 and 20-25 g K 2 O can be applied Uses
depending up on size and age. There is Wood is used for making posts, beams,
regional variations in flowering seasons. In furniture etc. Used in plywood industry also.
Kerala, flowers are produced during the months Dark green coloured oil from seeds is a good
of March-April. Pods get matured at the time fuel and used for making soap, varnishes etc.
of May-June. This is a light demanding tree. Oil cake is a fertilizer. Saponin in the leaves is
Fire and wind will cause severe damage. detritus to fishes.

AGROFORESTRY SYSTEM
Agrisilvicultural systems

Shade loving crops such as ginger with other field crops including medicinal plants
perform better in the inter-spaces of tree such as kacholam. Depending on the space
species such as ailanthus (at four years of age, available (between coconut palms), one or two
planted at a spacing of 2 m x 2 m; with rows of multi-purpose trees can be accommo-
60 per cent of the light in the open). dated in the middle (spacing 1-2 m between
Multipurpose tree species like ailanthus, plants). Tree management such as lopping/
teak, vellapine, silver oak and green manure pollarding etc. is important to prevent any
yielding trees can be successfully interplanted possible inter-specific competition between the
in the older coconut plantation (preferably multipurpose tree component and the coconut
above 30 years of age), often in association palms.
AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF KERALA 295

AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF KERALA

Agricultural productivity and agro- region. This implied a departure from the
biodiversity of an area are largely governed previous practice of planning with focus on
by the overhead climate and qualities of land specific crops and fertilizers, treating the state
and soil. In the tropics and subtropics, where as a unit of planning. The State Agricultural
sunlight and temperatures are not limiting, it is Universities were advised to divide each zone/
often the precipitation and the capacity of the state into subzones, under the National
land and soil to retain water that control Agricultural Research Project (NARP).
biological productivity. An agro-ecological Accordingly a map of 127 subzones was
delineation is characterised by distinct prepared, based primarily on rainfall, existing
ecological responses to the macro-elements, cropping patterns and administrative units. For
which are reflected in the vegetation, soils and Kerala State 8 subzones were delineated.
agricultural land use. 1) Northern zone
The concept of agro-ecological delineations 2) Southern zone
was developed by FAO (1976, 1978) with 3) Central zone
strong emphasis on comparable agro-climatic 4) High altitude zone
parameters to delineate agriculturally potential 5) Onattukara zone
areas suitable for particular crops or 6) Kuttanad and Kole zone
combination of crops so that optimum 7) Pokkali zone, and
production potential is achieved. The 8) Low rainfall zone
significance of homogeneous agricultural Kerala Agricultural University revised the
environment, as realised in the agro-ecological NARP delineation of agro-ecological subzones
unit is of particular importance in effective and to generate an Agro-ecological Zones Map of
sustainable land use to enhance agricultural the state (Kerala Agricultural University,
output for meeting the increasing demand for 2007). The basis of spatial delineations was
food, fodder, fibre and other products. With variability in altitude, rainfall pattern, soil type
the growing demand for food, fodder and fibre, and topography. The revision resulted in
there is overuse of land or faulty planning of delineation of 13 agro-ecological zones for the
land use that has resulted in soil health hazards state.
such as soil degradation and deterioration of The National Bureau of Soil Survey and
land quality. Land Use Planning (NBSS & LUP) generated
The Planning Commission, consequent to a map of Agro-ecological Regions of the
a mid-term appraisal of the planning targets country (Sehgal et al., 1992) by integrating
of the VII Plan (1985-1990), divided the climate, physiography, length of growing period
country into 15 broad agro-climatic zones and soils, an improvement on the agro-climatic
based on physiography and climate. In the zone map of the Planning Commission which
scheme the entire Kerala State formed part considered only physiography and climate for
of zone 12, West Coast Plains and Ghat region. delineation of zones. The agro-ecological
The process emphasized development of regions (AER) map of NBSS & LUP had 20
resources and their optimum utilization in a regions and the entire state of Kerala formed
sustainable manner within the framework of part of region 19: Western Ghats and Coastal
resource constraints and potentials of each Plains, hot humid-perhumid eco-region, with
296 AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF KERALA

red, laterite and alluvium-derived soils and 2. Midland Laterites

growing period of 210+ days. The Bureau also Midland Laterites agro-ecological zone
generated an agro-ecological subregion map comprises undulating to rolling lands
by subdividing the 20 AER’s into 60 subregions interspersed with narrow valleys between the
(Velayutham et al., 1999). Two subregions coastal plain on the west and foothills and hills
found a place in the scheme for Kerala,
on the east, extending from the southern end
Subregion 19.2, Central and South Sahyadri:
to the northern end of the state. The elevation
hot, moist subhumid to humid agro-ecological
ranges from 30 to 300 metres. The zone covers
subregion and Subregion 19.3, Coastal Plain:
10,56,385 ha (27.18 %) in the state.
hot humid to per-humid agro-ecological
subregion. 3. Foothills
It was felt by researchers and planners of The undulating to rolling lands and low hills
the state that the delineations by Planning between the midland laterite on the west and
Commission, NBSS & LUP and KAU fell high hills on the eastern side constitute the
short of fully characterising the agro-ecological Foothills agro-ecological zone. The terrain has
variability in the state. In order to address the only very narrow valleys. The elevation ranges
problem and to generate an agro-ecological from 300 to 600 metres. The zone covers
units map of the state, the Kerala State 4,60,074 ha (11.84 %) in the state.
Planning Board commissioned a project to 4. High Hills
National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use
Planning in 2008. The analysis of agro-ecology The hilly region comprising Western Ghats
of Kerala State based primarily on climate, and plateaus extending from south to north
geomorphology, land use and soil variability constitute the High Hills agro-ecological unit.
resulted in delineation of five agro-ecological The Western Ghats and highland plateaus rise
zones and twenty three agro-ecological units. 600 metres above mean sea level, with a
number of peaks well over 1800 metres. The
AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES
Western Ghats comprise Central Sahyadri, the
Agro-ecological zones are broad spatial
Nilgiris and South Sahyadri. The mountains are
divisions with emphasis on physiographic
essentially plateau remnants of two or three
features. The state has been divided into five
altitudinal zones. Slopes of hill ranges can be
agro-ecological zones (AEZ’s). Figure 1
as high as 80 per cent. The zone covers
present the spatial distribution of the
15,53,225 ha (39.97 %) in the state.
agro-ecological zones in the state.
1. Coastal Plain 5. Palakkad Plain
The Coastal Plain agro-ecological zone The Palakkad Gap, resembling an inland
comprises the nearly level to gently sloping plain with low elevation, is a prominent physical
lands along the coast at elevation below 30 feature along the valley of the Bharathapuzha
metres and lying between the sea and the river. The gently sloping lands of Palakkad,
midlands. It includes sandy beaches, sandy east of Kuthiran hills, flanked on the south and
plains, coastal laterites and low lying areas such north by Nelliyampathy hills and Attappady
as estuaries, backwaters, submerged lands, hills, respectively and merging to Tamil Nadu
swamps, marshes, kayal lands and broad uplands through the gap in Western Ghats
valleys. The zone covers 5,09,246 ha (13.10 constitute the agro-ecological zone, covering
%) in the state. 1,60,006 ha (4.12 %) in the state.
AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF KERALA 297

Fig. 1 Agro-ecological Zones of Kerala

298 AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF KERALA

AGRO-ECOLOGICAL UNITS AEU 2: Northern Coastal Plain

Twenty three agro-ecological units The Northern Coastal Plain agro-ecological
(AEU’s) have been delineated for the state unit represents the coastal plain north of
based on climatic variability, landform and soils. Ernakulam district and comprises 77
Of them, five are identified for the special soil panchayats along the coast from Thrissur till
and hydrological conditions in the coastal zone the northern end of the state. The unit with
requiring unique management strategies. The tropical humid monsoon climate (rainfall 3133
spatial bounding limits (external) of the agro- mm; mean annual temperature 28°C) has
ecological units have been made to correspond dominantly sandy soils on nearly level lands.
to the administrative boundaries of panchayats. Probability of annual, moderate drought is
That is to say that any agro-ecological unit is once in ten years. Probability of moderate
a collection of panchayats. This has been done drought during NE monsoon period is twice in
to facilitate planning of development activities ten years. Probability of two consecutive
on an administrative basis. Figure 2 present weeks receiving more than 20 mm rain fall is
the spatial distribution of the agro-ecological generally high from 2nd week of May to 1st
units and Table 1 provides the area covered week of November in a year. Soil moisture is
by the units. usually adequate for crops from 2nd week of
May to end of November. Length of growing
AEU 1: Southern Coastal Plain period for annual crops is 30 weeks and dry
The Southern Coastal Plain agro-ecological period (duration of soil moisture deficit), around
unit is delineated to represent the nearly level five months. Coconut plantations on uplands
coastal lands where sands are the dominant and rice in lowlands are the major land use.
soil type. The unit comprises 42 panchayats The unit covers 1,22,970 ha (3.16 %) in the
along the coast from Thiruvananthapuram to state.
Ernakulam district. The climate is tropical AEU 3: Onattukara Sandy Plain
humid monsoon type (mean annual temperature
The special agro-ecological unit Onattukara
27.6°C; rainfall 2360 mm).
Sandy Plain is delineated for the sandy plains
Probability of annual moderate drought is extending into the midlands from coast and
one year in a block of ten years. Probability of covering 43 panchayats in Kollam and
moderate drought during NE monsoon period Alappuzha districts. Climate is tropical humid
is twice in ten years. Probability of two monsoon type (mean annual temperature
consecutive weeks receiving more than 27.6°C; rainfall 2492 mm) and soils are sandy.
20 mm rainfall is high from mid-April to 1st Probability of annual moderate drought is
week of December. Soil moisture is generally negligible. However, probability of moderate
adequate for crops from mid-April to 3rd week drought during NE monsoon period is twice in
of December. Length of growing period for ten years. Probability of two consecutive
annual crops is 33 weeks and dry period weeks receiving more than 20 mm rainfall is
(duration of soil moisture deficit) 19 weeks. high from April to November. Soil moisture is
Coconut plantations on uplands and rice in adequate for crops from 2nd week of April to
lowlands are the major land use. The unit 2nd week of December. Length of growing
covers 56,782 ha (1.46%) in the state. period of annual crops is 37 weeks and dry
AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF KERALA 299

Fig. 2 Agro-ecological Units of Kerala

300 AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF KERALA

period (duration of soil moisture deficit), around often below sea level, in coastal areas of
four months. Coconut plantations on uplands Ernakulam district and extending to parts of
and rice in lowlands are the major land use. Thrissur and Alappuzha districts. The unit
The unit covers 67,447 ha (1.74 %) in the state. covers 34 panchayats. Climate is tropical
AEU 4: Kuttanad humid monsoon type (mean annual temperature
27.6°C; rainfall 3,049 mm).
Kuttanad is a special agro-ecological unit
delineated to represent the waterlogged lands Probability of annual drought is negligible
spread over 69 panchayats of Alappuzha, but the probability of moderate drought during
Kottayam and Pathanamthitta districts. Large NE monsoon period is twice in ten years. The
parts of these lands are below, at or just above probability of two consecutive weeks receiving
sea level. Climate is tropical humid monsoon more than 20 mm rainfall is high from 3rd week
type (mean annual temperature 27.6°C; rainfall of April to 3rd week of November. Soil moisture
2,746.1 mm). is adequate for crops on uplands from mid-
April to mid-December. Length of growing
Probability of annual moderate drought is
period for annual crops is 34 weeks while the
negligible. However, probability of moderate
length of dry period (duration of soil moisture
drought during NE monsoon period is probable
deficit) is around four months.
in one year for a block of ten years. Probability
of two consecutive weeks receiving more than Hydrology and soils are similar to those in
20 mm rainfall is high from mid-April to end Kuttanad. However, seawater inundation is not
of November. In the limited areas of upland controlled and hence soils are acid-saline.
soil, moisture availability is adequate from mid- Coconut is raised on uplands and a special kind
April to 3rd week of December. In the uplands of rice cultivation, locally known as Pokkali
length of growing period for annual crop is 34 cultivation, is done in lowlands. The unit
weeks and length of dry period (duration of covers 39,765 ha (1.02%) in the state.
soil moisture deficit) is around four months. AEU 6: Kole Lands
Hydromorphic soils, often underlain by The Kole Lands agro-ecological unit, spread
potential acid-sulphate sediments and unique
over the coastal part of Thrissur district and
hydrological conditions characterize the unit.
extending to southern coastal parts of
Seawater ingress into Kuttanad is controlled
Malappuram district covers 40 panchayats.
through bunds and barrages to facilitate rice
Climate is tropical humid monsoon type (mean
cultivation. Lowlands which dominate the unit,
annual temperature 27.6°C; rainfall 2,902 mm).
are under water the year round. Rice
cultivation is made possible by dewatering Probability of annual, moderate drought is
(pumping out water from fields). Coconut is once in ten years. The probability of moderate
grown on the uplands and bunds of the unit drought during NE monsoon period is twice in
and rice in lowlands. The unit covers 1,26,931 a block of ten years. A severe drought during
ha (3.27%) in the state. NE monsoon period may occur once in a block
of ten years. Probability of two consecutive
AEU 5: Pokkali Lands
weeks receiving more than 20 mm rainfall is
Pokkali Lands, another special agro- high from 2nd week of May to 1st week of
ecological unit, is delineated for the lowlands, November. In the upland, soil moisture is
AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF KERALA 301

adequate for crops from 2nd week of May to AEU 8: Southern Laterites
end of November. The length of growing period
The Southern Laterites agro-ecological unit
for annual crops is 30 weeks while the length
spread over 24 panchayats in south-western
of dry period (duration of soil moisture deficit)
part of Thiruvananthapuram district is
is almost five months.
delineated to represent the uniqueness of
These lands too are, for most part, below climate and soils. The area with tropical moist
sea level. Seawater ingress into these lands is subhumid monsoon climate receives low
controlled through barrages and weirs to rainfall compared to the other areas of midland
facilitate rice cultivation. The soils are laterites (mean annual temperature 27.1°C;
hydromorphic acid clays, often underlain by rainfall 1,884 mm). However, the well-
potential acid-sulphate sediments. Coconut is distributed rainfall from both SW and NE
grown on the uplands of the unit and bunds monsoon restricts the dry period to just three
and rice in lowlands. The unit covers 71,142 months in a year.
ha (1.83 %) in the state.
Probability of moderate annual drought is
AEU 7: Kaipad Lands once in ten years and of drought during NE
monsoon period twice in ten years. Probability
The Kaipad Lands agro-ecological unit
of two consecutive weeks receiving more than
occurs along the coast of Kozhikkode, Kannur
20 mm rainfall is high from 3rd week of April
and Kasaragod districts as isolated stretches
to 3rd week of December. Soil moisture is
of waterlogged lands. The unit covers only
generally adequate for crop production from
16 panchayats. Climate is tropical humid
mid-April to mid-January of the following year.
monsoon type (mean annual temperature
The length of growing period for annual crop
27.3°C; rainfall 3,254 mm).
is almost 38 weeks and the dry period
Probability of annual drought is negligible. (duration of soil moisture deficit) is only for
However, the probability of moderate drought 3 months.
during NE monsoon period is three years in a
The soils, though acid and having low-
block of ten years. Probability of two
activity lateritic clay, unlike in other parts of
consecutive weeks receiving more than
laterite terrain, are practically free of gravel
20 mm rain fall is high from mid May to 2nd
and plinthite. Coconut on uplands intercropped
week of November. In uplands soil moisture
to a variety of annual and other perennial
is adequate for crops from mid-May to last
crops and rice, tapioca, banana and vegetables
week of November. The length of growing
on lowlands are the major land uses. The unit
period for annual crops is 27 weeks and length
covers 38,727 ha (1.02%) in the state.
of dry period (duration of soil moisture deficit)
is around five months. AEU 9: South Central Laterites
The lowlands, often below sea level, do not The South Central Laterites agro-
have any protection against sea water ecological unit is delineated to represent
inundation. The hydromorphic, acid-saline, clay midland laterite terrain with typical laterite soils
soils are often underlain by potential acid- and short dry period. The unit covering 161
sulphate soils. Coconut is grown on the uplands panchayats of midlands extends from
of the unit and bunds and rice in lowlands. The Thiruvananthapuram to Ernakulam district.
unit covers 24,209 ha (0.62 %) in the state. The climate is tropical humid monsoon type
302 AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF KERALA

(mean annual temperature 26.5°C; rainfall 2nd week of May to mid December. Length of
2827 mm). growing period for annual crop is 32 weeks
and length of dry period (duration of soil
Probability of annual drought is negligible.
moisture deficit) is four and a half months.
However, moderate drought in the NE
monsoon period may occur once in ten years. The uplands have strongly acid, gravelly,
Probability of two consecutive weeks receiving lateritic, low-activity, clay soils, often underlain
more than 20 mm rainfall is high from 2nd by plinthite. The lowlands have strongly acid,
week of April to end of November. Soil non-gravelly clay soils with impeded drainage.
moisture is adequate for crops from 2nd week Coconut intercropped to a variety of annual
of April to end of December. The length of and other perennial crops is the major land use
growing period for annual crop is almost 38 on uplands and rice, tapioca, banana and
weeks and length of dry period (duration of vegetables on lowlands. The unit covers
soil moisture deficit) is three and half months. 1,71,469 ha (4.41 %) in the state.
Unlike the southern counterpart, the AEU 11: Northern Laterites
strongly acid, lateritic clay soils herein are
The Northern Laterites agro-ecological
gravelly and often underlain by plinthite. The
unit is delineated to represent midland laterites
lowlands have strongly acid, low-activity,
from Malappuram to Kasaragod districts
non-gravelly clay soils with impeded drainage
experiencing long dry period. It is spread over
conditions. Mono-cropped rubber and coconut
163 panchayats and 6 municipalities. The
intercropped to a variety of annual and other
climate is tropical humid monsoon type (mean
perennial crops is the major land use on uplands
annual temperature 27.3°C; rainfall 3217 mm).
and rice, tapioca, banana and vegetables on
lowlands. The unit covers around 3,65,932 ha Probability of annual drought is negligible.
(9.42 %) in the state. Probability of moderate drought during NE
monsoon period is once in ten years.
AEU 10: North Central Laterites
Probability of two consecutive weeks receiving
The North Central Laterites agro- more than 20 mm rainfall is high from 2nd
ecological unit is delineated to represent week of May to 2nd week of November. Soil
midland laterite terrain with longer dry period moisture is adequate for crops from second
than its southern counterpart, but less than the week of May to first week of December. The
one in the north. The unit is spread over 62 length of growing period for annual crops is
panchayats, 3 municipalities and a corporation almost 31 weeks, while the length of dry period
in Thrissur and Palakkad districts. The climate (duration of soil moisture deficit) is 4.5 to 6
is tropical humid monsoon type (mean annual months, increasing from south to north in the
temperature 27.6°C; rainfall 2795 mm). unit.
Probability of annual drought is negligible. The uplands have strongly acid, gravelly,
Probability of moderate drought during NE lateritic, low-activity, clay soils often underlain
monsoon period is twice in a block of ten years. by plinthite. Laterite duricrusts are also
Probability of two consecutive weeks receiving frequent in the unit. Coconut intercropped to
more than 20 mm rainfall is high from 2nd a variety of annual and other perennial crops
week of May to 3rd week of November. Soil is the major land use on uplands and rice,
moisture is adequate for crop growing from tapioca, banana and vegetables in lowlands.
AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF KERALA 303

Cashew plantations are also extensive on humid monsoon type (mean annual temperature
uplands. The unit covers around 4,60,257 ha 27.5°C; rainfall 3462 mm).
(12.36 %) in the state. Probability of annual, moderate drought is
AEU 12: Southern and Central Foothills once in ten years. There is probability of one
moderate and one severe drought during NE
The Southern and Central Foothills agro-
monsoon period in a block of ten years.
ecological unit is delineated to represent the
Probability of two consecutive weeks receiving
undulating lands with low hills, between
more than 20 mm rainfall is high from May to
midland laterites and the high hills of Western
3 rd week of November. Soil moisture is
Ghats. It covers 90 panchayats from
adequate for crops from last week of May to
Thiruvananthapuram to Thrissur districts. The
3rd week of December. Length of growing
climate is tropical humid monsoon type (mean
period for annual crop is 34 weeks and length
annual temperature 27.5°C; rainfall 3462 mm). of dry period (duration of soil moisture deficit)
Probability of annual drought is negligible. is four months.
However, moderate drought may occur during The strongly acid, gravelly, lateritic, low-
NE monsoon period once in ten years. activity, clay soils are rich in organic matter.
Probability of two consecutive weeks receiving The narrow valleys have similar, but non-
more than 20 mm rainfall is high from gravelly, soils with impeded drainage
mid-March to end of November. Soil moisture conditions. Shorter dry period, absence of
is adequate for crops from mid March to 2nd plinthite layer in soil and enhanced levels of
week of January in the following year. Length organic matter distinguish the foothill soils from
of growing period of annual crops is almost north central and northern midland laterites.
41 weeks and length of dry period (duration Plantations of rubber, coconut, pepper and
of soil moisture deficit) 2.5 months. coffee are the major land use. The unit covers
The strongly acid, gravelly, lateritic, low- 1,44,181 ha (3.71 %) in the state.
activity, lateritic clay soils are rich in organic AEU 14: Southern High Hills
matter. The narrow valleys have similar but
non-gravelly soils with impeded drainage The Southern High Hills agro-ecological
unit extending from Thiruvananthapuram to
conditions. Shorter dry period, absence of
Nelliyampathy in Palakkad district has elevation
plinthite layer in soil and higher soil organic
more than 600 metres. Besides elevation, the
matter distinguish the foothills from midland
steep slopes of the terrain and lower
laterites. Plantations of rubber, coconut, pepper
temperatures distinguish the high hills from the
and coffee abound in the unit. The unit covers
foothills and midlands. Thirty panchayats in
3,15,893 ha (8.13 %) in the state.
Thiruvananthapuram to Palakkad district
AEU 13: Northern Foothills constitute this unit. The climate is tropical
The Northern Foothills agro-ecological unit humid monsoon type, but lower temperatures
represents foothills from Thrissur to than in coastal plain and midlands (mean
annual temperature 21.6°C; rainfall 3602 mm).
Kasaragod and differs from its southern
counterpart for longer dry period. It covers 27 Probability of annual drought is negligible.
panchayats of Palakkad, Malappuram, Kannur Probability of moderate drought during NE
and Kasaragod districts. The climate is tropical monsoon period is once in ten years.
304 AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF KERALA

Probability of two consecutive weeks receiving AEU 16: Kumily High Hills
more than 20 mm rainfall is high from
The Kumily High Hills agro-ecological unit
mid-April to 3rd week of November. Soil
is delineated to represent low-rainfall parts of
moisture is adequate for crop from mid-April
the High Hills zone. The unit differs from
to end of January in the following year. Length Southern High Hills not only in the lower rainfall,
of growing period for annual crops is 41 but also the extensive occurrence of very deep,
weeks, while the length of dry period (duration non-gravelly clay soils. Thirteen panchayats
of soil moisture deficit) is only two months. distributed in Peerumedu and Udumbanchola
The steeply sloping hilly terrain has deep, taluks of Idukki district constitute this unit. The
well drained, strongly acid, organic-matter-rich climate is tropical humid monsoon (mean
clay soils. While forests cover major part of annual temperature 22.5°C; rainfall 1809 mm).
the unit, plantations of rubber, coconut, pepper, There is probability of one moderate
tea and coffee are not uncommon. The unit drought and one severe drought during the
covers 6,72,675 ha (17.31 %) in the state. NW monsoon period in a block of ten years.
AEU 15: Northern High Hills Probability of two consecutive weeks receiving
more than 20 mm rainfall is high from May to
The Northern High Hills agro-ecological
mid-November. Soil moisture is adequate for
unit extending from Thrissur to Kannur is
crops from 1st week of May to 1st week of
similar to its southern counterpart except for
February (Fig. 2). Length of growing period
the longer dry period. The unit comprises 61
for annual crops is 40 weeks, while the length
panchayats spread over the northern districts.
of dry period (duration of soil moisture deficit)
The climate is tropical humid monsoon type
is often restricted to three months.
(mean annual temperature 26.2°C; rainfall
3460 mm). The soils for most part are very deep, well
drained, acid, non-gravelly, low-activity clay.
Probability of moderate drought during NE They are rich in organic matter. The highland
monsoon period is twice in ten years. valleys in the unit are similar, except for
Probability of two consecutive weeks receiving impeded drainage conditions. Plantations of
more than 20 mm rainfall is high from 3rd week cardamom, tea, coffee and pepper are the
of April to mid of November. Soil moisture is major land use. Forest cover is also substantial.
adequate for crops from 3rd week of April to The unit covers around 1,50,984 ha (3.81%)
3rd week December. The length of growing in the state.
period for annual crops is around 37 weeks,
while the length of dry period (duration of soil AEU 17: Marayur Hills
moisture deficit) is nearly four months, longer The Marayur Dry Hills agro-ecological unit
than in the southern counterpart. is delineated to represent the low rainfall region
The hilly terrain has deep, well drained, (rain-shadow) of the high hill zone and
strongly acid, organic-matter-rich, clay soils. comprises only three panchayats of Idukki
The valleys have deep, imperfectly drained, district. The climate is tropical subhumid
acid clay soils. While forests cover major part monsoon type (mean annual temperature
of the unit, plantations of rubber, coconut, 23.7°C; rainfall 1276 mm).
pepper and coffee are not uncommon. The Annual moderate drought is probable once
unit covers 5,28,434 ha (13.60 %) in the state. in a block of ten years. Probability of moderate
AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF KERALA 305

drought during NW monsoon period is thrice Besides the climate, the other distinguishing
in ten years. Probability of two consecutive feature of the unit is the fertile, near neutral to
weeks receiving more than 20 mm rainfall is slightly alkaline clay soils rich in organic matter
high from 3rd week of May to 3rd week of and bases. Land use is mainly coconut
November. Soil moisture in normal years is plantations, banana, vegetables, maize and
adequate for most crops from mid-May to mid- rice. The unit covers 8,872 ha (0.23 %) in the
February of the following year. The length of state.
growing period for annual crops is 39 weeks,
while the length of dry period (duration of soil AEU 19: Attappady Dry Hills
moisture deficit) is more than three months. The Attappady Dry Hills agro-ecological
The unit distinguishes itself from other unit represents land areas of very low rainfall
AEU’s of high hill zone by the lower and dry period around eight months in a year.
temperatures, low rainfall and soil qualities. This unit in the north-eastern corner of
The fertile, deep, clay soils, rich in organic Palakkad district comprises parts of Puthur,
matter with favourable soil reaction (slightly Agali and Sholayur panchayats. The climate
acid to neutral) are well supplied with bases. is tropical dry subhumid to semi-arid type
Land use, besides forest, comprises temperate (mean annual temperature 24.7°C; rainfall
fruits, potato, sugarcane, temperate vegetables 856 mm). Much of the rainfall is received from
and rice. The unit covers 28,968 ha (0.75 %) the NE monsoon.
in the state. Probability of moderate drought during NE
AEU 18: Attappady Hills monsoon period is twice in ten years.
The agro-ecological unit Attappaddy Hills, Probability of a week being wet from 3rd week
spatially distributed as a narrow strip of land of September to end of December is high. Soil
along the valley in central part of the hills in moisture is adequate only from 4th week of
North Palakkad, represents land areas of September to 2 nd week of January of the
comparatively low rainfall. It comprises parts following year. The length of growing period
of Sholayur and Agali panchayats. The climate for annual crop is limited only to 15 weeks
is subhumid tropical monsoon type (mean while the length of dry period (duration of soil
annual temperature 24.3°C; rainfall 1482 mm). moisture deficit) is more than eight and half
months.
Probability of moderate annual drought is
once in ten years. One year of moderate annual The hilly terrain has shallow, slightly acid
drought and one severe drought during NW or neutral, stony and gravelly clay soils. Thorny
monsoon period is probable in ten years. shrubs with occasional trees are the dominant
Probability of two consecutive weeks receiving land cover. Cultivation is confined to limited
more than 20 mm rainfall is high from 3rd week areas of valley lands and around tribal hamlets.
of June to 3rd week of November. Soil moisture The unit covers 18,495 ha (0.48 %) in the state.
is adequate for cultivated crops from mid May AEU 20: Wayanad Central Plateau
to 1st week of February of the following year.
The length of growing period for annual crop The Wayanad Central Plateau agro-
is 39 weeks, while the length of dry period ecological unit represents highland plateau with
(duration of soil moisture deficit) is four low temperature and high rainfall. The unit
months. covers 11 panchayats in Wayanad district.
306 AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF KERALA

Climate is tropical humid monsoon type (mean 39 weeks and length of dry period (duration
annual temperature 22.6°C; rainfall 2659 mm). of soil moisture deficit) 4 months.
The probability of moderate annual drought The unit differs from Central Plateau in
is once in ten years. Probability of moderate having lower rainfall and longer dry period.
drought during NE monsoon period, however, Besides, the soils in this part have favourable
is twice in ten years. In addition, a year of soil reaction (slightly acid to neutral) and are
severe drought may occur during NE monsoon well supplied with bases. Plantations of coffee,
period in a block of ten years. Probability of tea, coconut, arecanut and pepper are the
two consecutive weeks receiving more than dominant land use on uplands and rice and
20 mm rainfall is high from mid-April to 1st banana in lowlands. Forests cover a significant
week of November. Soil moisture is adequate area. The unit covers 70,325 ha (1.81 %) in
from mid-April to 3rd week of January of the the state.
ensuing year. The length of growing period for
annual crops extends to 39 weeks, while the AEU 22: Palakkad Central Plain
length of dry period (duration of soil moisture The Palakkad Central Plain agro-ecological
deficit) is restricted to three months. unit is delineated to represent the land areas
Upland soils are deep, acid clays and are of moderate rainfall and dry period around five
fairly rich in organic matter. Valley soils are months in the Palakkad plain. It is transitional
similar, but suffer from impeded drainage to the drier eastern plain and humid western
conditions. Plantations of coffee, tea, coconut, parts (AEU 10). The unit comprises 37
arecanut and pepper are the dominant land use panchayats spread over Alathur, Chittur and
on uplands and rice and banana in lowlands. Palakkad taluks and the Palakkad Municipality.
Forests cover a significant area. The unit The climate is tropical subhumid to humid
covers 74,471 ha (1.92 %) in the state. monsoon type (mean annual temperature
27.6°C; rainfall 1966 mm).
AEU 21: Wayanad Eastern Plateau
The Wayanad Eastern Plateau agro- One moderate annual drought may occur
ecological unit represents parts of the high land in a block of ten years. Probability of moderate
plateau with lower rainfall. The unit comprises drought during NE monsoon period is once in
6 panchayats, one in Mananthavady taluk and ten years. Again, severe drought in one year
rest in Sulthan Bathery taluk of Wayanad out of ten a might occur during NE monsoon
district. The climate is tropical subhumid to period. Probability of two consecutive weeks
humid monsoon type (mean annual temperature receiving more than 20 mm rainfall is high
22.6°C; rainfall 1394 mm). from mid-May to mid-October.

Probability of moderate drought during NE Soil moisture is adequate for most crops
monsoon period is thrice in ten years. from 2nd week of May to mid-December. The
Probability of two consecutive weeks receiving length of growing period for annual crops is
more than 20 mm rainfall is high from May to 31 weeks and length of dry period (duration
end of October. Soil moisture is adequate for of soil moisture deficit) is 5 months. There is a
most crops from May to mid-January of the high probability of soil moisture deficit for
next year in a normal year. The length almost four weeks during the month of
of growing period for annual crops is almost September.
AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF KERALA 307

The deep, well drained upland soils are during NE monsoon period might also occur
non-gravelly loams and clays. Soil reaction is for two years in a block of ten years. Probability
slightly acid or neutral and the soils are well of two consecutive weeks receiving more than
supplied with bases. The valley soils are similar, 20 mm rainfall is high from 2nd week of June
but with impeded drainage conditions. Coconut to 2nd week of November. Soil moisture is
intercropped to a variety of annual and adequate for crops from 1st week of June to
perennial crops is the major land use on uplands 3rd week of December (Fig. 2). The length of
and rice in lowlands. The unit covers 1,12,957 growing period for annual crop is almost
ha (2.91 %) in the state. 29 weeks while the length of dry period
(duration of soil moisture deficit) extends to
AEU 23: Palakkad Eastern Plains almost five and half months. There is a high
degree of probability of soil moisture deficit
The Palakkad Eastern Plain agro-
from 34th to 40th std. weeks (mid-August to
ecological unit is delineated to represent the
first week of October).
drier parts of Palakkad plain in the gap region
of Western Ghats, having low rainfall, long dry The uplands of the unit have slightly acid
period and fertile soils. The unit comprises 11 or neutral red clay soils well supplied with
panchayats in eastern Palakkad. The climate bases and plant nutrients. Lower parts of the
is tropical dry subhumid monsoon type (mean uplands and lowlands have alkaline, swell-
annual temperature 27.6°C; rainfall 1340 mm) shrink clay soils. The fertile soils are rich in
and dry period around six months. bases and plant nutrients. Lowlands have
impeded drainage. Coconut, arecanut and
Probability of moderate annual drought is mango are the major plantation crops. Annual
thrice in ten years. The same probability holds crops include rice, groundnut, cotton, banana,
for moderate drought during NE monsoon maize, jowar and sugarcane. The unit covers
period as well. In addition, severe drought 47,049 ha (1.21 %) in the state.

REFERENCES

FAO (1976) A Framework for Land Evaluation. Soils Bulletin 32. Food and Agriculture
Organisation, Rome, 17-32 pp.
FAO (1978) Report on the Agro-ecological Zones Project. Vol I. Methodology and Results
for Africa. Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome, 15 pp.
Kerala Agricultural University (2007). Package of Practices Recommendations: Crops, 13th
Edition, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, p. 334
Sehgal, J., Mandal D.K., Mandal, C. and Vadivelu, S. (1992). Agro-ecological Regions of
India, 2nd Edition, Tech. Bull., Publ. 24, p. 130, NBSS & LUP, Nagpur, India
Velayutham, M., Mandal, D.K., Mandal, C. and Sehgal, J. (1999) Agro-ecological Subregions
of India for Planning and Development. NBSS Publ. 35, 372 p. NBSS & LUP,
Nagpur, India.
308 VERMICOMPOST AND COIRPITH COMPOST

COMPOSTING
VERMICOMPOST AND COIRPITH COMPOST
Composting is a biological process in which forms as well as enzymes, vitamins and plant
microorganisms decompose organic matter and growth hormones.
lower the carbon-nitrogen ratio of the substrate.
It is generally prepared from organic waste Species suitable: Eudrillus eugineae has
material such as crop residue, household waste been identified as the most ideal species of
etc. earthworm for vermitechnology under Kerala
conditions.
Methods of composting
Vermicomposting of farm wastes
The available residues in the farm are
Pits of size 2.5 m length, 1 m breadth and
collected Green
and stored till they form sufficient
0.3 m depth are taken in thatched sheds with
mass for compost making. A trench of suitable
sides left open. The bottom and sides of the
size, say, 4-6 m long, 2-3 m broad and 1–1.5 m
pit are made hard by compacting with a
deep is dug, the accumulated residues is well
wooden mallet. At the bottom of the pit, a layer
mixed and spread in a layer of 30 cm in
of coconut husk is spread with the concave
thickness, along the length of the trench. This
layer is well moistened by sprinkling cowdung side up to ensure drainage of excess water
slurry and water over it. A second layer of and also for proper aeration. The husk is
identical thickness of the mixed residues is then moistened and above this, biowaste mixed with
spread over the first layer. The process is cowdung in the ratio of 8:1 is spread up to a
repeated till the heap rises to a height of height of 30 cm above the ground level and
45 cm to 60 cm above ground level. The top is water is sprinkled daily. After the partial
then covered with a thin layer of soil. After decomposition of wastes for 7 to 10 days, the
three months of decomposition, the mass is worms are introduced @ 500 to 1000 numbers
taken out of the trench and formed into a per pit. The pit is covered with coconut fronts.
conical heap above the ground, moistened with Moisture is maintained at 40 to 50 per cent.
water if necessary and covered with soil. After After around 60 to 75 days, when the compost
one or two months, the manure will be ready is ready, it is removed from the pit along with
for application in the field. the worms and heaped in shade. The worms
will move to bottom of the heap. After one or
Vermicompost two days the compost from the top of the heap
Vermitechnology is a process by which all is removed. The undecomposed residues and
types of biodegradable wastes such as farm worms are returned to the pit for further
wastes, kitchen wastes, market wastes, composting as described above. The
biowastes of agro-based industries, livestock vermicompost produced has an average
wastes etc. are converted to nutrient rich nutrient status of 1.5 per cent N, 0.4 per cent
vermicompost by using earthworms as P2O5 and 1.8 per cent K2O with pH ranging
biological agents. Vermicompost contains from 7.0 to 8.0. The nutrient level will vary
major and minor nutrients in plant available with the type of material used for composting.
VERMICOMPOST AND COIRPITH COMPOST 309

Precautions Mass multiplication of earthworms

1. The composting area should be provided Earthworms can be multiplied in 1:1 mixture
with sufficient shade to protect it from of cowdung and decaying leaves in a cement
direct sunlight. tank or wooden box or plastic bucket with
2. Adequate moisture level should be proper drainage facilities. The nucleus culture
maintained by sprinkling water whenever of earthworms is to be introduced into the above
necessary. mixture at the rate of 50 numbers per 10 kg of
organic wastes and properly mulched with dried
3. Preventive measures should be adopted to
grass, straw or wet gunny bag. The unit should
ward off predatory birds, ants, rats, etc.
be kept in shade. Sufficient moisture level
Vermicomposting of coconut leaves should be maintained by occasional sprinkling
Weathered coconut leaves can be of water. Within 1-2 months, the earthworms
converted into good quality vermicompost in multiply 300 times, which can be used for
a period of three months with the help of largescale vermicomposting.
earthworm, Eudrillus sp. On an average,
Preparation of vermiwash
6-8 tonnes of leaves will yield 4-5 tonnes of
vermicompost with about 1.2, 0.1 and 0.5 per Method 1
cent N, P2O5 and K2O respectively. The system consists of a plastic basin having
Vermicomposting of household wastes a capacity of 20 litres, a plastic perforated
wastepaper basket and a PVC pipe of 5 cm
A wooden box of 45 cm x 30 cm x 45 cm diameter and 30 cm length.The waste paper
or an earthen/plastic container with broad basket is covered with a nylon net and placed
base and drainage holes may be selected. A at the centre of the basin upside down. A hole
plastic sheet with small holes may be placed is made at the bottom of the waste paper basket
at the bottom of the box / container. A layer so that a PVC pipe of 5 cm diameter can be
of soil of 3 cm depth and a layer of coconut placed into the basin through the hole in such a
fibre of 5 cm depth may be added above it way that one end of it touches the basin. The
for draining of excess moisture. A thin layer PVC pipe is perforated so that the leachate
of compost and worms may be added above from the basin seeps through the wastepaper
it. About 250 worms are sufficient for the box.
basket and collects in the PVC pipe, which
Vegetable wastes of each day can be spread
can be siphoned out by a kerosene pump. The
in layer over the coconut husk fibre. Top of
basin outside the wastepaper basket, is lined
the box may be covered with a piece of sac
to provide dim light inside the box. When the with a layer of brick pieces at the bottom and
box is full, it can be kept without disturbance a 2-3 cm thick layer of coconut fibre of 2-3
for a week. When the compost is ready, the cm placed above it. After moistening this,
box can be kept outside for 2-3 hours so that 2 kg worms (about 2000) are introduced into
the worms come down to the lower fibre layer. it and 4 kg kitchen waste is spread over it.
Compost from the top, may be removed, dried After one week, the kitchen waste turns into
and sieved. The vermicompost produced has a black well decomposed compost. Two litres
an average nutrient status of 1.8 per cent N, of water is sprinkled over the compost
1.9 per cent P2O5 and 1.6 per cent K2O, but containing worms. After 24 hours, the leachate
composition will vary with the substrate used. collected in the PVC pipe is removed by
310 VERMICOMPOST AND COIRPITH COMPOST

siphoning. The collected leachate is called This process can be continued for one or two
vermiwash, which is actually an extract of weeks till the brown colour of wash
compost containing worms. This is used for disappears. The less enriched compost that
soil application and foliar spray in different remains in the pot can be collected and used
crops. Vermiwash is honey-brown in colour as fertilizer. Later, the pot can be emptied and
with a pH of 8.5 and N, P2O5 and K2O content set up again to continue the process.
200, 70 and 1000 ppm respectively. For large
The vermi wash, either alone or in
scale collection of vermiwash, a cement tank
combination with botanical pesticides can
of size 80 cm x 80 cm x 80 cm with a side tap
be used for pest management in kitchen
is constructed. A layer of small brick pieces
gardens.
or gravel is placed at the bottom of the tank.
Above it a layer of fibre of 3-4 cm thickness Recommendation for crops
in placed. A definite quantity of biowaste
When vermicompost is applied as organic
(4 kg) is added to the system along with 2 kg
manure instead of FYM, the quantity of
of earthworms. After two weeks, the entire
in-organic fertilizers can be reduced to about
mass of biowaste will turn to brownish black
half the recommended dose.
compost. It is sprinkled with 2 litres of water.
Vermiwash is collected through the side tap Coirpith composting
after 24 hours. Biowaste can again be added
to the system and the process repeated. Coirpith, is produced in large quantities as
waste material of the coir industry.
Method 2 Every year, approximately 2.5 lakh tonnes of
This is a simple and economical technique coirpith accumulate in Kerala as waste.
to collect vermiwash. The system consists of Coirpith has wide C:N ratio and its lignin rich
an earthen pot of 10 kg capacity with a hole at nature does not permit natural composting
the bottom, which is filled with pieces of stone process as in other agricultural wastes.
up to a height of 10 cm from the bottom. A Mushrooms belonging to the genus Pleurotus
plastic net is spread over this. Then a thick have the capacity to degrade part of the
layer of coir fibre along with humus containing cellulose and lignin present in coirpith by
1500-2000 worms of Eudrillus euginae or production of enzymes such as, cellulases and
Isenia foetidae is added to the pot. The hole lactases, bringing down the C:N ratio as well
situated at the bottom of the pot is fixed with a as lignin content.
water tap through which vermiwash is Method of composting
collected. The kitchen waste of each day is
added to the container. The composting Materials required: Coirpith 1 tonne, urea
process is allowed to continue for a week or 5 kg, mushroom (Pleurotus) spawn 1.5 kg.
more till brownish black mass of compost is A shaded place of 5 m x 3 m dimension may
obtained. Occasionally, two or three be selected and levelled after removing weeds.
tablespoons of fresh cowdung slurry is poured 100 kg coirpith may be spread uniformly. Spread
on the humus as feed for the worms. After 300 g (one bottle or cover) of Pleurotus spawn
the formation of compost, the entire mass is on this and cover with a second layer of
soaked with two litres of water. After 24 hours, 100 kg coirpith. On the surface of the second
about 1.5 litre of vermiwash can be collected. layer, spread 1 kg urea uniformly. Repeat this
VERMICOMPOST AND COIRPITH COMPOST AND BIOFERTILIZERS 311

sandwiching process of one layer of coirpith Another significant change is the lowering
with spawn followed by another layer of down of C: N ratio from 112:1 to 24:1.
coirpith with urea up to1m height. Sprinkle water This coirpith compost contains macro
if necessary to keep the heap moist. Allow nutrients as well as micronutrients. It has the
the heap to decompose for one month. unique property of absorbing and retaining
The coirpith is converted into good manure moisture to about 500-600 per cent. It improves
after 30-40 days and the lignin content is the water infiltration rate and hydraulic
reduced from 30 per cent to 40 per cent. conductivity of soil.

BIOFERTILIZERS

The use of biofertilizers is important while inoculum. It fixes about 20-25 kg N per ha
practising integrated plant nutrient under ideal conditions, thereby effecting a
management as well as organic farming. Some reduction of 25 per cent in the quantity of
of the commonly used biofertilizers in Kerala N fertilizers required. Treatment with
are as follows. Azospirillum also induces better root formation
in inoculated plants. Hence this biofertilizer
1. Rhizobium (Bradyrhizobium and
is also recommended for rootinduction
Azorhizobium) in polybag raised seedlings of plantation and
It induces better root nodulation and stem orchard crops as well as vegetables. The
nodulation in inoculated plants and thereby isolates of Azospirillum brasilense strains
brings down the requirement of nitrogen AZR 15 and AZR 37 from Kuttanad soils are
fertilizer for the cultivation of pulses, oil seeds highly effective for rice, vegetables and
and legume green manures. Commercially it nursery plants.
is available as carrier based inoculum. Method
Methods of application
of application is seed treatment.
Seed treatment: For treating 5-10 kg seeds,
2. Azotobacter 500 g culture is required. Moisten the seeds
Suitable for upland crops like vegetables, by sprinkling water or rice-gruel
tapioca, plantation and orchard crops. It is water. Take 500 g culture in a plastic tray/basin,
available as carrier-based inoculum. It fixes add moistened seeds, mix well and dry in shade
about 15–20 kg of N per ha under ideal for 30 minutes. This may be sown immediately.
upland conditions and thereby reduces the Seedling root dip (for transplanted crops):
requirement of nitrogen fertilizers by Slurry of the culture is prepared by mixing 500
10-20 per cent. Methods of application are seed g culture with 50 ml of water and the roots are
treatment, seedling dip and direct soil dipped in the slurry for 15–20 minutes before
application. transplanting.
3. Azospirillum Soil application: Mix the culture with FYM
It is suitable for both upland and wetland or compost in the ratio 1:25 and apply directly
conditions and is available as carrier-based in the soil.
312 BIOFERTILIZERS

Inoculation for paddy: Mix 2 kg of 7. Vesicular/Arbuscular mycorrhiza

culture in 60 litres of water and soak the seeds (VAM/AMF)
required for 1 ha (60 kg) for 24 hours before Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhiza (Glomus
sowing. At the time of transplanting, dip the spp.) is mostly recommended for upland crops,
roots of seedlings for 15-20 minutes in the especially for raising container and tissue
culture slurry prepared by mixing 2 kg inoculum culture plantlets and transplanted crops. It
with 40 litres of water. This slurry can be used mainly improves the uptake of available P by
for treating seedlings required for inoculated plants. There is also an enhanced
1 ha. Another 2 kg culture may be applied in absorption of water and other nutrients such
the field along with FYM or compost. as N and K and certain micronutrients.
4. Blue green algae (BGA) Mycorrhiza inoculation can improve the
survival and establishment of tissue culture
Mainly recommended for wetland rice plantlets under field conditions as well as induce
cultivation. It is available as carrier-based better resistance against certain soil borne plant
inoculum and it fixes about 25-30 kg N per ha pathogens. It is commercially available as
under ideal conditions. However, the use of granular inoculum consisting of infected roots
this biofertilizer is not feasible in acidic soils and soil with mycorrhizal spores. It is given as
with pH below 6.0. soil application.
Method of application VAM is suitable for tropical tuber crops.
The inoculation can be done by placing inoculum
Broadcasting in the rice fields at the rate
(3-5 g/sett) beneath the sett before planting.
of 10 kg ha-1 one week after transplanting.
The rate of spore load in the inoculum should
5. Azolla be to the tune of 50 to 400 spores per 100 g
soil medium.
It is suitable for wetland rice cultivation.
The required quantity of azolla will have to be Application techniques of biofertilizers
raised in the farmers field itself. Fixes about 1. Seed treatment
25 to 30 kg N per ha.
Five hundred grams of commercially
Method of application available inoculum will be required for treatment
of seeds for one hectare area. For this, thick
Apply fresh azolla at the rate of 10 t ha-1 at
slurry of the carrier-based inoculum is initially
the time of ploughing.
prepared by mixing 500 g of the inoculum in
6. Phosphate solubilising bacteria and fungi 1.25 litres of water. The stickiness of the
biofertilizer on seed surface can be significantly
Recommended mainly for upland crops
improved by using 10 per cent jagerry solution
raised in neutral and slightly alkaline soils.
or 5 per cent sugar solution supplemented with
Available as carrier-based inoculum. Enables 40 per cent boiled and cooled gum arabic
the efficient utilization of cheaper sources of solution or rice-gruel water. The required
phosphatic fertilizers such as rock phosphate by quantity of seed material is then gently mixed
the crop plants. with this slurry without damaging the seed coat.
Method of application: Seed treatment and The treated seeds are spread evenly over a
direct application. gunny bag and dried in shade and sown
BIOFERTILIZERS 313

immediately in moist soil. The treated seeds 3. Irrigation is essential during summer months
should never be exposed to direct sunlight for after biofertilizer application to ensure the
a long period of time since the UV rays of survival of the introduced microbial
solar radiation will reduce the population of inoculum in the soil.
inoculated bacteria on seed surface
4. Since N biofertilizers can supplement only
significantly.
a part of the nitrogen requirement of the
2. Seedling treatment inoculated plant, low dose of nitrogen and
This method is mainly recommended for full doses of phosphorus and potassium as
transplanted crops. The roots of seedlings to per the recommendation may be applied.
be transplanted are dipped in water slurry of This is essential to ensure better plant
the biofertilizer (500 g in 2.5 litres of water) growth and yield. Similarly, in the case of P
for 20 minutes, prior to transplanting. biofertilizers, the full doses of nitrogen and
potassium should be applied. However,
3. Soil application there should be a gap of at least one week
Soil application is generally recommended between application of biofertilizer and
for all types of biofertilizers except Rhizobium, chemical fertilizer.
Bradyrhizobium and Azorhizobium. The 5. Use only biofertilizers, which are
method is to apply the biofertilizer after mixing manufactured as per the quality
with dried FYM, compost or vermicompost at para-meters prescribed by the Bureau of
the rate of 1:25. For crops of six-months Indian Standards. In the case of bacterial
duration, the recommended dose is 1-2 kg ha-1. biofertilizers, the prescribed standard is that
-1
This can be increased to 2-4 kg ha for crops in the final product, the population of the
of more than six months duration. For perennial desired bacterium should not be
crops, 10 to 25 g of the biofertilizer is to be less than ten million per gram of the
applied in the root zone during the first year carrier material and there should not be
and 25 to 50 g during subsequent years. This any contamination with other micro-
can be done at the time of sowing, transplanting organisms when examined at 1:100000
or during intercultivation. dilution. Further, it should have a shelf life
Factors influencing the efficient use of of at least six months.
biofertilizers in Kerala 6. The commercially available biofertilizer
1. Use adequate quantity of organic should always be used before the expiry
date marked on the culture packet.
manure (as per the recommendation for
each crop) along with biofertilizer 7. Top dressing with superphosphate
-1
application. This is essential to ensure better at the rate of 25 kg ha 10 days after
survival, growth and activity of the inoculation of BGA will enhance its growth
introduced microbial inoculum in acidic under field conditions.
soils.
8. Since the occurrence of green algae in rice
2. Liming is essential if the soil pH is field can affect the normal growth and
below 6.0. In moderately acidic soils, proliferation of BGA, the population of
the application of lime at the rate of green algae should be controlled initially
-1
250 kg ha is recommended along with by applying copper sulphate at the rate of
-1
biofertilizer treatment. 4 kg ha .
314 BIOFERTILIZERS

9. In moderately acidic soils of pH around in P 2O5 deficient soils to ensure good

6.5, root nodulation by Rhizobium and growth of azolla. The development of a
Bradyrhizobium can be improved by reddish purple colour in azolla is a typical
pelleting with finely powdered calcium symptom of P2O5 deficiency.
carbonate. (See recommendation under 11. Since a floating population of azolla can
cowpea) release its bound nutrients only during
decay in the soil, it is essential to
10. Application of P 2 O 5 at the rate of incorporate azolla in the soil prior to the
-1
1 kg ha is recommended once in 4 days transplanting of rice seedlings.
GUIDELINES FOR MAXIMIZING FERTILIZER USE EFFICIENCY 315

GUIDELINES FOR MAXIMIZING FERTILIZER USE

EFFICIENCY

Choice of a fertilizer depends on unit cost 4. In alkaline upland soils of low rainfall
of nutrient present in it and its agronomic regions, nitrate fertilizers are preferred to
efficiency under a given situation. Fertilizer is ammoniacal fertilizers or urea since
a valuable input and measures should be taken ammonia may be lost by volatilization
to reduce its losses and to increase its uptake under alkaline conditions.
and utilisation by the crop. Selecting a situa- Management of nitrogenous fertilizers
tion-specific fertilizer and choosing the time and
1. Almost all the nitrogenous fertilizers are
method of application according to crop
highly amenable to losses and since most
demand would minimize losses and
of the crops require nitrogen during the
increase its efficiency. entire growth period, split application is
Nitrogenous fertilizers necessary to ensure maximum utilization by
crops.
Most crop plants recover only 25-35 per
cent of the nitrogen applied as fertilizers. 2. More number of splits may be given for
Losses occur by ammonia volatilisation, long duration crops as well as perennial crops.
denitrification, immobilization to organic forms, 3. Nitrogen losses from fertilizers are more
leaching and run off. Utmost care should in coarse textured soils with low
be bestowed in selecting the type of cation exchange capacity (CEC) than in fine
fertilizer as well as the timing and method of textured soils. Hence more number of splits
application. is necessary to reduce loss of fertilizer
nitrogen from sandy and other light soils.
Choice of the nitrogen fertilizer
4. For medium duration rice varieties,
1. In submerged rice soil, ammoniacal and nitrogenous fertilizers should be given in
ammonia producing fertilizers like urea are three splits, as basal, at maximum tillering
most suitable since ammonia is the most and at panicle initiation stage.
stable form of nitrogen under such
conditions. 5. In coarse textured sandy or loamy soils, the
entire dose of nitrogenous fertilizers may
2. For acidic upland soils, ammoniacal be applied in 3-4 splits at different stages
fertilizers are most suitable during rainy of growth of rice crop.
season since ammonium is adsorbed on soil 6. In areas where split application of
particles and hence leaching losses are nitrogen is not feasible due to water
reduced. Adsorbed ammonium is gradually stagnation after planting/sowing, full dose
released for nitrification and thus of nitrogen as basal may be given in the
becomes available to crops for a longer form of neem coated or coal tar coated
period. urea.
3. In highly acidic upland soils, urea is 7. In double cropped wetlands, 50 per cent of
preferred to ammonium sulphate as the N requirement of the first crop may be
former is less acid forming. applied in the organic form.
316 GUIDELINES FOR MAXIMIZING FERTILIZER USE EFFICIENCY

8. As far as possible, liming should be done puddled lowland rice increases nitrogen use
one or two weeks prior to the application efficiency.
of ammoniacal or ammonia forming 7. As far as possible, urea may be applied by
fertilizer like urea since ammonia is likely deep placement or plough sole placement.
to be lost by volatilization if applied along Deep placement of prilled urea or super
with lime. granules during the last ploughing followed
9. Almost 70 per cent of N in urea applied by flooding and planting is beneficial in light
by broadcast to flooded soil is lost by soils. Urea briquettes or super granules may
volatilization, immobilization and by be placed between four hills of transplanted
denitrification rice, whereas sulphur coated or lac coated
urea may be broadcast on the surface.
Measures to reduce the loss of N from
applied urea 8. Foliar spray of 5 per cent urea solution can
be practised in situations where quick
1. Urea super granules or urea briquettes may response to applied nitrogen is required. If
be used in places where soil is clayey and power sprayers are used, the concentra-
has cation exchange capacity more than tion may be increased to 15 per cent. Fresh
10 cmol (+) per kg of soil. urea should be used to avoid toxicity due to
2. Sulphur or lac coated urea is suitable where biuret.
soil is liable to intermittent flooding and in Phosphatic fertilizers
situations where water management is
Fertilizer phosphorus is an expensive
difficult. This is more suitable for direct
input and its management poses serious
sown crop.
problems due to several complexities in its
3. Urea may be mixed with moist soil and kept behaviour in different types of soil. This often
for 24-48 hours before application to the results in its poor recovery from applied
field. Alternatively, urea may be mixed with fertilizers.
moist soil, made into balls of about three
Choice of phosphatic fertilizer
inch diameter and dried under shade. The
balls may be placed deep into subsoil. 1. In slightly acid, neutral or mildly alkaline
soils, water soluble phosphatic fertilizers are
4. Mixing urea with one fifth its weight of
more suitable.
neem cake (5:1) prolongs the period of
nitrogen availability to the crop. 2. In wetland rice soils, water soluble phos-
phatic fertilizers are preferable as pH of
5. For submerged soils, coating urea with coal
most of the submerged soils is near neutral.
tar and kerosene (100 kg urea is mixed with
2 kg coal tar dissolved in one litre 3. In strongly acidic soils whose pH does not
kerosene) before mixing with neem cake rise above 5.5 to 6.0 even on submergence,
is preferred to simple mixing with neem phosphatic fertilizers containing citrate soluble
cake. form of P like basic slag, dicalcium
phosphate, steamed bone meal etc. are
6. Coating urea with neem extract (contain-
suitable.
ing about 5 per cent neem triterpenes) at
1 per cent rate and shade drying for 1 to 4. For highly acidic upland soils or
1.5 hours before applying in direct seeded submerged soils whose pH will not rise
GUIDELINES FOR MAXIMIZING FERTILIZER USE EFFICIENCY 317

above 5.5 even on submergence, 5. K status of soil is maintained by straw

powdered rock phosphate is suitable. Soil incorporation. After straw incorporation, if
acidity converts tricalcium phosphate in soil analysis prior to cropping season
rock phosphate to plant available indicates low K status, K should be applied
monocalcium form. @ 15 kg K2O ha -1.
5. For short duration crops where quick 6. Rock phosphate can be used successfully
response is required, water soluble as a phosphatic source for leguminous
phosphatic fertilizers are most suitable. crop since its root system can extract
6. For perennial crops like rubber, oil palm, phosphorous from rock phosphate.
coffee, tea, cardamom etc. phosphorus in 7. In single crop wetlands where rice is grown
the form of rock phosphate can be in the virippu season, application of
applied. phosphatic fertilizers can be dispensed with
7. In black soil (Chittur taluk of Palakkad for the rice crop, if the second crop
District) phosphatic fertilizers containing (usually legume or green manure) is given
water soluble phosphate like single phosphatic fertilizers.
superphosphate are most suitable. 8. In case of rice-legume cropping sequence
Management of phosphatic fertilizers in acid soils, application of rock
1. Acid soils have to be amended with lime, phosphate to the pulse crop helps to skip
dolomite or magnesium silicate and phosphatic fertilizers in the succeeding rice
alkali soils with iron pyrite or sulphur crop.
before application of phosphatic fertilizers. 9. Since phosphorus requirement of seasonal
This will help to reduce fixation and increase crops is confined to the early stages,
availability of P. phosphatic fertilizers are to be applied
2. Surface application or broadcasting is at the time of seeding or planting. Top
preferred for shallow rooted crops whereas dressing of phosphatic fertilizer leads to
placement in the root zone is advantageous wastage of the fertilizer nutrient. Further,
in deep rooted crops. excessive phosphates may lead to
3. Rock phosphates can be used advanta- deficiency of micronutrients such as zinc,
geously in rice, grown in acid soils boron etc.
during the virippu season. Powdered rock 10.Under adverse soil conditions and where
phosphate may be applied and mixed quick result is required, spraying
thoroughly with soil by ploughing. After two water-soluble phosphatic fertilizers like
or three weeks, the field may be flooded, triple superphosphate or hot water extract
worked up and planted with rice. Under this of superphosphate can be resorted to.
situation, phosphorus in rock phosphate gets
converted to iron phosphate, which on Potassium fertilizers
subsequent waterlogging becomes available For most crops, potassium can be
to the rice crop. supplied as muriate of potash. But in crops like
4. When soil available P status is medium to tobacco and potato, muriate of potash may
high P application can be skipped. For low cause chloride injury, reducing quality of the
P status soil , P should be applied @ 45 kg produce. In such cases, K may be applied as
P2O5 ha-1 . potassium sulphate.
318 GUIDELINES FOR MAXIMIZING FERTILIZER USE EFFICIENCYAND BEEKEEPING

Management of potassium fertilizers Management

1. In coarse textured soils and in heavy 1. In acidic submerged soils, flooding brings
rainfall regions, potassium fertilizers should about rise in soil pH and hence response to
be applied in as many splits as possible, to lime is less marked.
reduce loss of potassium.
2. Legumes are benefitted most by liming.
2. In fine textured soils, the entire dose of
potassium fertilizers may be applied as 3. For better results, liming materials should
basal. be incorporated into the soil.
3. In acid soils, potassium fertilizers should be 4. For seasonal crops and in situations where
applied only after lime application to immediate results are required, burnt
prevent loss of potassium by leaching. lime or slaked lime may be used. For
perennial crops, powdered lime stone or
Lime
dolomite is sufficient.
Acid soils are characterised by high
saturation of the exchange complex with 5. Extreme care should be taken while
hydrogen and aluminium. Crops grown in such broadcasting burnt lime and slaked lime as
soils suffer due to unavailability of most plant they can cause scorching of leaves.
nutrients, especially calcium. Application of 6. In case of wetland rice, drain the field prior
liming materials increases the availability of to lime application and reflood
nutrients and alleviates Ca deficiency. after 24 hours. Flushing the soil by
Liming materials sequential flooding and draining will help to
Burnt lime [CaO], slaked lime [Ca (OH)2], wash out the displaced acid from the soil.
powdered limestone [CaCO3] and dolomite 7. In extreme case of calcium deficiency,
[CaMg (CO3)2] are some of the materials used 1 per cent solution of calcium chloride may
as sources of calcium. be applied by foliar spraying.

BEEKEEPING (APICULTURE)
True honey bees belong to the family multiple combs in dark cavities.
Apidae and genus Apis. They are social
Species of honeybees
insects living in colonies. A colony consists of
a queen, several thousand workers and a few There are four species of honeybees in
hundred drones. There is division of labour and India. They are:
specialization in the performance of various Rock bee (Apis dorsata): They are giant bees
functions. They build nests (combs) with wax found all over India in sub-mountainous
secreted from the wax glands of worker bees. regions up to an altitude of 2700 m. They build
The bees use these cells to rear their brood single comb nests with an area up to
and store food. Honey is stored in the upper 1 m2 or more. They are good honey gatherers
part of the comb; beneath it are rows of pollen with an average yield of 50-80 kg per colony.
storage cells, worker brood cells and drone
brood cells in that order. Some Apis species Little bee (Apis florea): They are the
build single comb in open, while others build smallest of the true honeybees found in plains
BEEKEEPING 319

of India up to the altitude of 500 m. They build by human beings or robbing of honey by bees
single vertical combs. They are poor honey from other colonies. Proper hive management
yielders and yield about 200 – 900 g of honey can prevent it.
per colony. Communication
Indian bee (Apis cerana indica): They are
The worker bees communicate with other
the domesticated species, which construct
bees about the exact location of nectar,
multiple parallel combs with an average honey
pollen, water, next nesting site etc. by means
yield of 6-8 kg per colony per year.
of dances. Round dance is performed when
European bee / Italian bee (Apis melli fera): the food is located within 100 m from hive and
They are also similar in habits to wagtail dance to communicate the location of
Indian bees and build parallel combs. They are food source when it is more than 100 m away
bigger than all other honeybees except Apis from the hive.
dorsata. The average production per colony
Bee space
is 25 – 40 kg.
It is the space large enough to permit the
Stingless bee (Trigona iridipennis): In
free passage for worker bees but too small to
addition to the above, another species is also
encourage bees building a comb and too large
present in Kerala known as stingless bees.
for bees to deposit propolis in it.
They are not truly stingless, but the sting is poorly
developed. They make nests in the ground, Indian bee (Apis cerana indica)
hollows of trees, bamboo, rocks or cracks of This is the domesticated hive bee in Kerala.
walls. Honey and brood cells are separate in A colony consists of a queen, 20,000 to 30,000
the nest. They are efficient pollinators. They workers and a few drones. This species has
yield 300-400 g of honey per year. gentle temperament and responds to smoking.
Swarming Lack of flora leads to absconding by bees. It
also has a strong tendency for swarming. It
Swarming is the natural instinct of
yields 8-10 kg of honey per colony per year.
honeybees to reproduce its colonies. By
swarming, strong colonies are divided Bee-box
naturally. It occurs mostly when the colony ISI Type-A box is recommended for the
population is at its peak. Some of the State of Kerala. A division board may be added
several reasons for swarming are sudden to the bee box for adjusting the internal space
honey flow, sudden failure of queen to lay eggs, depending on the strength of the colony. It can
congestion in the colony, want of breeding be procured from beekeepers. Wild feral
space, bad ventilation etc. Dividing the colonies colonies can be hived. Beekeepers in different
or keeping young queen or preventing over regions use local hives made of low cost wood.
crowding of bees or adding new combs can The wood should not have a strong smell. Kail
prevent swarming. (Pinus excelsa), teak (Tectona grandis), toon
(Toona ciliata) anjili (Artocarpus hirsutus),
Absconding
punna (Calophyllum inophyllum) etc., are
Absconding is the total desertion of colony some of the suitable woods. The hives should
from its nest due to incidence of be preferably painted white on outside to
disease / pest attack, too much interference protect the timber from weathering.
320 BEEKEEPING

Hiving wild colony no mites are seen on the floorboard.

It is done during evening hours. Smoke the Diseases: The dead larvae due to Thai sac
colony slightly, cut out the combs one by one brood virus (TSBV) in the comb cells may be
and tie to the brood frames with removed and destroyed.
plantain fibre. Arrange them in the box. Management during lean season
Location of beehives Remove the supers and arrange the
The apiary must be located in well-drained available healthy broods compactly in the brood
open area, preferably near orchards, with chamber. Provide division board, if necessary.
profuse source of nectar, pollen and water. Destroy queen cells and drone cells, if noted.
Windbreaks may be provided by planting Provide sugar syrup (1:1) @ 200 g sugar per
shrubs, flowering plants and also creepers like colony per week for Indian bees. Feed all the
antigonon. Shade must also be provided. Ant colonies in the apiary at the same time to avoid
wells are fixed around the hive stand. The robbing.
colonies must be directed towards east, with Management during honey flow season
slight changes in the directions of the bee box Keep the colony in sufficient strength before
as a protection from rain and sun. Keep the honey-flow season. Congestion in the hive must
colonies away from the reach of cattle, other be avoided and surplus honeybees are drawn
animal, busy roads and streetlights. to supers. Provide maximum space between
Management of colonies the first super and the brood chamber and not
above the first super. Place queen excluder
Inspect the beehives at least once in a week sheets in between brood and super chamber
during brood rearing/honey-flow seasons to confine the queen to brood chamber.
preferably during the morning hours. Bright, Examine the colony once in a week and frames
warm and calm days are suitable. If sunlight full of honey should be removed to the sides of
falls directly on the beehive spread cloth or a the super and such frames can be raised from
towel over the same. Look for freshly laid eggs brood to super chamber. The frames, which
to ensure that the colonies are healthy. Clean are three-fourth filled with honey or pollen and
the hive in the following sequence, the roof, one-fourth with sealed brood should be taken
super/supers, brood chambers and floorboard. out of brood chamber and in its place empty
Observe the colonies regularly for the presence combs or frames with foundation is added. The
of healthy queen, brood development, storage frame with comb foundation should be placed
of honey and pollen, presence of queen cells, next to the brood nest. The combs, which are
bee strength and growth of drones. Look for completely sealed or two-third capped may be
the infestation by any of the following bee taken out for extraction of honey and returned
enemies. to supers after honey extraction. This helps
Wax moth (Galleria mellonella): Remove the colonies to activate the bees to collect and
all the larvae and silken webbings from the store more honey. Two or three such
combs, corners and crevices of bee box. extractions are possible during a surplus flow.
Extraction of uncapped honey will result in
Wax beetles (Platybolium sp.): Collect and fermentation. Honey extraction, after the flow
destroy the adult beetles. is over, should be avoided to save the bee
Mites: Clean the frame and floorboard with colonies from robbing. Care should be taken
cotton swabs moistened with freshly made to retain sufficient combs with honey in the
potassium permanganate solution. Repeat until brood chamber or reduce the lean period.
BEEKEEPING 321

Migratory beekeeping super on the day prior to honey extraction keeps

The moving of bee colonies from one place the bees away from the super. Remove the
to another to capture increased nectar flow of a escape soon after honey extraction.
particular flora is called migratory beekeeping. Processing of honey
Copious flow of extra floral nectar available Heat the honey to 45ºC by keeping it in a
on rubber trees during January-April is water bath. Sieve it to remove wax particles,
exploited by shifting beecolonies to these debris, dust and pollen. Again heat it to a
plantations during this period. temperature of 65ºC in water bath and maintain
Similar practice is done in cashew it for 10 minutes. Then cool and filter it in
plantations and in other orchards too. 80-mesh muslin and store in glass, porcelain,
Maintaining bee colonies in orchards will earthenware, enamelware or stainless steel
increase the yield, since pollination is more containers. Bulk storing can be made in mild
efficient in such orchards. steel containers lined with bee wax.
Shifting of colonies is done after sun set. Italian bee (Apis mellifera)
Colonies should be prepared as follows. It is a native of Europe introduced to
Extract available honey and fasten all the weak Himachal Pradesh and Punjab during 1962-64
combs to frames with plantain fibres. Secure and introduced to Kerala on a trial basis from
the frames to the chamber with packing. Close Haryana in November 1992. It maintains a
the bee entrance with cotton. Then secure the prolific queen, swarms less, has gentle
bee-box (floorboard, brood chamber, supers temperament and is a good honey-gatherer. It
and roof) firmly with strong threads. Do not is known to be resistant to TSBV. A healthy
tilt or topple beehives while stacking them in colony may contain 60,000 to 80,000 worker
the conveyance or during transit. Avoid strong bees. The following modifications are to be
jerks and shocks while transporting. followed in beekeeping with Italian bees.
Set up the beehives as described above at Bee-box
the new site. Inspect the condition of combs
and tighten loose threads, if any. This inspection Langstroth beehive with ten frames each
should be done only in dim light. Next morning in brood and super chambers and a division
remove the cotton plug at bee entrance. Later brood chamber is recommended. The brood
provide comb foundation sheets, if necessary and super chambers are of the same size.
and provide sufficient space for storage of Procuring bee colonies
honey. Colonies can be obtained either by
Extraction of honey dividing existing colonies or by buying from
Honey is extracted only from super combs other agencies.
using honey extractor. The sealing of cells on Location of beehives
combs is removed with sharp knife Follow the practices as in Indian bees, but
before placing in the extractor. Extractor use a strong four-legged stand well protected
should be worked slowly at the beginning and from ants and other crawling insects by
at about 150 rpm at the end for about 1 to 2 providing ant wells.
minutes. Then the sides of the frames are
Management of colonies
reversed and the extractor is again worked.
Extracted honey is filtered through muslin cloth. Apart from the management practices
Providing a bee escape between the brood and followed for Indian bee, the practices as
322 BEEKEEPING

mentioned below may be followed. Extracted honey is filtered through a coarse

Sources of pure water should be available cloth to remove the impurities.
near the apiary. Stagnant water or water in a Processing of honey
container is not appropriate because it can
spread nosema disease. Flowing water near To be done as described under Indian bees.
the apiary should serve as a good source. As During the lean season (May-September),
an alternative, water trickling from a remove the super chambers, arrange the
container set on a stand and falling on a available healthy brood combs in the brood
slanting wooden plank can be provided. chamber and use division boards to restrict the
space. Provide artificial feeding once in a week
During the brood rearing season (growth
by way of 1:1 sugar syrup in water. Each colony
period) from October to January, replacement
may require syrup prepared from 500-750 g
of old queens by young healthy ones, uniting
the weak colonies and giving supplementary sugar a week depending on the size of the
feeding as and when required should be done. colony and availability of stored food. When
Colonies should be provided with enough space there is dearth of natural source, pollen
for brood rearing and food storage, by giving substitutes may be provided in the colony.
comb foundation sheets one at a time. Pests and diseases
In areas where queen mating is a Brood mite (Tropilaelaps clareae): Infests
problem, especially when only a few colonies the brood and the infestation is severe during
are kept in isolated pockets, the colony with the major brood rearing season (October-
virgin queen is to be transferred to areas where January). These ectoparasites feed on the
more number of colonies are kept so as to haemolymph of developing broods slowly
ensure the availability of queen in sufficient killing them. Dusting sulphur on the topbars of
numbers and afterwards returned to the former the frames @ 200 mg/ frame at 7-14 days
apiary.
interval during brood rearing season is very
During honey flow season (January-April), effective in checking the infestation.
provide raised combs in the super and the
Yellow-banded wasp (Vespa cincta): These
number of combs to be added depends on the
predatory wasps catch the bees from both the
strength of the colony. Only ripe honey is
hive entrance and inside the hives. Locating
harvested when two-third of the comb cells
are capped so that honey contains less than and destroying their nests by burning or
20 per cent moisture. Care should be taken to insecticidal usage is an effective control
see that the bee colonies are not stripped of all measure.
the honey stores. Enough stores of honey Wax moth (Galleria mellonella): Infests
should be ensured in the hive at the end of weak and unattended colonies. Proper cleaning
honey flow for use during the following lean of the hives periodically and keeping the hives
period. For migratory bee keeping, follow the without cracks and crevices can avoid
practices as adopted for Indian bees. infestation.
Extraction of honey Black ants: Various species of black ants
The sealing of comb is removed with a intrude beehives and take away honey and
sharp knife and the extraction done in an pollen and kill the brood and bees, which may
extractor designed for langstroth size frames. lead to absconding of colony. The apiary should
BEEKEEPING 323

be kept clean and the ant nests destroyed by yellow and sunk down to the floor of the cell
insecticidal applications. Ant wells should be and dry up in 10-15 days as brownish black
provided for the beehive stands. boat shaped scales, which are easily removable
from the cells.
Red tree-ant (Oecophyla smaragdina)
The sequence of visible symptoms found
If not protected properly, the red tree-ants
in the field is:
can cause considerable damage to the bees
and the brood. The bees that come in 1. Presence of unsealed cells in brood area
contact with the ground are attacked and killed containing diseased larvae with their head
by the ants and dragged to their nests by a directed outwards like the prow of a boat.
number of ants. In the apiary, if the branch of 2. Dead larvae are seen lying stretched out
a tree with these ants happens to come in on their back on the floor of brood cells
contact with the hive, the entire colony is and look like a sac filled with milky white
attacked and destroyed. Providing ant wells fluid when lifted up.
will keep away the ants. Care should be taken 3. Appearance of dead larvae strewn on the
not to keep the colonies near or under the trees floorboards, hive entrance or on the floor
having ant nests. near the hive.
Bee-eater bird (Merops orientalis) 4. Mottled appearance of brood combs with
uncapped cells interspersed with capped
These predatory birds do much harm in certain cells or cells with perforated capping.
localities. They pick the bees on wings and 30- 5. Appearance of more and more dead
43 honeybees have been found in the stomach larvae left within the cells without being
of a bird. Attack by these birds is mostly seen ejected by the worker bees.
during December-January. These birds are also
6. Appearance of sac like remnants of dead
very useful in keeping down the insect
larvae within the cells.
population in a locality and hence no large-scale
measures against them can be recommended. 7. Lack of cleaning activity within the hive.
Scaring them away from apiaries is suggested. 8. Decrease in egg laying rate and irregular
placement of eggs.
Thai sac brood virus
9. Decrease in foraging activity and
Symptoms presence of idling workers inside the hive.
All the larval instars are susceptible to the 10. Dwindling of bee population of the colony.
disease, earlier instars being more susceptible. 11. Desertion of infected hives by the bees
Affected larvae appear slightly plumby causing total loss to the apiary.
compared to healthy ones when examined on Management
taking out of the comb cells. The infected Being a virus disease there is no known
larvae seen stretched on their back in the cells remedy. However, the following measures may
with the head directed outwards and turned help in minimizing the possibilities of
upwards like the prow of a boat. The dead further spread: a) Keep colonies strong;
larvae look like a sac filled with milky white b) avoid exchange of hive parts, combs etc.
fluid when lifted up and it ruptures even with from infected colonies to healthy colonies;
the slight pressure releasing the milky fluid. The c) avoid procurement of colonies or swarms
cadavers change their colour from white to pale from infected areas.
324 SERICULTURE

SERICULTURE

Moriculture For rainfed crop, three cuttings are to be

planted per pit in a triangular manner with a
Mulberry can be grown under various
distance of 15 cm, keeping only one bud
climatic conditions ranging from temperate to
exposed.
tropical. Its growth depends on many
climatic conditions such as temperature, Maintenance of the garden (1st year)
humidity, rainfall etc. A temperature range of After 8 months of planting, 50 kg each of
24-28ºC, humidity range of 65-80 per cent and N, P2O5 and K2O should be applied per ha
600-2500 mm rainfall are ideal for after weeding. First harvest can be taken six
optimum growth of mulberry. The soil should months after planting by leaf picking.
be deep, fertile, well drained, clay loam to loam Second dose of 50 kg N per ha should be
and with good moisture holding capacity. applied 8 weeks after the first leaf harvest.
Slightly acidic (6.2-6.8 pH) soil free from Two more crops can be taken at an interval of
injurious salts is ideal for the growth of 3 months, by leaf picking.
mulberry.
Manuring
Land preparation
For rainfed crop apply FYM @ 10 t ha-1
The field is levelled and ploughed deeply as a basal dose and topdress every year at the
before the onset of monsoon. FYM may be time of annual pruning. Fertilizers are
-1
applied @ 10 t ha-1 for the rainfed crop and applied @ 130:65:65 kg ha of N:P2O5:K2O in
20 t ha-1 for the irrigated crop during land two split doses. For irrigated crop, FYM is given
preparation. @ 20 t ha-1 as basal dose. Fertilizers are applied
-1
@ 300:120:120 kg ha of N: P2O5: K2O in five
Method of planting and spacing
split doses.
(a) Pit system (rainfed crop): Spacing
Pruning
75 cm x 75 cm (pit size 30 cm x 30 cm x
30 cm). (b) Row system (irrigated crop): For rainfed crop, bottom pruning is done in
Spacing 60 cm x 60 cm (ridges and furrows). May-June. Two top clippings in August/
September and December/January are also
Planting material
practised. Middle pruning is done in
The variety K2 gives higher yield and October/November. For irrigated crop,
better quality leaves. Cuttings must be bottom pruning at 15-30 cm height in May, two
prepared from shoots of proper maturity (6-8 top clippings in August and December and two
months) and thickness with well developed middle pruning at 60 cm height in October and
buds. Cuttings of 7-10 cm length and pencil February/March are practised.
thickness with 3 or 4 active buds are ideal. Pests
Planting Tussock caterpillars (Euproctis fraterna)
For irrigated crop, two cuttings should Larvae eat the leaves of the mulberry plant.
be planted at each spot along the margin Their incidence is frequent during March
of the ridge. to August. Collection and destruction of egg
SERICULTURE 325

masses and spraying 1 per cent DDVP are Leaf rust (Ceratelicum fici)
effective. Waiting period is 3 days.
The attacked portion of the leaves have
Jassids (Empoasca flarescens) whitish brown pustules on both sides, are
Greenish hoppers feed on the underside of deformed and non-nutritive. Infection is
the leaf, suck sap and cause hopper burn. more in November-February. This can be
Spraying 0.05 per cent dimethoate is controlled by spraying carbendazim 0.05 per
effective. Waiting period is 10 days. cent or tridemorph 0.08per cent.

Thrips Leaf spot (Cercospora moricola)

These are frequent during summer Diseased leaves have a number of

season. Attack is severe in rainfed gardens. circular or irregular brownish black spots of
Spraying 0.02 per cent DDVP is effective. varying size. Infection is more common in rainy
Waiting period is 3 days. season. This can be controlled by spraying
0.05per cent of carbendazim.
Mealy bugs (Maconelliococcus hirsutus)
Yield
It causes ‘tukra disease’. The affected
leaves show curling and stunted growth at the Rainfed crop : 12000-15000 kg/ha/year
growing point. Irrigated crop : 25000-30000 kg/ha/year
Scale insect Silkworm rearing
When attack is severe, branches dry and Requirements for silkworm rearing
become yellow. Spraying lime sulphur 1. Good quality mulberry leaves
solution is effective. 2
2. Rearing house of approximately 20 m for
Leaf eating caterpillar (Diacrisia obliqua) 100 dfls (disease free layings), with good
Appears frequently between November ventilation, mild temperature (24-28ºC) and
and January. Collection and destruction of egg humidity (65-85 per cent).
masses, deep ploughing and flood 3. Rearing equipments like chawki stand
irrigation to kill the pupae and application of (one), wooden trays (10), rearing racks (5),
0.05 per cent DDVP on the leaves can chopping board (one) and knife, wooden/
prevent the attack. bamboo rearing trays (50), chandrika/
Root knot disease (Meloidogyne incognita) netrika (mountage) (40), leaf chamber,
feeding stands, ant wells, rocker sprayer,
Common in sandy loam type of soil
wet and dry bulb thermometer and materials
under irrigated conditions. Controlled by
like formaldehyde / bleaching powder,
applying neem oil cake at the rate of 400 kg
paraffin paper, cleaning nets, foam rubber
per ha per year in four equal split doses.
strips and RKO powder are required.
Diseases Rearing techniques
Powdery mildew (Phyllactina corylea)
Disinfect the rearing house and
It is more common during November- equipments two-three days before rearing to
February. White powdery patches appear on prevent silkworm disease. First, wash the
the lower side of the leaves. rearing house and the equipments with 2 per
326 SERICULTURE

cent bleaching powder. Then spray the room resumed when 90 per cent of worms have
and equipments with 5 per cent bleaching moulted. RKO powder is dusted over the
powder or 2 per cent formaldehyde. Keep the worms 30 minutes before feeding. After two
rearing houses closed for 24 hours for the consecutive feedings, the larvae with the net
fumes to get diffused.
are transferred to a new tray. Mature larvae
First incubate the dfls (egg card) at a stop feeding and prepare themselves for
temperature of 24-26ºC and RH of 75-80 per spinning. Its body becomes translucent, shrinks
cent, one day prior to hatching (blue egg stage); in length and constrictions appear on 4 and
th

cover the eggs with black paper (black boxing). th

5 segments. They move towards the
Next day morning, open it and expose to
diffused sunlight. As the larvae emerge out, periphery of the trays. Such worms are picked
fresh tender leaves collected from the plant and transferred to Chandrika / Netrakae. About
are chopped into 0.5 mm x 0.5 mm size and 1000 worms (400-450 larvae/m 2) can be
sprinkled over the hatched larvae. After half mounted in a mountage. Mount the entire
an hour, transfer the larvae to the paraffin paper larvae within a maximum period of 48 hours
spread in the chawky trays (wooden trays) and provide sufficient ventilation during
using fine brush. Provide wet foam strips spinning. Cocoon should be harvested on the
around and prepare a compact bed. Give fifth and sixth day after mounting. In rainy and
another feeding in the bed. Cover with paraffin
cold seasons, it should be delayed for one more
paper and stack the trays one over the other
on the stand. Upto 20 layings can be brushed day. The cocoons are collected from Chandrika
in a tray of 90 cm x 60 cm. and transported in light gunny bags to cocoon
market. The cocoon should be marketed
Feeding schedule (for 100 laying) immediately after harvest, so as to avoid adult
Larval emergence. Under average conditions, 100 dfls
Instar Leaf position Quantity
duration of bivoltine will yield 40-60 kg cocoons and
from the tip of leaf (kg)
(days)
cross breed will yield 30-50 kg cocoons.
1 2nd and 3rd 2-2.5 3-4
Diseases
2 3 , 4 and 5
rd th th
6-7 2-3
3 5th, 6th and 7th 25-30 3-4
Pebrine
4 Lower leaves 75-80 4-6 It is the most destructive disease of silk
worms and is caused by protozoa, Nosema
5 Still lower leaves 600-650 6-7
bombyscis. The worms become inactive with
poor appetite, the skin becomes wrinkled and
At the end of each instar, larvae stop
feeding and cast off old skin in 18-30 hours. moulting becomes irregular.
When the worms set for moulting, paraffin Flacherie
paper should be removed and spread on the It is caused by bacteria and poor rearing
bed to dry up. If there are more feeding worms, conditions like high temperature, high humidity,
a light and thin feeding may be given. All the poor ventilation, bad leaf quality, over
worms settle in 6-8 hours. During moulting, feeding etc. aggravates the disease. Digestive
worms should not be disturbed and full and circulatory systems are damaged and the
ventilation should be provided. Feeding is symptoms are loss of appetite and diarrhoea.
SERICULTURE AND RODENTS AND THEIR CONTROL 327

Grasserie 5. Feed good quality leaves of correct stages.

Mostly seen in ripening larvae. Caused by 6. Avoid over feeding and under feeding
Borrelina virus. Infection is induced by
extreme low and high temperature. 7. Clean the bed every day and burn the
Swelling of the inter-segmental region, infested litter.
shining skin, rupture of body wall, oozing 8. Use RKO powder at every moulting before
of body fluid and endless crawling are resumption of feeding.
symptoms. Such worms do not moult and spin.
9. Maintain humidity only to the desired level.
Muscardine
Pests
The fungi Beauveria bassiana, Spicaria
prasina and Isaria farinosa are the causal Uzi-fly (Trycholyga bombycis)
agents. The infected larvae lose appetite. It is a serious parasite of silkworm larvae
Specks of oozing oily substance without any and pupae causing heavy loss. Adult is a large
clear-cut margins appear on the skin. Body fly with prominent black and grey stripes. The
generally hardens and becomes stiff. fly prefers later instars to the earlier ones for
Prevention and control oviposition.
1. Disinfect the rearing room and equipment
Management
before rearing.
2. Use only disease free layings from Prevent the entry of fly into the rearing
authorized agencies. room by providing wire mesh or nylon net on
doors and ventilators. Burn the parasitized
3. Dip the egg cards in 2 per cent formalin larvae. Apply chlorpyrifos on the ground and
solution for 20 minutes before incubation. crevices of walls of rearing house. Other pests
4. Collect undersized larvae and destroy include ants, lizards, rats, squirrels, dermestid
regularly by burning or burrowing in soil. beetles and birds.

RODENTS AND THEIR CONTROL

Rats are important non-insect pests and gunny bags, plastic containers, clothes,
can be grouped into two different groups as electric wires etc. House rats damage tender
domestic rats and field rats. coconuts and cocoa pods in the fields. They
Domestic rats also act as carriers of several human and
animal diseases.
These are found near human dwellings. 2. House mouse (Mus musculus): Fur is
1. House rats (Rattus rattus): There are short without spines. Tail is almost naked and
two subspecies; one with white belly and the larger than head and body. The mouse is very
other with grey belly. Tail length is more than active and is found in houses and gardens. It
the length of head and body. They are found in can climb up walls. It damages clothes, plastic
houses and eat anything that man eats. They containers and food materials.
also cause qualitative damage by deposition of 3. Large bandicoot rat (Bandicota
faecal matter, urine and hairs. It damages indica): This is the largest domestic rat. Fur is
328 RODENTS AND THEIR CONTROL

coarse. Tail length is almost equal to the body medium sized rat with tail more or less equal
length. Body weight ranges from 750 to 1000 g. to the length of the head and body. These rats
It damages all tuber crops. It also damages damage paddy crop. It cuts the plants at the
concrete buildings by making burrows under base and chews the cut portion. Maximum
the basement. attack is at the booting stage. The attack
ceases after initiation of flowering. The
Field rats damage is usually observed in patches away
1. Large bandicoot rat (B. indica): Large from the field bunds.
bandicoot rats are also seen in the field. So 7. Soft furred field rat (Millardia meltada):
this can be considered both as domestic and These rats are found in cultivated field in pairs
field rat. or small groups of 5 or 6. They are soft furred
2. Lesser bandicoot rat (B. bengalensis): It is without spines. These rats cut the rice plants
in the transplanted crop. The damage starts at
a short tailed mole rat. Tail length is only
the time of planting and continues up to
70 per cent of the body length. Fur is short and
harvest. The tillers are cut at the water level.
coarse. It is seen making burrows in the paddy
field bunds and also in areas where crops like 8. Bush rat (Golunda elliotti): These rats
tubers, vegetables, coconut and young rubber are seen in places near forest area. They live
are cultivated. under bushes in nests. These rats are
destructive to coffee plants. They feed on their
3. Field mouse (Mus booduga): Fur is short buds and flowers. They damage paddy by
and coarse and is mostly found in cutting the plants in dryland paddy areas.
gardens and fields. Tail is slender and nearly
Integrated control of field rats
naked. Tail length is shorter than body and head.
The burrows of this species are found in the Rats cause considerable damage to
paddy fields. They are found feeding on paddy agricultural practices and other human
grains in the mature crop as well as on seeds possessions in addition to acting as carriers of
sown in the nursery. several human and animal diseases.
Diseases like bubonic plague and weils
4. White rat (Tatera indica): More than one disease (due to contamination of food by the
rat per burrow is common in this species. The urine of rats) are caused by rats. It is
eyes are large. The tail is longer than the body necessary that the importance of rat control
and is provided with a terminal tuft of long hairs. be understood by all. An integrated approach
It is double coloured. to control rats involves the joint utilisation
of all feasible control measures in a
5. Long tailed tree mouse (Vande-leuria complementary manner to maintain the rat
oleracea): The fur is soft and tail is much population at a very low level. Integrated
longer than the body. They are found in most control of field rats involves the following: (a)
parts of India inhabiting trees and shrubs. They preventing their entry into a region or a
damage the inflorescence of arecanut and building by putting up mechanical barriers or
leafy vegetables by cutting its leaves. treating with repellents; (b) encouraging
predators such as snakes, cats, dogs,
6. Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus): These mongooses etc.; (c) causing death by a variety
rats are found in waterlogged areas. This is a of methods.
RODENTS AND THEIR CONTROL 329

Methods of control bajra, puffed rice, popcorn or rice mixed with a

Environmental control little jaggery and oil are excellent carriers. To
prepare the carrier, 95 parts by weight of cereal
In this method of control rats are rendered ingredient is to be mixed with 5 parts of jaggery.
to a hostile environment in which they cannot
survive. The mud walls in villages may be For baiting, zinc phosphide is mixed with
replaced by thorny hedges thereby preventing groundnut oil and carrier in the ratio 2:2:96 by
the rats from making burrows. Good house weight. At each bait station, 30-40 g of the
keeping is regarded as the most economical bait mixture will have to be exposed. The
and effective way of reducing rat population. stations may be selected in areas where rats
Proper sanitation should be maintained by are frequent, such as areas around kitchen,
keeping food material inaccessible to rats in store and in homesteads. Expose baits in the
rat proof containers. The heap of garbage and evening and collect them in the following
sweepings in streets and towns should not be morning. Conduct baiting for three successive
kept for a long period. Designing rat proof days.
godowns and other buildings is another step to
ensure environmental control. Repellents

Poisoning Chemical repellents include malathion

and cyclohexamide which are repellents to
Three types of poisoning are usually house rats.
employed to control rats.
Biological control
1. Acute poisons are those that can kill rats
with a single dose; eg. zinc phosphide. Both field and domestic rats are subjected
to attack by a range of predators, parasites
2. Multiple dose or chronic poisons
and pathogens. The predators include cats,
require repeated ingestion over several
dogs, snakes, owls, mongooses etc. The
succes- sive days; eg. anticoagulants.
practice of rearing cats in house has been found
3. Fumigants are gases and are usually to adversely affect rat population. The
pumped or released from pellets or utilization of microbial pathogens has not proved
tablets put in through burrow entrances. successful in any part of the world.
Zinc phosphide Trapping
It is a dark grey powder and its toxic Trapping is the oldest method of
action is due to release of phosphine gas. When controlling rodents. Almost any trap will catch
it is ingested, phosphine is released causing some rats, but the response varies with
injury to the kidneys, liver and lungs different species. The rats are easily caught in
followed by death after a few hours. Zinc cage or box, but a rat trapped in such trap will
phosphide is used in food baits containing be exposed to other rats which develop trap
2 per cent active ingredient. shyness and they avoid such type of traps. The
Pre-baiting for 3-4 days consecutively is most effective rat traps are those, which can
necessary to overcome bait shyness. For completely conceal the rats trapped in it; eg.
pre-baiting and baiting, the same carrier Moncompu trap. The rat traps can be grouped
material has to be used. Crushed wheat, maize, into a few categories.
330 RODENTS AND THEIR CONTROL

Live traps (cage or box trap) not see the captured ones, they do not
1. Automatic traps: These have counter develop shyness against this type of
balanced entrances. When an animal mechanical trap.
enters this type of traps, its weight makes 5. Snap traps: Most of the rat traps fall within
it fall into a cage below. The counter this category and are widely used for
balance on the trap door brings it back into trapping rats. These kill the rat instantly by
place, leaving the rodent in the cage. These snapping shut when the rat nibbles at the
are intended to catch more than one rat; bait placed in the middle of the open trap.
eg. wonder trap. These are variously called as “break back
2. Remote triggered trap: These work by traps”, “guillotine”, “spring traps”, “saw
upsetting a delicate balance when the bait toothed traps” and “bamboo traps”
stick is disturbed or when the weight is put depending upon the materials used in
on a treadle. Common type of this is the making them.
box or cage trap that captures one rat at a 6. Kerosene tin trap: It is made by cutting the
setting. A box trap is a wooden or metal top of the tin and filling it with water up to
box open at one or both ends, having one 15 cm from the top. Chaff is floated on the
or two doors. Some have one or both will water surface so that the rat cannot see
have overhead trigger on which bait is water. Attractive and strong smelling bait
fastened and the door is released when the like dry fish, fried coconut etc. is pinned on
rat works on the bait. Others have a treadle to a piece of cork or lightwood and floated
in the floor on which the rat steps to drop on the chaff. A plank is leaned against the
the door. side to enable the rat to climb to the top.
3. Glues: A form of trapping in which a sticky Seeing no water and eager to get the bait
substance entangles the animal. the rat jumps on to the chaff and gets
4. Pot traps: These traps are extensively used drowned.
for catching rice field rats. This trap Success or failure of trapping is dependent
consists of a wooden plank, a mud pot of up on the following factors.
10 inch diameter, a metal strip which carry a. Placement: Traps must be placed where
bait and a ‘Y’shaped wooden peg to which animals will regularly encounter them.
needle is tied; eg. Moncompu trap.
b. Concealment: It is not advisable to use new
The trap is to be set up in rice fields, shining traps against rats. To overcome trap
after placing the base plank above the canopy shyness it may sometimes be necessary to
level on a specially erected platform, on poles. cover the trap with a slight coating of paper
The rats attracted by the bait climb over to the or dry leaves that does not interfere with
base plank and try to snatch off the bait tied the trigger or action.
on to the metallic strip. Slight disturbance of the
c. Size and design: Traps should be neither too
strip dislocates the wooden needle from the
small nor too large for the anticipated catch.
strip slot and causes the pot to fall down
abruptly over the rat. The pot and the plank d. Mechanical conditions: Putting out traps
are tightly held and removed in that position that are in poor working conditions is a
and immersed in water after inversion for waste of time and effort.
killing the trapped rat. Since the live rat does e. Number of traps: Large number of traps
RODENTS AND THEIR CONTROL, CONTROL OF LORANTHUS AND BIOCONTROL ..... 331

relative to the expected size of the rodent length of 30 to 45 cm. The rats will come and
population should be used. close the burrows with soil within 30 minutes.
Then it can be again opened and poison bait
f. Bait used: Fresh aromatic bait that is most
can be inserted into the burrow.
attractive to the largest species should be
used. Food grains in the houses should be From bait preference studies indicate that,
properly covered so that the rat finds only prawn powder as the most effective bait. Dry
the food in the trap. prawn available in the market is heated and
powdered. A few drops of vegetable oil are
Trapping is the preferred method of
added and zinc phosphide 1-2 per cent is mixed
control in the houses and office building,
with the bait. This zinc phosphide bait can be
because animals that get killed can be easily
put inside the burrow preferably on a dry leaf.
removed. Traps can be used profitably to deal
No pre-baiting is necessary for these rats in
with poison-shy and scattered survivors of the garden lands since it has no bait shyness.
poison campaign.
Norway rat: The most effective method of
Control of important species of rats
control has been found to be the Moncompu
Lesser bandicoot rat: These attacking trap. Firstly, fresh rat-damages in the field have
tuber crops can be easily controlled by poison to be located. The rats have a habit of visiting
baiting in rodent burrows. Firstly, locate the the same area on subsequent days. Hence the
burrows in the field. Open the burrows to a traps should be placed in such spots.

CONTROL OF LORANTHUS
Most of the tree crops of Kerala like • In case of regrowth after 3-4 months of
mango, cashew, sapota, apple, pomegranate application, padding with 2,4-D (1gm in
and nutmeg are infested with parasitic weeds 20 ml soaked in sponge or oasis) kept in a
few nodal points on the root, after scraping
from Loranthaceae and Viscaceae families.
the bark of the parasite will completely
The weed infestation affects the growth and
eliminate the weed.
vigour of the tree crops resulting in yield decline
Precaution
and gradual death of the trees.
• Indiscriminate spraying of ethrel (including
• Spraying Ethrel (ethephone 39% SL)@ aerial spraying) is not recommended.
25ml/l will result in complete defoliation • Use of protective clothing, goggles and
of the parasite within 48 hours. hand gloves are recommended.

BIOCONTROL OF SALVINIA (Salvinia molesta)

Release of Cyrtobagous salviniae are recommended for release in a particular
weevils is found effective for the control of area. When collection of weevil is not
salvinia. Even one pair of weevil is sufficient possible, about one kg of infested salvinia can
for establishment in a locality. But for be used as the inoculum. Release may
practical consideration 50 to 100 weevils preferably be made whenever tender salvinia
332 BIOCONTROL OF SALVINIA, PAPAYA MEALY BUG AND ECOFRIENDLY......

growth is available. If the plants are very old, The rate of natural dispersal of the
they may be removed mechanically to weevil is rather slow and hence it is
promote re-growth and then weevils are to be desirable that the infested weed mats are
released. Almost 100 per cent control of the redistributed at periodic intervals. In canals
weed will be obtained in a span of 12-18 used for navigation, the rate of spread of the
months. weevil is found to be quite adequate.

BIOCONTROL OF PAPAYA MEALY BUG

USING PARASITOID
Papaya mealy bug – Paracoccus Mass production of the parasitoid: The
marginatus (Pseudococcidae): Papaya parasitoid can be successfully mass produced
mealybugs colonise lower side of the papaya in the laboratory on papaya mealybug
leaves along the veins and later cover the colonies grown on potato sprouts and shoots.
fruits. Due to the mealy bug infestation, the
Two month old potatoes are procured, washed
younger plants are killed outright.
in water, disinfected using 5% Sodium
Biological control: Acerophagus papayae hypochlorite solution. Make slight cut on the
(Encyrtidae) is a parasitoid imported from potato and treat in Giberelic acid 100 ppm
Puerto Rico. The parasitoid successfully
solution for half an hour. After air drying keep
suppressed the mealybug population in Kerala.
the potatoes on sand and cover with black cloth
The parasitoid is very specific and did not
colonise other species of mealybugs. Release for germination. Good sprouts are produced
rate is 25 to 50 numbers per plant. The within two weeks for mass culturing mealy
parasitoid is parasitizing the second bugs. The parasitoids are then released to the
instar nymphs of mealybugs. It is very active colonies of the mealy bug. A. papyae has very
and have good host searching ability and less pre oviposition period, sex ratio is 1:1,
suppress the mealybug within 3 to 4 months fecundity 50–60, Total life cycle is completed
depending upon the size of the colony. in 16–20 days.

ECOFRIENDLY MANAGEMENT OF WATER HYACINTH

(Eichhornia crassipes) IN WATER BODIES
Water hyacinth in water bodies can be are required. Slice the bar soap and dissolve
managed by spraying 5 per cent Cashew Nut in 500 ml of water. Pour 500ml. of CNSL slowly
Shell liquid (CNSL) emulsion followed by and stir vigorously to get a good emulsion. Dilute
spraying 40 per cent Wetable Powder this one litre solution by adding 9 litres of water
formulation (WP) of Fusarium pallidoroseum to get 10 litres of 5 per cent CNSL emulsion.
(5 per cent). Spraying may be repeated with Note:
WP 5 per cent alone, after 2 weeks if any new A minimum of 30 minutes may be given
sprouts develop. between the application of CSNL and
Preparation of 5 per cent CNSL emulsion Fusarium pallidoroseum.
To prepare 10 litres of 5 per cent CNSL In moving water bodies fencing with rope
emulsion, 500 ml of CNSL and 50 g bar soap and coconut leaf is recommended.
BIOCONTROL AGENTS AGAINST PLANT PATHOGENS 333

BIOCONTROL AGENTS AGAINST PLANT PATHOGENS

Arbuscular mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) be used in the potting mixture in nursery beds
Inoculation with AMF at the time of plant- and in the field; ie. wherever cowdung is used
ing in the nursery or main field improves the as a manure.
growth and tolerance of crop against root For the management of foot rot of Black
pathogens, particularly Phytophthora, pepper, Trichoderma harzianum is recommended
Pythium, Rhizoctonia and root nematodes of by fortifying 50kg farmyard manure or neem
black pepper, cardamom, ginger, turmeric, cake with 1kg of the mother culture and
cowpea, upland rice and transplanted veg- incubated for 10-15 days before application in
etables. the field (@ 1kg/vine). The mother culture in
Trichoderma liquid formulation can be incorporated with
sterilized coir pith compost @ 1l/20kg and apply
Biocontrol of soil borne plant pathogens
@1kg/vine as above.
involves mass introduction of antagonistic
microorganisms in the soil. Trichoderma spp. Prophylactic application of Trichoderma is
is a group of broad-spectrum antagonists effective for the management of sheath blight
subjected to detailed studies for their potential of rice. Trichoderma viride as - Seed
as biocontrol agents. They are effective against treatment (10 g/kg seed) + Soil application
the foot rot of pepper (T. viride, T. (2.5kg ha-1) one week after transplanting +
longibrachiatum), rhizome rot of cardomom Foliar spray (10g l-1) after one month is
(T. longibrachiatum, T. virens) and ginger (T. effective for the management of sheath blight
viride). A mixture of neemcake-cowdung mix- of rice under upland condition. Seed treatment
ture is used as food base for Trichoderma spp. can be recommended for submerged rice.
Dry neem cake and cowdung are to be Pseudomonas fluorescens
powdered and mixed at 1:9 ratio to get a coarse (Ad hoc recommendation)
texture and then moistened by sprinkling
Pseudomonas fluorescens are a group of
water. Add the commercial preparation of
bacteria very effective against disease incited
Trichoderma spp. (available in polythene
by species of Phytophthora, Pythium,
packets) @ 1-2 kg per 100 kg of neemcake
Rhizoctonia, Fusarium, Colletotrichum,
cowdung mixture. After thoroughly mixing,
Ralstonia and Xanthomonas in various crop
cover it with a perforated polythene sheet or
plants in the nursery as well as in the main
ordinary newspaper and keep it in shade for
field.
4-5 days for multiplication. Again mix well and
keep for three more days for further multipli- Isolates of Pseudomonas fluorescens have
cation. This preparation is ready for incorpo- been developed by the Kerala Agricultural
ration in the soil. Cowdung alone can also be University for the disease management and
used as the food base; but, since neem cake is growth promotion of crop plants. This is found
found to be a better substrate, a mixture of the highly effective for the management of foot
two is found better than using cowdung alone. rot and fungal pollu of black pepper, sheath
If cowdung alone is used, mixing has to be blight and bacterial leaf blight of paddy,
done at 5 days interval and it will be ready for bacterial leaf spot and Phytophthora infesta-
use only on the 15th day. This Trichoderma tion in betel vine, bacterial wilt of solanaceous
incorporated neemcake-cowdung mixture can vegetables, bacterial leaf blight of anthurium
334 BIOCONTROL AGENTS AGAINST PLANT PATHOGENS AND SOIL SOLARIZATION

and Colletotrichum and Phytophthora infes- in 750 ml for 20 minutes). For seed treatment
tation in vanilla and rhizome rot of ginger. The in paddy the talc based culture may be added
organism significantly improves the growth and to the water used for sprouting at the rate of
biomass production of crop plants. 10 g per kg of seed.
Application of Pseudomonas fluorescens For transplanted crop, root dip treatment at
at the rate of 10 g formulation mixed with the time of transplanting, followed by a spray
2 kg of well decomposed farmyard manure or 30 days after transplanting can be recom-
compost and applied in the basin of pepper mended. For black pepper, drenching the
vine in the field can also help control foot rot. nursery plants immediately after planting
followed by one or two sprays depending on
Method of application the extent of disease. For managing foot rot of
The time of application and the frequency pepper in the main field, drenching the base of
of application may vary depending on the crops. the vine and spraying the plant with Pseudomo-
The application may be repeated based on the nas culture at the rate of 10 g/litre at the
intensity of the disease incidence. onset of monsoon can be practised. A second
spray may be given, if necessary, during the
The talc-based formulation at 1-2 per cent
mid-monsoon period.
level may be used for soil drenching and
spraying. Seedlings/cuttings are treated with Chemical fertilizers and plant protection
Pseudomonas culture by dipping the root/tip chemicals should not be used along with
of cuttings in slurry of Pseudomonas (250 g biocontrol agents.

SOIL SOLARIZATION

Solarization is a method of hydrothermal position in order to maintain the temperature

disinfection. This is done by covering moist soil and moisture inside the polythene mulch.
with transparent polythene sheet and Adequate care is also to be taken to see that
exposing it to direct sunlight during the the sheet is in close contact with the surface
hottest period of the year. of soil to prevent the formation of air
pockets between the soil and polythene sheet.
Methods of solarization
Keep the sheet in this way for 20-30 days.
a. Nursery bed Protect it from stray animals and birds.
After the period of solarization, remove the
The nursery bed for raising seedlings is to
sheet and the bed is ready for sowing and
be levelled and pebbles present on the
transplanting.
surface removed before solarization.
Incorporate the required quantity of organic b. Potting mixture
manure in the soil and irrigate at the rate of 5 The required type of potting mixture is to
litres per m2. Cover the beds with 100-150 be prepared as per the recommended
gauge transparent polythene sheets. Seal the practice. Spread this mixture on a levelled
edges of the sheet with soil to keep it in ground to a height of 15-20 cm. Moisten with
SOIL SOLARIZATION 335

water using a rose-can and cover the soil with 6. Summer showers will not affect solarization.
polythene sheet and solarize for 20-30 days as However, excessive seepage of water into
described above. After solarization, the soil can the bed during solarization should be
be used for sowing/planting. This method is avoided.
found to be very effective to raise disease free
7. Potting mixture should never be heaped and
pepper cuttings.
solarized, as this will drastically reduce the
c. Main field efficiency of the technique.
Solarization can also be effectively used for 8. Soil should be in good tilth allowing close
the control of soil borne diseases in the main contact between the plastic sheet and the soil
field. The land used for planting is to prevent the formation of air pockets, which
initially prepared to a fine tilth and pebbles will reduce heat conduction.
removed. Solarization and planting can then be
done as already described. All the other Benefits of solarization
agronomic practices are to be followed as per 1. Control of fungal pathogens: Several soil
the package of practices recommendations. borne pathogens can be controlled by
Biopesticides and fertilizers can be solarization. This includes fungi like
incorporated in soil after removing the Pythium, Phytophthora, Fusarium,
polythene sheet. Rhizoctonia etc.
Hints for solarization
2. Control of nematodes: Population
1. Solarization is to be done in open field reduction of nematodes like Meloido-
without any shade. gyne, Heterodera, Xiphinema, etc. can
2. Transparent thin polythene sheet be achieved by solarization.
(100 to 150 guage) is to be used, as it is 3. Control of weeds: A number of commonly
both cheaper and more effective in occurring weeds particularly annuals can
heating due to better radiation transmittance be effectively controlled by solarization.
than thicker sheets. These include, among monocots, Cynodon
3. Summer months are more suitable for dactylon, Cyperus rotundus and
solarization. Digitaria ciliaris and among dicots,
4. Soil should be kept moist during Crotalaria muconata, Indigofera
solarization to increase the thermal hersuita and Noxia sp.
sensitivity of resting structures of soil-borne 4. Plant growth response: Increased growth
plant pathogens and weeds and to response is observed in plants cultivated in
improve heat conduction. solarized soil. This is mainly evident as
5. Solarization period may be extended to increase in plant height, number of leaves,
one month or more to ensure pathogen better root formation, increased root
control at deeper layers. nodulation in legumes and yield.
336 MUSHROOM CULTIVATION

MUSHROOM CULTIVATION

Species of Pleurotus, commonly known as is kept under boiling water (100ºC) for 30-40
oyster mushrooms, grow saprophytically under minutes for surface sterilization or to achieve
natural conditions on trees, dead wood, stumps pasteurization and then taken out and kept
and branches. Today several species of inside the basket to drain excess water and is
Pleurotus are commercially grown in many allowed to cool to room temperature. The
parts of the world. The tropical climate pasteurized straw is ready for filling the
prevalent in the state is ideal for mushroom bags. Instead of straw bits, small round straw
cultivation. Species of Pleurotus and bundles of 20 cm diameter are also used for
Volvariella can be successfully cultivated in filling the bags. This method is followed to save
the State all round the year on a variety of time and labour. Now the perforated polythene
agro-wastes like saw dust, vegetable and paper bag is filled for about 5 cm height with the above
wastes, oil palm pericarp waste and straw. But processed straw and pressed with hand for
the most suitable substrate is found to be paddy making it even. Care should be taken to fill the
straw (Table 36). bags as compactly as possible for the proper
Variety growth of mycelium. For getting maximum
yield, 2-2.5 per cent (125 g) of spawn is used.
Ananthan : Short duration variety of oyster Spawn is taken out from packets and kept inside
mushroom. It is an inter-stock hybrid of a clean container or paper. From this, one
Pleurotus petaloides with firm flesh, pure tablespoon full of spawn is sprinkled over the
white colour and is resistant to pest and filled straw around the peripheral region. A
diseases. It has good cooking quality as well second layer of processed straw is filled and
as consumer acceptability and can be grown spawned as above. Repeat the process as
on wheat, paddy and sorghum straw. On an above until the soaked straw is finished. Every
average, it takes eight days from spawning to time before spawning, press the straw with
harvest. Yield potential is 800 g per kg straw. hand for making it compact. If bundles are used
Bheema : High yielding white milky for filling the bags care should be taken to keep
mushroom. the bundles inside the bag as compact as
possible without leaving any space in between
Method of cultivation
the bundle. Finally the bag is closed tightly with
Polythene bags or tubes of 30 cm x 60 cm twine and beds are kept undisturbed for spawn
size and 150-200 gauge thickness are taken running for about 15-20 days inside the rooms,
for filling the substrate. If the tubes are used, thatched rodent-proof sheds or in verandas.
the free-end is tied with a string. Seven to eight The best temperature and humidity for spawn
holes of 0.5-1.0 cm diameter are made all over running ranges from 28-30ºC and 80-85 per
the bag for aeration. One kg of well dried, one cent respectively. The beds can be arranged
year old paddy straw is cut into small bits of over a platform or in shelves. The spawn
5-8 cm in length and immersed in water for 18 running can be judged from the whitish growth
hours. Then the soaked straw is taken out from covering the straw completely. Periodically
water and kept inside the basket for 1-2 hours observe the beds and discard the conta-
to drain away excess water. The soaked straw minated ones. After 15 days when the spawn
MUSHROOM CULTIVATION 337

Table 36. Salient characters of common edible species of mushrooms of Kerala

Termitomyces Termitomyces Termitomyces Pleurotus Pleurotus
Characters Boletus edulis
robustus mammiformis microcarpus cornucopiae squarrosulus
1 . Pileus:
Size Large Medium Small Medium Medium Large
Shape Convex to Convex to flat Convex Flabelliform Flabelliform Gloulkar
planoconvex
Colour Pale cream Whitish grey White to White White to cream Pale
cream with scales green
Texture Not very Soft Soft Fleshy, turns Fleshy, turns Fleshy
soft fibrous fibrous
when old when old
Margin Smooth, Entire Lacerate Decurved, Decurved Involute
lacerate later expanded
2. Gills White, free White, free White, free Creamy white White to Absent;
with decurrent to lilac creamy instead, tubes
tooth decurrent decurrent are present
3. Stipe White, solid, White, solid, White slender; Very short, Stipitate Tough, thick
taper to pseu- pseudorhiza tendency to often absent and solid
dorhiza which hollow with form
is also solid blunt end pseudorhiza
4. Annulus Absent Persistent Absent Absent Absent Absent
5. Spores Pale-pink White Pink Lilac Creamy white Olivaceous
6. Habit Solitary or Gregarious In groups In clusters In clusters Scattered
scattered
7. Habitat Associated Associated On soil On wood logs Logs, wood Mycorrhizal,
with termite with termite and tree stems, espe- associated
hills hills stems cially on with trees like,
mango tree jack, mango etc.
Remarks Commonly Common name Common Known as Known as Known as
known as up- perumkala arikoon; very marakoon marakoon pannikoon
pukoon, highly widely used in
delicious Kerala

running is complete, remove the polythene bag near the base of the fruiting body and twisted in
by cutting it with blade and keep the bed for clockwise direction to get it detached from the
sporocarp formation. The opened beds are kept mycelium. An average yield of 500-700 g can
in well-ventilated rooms. Relative humidity of be harvested from 1 kg of straw. This straw
the room should be 80-85 per cent. If can be used as enriched cattle feed.
temperature inside the room rises above 30ºC, Management of Pests and contaminants
the room should be sprinkled with water to lower of Oyster mushrooms in Kerala
the temperature. Diffused light is essential for • Maintain the pH of the water used to soak
normal fruiting. Pinhead formation starts on the substrate at 8.0 by adding lime.
th
20 day and 2-3 days are required for the
• Cover the holes with cotton or alternatively
maturation of the fruiting body.
put 30 - 40 pin pricks on the polythene cover
Cropping and yield of the mushroom bed.
Matured and fully opened sporocarps are • Spray 2 per cent garlic in and around the
harvested by placing the thumb and forefinger vicinity of mushroom beds
338 MUSHROOM CULTIVATION

• Spot application of Carbendazim (at the rate spawned. Break open the spawn bottles and
of 50 ppm) in mould affected parts of the carefully divide the spawn into small bits of
bed. 2-2.5 cm thick. Place these bits of spawn all
the rate of along the periphery of the bed,
• Erect Yellow Light traps for every 25m 2 at
about 5-8 cm away from the edge and 10 cm
a height of 60 cm from the ground in the
apart. Sprinkle a teaspoon full of coarsely
mushroom house. powdered red gram powder before and after
• Hang an yellow bulb (15W) in between two spawning the first layer. Build the next layer
card board pieces (15 cm x15cm size) with one row of twist as done before and
coated with mustard oil. Switch on the spawn it. Make successive layers until the
bulb from 5 pm to 8 am. Remove insects straw twists are finished. After placing the last
trapped on the sticky surface everyday. of twists, press the bed thoroughly from the
top in order to drain excess water. Make the
Cultivation of paddy-straw mushroom bed as compact as possible and cover with a
transparent polythene sheet to maintain the
The paddy straw mushroom can be
temperature and relative humidity within the
successfully cultivated in the plains of Kerala
bed. Place another wooden plank over the bed
throughout the year where the temperature
and keep 4-5 bricks above the plank to get more
ranges between 28-32ºC. The straw beds can
compactness. Keep the bed undisturbed for
be laid out in sheds, veranda of buildings and
6-7 days. Slowly remove the sheet and observe
even under shades of trees during summer.
the moisture level of the straw. If the moisture
Beds should not be kept under direct
is excess remove the sheets for half an hour
sunlight. Prepare a raised platform of 1 m long and then cover it again as before. Small white
and 0.5 m broad with wooden planks or bricks. round pinheads appear all along the sides of
Ten to fifteen kg of well-dried and hand- the bed after 7 days and mature into button
threshed straw is required to raise a single th
and egg stage on 9 day. Harvest the mature
standard bed. For spawning this bed, two bottles sporocarps in egg stage. About 2-3 kg of
of spawn and about 100 to 150 g of red gram mushrooms can be harvested from 10 kg of
powder are needed. First the straw is made straw. Cropping lasts for 2-3 days. After the
into twists of about 5 to 8 m long and 20-25 cm harvest, the spent straw can be sun-dried and
diameter. The twists are tied into small bundles used as cattle feed.
and are kept immersed in clean water in tanks
Instead of twists, the beds can be laid out
for about 6 to 12 hours. After this, the bundles
using small bundles of straw each weighing
are taken out and kept aside for some time to
about one kg. Place four such bundles of straw
drain the excess water. The bundles are untied side by side over the platform with loose ends
and the straightened twists are placed length- towards the same direction. Over this, place
wise over the platform in a zigzag fashion. The another four bundles, the loose ends towards
twists are placed as close as possible. Keep the opposite direction. These eight bundles form
another layer over the first layer crosswise. one layer, which is to be spawned as in the
These two layers form the first layer to be case of twists.
TISSUE CULTURE PROPAGATION OF CROPS 339

TISSUE CULTURE PROPAGATION OF CROPS

Plant tissue culture is the in vitro culture volume to 1.0 litre. Pour the solution into a glass
of plant cells, tissues and organs under beaker and heat, while stirring, until the agar is
aseptic condition in defined or semi-defined dissolved. Dispense themedium (5 to 15 ml) in
media. Tissue culture techniques are increa- test tubes or flasks and plug with cotton. Plastic
singly being used for the rapid vegetative lids or aluminum foil may also be used for the
propagation of plants. It helps in the mass clonal purpose. Culture jars may be plugged with
propagation of crop plants. It is useful for plants plastic lids. Autoclave the vessels containing
which do not set seeds or where the viability culture medium for 15 minutes at 1.06 kg/cm2
of the seeds is poor. Even when conventional pressure (121ºC). While using a pressure
methods of vegetative propagation are cooker, wait for the continuous flow of pure
commercially acceptable,tissue culture steam, put the weight and sterilize for
propagation can be adopted as it has definite 20 minutes. Explants collected from field
advantages. It offers an extremely rapid rate grown plants will have to be disinfected
of multiplication. The geometric progression of before inoculating in the culture medium. The
tissue culture propagation makes it possible to explants are washed in running tap
produce millions of plants from an initial explant water first and then in soap solution. They are
in a few months. It can speed up the process then surface sterilized and trimmed
of establishing new varieties. Only a limited using sterile knives. The commonly used
quantity of plant tissue is required as the initial surface disinfectants are sodium hypochlorite
explant. Tissue culture propagation ensures the (0.1 to 2.0 per cent for 15 to 30 minutes) and
availability of plants throughout the year. It mercuric chloride (0.05 to 0.1 per cent for 3 to
helps in the production of uniform progeny from 20 minutes). The efficiency of the
cross-pollinated plants. Disease free planting surface sterilant can be increased, by adding a
materials can be made available to the farmers. few drops of surfactants. After surface
Special laboratory facilities and technical skill
sterilization, the explants should be washed with
are essential for adopting this technique for
sterile distilled water four to five times to
mass multiplication of crop plants. Training in
remove the residues. The explants are then
tissue culture is offered by various research
transferred to the sterile culture media in
organizations in Kerala.
vessels. This process is called inoculation.
Procedure Surface disinfection and inoculation must be
Pipette out the required volume of stock carried out in a laminar airflow chamber. This
solutions of chemicals into a one litre glass equipment can filter the air through a high
beaker. Add components like sucrose and efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter of very
myo-inositol as solid and allow them to small mesh size. This will remove bacteria and
dissolve. Make up the volume to approximately fungal spores. The steady outward flow of
950 ml with distilled water. Adjust the pH to filtered air will ensure a sterile zone in the
the required value (5.6 to 5.8 for Murashige equipment, suitable for aseptic manipulations.
and Skoog basal medium) with a few drops of The needles, forceps, blades and petri-dishes
either alkali or acid, using a pH meter. Add the used for the manipulation of explants should
required quantity of agar and make up the be pre-sterilized.
340 PROPAGATION OF CROPS AND KEEPING QUALITY OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

The tools used in the airflow cabinet may physiological peculiarities of the plantlets. A
be kept dipped in 70 per cent ethanol in a period of humidity acclimatization is necessary
beaker and periodically flamed over a spirit for the newly transferred plantlets to adapt to
lamp. After inoculating the explants in suitable the outside environment, during which the
culture media, the cultures are incubated in plantlets undergo morphological and
rooms under controlled conditions of physiological adaptations, enabling them to
temperature (26 + 2ºC), light (200 lux, 18 develop typical terrestrial plant-water
hours) and humidity (60-80 per cent). Response control mechanism.
of an explant largely depends on the
composition of the culture medium. There are Tissue culture techniques for mass
several basal media, which can be used for multiplication have been standardized for crops
various needs with necessary modifications. like banana, pineapple, papaya, black pepper,
The basal medium is selected to suit the plant cardamom, vanilla, orchids, anthurium, gladiolus
species and the method of in vitro culture. In and several medicinal plants. The commercial
general, culture medium consists of salts of adoption of tissue culture clonal propagation is
major and minor nutrient elements, vitamins, feasible only when the rate of multiplication is
amino acids, plant growth substances and a satisfactory and the cost of plantlets is
source of carbon. The established cultures are acceptable to the farmers. Protocols for the
sub-cultured to fresh media at intervals of 3 to tissue culture propagation of a number of crops
5 weeks. The media provided at each like red banana, nendran, pineapple, orchid and
subculture decide the response of the tissue. anthurium, black pepper, vanilla, medicinal
Hardening the plantlets to make them adapt to plants etc. have been developed at the Kerala
the outside environment is a critical process, Agricultural University and are available for
essentially due to the anatomical and commercial adoption.

IMPROVING THE KEEPING QUALITY OF

FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

About 30 to 40 per cent of the harvested exposure of the produce to excessive heat,
fruits and vegetables are estimated to be lost which will hasten spoilage.
due to improper harvesting, handling, storage c. Harvesting must be done preferably with
and transportation in India. If proper care is proper harvesting devices suited to the
taken during these operations, the loss can be commodity. For example, mango harvesters
minimized to some extent. Some of the with cutting edges and plastic net can
techniques, which can be adopted, are as prevent the damage during harvest and
follows. collection.
Harvesting d. Avoid impact shock while harvesting fruits
from tall trees; eg. jackfruit, mango etc.
a. Harvesting must be done at the appropriate which will cause bruising, leading to
maturity depending up on the marketing infection.
distances and purpose. e. Avoid too loose or too tight packing in gunny
b. Harvesting must be done preferably in the bags while transporting harvested
morning hours or late evening to avoid produces to minimize bruising.
KEEPING QUALITY OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES AND LOW COST....... 341

Packing (2) Packing fresh mushroom (Pleurotus sp.)

in 100 gauge polypropylene pouches without
a. Wash the harvested produce in plain
any ventilation can extend the storage life upto
water or in chlorinated water to clean it of
36 hours at room temperature and up to 7 days
the adhering mud, dirt and residual
under refrigerated conditions. (3) Fresh tomato
pesticides. can be stored up to 25 days under ambient
b. Remove the infested, rotten and spoiled conditions when packed with 35 to 40 per cent
friuts. moistened saw dust in the ratio of 1:0.5
c. Grading the produce can improve (tomato:saw dust). (4) Fresh mature and ripe
market acceptability. This can be done at sapota can be stored up to 6 days under ambient
conditions when individually wrapped with cling
farmer’s level or at collection points to suit
film.
the standards established by individuals,
industry or government. Grading will also General storage methods practised to
increase farmer’s bargaining power, as they extend the keeping quality are:
are likely to get premium prices for better- 1. By storing the commodity under optimum/
grade products. Similarly buyers can choose low temperature and humidity.
the grades they wish to buy. Possible grading
2. By skin coating using wax emulsion
can be based on colour, shape, size, weight
containing permitted fungicides at
etc. of the commodity.
optimum concentrations.
During storage 3. By adopting controlled/modified atmos-
a. Pre-cool the commodity immediately pheric storage modifying the oxygen/
after harvest to reduce the field heat. carbondioxide ratio within the package.
b. Pre-packaging the commodity into unit 4. By sub-atmospheric pressure storage.
packs can reduce the handling losses. 5. By ventilated storage using ventilated films/
Some of the packaging techniques are bags.
(1) Packing of banana hands at 0.2 to 0.4 per 6. Using evaporative cool chamber
cent ventilation with polyethylene cover of 150 constructed to store temporarily the
gauge can increase the keeping quality upto harvested produce at the field before
10 to 12 days under ambient conditions. marketing.

LOW COST TECHNOLOGY FOR IRRIGATION AND

PROTECTED CULTIVATION
Magnetic treatment of irrigation water ppm) and normal water respectively. BC ratio
The results indicated the beneficial effect was found to be 1.65 and 1.91 for magnetically
of irrigation water treated with ceramic treated saline water and normal water
magnets on growth and yield of Cowpea, respectively.
Brinjal and Bhindi crops under drip irrigation. Magnetic treatment of irrigation water can
Seventeen and 25% higher yield were reported be adopted in the following areas for improving
for magnetically treated saline water (2000 the crop production.
342 LOW COST TECHNOLOGY FOR IRRIGATION

• Areas where saline or hard water is only by tying to a riser pipe, fixed near the plant to
available for irrigation. be irrigated.
• Areas under drip irrigation The maximum allowable length of
laterals in this system is 50 m with about
KAU Micro sprinkler
20 sprinkler heads. An area of 1.0 ha can be
KAU Micro sprinkler is a farmer friendly irrigated in two splits by a 0.5 to 1.0 HP
irrigation system, simple in design, with pumping unit with a pressure of 1.0 to 2.0 kg/
less clogging susceptibility, ensuring uniform cm2. The units are capable of discharging 35
wetting of the basin of the crops. The main to 45 lph with an area of coverage upto 2.5 m
component of the system is the rotating diameter. Coconut, Arecanut, banana,
sprinkler head, made of a small piece of 12mm/ vegetables, vanilla, medicinal plants, lawns,
8mm dia. LDPE pipe plugged at both ends by ornamental plants etc. have been found to
end caps. The length of pipe is 6cm for respond well to this system of irrigation with
12 mm pipe and 8cm for 8mm pipe. Nozzles maximum efficiency.
Low cost greenhouse for protected
cultivation
Naturally ventilated greenhouse made of
bamboo/arecanut/GI pipes and covered with
UV stabilized polyethylene sheet are suitable
for growing high value crops like cabbage,
cauliflower, capsicum, tomato and cucumber
round the year. Temperature and humidity build
of 1mm diameter are drilled on opposite sides up inside the green house can be controlled by
of the pipe, 5 mm away from both ends, at 900 natural ventilation through insect proof nets
from bottom. It is centrally attached to a 6 (40-50 mesh) and by providing the required
mm micro tube and then to the lateral of the height to the structure. The optimum height of
pipe network through pin connectors. The a greenhouse depends on floor area, ambient
micro tube with sprinkler head unit is held erect temperature, relative humdity, solar radiation
and wind velocity of the locality.
Design of low cost greenhouse
An optimal design of a low cost greenhouse
suitable for homesteads of Kerala is a gable
shaped structure with a floor area of 75 m2
provided with roof and side ventilation. The
structure should have a ridge height of 4.35 m
and gutter height of 2.5 m. The roof slope
should be around 300, effective side ventilation
not less than 30 per cent and effective roof
ventilation not less than 9 per cent the floor
area of the greenhouse. The temperature inside
LOW COST TECHNOLOGY FOR IRRIGATION AND FARM MACHINERY 343

Roof ventilator
provided with
insect proof net
side ventilator
provided with
insect proof net
UV stabilized
polyethylene sheet
0.55 12.5m
(200 micron)

4.35m
2.25m
6m

the greenhouse increase with increase in floor attack is limited to thrips and mites for which
area and decreases with increase in height of suitable control measures should be adopted.
the greenhouse. Hence height of greenhouse Off season production of vegetables is also
has to be increased with increase in floor area. possible in greenhouse which fetches a high
The structure can be made of arecanut/GI market price to the farmer.
pipes/bamboo poles. The bamboo/arecanut Rain shelter cultivation
poles should be treated with chlorpyriphos (0.2
Rain shelter is a low cost greenhouse. The
per cent) to prevent termite attack. The
frame of the rain shelter can be made of
structure should be covered with UV stabilized
polyethylene sheet (200 micron) with at least bamboo or arecanut palm poles and the roofing
85 per cent light transmissibility. Side ventilators can be done with U. V. stabilized polythene
should be provided on either side of greenhouse sheet. The sides can be kept open to ensure
at the floor level and roof ventilators should be ample ventilation or can be provided with insect
provided at the top level throughout the length proof netting or shade net. Permanent rain
of the greenhouse as shown in figure. shelter with or without roof ventilation can also
Ventilators should be provided with insect proof be utilized for growing vegetables during rainy
net. Crop yield under the naturally ventilated season. Frame work can be made by GI pipes
greengouse is generally 3.5 times more than and cladding with UV stabilized film of 200
that of open field. Insect and other pest micron thickness.

FARM MACHINERY SUITABLE FOR KERALA

A. RICE MACHINERIES attached tractor, there is a saving of about 40

per cent time and a corresponding saving in
KAU Helical Blade Puddler fuel. The implement helps to avoid over
KAU Helical Blade Puddler is an energy puddling and achieve better soil condition
efficient tractor drawn implement for puddling suitable for mechanized transplanting. The
wet lands. When used with a cage wheel other advantages are less distortion of
344 FARM MACHINERY SUITABLE FOR KERALA

level of the paddy fields and enhanced It harvests broadcasted or transplanted non-
life of cage wheels. The implement is easy to lodged paddy. It is suitable for own use as well
operate and can be manufactured locally. as for custom hiring. It covers approximately
0.18 ha/h and has saving of 85 per cent labour
and 65 per cent cost in harvesting paddy.
Tractor operated paddy reaper
The tractor front mounted paddy reaper
harvests broad casted or transplanted non-
lodged paddy at a width of 2.2 m. Power is
taken from PTO for cutting and conveying the
crop and the hydraulic system is used for
controlling the height of cutter bar. It is suited
to all makes of tractor. Cage wheels and
pneumatic wheels are used for wet and dry
fields respectively. Maximum recovery of
straw and grain is achieved. It is suitable for
Manually operated paddy transplanter
tractor owners for custom hiring. It covers
The improved IRRI six-row paddy approximately 0.4 ha/h and has a saving of
transplanter is simple in construction and easy 85 per cent labour and 65 per cent cost in
to operate. Six numbers of seedling mats harvesting.
of 20 cm x 50 cm size are placed in the
transplanter tray, which is operated by a single Portable power-operated rasp-bar paddy
person. It weighs only 20 kg. It is operated in thresher-cum-winnower
puddled and leveled fields with a thin layer of
The crop is fed in the thresher with
water. Row spacing is 20 cm and hill spacing
modified concave powered by an 8 HP electric
is adjustable. It covers approximately 0.1 ha/h
motor/engine. After threshing and winnowing
and has a saving of 75 per cent labour and
it delivers straw, chaff, stone and clean paddy
70 per cent cost in transplanting.
in separate outlets. It has good threshing and
Yanji Shakti 8-row rice transplanter winnowing efficiency. It is suitable for paddy
Rated speed: 2600 rpm; row number: crops even with high moisture and long straw.
8; row spacing: 238 mm; distance between hills: Straw is not cut and damaged. It threshes crop
120-140 mm; number of seedling per hill: 3-8; from approximately 0.3 ha h-1 (100 kg h-1) and
suitable width of seedling mat: 2-20 mm; has saving of 85 per cent labour and 60 per
planting depth: 0.60 mm. cent cost in threshing paddy. Transportation id
done with Pneumatic wheels and suitable for
5 HP self-propelled paddy reaper custom hiring.
The 5 HP diesel engine-operated improved Rice Production Machinery for
IRRI reaper harvest paddy in 1 m width both Pre-harvest operations
in dry and wet fields of Kerala, except in sticky
1. Dry seeded system
kole fields. A person operates it by walking
behind the reaper. Maximum recovery of grain Land preparation : Primary tillage operations
and straw is achieved. may be undertaken using tractor operated
FARM MACHINERY SUITABLE FOR KERALA 345

mould board plough or disc plough. Rotary machines vary from 0.1-0.4 ha/h depending
tillage implements like power tiller (rotary tiller) on the type of machine and field condition.
or tractor operated rotavator can ensure better
Mat nursery
pulverisation and fine tilth for secondary tillage.
Tractor operated rotovators are suitable for Mat type nursery should be prepared
speedy operation with less energy expenditure. carefully by sowing sprouted seeds on seed
Tractor operated cultivator may also be used beds of about 700 -100 mm width made by
for preparatory ploughing to get a coarse tilth. spreading about 12 mm thick soil layer on a
polythene sheet of appropriate length. Mat
Seeding: Seeder attachment to cultivator may nursery may be prepared as dry nursery as
be made use of for dry seeding in rows. Line well as wet. Dry nursery can be prepared on
sowing in rows separated by 20 cm can enable rigid flat surfaces also without using
optimum plant population and facilitate use of polyethylene sheets (Refer page 37 for
mechanical weeders. details).
2. Wet seeded system Weeding implements
Land preparation : Cage wheels are
Different types of wet land weeders are
attached to power tillers and tractors to enable
available. Double rotor cono weeder and Single
them to get sufficient traction in wet lands for
rotor finger type weeder are commonly used
puddling. KAU Helical blade puddler attached
for wet land weeding. Single rotor weeders
to tractor is an improved equipment for
are more suitable in heavy soils where cono
puddling wet lands. About 40-45% reduction
weeders are difficult to be pushed.
in puddling time and 35-40% reduction in fuel
consumption (per ha) can be achieved by Reaping machine
the use of this puddler. Rotovator attached to KAMCO reaper KR 120 is suitable for
tractor can also be used for puddling depending operation in fairly dry condition. The machine
on the soil condition. is powered by a petrol start kerosene run
Seeding: Pre-germinated paddy wet seeder 3.5 hp engine. The cutting width is 120 cm and
(drum seeder) can be used for line sowing of is capable of reaping and windrowing about
sprouted seeds in rows. 0.1-0.25 ha/h depending on field condition.

3. Transplanted system Threshing machines

Equipment for puddling is same as those Hold-on type

recommended for wet seeded system. This is a simple thresher powered with a
Transplanting machines 1.5 hp electric motor and capable of threshing
@ 50-100 kg threshed grain per hour.
Eight row self propelled riding type rice
transplanter with a row to row spacing of about Flow through Rasp bar thresher
23 cm is suitable for fields with low bunds. The cut crop flow through the thresher
Four wheel type 6 row and 8 row transplanters fitted with rasp bar type of threshing cylinder
with a row spacing of 30 cm is suitable if the and is fitted with cleaning mechanism. The
field size is sufficiently large. Walk behind type machine works on a diesel engine or electric
four row transplanters are women friendly and motor in a power range of 5-7.5 hp. This
easy to transport. Field capacities of popular high capacity thresher can thresh about
346 FARM MACHINERY SUITABLE FOR KERALA

350-450 kg of grain per hour and can be towed the field is dry enough for their operation. The
to the field when fitted with pneumatic wheels. field capacity is comparable to other high
Axial flow threshers capacity track type combines and their initial
cost as well as maintenance cost is
Axial flow threshers with independent comparatively low.
power source (Engine or electric motor) as
well as those which can be operated with Straw balers
power from tractor PTO are also suitable for Two types of balers are available for
threshing. collection of straw from combine harvested
Rice Combine Harvesters fields, viz. round baler and rectangular baler.
Tractor PTO operated round balers are
Track type Flow through thresher
suitable for small fields. Tractor PTO operated
combines
offset mounted rectangular straw balers
High capacity track type rice combines with are better suited for large plots of more than
flow-through threshing mechanism are 0.2 ha.
suitable for slushy field conditions. The
Three row power weeder for paddy
machines are powered with diesel engines of
55-60 hp with a cutting width of 2.4 m and a The three row power operated paddy
field capacity of about 0.4 ha per hour. The weeder with finger type rotor is a farmer
cut crop is fully conveyed into the threshing friendly gadget for mechanical weeding in
unit and the cleaned grain is temporarily stored machine transplanted rice fields. An area of
in the grain tank of about 1 tonne capacity. 0.02 ha can be operated in one hour by a single
The bruised straw is discharged to the field labourer using the power weeder. The first
and difficult to be bundled. operation is to be done at 15 to 20 days after
Track type ear head thresher combine transplanting. A second operation may be done
if necessary at 15 days after first operation.
Small track type combines with ear head
threshers have better maneuverability in small Kaipad bed former & KAU bed former
fields. The machines are generally powered suitable to mini tractor
by a 30-40 hp diesel engines and have a cutting Kaipad region consists of swampy water
width of about 140 cm. The cut crop is logged areas experiencing flood during
conveyed by the help of moving fingers and monsoon and salinity during summer owing to
conveyors to the threshing unit so as to hold the proximity to estuaries. In Kaipad rice
the ear heads against the rotating threshing cultivation, the conventional practice of raising
cylinder. The straw is not bruised and is nursery is by sowing pre germinated paddy
windrowed behind in a row. The threshed and
seeds on manually prepared mounds using
cleaned grain can be collected in gunny bags
spade, which is laborious, tedious and time
which are held at the sack holder of the
consuming operation. In order to overcome
machine. It has limitations in highly slushy
these problems, a bed former as an attachment
fields. Machines with grain tank are also
available. to a tractor was developed and field tested. It
consists of tractor drawn suitably designed
Wheel type combines curved tynes and forming boards, main frame
Many wheel type combines manufactured attached to 3-point linkage of tractor. The two
in India are suitable for harvesting paddy when forming boards were fitted on a standard
FARM MACHINERY SUITABLE FOR KERALA 347

frame. The weight of the entire forming boards Coconut husking tool
with frame was 135 kg. This can be attached This consists of a stationary wedge, a
to a light weight 4-wheel tractor of 34 hp. The movable wedge, a lever and a pedestal
field capacity of the machine was 0.20 ha h-1 having a base. The stationary wedge is mounted
with a field efficiency of 74%. Cost reduced upright on top of the pedestal at a convenient
to 50% compared to conventional method. height. Bottom of the movable wedge is hinged
B. OTHER MACHINERIES/ TECHNOLOGIES to the bottom of the stationary wedge
facilitating its opening and closing. The lever
KAU jack-fruit harvester fixed to the movable wedge provides the
This consists of two sub-units as adjustable necessary mechanical advantage needed in
telescopic long handle with a hood knife at the husking. Self-weight of the lever forces the
outer end and a basket suspended from a nylon wedges to remain together forming a large
rope. The basket can be placed just around wedge. Holding the coconut with both hands,
the fruit by a handle and rope and then it is thrust onto the wedge piercing the husk at
harvested into it for safe lowering. It can be its Pedicel end and parallel to its longitudinal
used for normal and medium tall trees. With axis. On pulling the lever upwards, a section
of the husk is prized out. By repeating this
two people, a fruit can be harvested in 4-5
action at different points across the nut, the
minutes. Weight is 4-5 kg (if made of
husk can easily be removed. The trade name
aluminium).
is Keramithra.
Rotary Banana Slicer
Black Pepper Decorticator : The stainless
A motor operated rotary banana slicing steel machine is based on the principle of
machine suitable for slicing Nendran variety churning and centrifugal action to the
of banana has been developed at KCAET presoaked berries. The water jet enhances the
Tavanur. It is a user-friendly machine, capable smooth decortication without any breakage.
of slicing banana at desired thickness directly The decorticating efficiency of this machine
into the frying pan. The variable speed motor is 91.8% at 142 rpm for 7 days soaked berries.
drive helps to alter the capacity of the slicer The capacity is 14 kg/h.
as per the requirement (100 to 110 kg/hr). The
lateral movement of the slicer unit is possible
to and fro over the frying pan adding
convenience in operation.
Petti and para
The petti and para is used very widely to
dewater the low-lying kole lands and Kuttanad
padasekharams. The optimum speed for high
level of efficiency at relatively higher
head (100-200 cm) has been found to be
330-340 rpm for a 15 HP pump. Beyond 340
rpm, the pump gets overloaded. When not
operated at optimum speeds, it incurs energy loss.
348 FARM MACHINERY SUITABLE FOR KERALA

The main parts and machine specifications

are as follows:
1. Main parts
a. Decorticating drum
b. Feed hopper
c. Collecting tray and outlet arrangement
d. Water supply system
e. Main shaft
2. Machine specifications
Garden transplanting tool
Number of spikes - 20,
Power - 0.5hp, single, 1440 rpm any disturbance to a circular pit which is dug
by the same tool. The tool is useful for
Power Operated Nutmeg Sheller seedlings up to an age of two weeks and about
The machine is based on the principle of 20-25 seedlings can be transplanted in an hour
centrifugal impact. It consists of shelling unit, if the distance is within 10 meters (capacity is
cleaning unit and power transmission unit. The variable depending on distance from nursery
capacity of the machine is found to be 135 kg/h. to pit). The tool is very useful for gap filling of
The shelling efficiency is 93% and the cleaning vegetables and for transferring rootstocks to
efficiency is 70%. polythene bags.
Seed extractor for Ash gourd and
Cucumber
The machine is developed for extracting
seeds from ash gourd and cucumber. The
principle of operation is penetrating the
extracting tool so that the seeds can be
extracted without affecting the mesocarp. The
diameter of the extraction tool can be varied
according to the placental diameter of the
commodity. The seed extraction efficiencies
of both these vegetables were in the range of
99 to 100%. The germination rates were 83%
for ash gourd seeds and 90% for cucumber
seeds. The capacity of the extractor for ash
Udyanamithra gourd is 350 kg/h and that of cucumber is
(Garden transplanting tool) 215 kg/h.
‘Udyanamithra’ is a simple hand operated Coleus peeler
transplanting tool. Seedlings can be Peeling of Coleus tubers is very difficult
transplanted using Udyanamithra without any and time consuming process in culinery
shock. The seedling with the soil core purpose. The manual peeling causes stain,
containing it’s root zone is transferred without itching and drudgery to the fingers. A simple
FARM MACHINERY SUITABLE FOR KERALA 349

and low cost device was hence developed and agricultural by-products like coconut shells as
tested as an attachment to the commercially media for cell immobilization. The hydraulic
available table top wet grinders. It consists of retention time of the system can be reduced
a peeling unit and a directing rod. The peeling to the tune of 4-8 days and a corresponding
unit is made of stainless steel mesh considering reduction in digester volume has the
minimum breakage and maximum peeling of advantages of cost and space reduction. The
the coleus. The directing rod is fixed at the twin advantages are waste management along
centre of the rotating drum. The raw coleus is with energy production.
fed in to the rotating drum and sufficient
Goat faecal pellet pulverizer
quantity of water is added to it. When switched
on, the directing rod passes the coleus and gets The goat faecal pellets cannot be used
in contact with the peeling mesh. Capacity of directly as it will not disintegrate easily with
the peeler is 15 kg per hour. soil. It needs to be pulverized especially for
making pot mixture and for easy application
KAU portable split biogas plant as FYM. It consists of a prime mover, hopper,
The KAU split portable biogas plant is an pulverizer and power transmission unit. The
eco-friendly gadget for energy conversion of drive from the prime mover is transferred to
domestic organic wastes. The system is more the pulverizer through belt and pulley
hygienic than the ordinary portable biogas arrangement. The pulverizer comprises of
plants. The sealed digester and the gas holder beaters mounted on a horizontal shaft and a
can be kept separately. The system can be stationary drum. A sieve is provided at the
fabricated in digester capacities ranging from bottom of the stationary drum. The beater is
500 to 1000 litres. Approximately 50 litres/day made of a M S flat fitted with semi-circular
of biogas is produced for every kg/day of sheet, which is provided with projections in
organic wastes added. staggered manner. The projections on the
beater and sieve are too closer, so that the
High rate anaerobic bioreactors for
dried faecal pellet get crushed inside the drum
biomethanation of organic effluents from
and expelled through the sieve. The faecal
agro industries
matter will remain inside the drum until it attains
The high rate biogas system viz. Upflow a size smaller than the sieve size. The
anaerobic hybrid bioreactor is an eco-friendly powdered matter will be forced out through
technology for energy conversion of high the outlet chute. An outlet chute is provided at
volume low strength organic effluents from the bottom of the sieve so that powdered faecal
agro processing industries. The system is less matter is obtained without any loss. The
costly compared to similar systems as there is capacity of the machine is around 45 kg per
possibility for the use of locally available hour.
350 APPENDIX 1

Appendix 1
AGROCLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION OF KERALA

Agroclimatic zones identified by superimposing six moisture availability regimes

over seven soil groups
Sl.
No. Zones Location Crops grown
1 2 3 4
1. Dry Forest Loam In and around Chinnar Plantation crops other than
spices, coconut and tapioca
2 Semi Dry Isolated pockets in Thiruvananthapuram Coconut, tapioca, paddy
Red loam and Neyyattinkara Taluks and fruit plants like cashew
and mango
3. Semi Dry Laterite Parts of Kollam, Chirayinkil, Paddy, coconut and fruit
Thiruvananthapuram, Neyyattinkara & crops like mango and cashew
Nedumangad taluk
4. Semi Dry Alluvium River beds and coastal areas of Kollam, Paddy, coconut, tapioca,
Chirayinkil, Thiruvananthapuram, mango and cashew
Neyyattinkara, Ottappalam, Thalappilly,
Palakkad and Alathur taluks
5. Semi Dry Eastern most parts of Chittur and Paddy, cotton and coconut
Black soil Palakkad taluks
6. Semi Dry Kumily and parts of Peerumedu taluk Tapioca, tea, coffee and
Forest Loam rubber
7. Sub humid Kasaragod and Kannur, Parts of Coconut, cashew, paddy,
Red loam Kasaragod, Hosdurg and rubber, pepper and arecanut
Taliparamba taluks
8. Sub humid Laterite Parts of Kannur, Tirur, Choughat, Parur, Paddy, coconut, rubber,
Kasaragod, Hosdurg, Taliparamba, cashew, pepper, arecanut,
Tellichery, Badagara, Talappilly, Thrissur, tapioca and mango
Mukundapuram, Aluva, Kanayannur,
Alathur, Chittur, Ernad, Mannarghat,
Palakkad, Kunnathur, Kottarakkara,
Pathanapuram, Neyyattinkara and
Nedumangad taluks

9. Sub humid Coastal areas and river beds in the Paddy, coconut, mango,
Alluvium regions under item 8 cashew, rubber, pepper,
arecanut and tapioca
10. Sub humid Saline Pokkali lands in the coastal parts of Paddy and coconut
Parur, Kanayannur and Cochin taluks
APPENDIX 1 351

1 2 3 4

11. Sub humid Parts of Ernad, Mannarghat, Devikulam Pepper, tea, cardamom, tapioca
forest loam and Pathanapuram taluks and paddy

12. Humid laterite Parts of Kasaragod, Taliparamba, Vegetables, nutmeg, cashew,

Tellicherry, Quilandy, Kozhikode, fodder grass and pineapple
Badagara, Kunnathunad, Meenachil,
Kanjirappally, Pathanamthitta,
Chengannur, Mavelikkara and
Nedumangad taluk

13. Humid Alluvium River beds of taluk areas described Paddy, coconut, cocoa,
under item 12, western part of tapioca, arecanut, mango and
Chengannur and Mavelikkara taluks, banana
coastal areas of Cherthala, Ambalapuzha
and Karunagappally taluks

14. Humid Greyish Onattukara – parts of Mavelikkara, Paddy, coconut, sesamum and
Onattukara Karunagappally and Karthikappally taluks tapioca

15. Humid saline Around Vembanad lake (Areas with acid Paddy and coconut
saline soils)

16. Humid forest loam Parts of Ernad, South Wayanad and Coffee, tea, pepper, cardamom,
North Wayanad, Kasaragod, Hosdurg, rubber, ginger, paddy, mango
Taliparamba taluks; Tellicherry, and jack
Pathanamthitta, Pathanapuram,
Neyyattinkara, Devikulam and
Peerumedu taluks

17. Per Humid laterite Parts of S.Wayanad, Quilandy, Ernad, Paddy, coconut, tapioca,
Kunnathunad, Devikulam, Thodupuzha rubber, pepper, arecanut,
Kothamangalam, Meenachil and cocoa, mango, jack, cashew,
Kanjirappally taluks ginger and banana

18. Per Humid A small pocket in and around Vythiri, Paddy, coconut, coffee,
Forest loam parts of Devikulam, Thodupuzha and tapioca, pepper, tea, cocoa
Peerumedu taluk and cardamom

19. Wet laterite Parts of South Wayanad, Ernad, Cardamom, tea, coffee, rubber,
Mukundapuram, Devikulam, pepper, tapioca, ginger and
Peerumedu, Pathanamthitta taluk paddy

20. Wet Forest Loam Parts of Neriamangalam, Devikulam, Paddy, tapioca, pepper, tea,
Thodupuzha, Kanjirappally, Meenachil coffee and cardamom
and Peerumedu Taluk
352 APPENDIX 2 AND APPENDIX 3

Appendix 2
AVERAGE NUTRIENT CONTENT OF COMMON MANURES AND FERTILIZERS

Nutrient content (%)

Material
N P2O5 K2O
Ammonium sulphate 20.5 – –
Ammonium sulphate nitrate 26.0 – –
Ammonium nitrate 33.5 – –
Ammonium phosphate 20.0 20.0 –
Calcium ammonium nitrate 20.5 / 25.0 – –
Nitrate of soda 16.5 – –
Urea 46.0 – –
Superphosphate (single) – 18.0 –
Superphosphate (double) – 35.0 –
Superphosphate (triple) – 46.0 –
Mussooriephos – 18–20 –
Rajphos – 18–20 –
Muriate of potash – – 50 / 60
Bone meal 3.5 21.0 –
Fish meal 4.1 3.9 0.3–1.5
Poultry manure 1.2–1.5 1.4 –1.8 0.8–0.9
Sheep manure 0.8–1.6 0.3–0.4 0.3–0.4
FYM 1.0 0.5 1.0
Compost 0.5 0.4 0.8
Groundnut cake 7.0 1.5 1.5
Castor cake 4.3 2.0 1.3
Neem cake 5.0 1.0 1.5
Gingelly cake 6.2 2.0 1.2
Coconut cake 3.0 1.9 1.8
Note: Composition of organic manures vary widely

Appendix 3
NEUTRALIZING VALUE OF LIMING MATERIALS
Liming material Chemical formula Neutralizing value
Calcium carbonate (powdered lime stone) CaCO3 100
Burnt lime (quick lime) CaO 179
Slaked lime Ca (OH)2 136
Dolomite CaMg (CO3)2 109
APPENDIX 4 AND APPENDIX 5 353

Appendix 4
CONVERSION OF NUTRIENTS (kg ha-1) TO COMMON FERTILIZERS (kg ha-1)

Rate of Ammonium Urea Superphosphate Muriate of potash

application sulphate (20% N) (46% N) (18% P2O5) (50% K2O) (60% K2O)
10 50 22 56 20 17
20 100 43 111 40 33
30 150 65 167 60 50
40 200 87 222 80 67
50 250 109 278 100 83
60 300 130 333 120 100
70 350 152 389 140 117
80 400 174 444 160 133
90 450 196 500 180 150
100 500 217 556 200 167
110 550 239 611 220 183
120 600 261 667 240 200
130 650 283 722 260 217
140 700 304 778 280 233
150 750 326 833 300 250

Appendix 5
GUIDE FOR MIXING FERTILIZERS
Ammonium

ammonium

phosphate

phosphate
Muriate of

carbonate
Potassium

Calcium
Sulphate

Ammo-
Sulphate
Calcium

Sodium
nitrate
Potash

Super-
nitrate

nium
Urea

Ö Ö Ö y y y Ö Ö Ö Muriate of potash
Ö Ö Ö y y y Ö Ö Ö Potassium sulphate
Ö Ö Ö Ö y y Ö Ö X Ammonium sulphate
y y Ö Ö y y y y Ö Calcium ammonium nitrate
y y Ö Ö Ö y y y Ö Sodium nitrate
y y y y y Ö y y y Urea
Ö Ö Ö y y y Ö Ö X Superphosphate
Ö Ö Ö y y y Ö Ö X Ammonium phosphate
Ö Ö X Ö Ö y X X Ö Calcium carbonate
Ö Can be mixed
y May be mixed only prior to application
X Should not be mixed
354 APPENDIX 6

Appendix 6
CALCULATION OF INSECTICIDE AND FUNGICIDE FORMULATIONS

A. Calculation of insecticide formulation

1. Sprayable formulation
Quantity of insecticide formulation =
Strength (per cent) required x Quantity of spray solution required (l)
Strength (per cent) of formulation
eg. :- Malathion 50 EC @ 0.2% required to prepare 10 litres (10,000 ml) of spray solution
0.2 x 10 x 1000 = 40 ml
=
50
2. Granular formulation
Quantity of granular formulation (kg) =
100 x recommended rate (kg a.i ha-1) x Area (ha)
% a.i in the commercial formulation

eg. :- cartap hydrochloride 4 G required to apply in one hectare @ 750 g a.i ha-1
100 x 0.75 x 1 = 18.75 kg
=
4

B. Calculation of fungicide formulations

1. Wettable powder (WP)
eg. :- carbendazim 50 WP (0.1%)
Dissolve 1 g carbendazim 50 WP in 1 litre of water.
2. Emulsifiable concentrate (EC)
eg. :- Kitazin 48 EC (0.1%)
Dissolve 1 ml Kitazin - 48 EC in 1 litre of water
APPENDIX 7 355

Appendix 7
HOME MADE INSECTICIDAL PREPARATIONS
KEROSENE EMULSION
Materials required
Kerosene – 900 ml
Bar soap – 50 g
Water – 20 litre
Method of preparation
Slice 50 g bar soap into fine flakes and dissolve in 450 ml of boiling water. Cool it and then
add to 900 ml kerosene under violent agitation till the oil is fully emulsified. Dilute this stock
solution by adding 15-20 litres of water for spraying. It is effective against many sucking in-
sects.
TOBACCO DECOCTION
Materials required
Tobacco waste – 100 g
Bar soap – 24 g
Water – 6 litre
Method of preparation
Soak 100 g of tobacco waste in 900 ml of water for 24 hours. Then squeeze the tobacco
waste and remove all debris by filtering the extract through a muslin cloth or a strainer. Slice
24 g of bar soap into thin flakes and dissolve in 100 ml of water in another vessel. Pour the soap
solution into the tobacco decoction under violent agitation. Dilute this stock solution by adding
6 litres of water. This can be recommeded for managing aphids and other soft bodied insects
infesting vegetable crops.
NEEM SEED KERNEL EXTRACT (NSKE 3%)
Materials required
Neem seed kernel – 30 g
Water – 1 litre
Method of preparation
Grind neem seed kernel into coarse powder and put it in a small muslin cloth bag. Keep it
immersed in 1 litre of water in a vessel for 12 hours. Thereafter, squeeze the cloth bag by
dipping in water repeatedly till the water coming out from the cloth bag becomes clear. Squeeze
the cloth bag thoroughly and then remove it. Now the 3% NSKE is ready for spraying.
NEEM OIL – GARLIC EMULSION (2%)
Materials required
Neem oil – 200 ml
Bar soap – 50 g
Garlic – 200 g
Water – 9 litre
Method of preparation
Slice 50 g bar soap into thin flakes and dissolve in 500 ml of hot water by agitation. Pour
the soap solution to 200 ml of neem oil slowly and stir rigorously. Grind 200 g of garlic by adding
300 ml of water. Filter the garlic extract through a muslin cloth and then add to the prepared
neem oil soap emulsion. Dilute this one litre stock solution by adding 9 litre of water to get
10 litres of 2% neem oil – garlic emulsion.
356 APPENDIX 8

Appendix 8
PREPARATION OF COMMON FUNGICIDES

Bordeaux mixture (1%)

Dissolve 1 kg of powdered copper sulphate crystals in 50 litres of water. In another 50

litres of water, prepare milk of lime with 1 kg of quick lime. Pour the copper sulphate solution
into the milk of lime slowly stirring the mixture all the while. Test the mixture before use for the
presence of free copper, which is harmful to the plants, by dipping a polished knife in it. If the
blade shows a reddish colour due to the deposits of copper, add more lime till the blade is not
stained on dipping. Always use wooden, earthen or copper vessels for the preparation of
Bordeaux mixture.

In order to confer sticking quality to Bordeaux mixture, rosin washing soda mixture, may
be added. The addition of the sticker is particularly recommended for spraying
conducted during rainy season. For preparing the mixture, 10 litres of water out of 100 litres
required for preparing Bordeaux mixture may be kept apart. Boil 10 litres of water,
preferably in an earthen pot and add 500 g of good quality washing soda (sodium carbonate).
Boil again until the solution becomes slightly dark in colour. Add 1 kg of powdered rosin (arpoos)
in the boiling washing soda solution. Reduce the flame for avoiding frothing,
foaming and spilling over. Boil the solution for 5-10 minutes till black bubbles appear. Cool the
solution until the temperature reaches below 45ºC. The cooled mixture (10 litres) is then added
slowly to the prepared Bordeaux mixture (90 litres) under vigorous stirring.

Bordeaux paste

Dissolve 100 g of copper sulphate and 100 g of quick lime each in 500 ml of water sepa-
rately. Mix together to make one litre of the paste.

Cheshunt compound

Weigh 60 g copper sulphate and 330 g of ammonium carbonate. These two are well
powdered and thoroughly mixed. The dry mixture is stored in an airtight glass container for 24
hours before use. About 25 g of this mixture is dissolved in a little hot water and solution is made
up to 8 litres with cold water and used for soil drenching.
APPENDIX 9 357

Appendix 9
FUMIGANTS AND ITS USE
(For restricted use only)

Aluminium phosphide

Aluminium phosphide can be used for fumigating rat burrows and for control of pests
infesting stored grains. This is available as ‘Celphos’ or as ‘Aluminium Phosphide’ tablets (3g)
or pellets. For rat control, locate the burrows which contain live rats. For this, seal all burrow
openings with mud in evenings and examine the closed burrows next day. If the mud seal is
opened, such burrows are marked as live ones. In such live burrows, introduce
aluminium phosphide tablets @ 1-2 per burrow and seal off the openings immediately.
For fumigating grains and grain products under cover, use aluminium phosphide
@ 1-2 tablets per tonne of grains, giving an exposure period of 5 days followed by aeration for
a day. For room fumigation, use 5-7 tablets for every 28 cubic metre storage space.
This has to be used under strict supervision of the approved pest control operators.
358 APPENDIX 10

Appendix 10
PESTICIDE GUIDE

The pesticides may be applied according to the severity of infestation of the pest/ infection
of the disease in a need-based manner. Whenever the government bans a chemical,
recommendation for its use automatically stands cancelled. Central Insecticide Board and
Registration Committee, Government of India has published the list of pesticide formulations
banned in India in its official website (http://cibrc.gov.in). This list is periodically updated by
CIB & RC which will stand applicable to the KAU recommendations, as and when modified.
List of Pesticides/Pesticide formulations banned in India as given in Appendix 12.

Dosage/ha
T rade name Formulation Per cent
Generic name and formulation a.i (g/ha) Remrks
g/kg or ml/l concentration
per ha (in 500 l
water/ha)

1 2 3 4 5
A. INSECTICIDES

1. Carbamates
Carbosulfan Marshal 6 G 1000 16.67 kg Effective against rice
Marshal 25 EC 800-1000 ml stem borer, gall midge
and leaf folder
Thiodicarb Larvin 50 WP
Spiro 50 WP 750 1000 Cucurbits
Epilachna beetle

2. Organophosphorous compounds

Malathion Cythion 5 DP 500 10 kg Safe insecticide for contro-

lling pests of vegetables
and storage pests.
Malamar 50 EC 500 – 750 1000 – 0.1– 0.15 For control
Cythion 50 EC 1500 ml of pests
Star Mal 50 EC of vegetables
Malathion 50 EC
Malatox 50 EC
Milthion 50 EC
Dichlorvos Vapona 76 EC 330 435 ml 0.05 Contact and fumigant;,
(DDVP) Nuvan 76 EC less residual; toxicity
Luvon 76 EC lasts for only 24 hours;
Dash 76 EC safer to be applied on
Doom 76 EC vegetables.Effective
against rice leaf folder.
APPENDIX 10 359

1 2 3 4 5
Quinalphos Quinalphos 300 20 kg Broad spectrum insecticide;
1.5 DP particularly effective against
mealy bugs and scale insects.
Quinalphos 250 5 kg For control of rice gall midge
5G
Kinalux 5 G

Quinalphos 250 1000 ml 0.05 For control of rice pests and

25 EC cardamom thrips.
Kinalux 25 EC
Ekalux 25 EC
Milux 25 EC
Flash 25 EC
Phosalone Zolone 35 EC 350 1000 ml 0.07 Broad spectrum insecticide
cum acaricide, effective
against brown plant hopper
Dimethoate Rogor 30 EC 200 – 700 660 – 2330 ml 0.04 – 0.14 Systemic insecticide
Tara 909 30 EC cum nematicide.
Killex- Dimeth-
oate 30 EC
Corothioate
30 EC
Rogorin 30 EC
Nugor 30 EC
Hilthoate 30 EC 0.2% 3.3 L in 0.2 For seedling dip against rice
suspension 500 L water nematode
0.05% 833 ml in 0.05 For foliar application against
suspension 500 L water thrips
Chlorpy- Dursban 20 EC 100–300 500 – 0.06 Effective against stem borer
riphos Classic 20 EC 1500 ml and gall fly. Useful for root
Radar 20 EC dipping.
Lethal 20 EC
Coroban 230 EC
Hilban 20 EC
Tafaban 20 EC
0.2% 5 L in Germinated seed dip for 3 h
suspension 500 L water 0.2 against gall midge
0.02 % 500 ml in Seedling root dip for 12 h
suspension 500 L water 0.02 against gall midge
Acephate Asataf 75 SP 500–750 666–1000 g 0.1- 0.15 Effective against rice leaf
Starthene 75 SP folders and brown plant
Lancer 75 SP hoppers. Safe to green
Miltaf 75 SP mirid bug (BPH predator).
360 APPENDIX 10

1 2 3 4 5
3. Neonicotinoids
Imida- Confidor 17.8 SL 30 150 ml 0.006 Effective against
cloprid Tatamida 17.8 SL brown plant hopper.
Imidagold 17.8 SL
Media 17.8 SL
Thiameth- Actara 25 WDG 25 100 g 0.005 Effective against brown
oxam plant hopper and safe to
green mirid bug (BPH
predator)
Suckgan 25 WG 50 200 Brinjal, Bhindi and
Chilli sucking pests-
whiteflies, jassids,
thrips and mites
Acetamiprid Manik 20% SP
Pride 20% SP 10 50 Brinjal sucking pests-
Rekord 20% SP whiteflies, jassids and
mites
Thiaclopride Alanto20.7% SC 30 125 Pulses-Aphids and
Splendour pod bugs
4. Oxadiazines
Indoxacarb Avaunt 15.8 EC
Dhawa gold 30 200 ml 0.006 Effective against rice
15.8 EC stemborer, whorl
maggot, leaf folder,
blue beetle gall midge
& case worm
Indoxacarb Daksh, Kaal
14.5 % SC
Doxagan, Sarvada 75 520 ml
5. Spinosyns
Spinosad Tracer 45 SC 100 ml 0.009 Effective against rice
Spintor 45 SC stem borer, whorl
Conserve 45 SC maggot, leaf folder,
blue beetle gall midge
& case worm
6. Neriestoxin analogues
Cartap hydro- Cartox 4 G 1000 25 kg Effective against rice
chloride Caldan 4 G stem borer and leaf folder
Indan 4 G
Kildon 4 G 500 20 g+200 0.1 Coconut Rhinoceros
Bildan 4 G g sand beetle
Cartox 50 SP 1 kg Rice steam borer and
Bildan 50 SP leaf folder
Caldan 50 SP
Kildon 50 SP
APPENDIX 10 361
1 2 3 4 5
7. Ryanodine analogues (Bisamide / Diamide)
Fluben- Takumi 20 WDG 25 125 g 0.005 Effective against rice
diamide stem borer, whorl maggot
and leaf folder
Fame 480 SC 25 50 ml 0.005 Effective against rice
stem borer, whorl
maggot and leaf folder
Chlorantranil Ferterra 0.4% G 10kg/ha Rice stem borer, gall
prole midge, leaf folder
and case worm
Chlorantranil Coragen 150ml/ha Rice stem borer, leaf
prole 18.5% SC folder and case worm
8. Synthetic pyrethroids
Lambda Karate 5 EC 0.6 ml/L 0.003 Foliar spray against
cyhalothrin Reeva 5 EC tea mosquito bug
Tetronic and Tetramic acid derivatives
Spiromesifen Oberon 96 400 Chilli mites and thrips
22.9% SC
Mitochondrial complex 1 electron transport inhibitors
Fenpyroxi- Mitigate 5% EC 15 300 Chilli mites and thrips
mate Sedna 5% EC
Inhibitors of mitochondrial ATP synthatase
Diafenthiuron Pegasus 50% WP 300 600 Brinjal sucking pests-
Polo 50% WP whiteflies, jassids and
mites
Inhibitors of chitin biosynthesis
Buprofezin Apple 25% SC -- 800 Rice brown plant hopper
Banzo 25% SC
Bipimain 25% SC
Koram 25% SC
Applaus 25% SC
Swaltrust 25% SC
Jawa TM 25% SC
Avermectins
Emamectin Proclaim 5% SC 10 200 Brinjal fruit and shoot
Benzoate Pluto 5% SC borer
Prabhaav 5% SC
362 APPENDIX 10

1 2 3 4 5
B. FUNGICIDES
1. Copper based products
Copper Blitox 50 WP 500 – 750 1000 – 1500 g 0.1 – 0.15 Foliar spray and
oxychloride Blue Copper 50 WP soil drenching
Cupramar 50 WP
Copper 50 WP
Fytolan 50 WP
Starcop 50 WP
Killex copper
fungicide 50 WP
Copper Kocide 77WP 385 - 578 500 - 750 g 0.08 - 0.12 Foliar spray
hydroxide against false smut
of rice at the time
of 50% flowering
stage
Copper Kocide 101WP 500 - 750 500 - 750 g 0.10 - 0.15 Foliar spray
hydroxide against sheath rot
and glume
discolouration
2. Sulphur based products

Sulphur Cosan 80 WP 800 – 1600 1000 – 2000 g 0.16 – 0.32 For foliar spray
Esso Wettable against powdery
Sulphur 80 WP mildew. Also
Thiovit 80 WP effective against
Microsul 80 WG mite.
Dithio carbamates and others

Thiram Thiride 75 WS 2.25 - 3 g/ -- -- For seed treatment

(tetramethyl Hexathir 75 WS kg of
thiuram JK Thiram seed
disulphide) 75 WS
Mancozeb Indofil M-45 1125 – 1500 1500 – 2000 0.225 – 0.3 Foliar fungicide
(zinc ions & 75 WP
manganese Dithane M-45-
ethylene 75 WP
bisdithio- Hilthane M-45 -
carbamate) 75 WP
Uthane M-45 -
75 WP
Manzeb 75 WP
Propineb Antracol 50 WP 625 1250 g 0.125 For the management
of glume discolo-
uration and brown
spot of rice
APPENDIX 10 363
1 2 3 4 5
3. Chlorinated nitrobenzene
Dinocap Karathane 480 1000 ml 0.1 as foliar spray for
48 EC powdery mildew
control of cucurbits
and rose
4. Heterocyclic nitrogen compounds
Captan Captan 75 WP 1125 – 1500 1500 – 2000 g 0.225 – 0.3 For seed treatment
Hexacap 75 WP at 1.5 g per kg of seed
5. Phenyl urea fungicides
Pencycuron Monceren 250SC 1875 750 ml 0.375 sheath blight of rice

6. Systemic fungicides

Carben- Bavistin 50 WP 250 500 g 0.05 Effective against

dazim B-Stin 50 WP powdery mildew
Bengard 50 WP disease in ornamental
JK Stein 50 WP plants and blast,
Zoom 50 WP sheath blight and
sheath rot of rice
Carboxin Vitavax 75 WP 1.5 – 1.6 -- -- For seed treatment
Vitavax 80 WP g/kg seed

Ipropenphos Kitazin- P 48 EC 250 500 ml 0.05 For foliar spray

against blast

Hexaco- Contaf 5 EC 25– 50 500 – 1000 ml 0.005–0.01 For foliar spray against
nazole sheath blight,
Brown spot, glume
discolouration and
sheath rot of rice
Propico- Tilt 25 EC 125 500 ml 0.025 For foliar spray
nazole against sheath blight
Potassium Akomin 40% 800 2000 ml 0.16 Growth regulator
phospho- effective against
nate Phytophthora foot
rot of black pepper
Tridemorph Calixin 80 EC 400 500 ml 0.08 Coconut stem
bleeding
Carpropamid Protega 27.8 EC 139 500 ml 0.028 For control of blast
Arcado 27.8 EC and sheath blight of
rice
Isoprothio- Fugione 40 EC 300 750 ml 0.06 For control of blast
lane disease of rice
364 APPENDIX 10

1 2 3 4 5
Thiophanate Topsin 50WP 250 500 g 0.05 For control of blast and
Cercobin 50 WP sheath blight of rice
Thiophanate Topsin 75WP 375 500 g 0.075 Foliar spray for
methyl Cercobin 75 WP control of powdery
mildew in cowpea
Oxy carboxin Plantvax 20 EC 100 500 ml 0.02 Foliar spray for the control
of leaf rust in coffee
Carbendazim Saaf 75WP 750 1000 g 0.15 For control the Glume
12% + Man- discolouration in rice,
cozeb 63% Spraying at the time of
panicle emergence
Propiconazole Tilt 25EC 125 500 ml 0.025 For false smut disease
control at the time of
panicle emergence
stage.
Trifloxystrobin Nativo 75 WG 187.5 250 g 0.0375 For the management of
25% + Tebuco- brown spot, blast,
nazole 50% sheath blight, glume
discolouration and
sheath rot of rice
Tebuconazole Folicur- 250 EC 750 300 ml 0.06 For the management of
blast and sheath blight
of rice
Fluzilazole Nustar 40 EC 150 125 ml 0.01 For the management of
sheath blight of rice
7. Antibiotics
Antifungal Aureofungin sol – 0.005 % 0.002 For foliar spray in rice
materials 46.15% SP
Strepto Streptomycin 100–150 For foliar spray against
cycline Sulphate 9% + – – ppm bacterial diseases
Tetracycline
Hydrochloride
1% SP
Validamycin Validacin 3L 60 0.006 Control of sheath
A3 blight
C. HERBICIDES
Common Commercial Recommen- Product Crops Hints on time and
name formulations ded dose per ha recommended method of
and kg ai/ha application
concentrations
2,4-D Fernoxone 1.0 1.0 – 1.2 kg Rice – for Apply at 20-25
sodium 80% WSP control of DAS/DAT
salt broad leaved
weeds and
sedges
APPENDIX 10 365
1 2 3 4 5
2,4-D amine Agrodar 0.8 – 1.0 1.4 – 1.71 Do Do
96 - 58 WSL

Metsulfuron Almix 0.004 20g Rice 15-20

ethy l 10% + 20% WP DAS/DAT
Chlorimuron
ethyl 10 %

Pendimethalin Stomp 30% EC 1– 1.50 3.3 – 5.0 l Rice – dry Pre-emergence

sown and spray at
vegetables 0-6 DAS

Butachlor Machete 50 EC 1.25 2.51 Rice–dry sown 0-6 DSA

Butachlor 50 EC Rice–wet sown 6-9 DAS
Rice - 6-9 DAT
transplanted
Machete 5 G 1.25 25 kg Rice – wet Broadcast evenly
sown and on soil surface at
transplanted 7 DAS or at
4-8 DAT

Oxyfluorfen Goal 23.5 EC 0.15 0.641 Rice – dry 0-3 DAS

0.1– 0.15 0.44 – 0.64 l sown Pre- emergent
Banana spray

Pretilachlor Refit 50 EC 0.50 – 0.75 1.00 – 1.50 l Rice – dry 0-6 DAS
sown

Pretilachlor + Sofit 30 EC 0.45 1.50 l Rice – 3-5 DAS

safner wet sown

Cyhalofop Clincher 10 EC 0.08 800 ml Rice – for Spray 18-20

butyl control of DAS
Echinochloa
spp.

Diuron Klass 80 WP 1.00 – 1.50 1.25–2.00kg Banana, Pre- emergence

Pineapple spray

Glyphosate Roundup 41 SL 0.82 – 1.64 2.0 – 4.0 l Rice-land For clearing

Glycel 41 SL preparation weeds before
Weed All 41% SL Plantation land preparation.
crops, Directed
pineapple application in
and banana inter-row areas

Pyrazosulfuron Sathi 10 WP 0.02-0.03 200-300 g Rice -Wet 6 DAS/DAT

ethyl seeded,
Transplanted
366 APPENDIX 10

1 2 3 4 5

Pretilachlor + Londax Power 0.6 + 0.06 10 kg Rice – Dry seeded 0-6 DAS/DAT
Bensulfuron (0.6 +0.06) WP Wet seeded
methyl Transplanted
Pre-emegence
control of all
types of weeds

Bispyribac Nominee gold 0.025-0.03 250-300ml Rice – All types 15-20 DAS
sodium 10 SC of weeds except
Taarak 10 SC Leptochloa sp.
Adora 10 SC

Carfentrazone- Affinity 40 DF 0.02 50 g Rice – broad leaf 20-25 DAT

ethyl weeds and sedges,
very effective
against Melochia
corchorifolia

Fenoxaprop- Ricestar 6.7EC 0.06 875 ml Rice- Control of 15-18 DAS/DAT

p-ethyl grassy weeds like
Echinocloa,
Sacciolepis and
Leptochloa

Azim sulfuron Segment 50 DF 0.035 70 g All types of weeds, 15-20 DAS/DAT

effectice against
Echinochloa

Penoxsulam Granite 24SC 0.025 104 ml All types of weeds, 15-20 DAS
effectice against
Echinochloa spp

Ethoxy sulfuron Sunrice 15WDG 0.015 100 g Rice – Transplanted 15-20 DAT
rice Control of
sedges and broad
leaf weeds

Glufosinate Basta 15 SL 0.375-0.50 2.5- 3.3 Non – selective

Ammonium contact herbicide.
2.5-3.3L Rice – weedy rice
control using weed
Wiper. Control
grasses and broad
leaf weeds. Control
of perennial weeds
in plantations
APPENDIX 11 367

Appendix 11
DETAILS OF PESTICIDES AVAILABLE IN THE MARKET
This table is only for reference on products available in the market and should not be treated as
recommended by Kerala Agricultural University. It is compiled from various sources including websites
of industry and hence the product list may not be complete. Generic names included are registered by
CIB & RC and their uses are approved for specific pests in certain crops (http://cibrc.gov.in/mup.html).
But some pesticides are yet to be evaluated by KAU / other research organizations and hence all
pesticides included here may not have the status “recommended by Kerala Agricultural University”. For
list of recommended insecticides, their doses and uses, refer Appendix 10 only.

Generic name Strength of Chemical Class Colour Code Trade names of

Formulation (Toxicity Class) formulations available
in the market
1 2 3 4 5
A. INSECTICIDES
Abamectin 1.9 EC Avermectin Yellow Tagmec,Vertimec
Acephate 75 SP Organo Acefex, Ace,
phosphate Asataf, Corochamp Dhanraj,
Blue Hilphate Lancer,
Lucid, Oval Pace,
Starthene Tagace,
Tamaron, Torpedo
Acetamiprid 20 SP Neonicotinoid Aceta, Acelon Crop pride 20
SP Dhanapreet 20 SP
Yellow Ekka, Excel,
Acetacel Hilpride, Lift,
Manik Pride, Rekord Scuba
20 SP Star attack, Tagride
Alphamethrin 10 EC Pyrethroid Alfa, Guru, Alphadhan,
Yellow Concord, Farmex,
Farsa Gem,Tata alpha
Numethrin, Sherpa,Thril
Azadirachtin 1 EC Neem based Green

Azadirachtin Neem Based Green

Bifenthrin 10 EC Pyrethroid Yellow Banner, Markar, Hectastar

Impeder, Talstar
Buprofezin 25 SC Chitin Applaud, Koram, Jawaa
Synthesis Blue Flotis, Ninja, Apple, Lapa
Inhibitor Pi Bupro,Tagvoltage
368 APPENDIX 11

1 2 3 4 5
Carbosulfan 25 EC Carbamate Marshal, Aaatank
Yellow
6G Carbamate Sheriff, Electra
Cartap 4G Nereistoxin Stratop, Beacon GR,
hydrochloride analogue Caldan 4 G, Cartox G, Celtap
4 G Fast, Hilcartap, Kritap
4 G, Kaardon
Yellow
50 SP Nereistoxin Caldan SP, Beacon SP
analogue Celtap 50 SP, Fast Kritap 50
SP, Hilcartap Kaardon 50
SP, padan
Chlorantranili- 0.4 G Diamide Ferterra
prole Green
18.5 SC Diamide Coragen
Chlorfenapyr 10 SC Chlorphenapyr Yellow Lepido
Chlopyriphos 10 G Organo Hillban 10 G
phosphate
20 EC Organo Chlorban,Classic-20 Coroban,
Yellow Dhanvan, Durmet, Dursban,
Hilban, Krishan, Tafaban,
Radar Starban, Tagban,Tricel
50 EC Organo Chlorban, Dhanvan
phosphate 5000 Force, Predator

Chlothianidin 50 WDG Neonicotinoid Green Dantop

Cypermethrin 10 EC Pyrethroid Shakthi 10, Starcip 10
Challenger, Cyprercel Bang
X 505, Superkiller Kricyp 10,
Ralo 10 Ustaad
Yellow
25 EC Pyrethroid Starcip 25, Shakthi 25
Challenger, Kricyp 25
Cypercel, Superkiller
Crop cyper, Colt, Cyrux
Tata Cyper
Deltamethrin 11 EC Pyrethroid Tagcis
Yellow
2.8 EC Pyrethroid Decis

Diafenthiuron 50 WP Insect growth Polo, Pegasus

Blue
regulator

Dichlorovos 76 EC OP Fume, Divap, Doom, Hilvos

Yellow Luvon-76, Starchlor Divipan,
Nuvan,Vapona
APPENDIX 11 369
1 2 3 4 5
Dicofol 18.5 EC Dicofol Blue Tag fol, Klin,Tiktoc,
Hilfol Starkel
Diflubenzuron 25 WP Chitin Dimilin
synthesis Green
inhibitor
Dimethoate 30 EC Organo Tara 909, Rogor, Tagor,
phosphate Yellow Nugor
Dinocap 48 EC Blue Karilex
Emamectin 5 SG Avermectin EM-1, Proclaim, Robot
Yellow
benzoate Starclaim, Prabhaav, Spolit
Ethion 35 EC Organo Tafethion
phosphate
50 EC Organo Tafethion, Hera, Mit 505
phosphate Yellow Mitkil, Promite, Mithiyon
Anumit-50, Novathion
Dhamumit, Fosmite,
Krithion, Mit 505, Hilmite
Ethofenoprox 10 EC Pyrethroid Yellow Trebon, Nukil
Fenazaquin 10 EC Yellow Magister
Fenpropathrin 30 EC Pyrethroid Yellow Mighty
Fenpyroximate 5 EC Yellow Pyromite, Mite Block
Sedna, Mitigate
Fenobucarb 50 EC Carbamates Yellow Blast, Knock
Fenvalerate 20 EC Pyrethroid Tatafen, Tagfen, Fencen
Fenval, Fighter EC, Yesfen
Anufen, Fencro, Newfen
Marsfen, Lufen, Fenkil
Yellow Krifen, Arfen DP, Agrofen 20
EC, Fengun
0.4 DP Fenkil, Arfen, Power
Agrofen, Fighter
2D Fengun Fencel Dust
Fipronil 0.3 GR Fiprole Regent, Corofip GR, Tag
Agent GR, Mahaveer
GRAgadi G, Stargazette
SC Fax GR, Ferodan GR
Yellow Fipro plus GR
80 WG Fiprole Jump
5 SC Fiprole Regent, Rabid, Fax SC,
Fipro plus, Ferodan SC
Stargazette SC, Refree
Corofip SC, Tag Agent SC
370 APPENDIX 11

1 2 3 4 5
Flonicamide 50 WG Flonicamide Blue Ulala
Flubendiamide 20 WG Diamide Takumi, Fluton
Green
39.35 SC Diamide Fame, FM – 480, Leako Fluid
Imidacloprid 17.8 SL Neonicotinoid Crop mida, Agro mida
Tata mida, Sensex, Confidor
JK Imida, Seamer, Courage
Maharaja, Shogun, Mantra
Novastar, Imigro, Nagarjuna
mida, Hillmida, Atom Imidacel,
Imida Gold Anumida,
Confident, Dharbhar, Admit,
Josh/Guard Parrymida, Suzu,
Jumbo Imidastar, Imidan,
MediaVictor, Tropical Magik
Yellow
30.5 SC Neonicotinoid Tropical Magik Super
Avenger, Josh/Guard Mex/
Intrex, Rex
70 WS Neonicotinoid Imigro, Gaucho, Hillmida,
Protect
70 WG Neonicotinoid Tagmyre, Dzire, Apache
R_ Bullet, Chemida, Cohigan
Royal, Admire
48 FS Neonicotinoid Imigo 600FS, Imigro FS
Indoxacarb 14.5 S C Oxadiazine Avaunt, Tag Power, Fego
Challenger, Inlay, Sarvada
King Doxa, Heroxa JK
Yellow Indoxa, Doxagan
15.8 EC Oxadiazine Avaunt, Fego, PI Indox
Dhawa Gold
Lambda 4.9 CS Pyrethroid Matador
cyhalothrin
2.5 EC Pyrethroid Ninja-R, Santri, Lambda 2.5
Samurai Tag Demand
Kabaddi, Lambda Star Veera
Marsjudo, Lancer Lamdex,
agent, Excel Glow Constant,
Yellow Reeva, Kunfu
5 EC Pyrethroid Reeva 5, Cyclo-50/Tanja-50
Jayam, Santri, Samurai Wrestler,
Coro lambda Judho, super
glow, Instant Agent Plus, Excel
Glow Hillambda, Tag Command
Lamdex Super, Karate Ninja-V,
Agent Plus Balraj, Devashakti
APPENDIX 11 371
1 2 3 4 5
Lufenuron 5.4 EC CSI Green Signa
Malathion 5 DP OP Malathion DP, Marsthion
50 EC OP Agromala, Thisol, Agromala
Blue Malathion, Simala Milthion,
Kthion, Hilmala, Malaacid,
Tagthion Malamar, Celthion
Metaflumizone 22 SC Metaflumizone Blue Tagline,Versimo
Metaldehyde 2.5 DP Acetaldehyde Snailkill
Yellow
polymer
Novaluron 10 EC CSI Rimon, Nova, Rimostar
Green Pedestal
8.8 SC CSI Pedestal Supra
Permethrin 25 EC pyrethroids Perkill, signor, Tagbush
Yellow
Ambush, Permasect
Phenthoate 50 EC OP Yellow Dhnusan, tagsan
Phosalone 35 EC OP Yellow
Propargite 57 EC propargite Yellow Mitza, Simbaa, Acarit
Pyrdalyl 10 EC Pyrdalyl 2 Blue Leo
Quinalphos 25 EC OP Anuphos, Quincid Starlux,
Agroquin, Hilquin Geelux,
Guin Guard Tagquin,
Yellow Rambalux Quinolux, H.LX,
Kinalux Exalux, Krilux,
quinaswan Flash
1.5 DP OP Marsquin, Quincid, Kinalux
Quinalphos 5 GR OP Yellow Kinalux
Spinosad 45 SC Spinosyn Tracer, Champion, Spintor
Blue Tagsulf
2.5 SC Spinosyn Success, Champion, Tagsulf
Spiromesifen 22.9 SC Tetronic and Blue Voltage
tetramic acid
derivative
Thiacloprid 21.7 SC Neonicotinoid Yellow Alanto, Tagsulf
Thiodicarb 75 WP Carbamate Yellow Larvin, Tagton, Tornado, Ajx
Chekk, Spiro
25 WG Neonicotinoid Click, Tagsulf, Slayer,
Krioxam, Maxima, ACT 150
Thimethoxam Tagxone, Actara, Theme
Blue Suckgan, Renova, Wonderex,
Exaam
70 WS Neonicotinoid Crusier
30 FS Neonicotinoid Tagton
372 APPENDIX 11

1 2 3 4 5
B. COMBINATION PRODUCTS OF INSECTICIDES

Acephate+ 50 + 1.8 WP OP + Blue Stargold

Imidacloprid Neonicotinoid
Acephate 25EC+ 25EC + 3EC Devine
Yellow
Fenvalerate 3 EC
Buprofezin 5.65% + CSI + Dadeci
5.65% & 0.72 EC Pyrethroid Yellow
Deltamethrin
0.72% EC
Chlorpyrifos 16 + 16 EC + 1EC OP + pyrethroid Alert
Alphacyperme- Yellow
thrin 1 EC
Chlorpyriphos 50EC+5EC OP + Pyrethroid Action 505 Herasakthi, Anth
50 + Cannon, Double Star, Super D,
Yellow
Cyperme- Hilhunter Koranda 505,
thrin 5 EC Cyklon Synargy, Nurocomb
Nuvella D 505
Cypermethrin 3% 3EC + 20EC Pyrethroid + OP Viraat
Quinolphos Yellow
20% EC
Ethion 40% + 40EC + 5EC OP + Pyrethroid Nagata, Mit Plus Ananda,
Cypermethrin Yellow Dragon Cyperton, Spectrum
5% EC D, Colfos
Ethiprole 40% + 40WG + Glamore
Imidacloprid 40 WG Yellow
40% WG
Indoxocarb 14.5 + 14.5 SC + Oxadiazene + Caesar
Acetamiprid 7.7 SC Nicotenoid Yellow
7.7 SC
C. FUNGICIDES
Azoxytrobin 23% SC Strobilurins Green Amistar, Heritage, Mirador,
Abound
Benomyl 50% WP Benzimidazole Green Benfit, Cure, Cure 500,
Bitertanol 25% WP Triazoles Blue Baycor
Captan 50% WP Phthalamides Dhanutan 50% WP, Captaf,
Green Captan
75% SP Phthalamides Delton, Hexacalt, Dhanuban
Carbendazim 25% WP Benzimidazole B - Stin
Green
46.27% SC Benzimidazole Batista, Perl, Nakshathra,
Fungiguard
APPENDIX 11 373
1 2 3 4 5
50 % WG Benzimidazole Derosul
50 % WP Benzimidazole Fungiguard, Benmain,
Bensaan, Dhanustin 50%
Green WP Gancarzin 50, Tagstin,
Benlate, Bavistin, Benfil,
Bengard, Carben, Carziim
50, Dhanustin, Glizim
Mintho, Tiara, Zoom
Carboxin 75 % WP Carboxanilide Blue Vitavax
Carpropamid 27.8 % SC Cyclopropane Green Protega, Arcado
carboxamide
Chlorothalonil 75 % WP Chloronitrile Blue Odeon, Kavach 75 WP,
Blue
Ishaan, Cluch 70WP
Copper 77 % WP Inorganic copper Blue HiDice, Kocide 101
Hydroxide
Copper 20 % EC Inorganic copper Cutox
Oxychloride
50 % WP Inorganic copper Killex copper, Star cop,
Maincop Dhanucop, Fytox,
Bluetrox, Fytran Fytolan,
Blue Bensaan, Blitox, Blue
copper, Trucop, Cupramar,
Cuprina, Copter, Dhanucop,
Fytolan, Hilcopper, Tagcop
56 % ODP Inorganic copper Fytox & Bluetrox,
COC – ODP 56 %
56 % WP Inorganic copper Tagcop

Copper Inorganic copper Blue Blue Sea’s, TCF Brand,

sulphate Copper Blues
Cyazofamid 34.5 % SC Cyanoimidazole Blue Ranman
Cymoxanil 50 % WP Acetamide Blue Curzate
Difenoconazole 25 % EC Triazole Blue Score 25 EC
Dimethomorph 50 % WP Morpholine Blue Oo – main, Lurit, Promcel
Dinocap 48 % EC Dinitrofungicide Blue Arathane, Karathane
Dodine 65 %WP Substituted acetate Blue Noor
Fenarimol 12 % EC Pyrimidines Blue Rubigan
Flusilazole 40 % EC Triazole Blue Cursor, Nustar
Fosetyl - Al 80 % WP Ethyl phosphonate Green Aliette
374 APPENDIX 11

1 2 3 4 5
Hexaconazole 2 % SC Triazole Samarth
5 % EC Triazole Topper, Topper plus EC,
Mainex EC, Xantho, Hexan,
Hexadhan, Hexacone, Force
5C, Hexaan, Alert Creeper,
Contaf, Corazole, Hexadhan,
Danzole, Hexazole,
Hexacone, Hexamax, Sitara,
Strike, Titan
5 % SC Triazole BlueBlue Xantho Premium, Hexan
white, Hexadhan plus, Force
plus 5, Hexaan white, Contaf
Plus, Danzole Plus, Remo,
Fowmox, Hexazole Gold,
Nagarjuna Mass+, Sitara
plus
Iprodione 50 % WP Dicarboxamide Blue Rovral
Isoprothiolane 40 % EC Dithiolane Blue Isomain, Rhizo, Fuji-One 40E
Kresoxim 44.3 % SC Strobilurin Ergon
Green
methyl
Lime Sulphur 22 % SC Inorganic Green Lime sulfur solution
Sulphur
Mancozeb 35 % SC Ethylene bis Safety, Hydroman
dithiocarbamate
75 % SP Ethylene bis Mancoban
dithiocarbamate
75 % WG Ethylene bis Mafil
dithiocarbamate
75 % WP Ethylene bis Macoban,
dithiocarbamate Green Macoban M – 45,
Mancosaan, Dhanuka M 45,
M – Guard, Zinthane, Izeb
M- 45 Manzate, Hindustan
M 45 Devidayal M – 45,
Mancosaan M – 45, Dithane
M – 45, Tata M-45 Eurofil –
NT, Dhanuka M- 45,
Dithane, Hilthane, Indofil M
45, Savour M-45, Luzen – 45,
Maneb Manzane, Uthane M-
45, Veera
Mandipropamid 23.4 % SC Mandelamide Blue Revus
APPENDIX 11 375
1 2 3 4 5
Metalaxyl 35% WS Acylalanine Blue Bilaxyl, Metal –D, Tagron,
Blue Galaxy PC Metals,
8% WS Acylalanine Blue Metal
Myclobutanil 10% WP Triazole Blue Myclomain, Myclobil,
Blue Systhane, Boon,
Mycoguard, Index
Penconazole 10% EC Triazole Blue
Blue Topas
Pencycuron 22.9% SC Triazole Blue
Blue Monceren
Potassium 40% Phenyl Urea Akomin
Green
phosphonate
Propiconazole 14.3% EC Triazole Blue Banner
25% EC Blue Bumper, Zetox, Propiguard,
Tilt Albu, Radar, Tilt, Dhan,
Propik Final, Result, Pinade
Propineb 70% WP Propalane bis Blue Proximain, Addit,
dithiocarbamate Sanipeb, Propinex
Pyraclostrobin 20 EC Strobilurin Blue
Blue Insignia
Sulphur 40% SC InorganicGreen Super Sonic SC
sulphur
55.16% SC Inorganic Green Nansulf flow
sulphur
80% DP Inorganic reen Five star
sulphur G
80% WDG Inorganic Green Mainsul, Sulfoguard,
sulphur Microsul WDG, Villo,
Green
Dhanusul, Koshavet 80
WDG, Cosavet, Nanthiin
DF Sulfexgold, Sulfil
80% WP Inorganic Green Wettasul, Dhanusul 80%
sulphur WP Ganesulf, Tagsulf, Sulfix
80 WP Sulfex 80, Microsul,
Thiovit, Dhanusulf, Insulf,
Sulfex
85% DP Inorganic sulphur Green Dhanusul 85% DP
Tebuconazole 2% DS Triazole Blue
Blue
25.9% EC Triazole Blue Orius, Folicur, Tebustar
24% SC Triazole Blue Vista, Spencer
Thiophanate 70% WP Thiourea Blue
Blue Maxim, Topmast, Upaay, Roko
Methyl
376 APPENDIX 11

1 2 3 4 5
Thiram 75% WS Dithiocarbamate Tagithram, Thiride, Vegfru
Blue Thiram, Thiram 75% DS,
Hexathir
Thifluzamide 24% SC Carboxinilides Blue Pulser
Triacontanol GR 0.5% M Blue Speed -up
Triadimefon 25% WP Triazole Blue Bayelton
Triacontanol EW 01 5 MIN Saturated primary Green Vishal, Ureka
alcohols
Tridemorph 80% EC Morpholenes Blue Calixin
Ziram 27% SC Dimethyl Dhanuka Z- 27
Dithiocarbamate Blue
80% WP Dimethyl Ziride, Vegfru Zitox, Hexazir
Dithiocarbamate

D. COMBINATION FUNGICIDES

Captan 70% + 70 WP + 5 WP Chlorinated Blue Panther Gold, TakatvarTaquat

Hexaconazole nitrobenzene +
5% WP Triazole
Carbendazim 12 WP + 63 WP Benzimidazole + Kuber, Macoban,
12% + Dithiocarbamate Macoban C Trophy, Sixer,
Mancozeb Green Revive 750, Hi – Jip, Stuff,
63% WP companion, Dasma, Nagarjuna
Combi+, Riper, Saaf, Sprint,
Merger
Carbendazim 25 SE + Benzimidazole + Lustre
25% + 12.5 SE Triazole Blue
Flusilazole
12.5% SE
Carboxin 17.5% 17.5 FF+ Carboxanilide + Vitavax Ultra 200 FF
+ Thiram 17.5 FF Blue
Dithiocarbamate
17.5% FF
Carboxin 37.5 WP + Carboxanilide + Vitavax powder, Trooper
37.5% + 37.5 WP Dithiocarbamate Blue
Thiram
37.5% WP
Cymoxanil 8 WP + Acetamide + Cymagan, Qurate Gold,
8% + 64 % WP Dithiocarbamate Blue Curzate, Moximate
Mancozeb
64% WP
Dimethomorph 9 WP + Cinnamic acid- Acrobat MZ
9 WP + 60 WP morpholine Blue
Mancozeb derivative +
60 WP Dithiocarbamate

Blue
APPENDIX 11 377
1 2 3 4 5
Famoxadone 16.6 SC + Cinnamic acid Equation Pro
16.6% + 22.1 SC amides +
Acetamide Blue
Cymoxanil
22.1% SC

Fenamidone 4.44 WG + Imidazolinone Verita

4.44% + 66.7 WG + Ethyl
Blue
Fosetyl AL Phosphonate
66.7% WG

Iprodione 25% + 25 WP + Dicarboxamide Quintal, Double

Carbendazim 25 WP + Benzimidazole Blue dose
25%WP
Mancozeb 64 WP + Dithiocarbamate + Syscon
64% WP + 8 WP Acylalanine Blue
Metalaxyl 8% WP
Metalaxyl 8% + 8 + 64 WP Acylalanine + Master, Duet, Kirlaxyl MZ
Mancozeb Dithiocarbam- Blue 72 Matco 864, Metal Man
64% WP ate Metal Plus, Metallic Mix
Syscon, Unilax, Redomil MZ 78

Metalaxyl 8 WP + 72 WP Acylalanine + Tagmill

8% WP + Dithiocarbamate Blue
Mancozeb
72% WP

Pyraclostrobin 5 + 55 WP Strobilurin + Clutch

Dithiocarbamate Blue
5% + Metiram
55% WG

Streptomycin 90 + 10 WP Streptomycin Tagmycin

sulphate + sulphate +
Tetracycline Tetracycline Blue
hydrochloride hydrochloride
90.10 SP
Trifloxystrobin 25 WP Strobilurins + Nativo
25% + + 55 WG Triazole Blue
Tebuconazole
55%WG

E. ANTIBIOTICS

Aureofungin 46% SP Aureofungin Sol

Kasugamycin 3% SL Kasu B, Pollen

Validamycin 3% L Valigan
378 APPENDIX 11

1 2 3 4 5
F. HERBICIDES

2,4-D amine 58 WSL Phenoxy acids Yellow Agrodar 96, Advance

2,4-D ethyl 35 EC Phenoxy acids Yellow Weedar, Ethyl ester,

ester Agrodon

2,4-D sodium 80 WP Phenoxy acids Yellow Weedar, Weed clean

salt Fernoxone, Knock weed

Bensulfuron 60 DF Sulfonyl ureas Blue Rozal, Escuri

Blue
methyl

Bispyribac 10 SC Pyrimidinyl (thio) Blue Nomineegold, Taarak,

sodium benzoate Blue Adora

Butachlor 5 G, 50 EC Amides Blue Machete, Fastmix, Superchlo,

Dhanuclor, Nirmul, Hiltachlor,
Blue
Madhuchlor, Thunder,
Butalax, Weedkil, Jaichlor,
Butachlor

Chlorimuron 25 WP Sulfonyl ureas Blue

Blue Classic
ethyl

Cyhalofop 10 EC Aryloxy Green Clincher

butyl phenoxy- Green
propionate

Diuron 80 WP Ureas Blue

Blue Klass, Dynamite

Ethoxy-sulfuron 15 WDG Sulfonyl ureas Blue Sunrise

Fenoxaprop- 10 EC Aryloxy Blue Puma super,

p - ethyl 9.3 EC phenoxy Whip super,
Blue
6.7 EC propionate Rice star

Glufosinate 13.5 SL Phosphonic Blue

Blue Basta, challenge
ammonium acid

Glyphosate 41 SL organo- Blue Glytaf, Roundup, Noweed,

phosphorus Blue Glycel, Cleanup, Glyfos,
sweep, Jaicell, Weed All, Safal

Metsulfuron 20 WP Sulfonyl ureas Blue

Blue Algrip, Ally, Allie, Gropper,
methyl Escort
Oxadiargyl 80 WP Oxadiazole Blue Topstar
Blue
6 EC Raft
APPENDIX 11 379
1 2 3 4 5
Oxyfluorofen 23.5 EC Diphenyl ether Blue
Blue Oxy Gold, Goal
Pendimethalin 30 EC Dinitroanilines Blue
Blue Stomp, Dhanuslone, Tata panida
Pretilachlor 50 EC, Chloroacetamide Blue
Blue Pretty herb, Refit
30.7 EC Preet, Taghit
Blue
Pretilachlor + 30 EC Chloroacetamide Blue Sofit
Safener
Pyrazosulfuron 10 WP Sulfonyl ureas Blue
Blue Sathi

G. COMBINATION PRODUCTS OF HERBICIDES

Bensulfuron 0.6 + 6 G Sulfonyl ureas Green Londax Power

Green
methyl +
Pretilachlor
Metsulfuron+ 20 WP Sulfonyl ureas Blue Almix, Synmuron,
Chlorimuron Blue

Yellow Blue Green

Highly toxic Moderately toxic Slightly toxic

Formulations :- CS - Colloidal Suspension; DP - Dusting Powder; DS - Dispersible

Solid; EC - Emulsifiable Concentrate; FS - Flowable suspension ; G/GR - Granule;
SC - Suspension Concentrate; SG - Soluble Granule; SL - Soluble Liquid;
SP - Soluble Powder; WG - Wettable Granule; WP - Wettable powder; WS - Water
Soluble; WDG - Water Dispersible Granule; WSP - Water Soluble Powder.
380 APPENDIX 12

Appendix 12
LIST OF PESTICIDES / PESTICIDE FORMULATIONS BANNED IN INDIA

A. Pesticides banned for manufacture, import and use (28 Nos.)

Sl. Sl.
Name of pesticides Name of pesticides
No. No.
1 Aldrin 15 Pentachlorophenol
2 Benzene Hexachloride 16 Phenyl Mercury Acetate
3 Calcium Cyanide 17 Sodium Methane Arsonate
4 Chlordane 18 Tetradifon
5 Copper Acetoarsenite 19 Toxafen
6 Dibromochloropropane 20 Aldicarb
7 Endrin 21 Chlorobenzilate
8 Ethyl Mercury Chloride 22 Dieldrine
9 Ethyl Parathion 23 Maleic Hydrazide
10 Heptachlor 24 Ethylene Dibromide
11 Menazone 25 TCA (Trichloro acetic acid)
12 Nitrofen 26 Metoxuron
13 Paraquat Dimethyl Sulphate 27 Chlorofenvinphos
14 Pentachloro Nitrobenzene 28 Lindane*
* Banned vide Gazette Notification No S.O. 637(E) Dated 25/03/2011)-Banned for Manufacture, Import or Formulate
w.e.f. 25th March,2011 and banned for use w.e.f. 25th March, 2013.

B. Pesticide / Pesticide formulations banned for use but their manufacture is allowed for export
(2 Nos.)
Sl.No. Name of pesticides
29 Nicotin Sulfate
30 Captafol 80 Powder

C. Pesticide formulations banned for import, manufacture and use (4 Nos.)

Sl.No. Name of pesticides

1 Methomyl 24 L
2 Methomyl 12.5 L
3 Phosphamidon 85 SL
4 Carbofuran 50 SP
APPENDIX 12 381

D. Pesticides withdrawn (7 Nos.)

Sl.No. Name of pesticides

1 Dalapon

2 Ferbam

3 Formothion

4 Nickel Chloride

5 Paradichlorobenzene (PDCB)

6 Simazine

7 Warfarin

E. Pesticides refused registration

Sl.No. Name of pesticides
1 Calcium Arsonate
2 EPM
3 Azinphos Methyl
4 Lead Arsonate
5 Mevinphos (Phosdrin)
6 2,4, 5-T
7 Carbophenothion
8 Vamidothion
9 Mephosfolan
10 Azinphos Ethyl
11 Binapacryl
12 Dicrotophos
13 Thiodemeton / Disulfoton
14 Fentin Acetate
15 Fentin Hydroxide
16 Chinomethionate (Morestan)
17 Ammonium Sulphamate
18 Leptophos (Phosvel)
382 APPENDIX 12

F. Pesticides restricted for use in India

Sl.No. Name of pesticides Type of Restriction

1 Aluminium Phosphide 3g tablets in cage packing and powder form in pouch
allowed for use in rat burrows

2 DDT Banned in agriculture; Restricted use allowed only for

domestic public health program upto 10,000 MT per year

3 Lindane Restricted use allowed only in termite control upto

24-03-2013

4 Methyl Bromide To be used only by Govt. under strict supervision of

Govt Expert or pest control operator

5 Methyl Parathion Restricted use allowed only on crops where honeybees

are not acting as pollinators

6 Sodium Cyanide Only for fumigation of cotton bales by Plant Protection

Adviser to Govt. of India under expert supervision

7 Methoxy Ethyl Mercuric Only for seed treatment of potato and sugarcane
Chloride (MEMC)

8 Monocrotophos Banned in vegetables

9 Endosulfan Banned in Kerala State

10 Fenitrothion Banned in agriculture except for locust control and in

public health

11 Diazinon Banned in agriculture except for household pest control

12 Fenthion Banned in agriculture except for locust control,

household pest control and public health

13 Dazomet Banned in tea.

Source: http://cibrc.gov.in/list_pest_bann.htm
APPENDIX 13 383

Appendix 13
Ad hoc recommendations for the management of pests and diseases in
selected crops
Sl. No. Crop Pests Ad hoc recommendation

1. Banana Pseudostem weevil Apply Fipronil 5% SC 0.015% (3ml l-1) or

Carbosulfan 25 EC 0.038% (1.5ml l-1) at 5, 6,
and 7 months after planting
In organic farming apply Beauveria bassiana
@ 20 g l-1 at 5, 6 and 7 months after planting
Rhizome weevil Apply Thiamethoxam 25 WG @ 0.2gl-1 or 1 g
per 5 litres at planting followed by two appli-
cations, 2 and 5 months after plantingor
Fipronil 0.3G @ 10g formulation/plant at
planting followed by two applications, 2 and 5
months after planting.
Sucker treatment with Pseudomonas
fluorescens @ 20gl -1 + application of
entomopathogenic nematode, Heteror-
habditis bacteriophora @ 4 infected wax
moth larvae/plant at planting followed by two
applications, 2 and 5 months after planting
Root knot (reniform Carbosulfan 6G @ 16.7kgha-1
and burrowing)
nematodes
Sl. No. Crop Diseases Ad hoc recommendation

1. Coconut Leaf rot After crown cleaning (removal and

destruction of affected parts) in coconut
palms pour 300 ml of fungicide solution
containing hexaconazole-2 ml +potassium
phosphonate- 4ml at the base of spear
leaves twice a year (April-May
and September-November).
2. Pepper Foot rot As alternate chemicals, copper hydroxide
@ 2 g l-1 and cenamidon (10%) +
mancozeb (50%) @ 2 g l-1
3. Banana SigatoKa leaf spot Spraying Azoxystrobin 1ml l-1
or Tebuconazole 1ml l-1 or
Difenoconazole 1ml l-1
4. Vegetables
a. Amaranth Leaf blight Two sprays of copper hydroxide @ 1.5 g l-1
at 14 days interval for seed purpose
384 APPENDIX 13

Sl. No. Crop Diseases Ad hoc recommendation

b. Bittergourd Powdery mildew Foliar spray with Wettable Sulphur 2 g l-1

thrice at 14 days interval or foliar spray
with Tebuconazole 1 ml l-1 twice at 14
days interval.
Downy mildew Spraying pyraclostrobin @ 0.5 g l-1

c. Bhindi Cercospora leaf spot Spraying of Tebuconazole - 1.5 ml l-1 at

fortnightly interval after the appearance
of the symptoms.

d. Cow pea Fusarium wilt Soil drenching of Flusilazole 1 ml l-1 or

Hexaconazole 2 ml l-1 or combination
fungicide Carbendazim and Mancozeb 2 g l-1
at 20 and 40 DAS.

Root rot and web blight Flusilazole 1 ml l-1 as soil drenching 20

and 40 days after sowing or combination
fungicide Carbendazim and Mancozeb
seed tratment 2g kg-1 seed + soil
drenching 2 g l-1 20 and 40 DAS

Collar rot Combination fungicide of Carbendazim

and Mancozeb as seed treatment @ 2 g
kg-1 and soil drenching @ 2 g l-1 soil
drenching at 20 and 40 DAS.

e. Ginger Rhizome rot and Rhizome treatment with

Fusarium yellow carbendazim + mancozeb (2 g l-1) for 30
min + drenching of carbendazim +
mancozeb (2g l-1) -2 MAP, 4 MAP.
APPENDIX 14 385

Appendix 14
AD HOC RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT OF
SECONDARY AND MICRO NUTRIENTS

A. CROP-WISE RECOMMENDATIONS:

1. Rice

Preventive strategies for Zn management

• Presoak seeds in a 2% ZnSO4 suspension in water (20 g ZnSO4 per litre). 1kg seed to be
presoaked in 1 litre of ZnSO4 suspension for 24 hours, drain and keep for sprouting.
• Fertilizer management: Apply sufficient quantity of organic manure. Incorporate 20 kg
Zn sulfate per ha in the soil before seeding or transplanting.

Treatment of Zn deficiency

If Zn deficiency symptoms are observed in the field, apply 20 kg ZnSO4.7 H2O per ha.

Foliar spray of 0.5% ZnSO4 solution, (1kg ZnSO4 + ½ kg lime to avoid phytotoxicity in 200
L water ha-1 ie. 5 g ZnSO4 + 2.5 g lime per litre of water) for emergency treatment of Zn
deficiency in growing plants. Apply at tillering (25–30 DAT) and give two or three repeat
applications at intervals of 10–14 days.

Application of magnesium as basal dose @ 20 kg MgO/ha is effective in giving significant

increase in grain and straw yield of rice in magnesium deficient soils.

2. Coconut

Magnesium sulphate @ 0.5-1.0 kg/palm/year is recommended for root (wilt) affected

area.

For sandy and sandy loams of Onattukara and similar situations and also for hybrid palms
grown in root (wilt) affected areas, apply 500 g MgSO4/palm/year.

Apply lime or dolomite during April-May, magnesium sulphate during August- September
and organic matter during May – June. For an adult palm 1 kg dolomite or 1 kg lime + 0.5 kg
MgSO4 is required per annum.

3. Arecanut

Magnesium sulphate @ 60 g, borax and zinc sulphate @ 20 g per palm/year can be

recommended for yellowing affected palms.
386 APPENDIX 14

4. Banana
Banana micromix : This mixture is formulated using fertilizer grade Ferrous Sulphate,
Manganese Sulphate, Zinc Sulphate, Borax and Copper Sulphate
Composition of mixture formulation for 1 ha
FeSO 4 ¼ kg ha-1
MnSO4 ½ kg ha-1
ZnSO4 2 kg ha-1
Borax 7 kg ha-1
Copper sulphate ¼ kg ha-1
Total 10 kg ha-1

Composition of 100 kg of mixture formulation

Carrier Quantity
FeSO 4 2.5 kg
MnSO4 5 kg
ZnSO4 20 kg
Borax 70 kg
Copper sulphate 2.5 kg

Dose – 10 kg ha-1 or 4 g/plant

Mode of application – Soil/foliar
Time of application
1. Soil – Along with the 2nd split dose of NPK
2. Foliar – 3 months after planting as 1% spray by dissolving 4 g mixture in 400 ml water /
plant
Nutrients available in the mixture
Fe – 1%
Mn – 2%
Zn – 4%
B – 6%
Cu – 1%
Shelf life – three months
5. Ginger and Turmeric
Boron @ 2 kg ha-1 and Zinc sulphate @ 30 kg ha-1 can be used in deficient soils.
APPENDIX 14 387
6. Groundnut
Application of S and B @ 20 kg and 4 kg ha-1 respectively can be recommended.

7. Cowpea
Lime @ 250 kg ha-1 or dolomite @ 400 kg ha-1 can be recommended at the time of first
ploughing.

8. Cocoa
Dolomite @ 100 g/plant/year to plants from the third year onwards.
In case of zinc deficiency, spray 0.5 to 1.5 % ZnSO4 three times a year.

9. Sesamum
Sulphur @ 30 kg ha-1 and boron @ 2.5 kg ha-1 is can be recommended for sesame in rice
fallows of Onattukara.
Apply Zn SO4 20 kg ha-1 in the loamy/ sandy soils of Onattukara region in case of deficiency.

10. Black Pepper

When Soil pH < 5.5 – apply lime @ 500 g / standard, in alternate years. Use Dolomite if
Mg is also low. Apply 200 g Mg SO4 per vine when there is Mg deficiency. In a zinc deficient
soil, apply zinc sulphate @ 30 g per vine (30 kg ha-1 ZnSO4) or give foliar spray of 0.5% Zinc
sulphate twice at new flushing and spike initialization stage. In case B deficiency, apply Borax
@ 10 to 20 g/standard or give foliar spray of 0.2% borax. When there is Mo deficiency apply
sodium molybdate @1 kg ha-1 or give foliar spray @ 0.1%.

11. Cardamom
In zinc deficient soils, apply zinc sulphate @ 25 kg ha-1 or give foliar spray of 0.25% Zinc
sulphate twice at flushing and panicle initialization stage. Apply Borax @ 7.5 kg ha-1 in B
deficient soils or give foliar spray of 0.2% borax.

12. Tomato
Soil application @ 10 kg ZnSO4 ha-1 and 2 kg B ha-1 is recommended for tomato.

13. Rubber
In case of magnesium deficiency symptoms use 50 kg of commercial magnesium sulphate
per hectare.
14. Cassava
In case of deficiency, use MgSO4 @ 20 kg ha-1 and ZnSO4 @ 10 kg ha-1, S @ 50 kg ha-1
S and B as borax @ 10 kg ha-1.

15. Sweet potato

In case of Boron deficiency use borax @ 1.5 kg ha-1.
388 APPENDIX 14

B. SOIL BASED RECOMMENDATIONS:

In cases where crop-specific recommendations are not available, the following guidelines
can be used for recommending secondary and micro nutrients.
Secondary Nutrients (Ca, Mg, S)
Calcium deficiency can be anticipated in extremely acidic, highly leached tropical soils. If
the exchangeable Ca level is less than 300 mg kg-1, soils are classified as deficient. Lime
application at rates given below is recommended.

Lime requirement
Sl. No. pH range Class
(Kg CaCO3 ha-1)
1 < 3.5 Ultra acid 1000
2 3.5 – 4.5 Extremely acid 850
3 4.5 – 5.0 Very Strongly acid 600
4 5.0 – 5.5 Strongly acid 350
5 5.5 – 6.0 Moderately acid 250
6 6.0 – 6.5 Slightly acid 100

Magnesium deficiency can also be observed under extremely acidic soil environment. If
the exchangeable Mg level is less than 120 mg kg-1, soils are classified as deficient. Application
of MgSO4 @ 80 kg ha-1 is recommended.
Highly leached tropical soils may develop S deficiency. When available sulphur levels in
soil are less than 5 mg kg-1, symptoms may appear. Application of sulphur / sulphur containing
fertilizers to give 25kg S per hectare is recommended.
Micro nutrients (Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn and B)
Kerala soils in general have high levels of iron and manganese. Toxic soluble levels of
these elements can be managed by liming. Deficiency situation may arise in sandy soils with
neutral/alkaline reaction. When the available Fe is less than 5 mg kg-1 the soil is considered as
deficient. Application of FeSO4 @ 15 kg ha-1 is recommended. Available Mn level less than
1 mg kg-1 soil condition is rated as deficient. Foliar application of 0.5% MnSO4 is recommended.
Copper deficiency is observed in 31% of soils in Kerala. Available Cu level below
0.12 mg kg-1 in neutral/alkaline soils and below 1 mg kg-1 in acid soils is rated as deficient.
Application of CuSO4.5H2O @ 2 kg ha-1, seedling dip in 1% copper sulphate solution or soaking
of seeds in 0.25% copper sulphate solution for rice is recommended.
Deficiency of Zn is observed in about 34% soils in Kerala. Available Zn less than
0.6 mg kg-1 in neutral/alkaline soils and 1 mg kg-1 in acid soils is rated as deficient condition.
Application of ZnSO4.7H2O @ 20 kg ZnSO4 ha-1 is recommended. Foliar application of
3 kg ZnSO4 dissolved in 187 litres of water per hectare, 20-25 days after planting is recommended
for rice.
APPENDIX 14 389
Deficiency of B is observed in highly leached soils. Available B levels less than 0.5 mg kg-1
in soil can be rated as deficient. Deformation of young leaves, drying/withering of growing
points, failure in splitting of leaflets in coconut, chocking etc. are some of the symptoms.
Application of 10 kg Borax ha-1or 0.5% solution of Borax as foliar spray is recommended.
Where ever crop specific ad hoc recommendations are not available, general
recommendations as indicated in the table attached can be adopted.
These ad hoc recommendations can be used to combat problems of deficiency/excess of
secondary/micro nutrients until further refinements and modifications are made.

1. NPK ratings and recommendations for field crops (Fertilizer recommendations

on area basis)

Soil % of organic carbon N as % of Available Available P and K as

fertility general P (kg ha-1) K (kg ha-1) % of general
Sandy Clayey/
class recommenda- recommenda-
Loamy
tion tion

0 0.00-0.10 0.00-0.16 128 0.0-3.0 0-35 128

1 0.11-0.20 0.17-0.33 117 3.1-6.5 36-75 117
2 0.21-0.30 0.34-0.50 106 6.6-10.0 76-115 106
3 0.31-0.45 0.51-0.75 97 10.1-13.5 116-155 94
4 0.46-0.60 0.76-1.00 91 13.6-17.0 156-195 83
5 0.61-0.75 1.01-1.25 84 17.1-20.5 196-235 71
6 0.76-0.90 1.26-1.50 78 20.6-24.0 236-275 60
7 0.91-1.10 1.51-1.83 71 24.1-27.5 276-315 48
8 1.11-1.30 1.84-2.16 63 27.6-31.0 316-355 37
9 1.31-1.50 2.17-2.50 54 31.1-34.5 356-395 25

2. Ratings and recommendations for Secondary and Micronutrients***

a. Secondary Nutrients

Nutrient Deficiency Sufficiency Recommendation

Calcium < 1.5 me. 100g-1 > 1.5 me. 100g-1 As per lime requirement
(300 mg kg-1) (300 mg kg-1)
Magnesium < 1.0 me. 100g-1 >1.0 me. 100g-1 80 kg MgSO4 ha-1
(120 mg kg-1) (120 mg kg-1)
Sulphur < 5mg kg-1 5 -10 mg kg-1 25 kg S ha-1
390 APPENDIX 14

b. Micronutrients

Nutrient Deficiency Sufficiency Recommendation

0.1N HCl-Zn
< 1.00 mg kg-1 > 1.00 mg kg-1 *20 kg ZnSO4 ha-1
(For Acid soils)
DTPA – Zn
< 0.60 mg kg-1 > 0.60 mg kg-1 20 kg ZnSO4 ha-1
(for neutral to alkaline soils)
0.1N HCl-Cu < 1.00 mg kg-1 > 1.00 mg kg-1 **1.5 to 2.0 kg
(For Acid soils) CuSO4.5H2O ha-1
DTPA – Cu < 0.12 mg kg-1 > 0.12 mg kg-1 **1.5 to 2.0 kg
(For neutral to alkaline soils) CuSO4.5H2O ha-1
DTPA – Fe/ 0.1 N HCl Fe
< 5.0 mg kg-1 > 5.0 mg kg-1 15 kg FeSO4 ha-1
(For both acidic and alkaline soils)
DTPA – Mn/ 0.1 N HCl Mn < 1.0 mg kg-1 > 1.0 mg kg-1 Foliar Spray of 0.5%
(For both acidic and alkaline soils) MnSO4
Hot Water Extractable Boron < 0.5 mg kg-1 >0.5 mg kg-1 10 kg Borax ha-1 or
0.5% solution of Borax

*Zn – Application of 3 kg ZnSO4 dissolved in 187 litres of water per hectare as foliar spray 20-25 days
after planting for rice (as 1.65% ZnSO4 solution to give 0.7 kg Zn ha-1).
**Cu – Seedling dip in 1% copper sulphate solution or soaking of seeds in 0.25% copper sulphate
solution for rice or 0.025% solution of CuSO4.5H2O.
*** The micronutrients should be applied, if found deficient, only on soil test basis.
The laterite and associated soils which constitute more than 70% of cultivated area in
Kerala have shown low or medium status in terms of available micronutrients. More than 90%
of the soils of Thiruvananthapuram and Kollam districts have shown deficiency of sulphur.
Thrissur and Palakkad soils have also indicated deficiency in 80% cases. All soils of Kerala
except black soils of Palakkad districts showed varying degrees of deficiency of available Mg.
Kuttanad soils have shown deficiency of zinc, copper, calcium and magnesium.
APPENDIX 15 391

Appendix 15
INSTITUTIONS UNDER THE KERALA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

1. Teaching Institutions
Faculty of Agriculture
College of Agriculture, Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram 0471 - 2381915
0471 - 2382439
College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara, Thrissur 0487 - 2370822
0487 - 2438302
College of Agriculture, Padannakad, Kasaragod 0467 - 2280616
College of Co-operation, Banking and Management,
Vellanikkara, Thrissur 0487 - 2438502
College of Forestry, Vellanikkara, Thrissur 0487 - 2370050
Faculty of Agricultural Engineering
Kelappaji College of Agricultural Engineering & Technology,
Tavanur, Malappuram 0494 - 2686214
2. Regional Agricultural Research Stations
Regional Agricultural Research Station (Northern Zone),
Pilicode, Kasaragod 0467 - 2260554
Regional Agricultural Research Station, Ambalavayal, Wayanad 04936 - 260421
Regional Agricultural Research Station (Central Zone),
Pattambi, Palakkad 0466 - 2212228
Regional Agricultural Research Station
(Special Problem Area Zone), Kumarakom, Kottayam 0481 - 2524421
Onattukara Regional Agricultural Research Station,
Kayamkulam, Alappuzha 0479 - 2443192
Regional Agricultural Research Station (Southern Zone),
Vellayani, Thiruvananthapuram 0471 - 2382239
3. Other Research Stations
Pepper Research Station, Panniyur, Thaliparamba, Kannur 0460 - 2227287
Cardamom Research Station, Pampadumpara, Idukki 04868 - 236263
Cashew Research Station, Anakkayam, Malappuram 0483 - 2864239
Agricultural Research Station, Mannuthy, Thrissur 0487 - 2370726
Banana Research Station, Kannara, Thrissur 0487 - 2699087
392 APPENDIX 15

Cashew Research Station, Madakkathara, Thrissur 0487 - 2370339

Pineapple Research Station, Vellanikkara, Thrissur 0487 - 2373242
Agronomic Research Station, Chalakudy, Thrissur 0480 - 2702116
Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Research Station,
Odakkali, Ernakulam 0484 - 2659881
Pineapple Research Station, Vazhakulam,
Muvattupuzha, Ernakulam 0485 - 2260832
Rice Research Station, Vyttila, Ernakulam 0484 - 2809963
Central Nursery, Vellanikkara 0487 - 2438620
Rice Research Station, Moncompu, Alappuzha 0477 - 2702245
Sugarcane Research Station, Thiruvalla, Pathanamthitta 0469 - 2604181
Farming System Research Station, Sadanandapuram,
Kottarakkara, Kollam 0474 - 2663535
Cropping System Research Station,
Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram 0471 - 2343586
Coconut Research Station,
Balaramapuram, Thiruvananthapuram 0471 - 2400621

4. Training and Extension Centres

Communication Centre, Mannuthy, Thrissur 0487 - 2370773
Central Training Institute, Mannuthy, Thrissur 0487 - 2371104
Agricultural Technology Information Centre, Mannuthy, Thrissur 0487 - 2371340
KAU Press, Mannuthy, Thrissur 0487 - 2370405

5. Krishi Vigyan Kendras

Ambalavayal, Wayanad 04936 - 260411

Pattambi, Palakkad 0466 - 2212279
Sadanandapuram, Kottarakkara, Kollam 0474 - 2459388
Kumarakom, Kottayam 0481 - 2523120
Mannuthy, Thrissur 0487 - 2375855
Tavanur, Malappuram 0494 - 2686329
Panniyur, Kannur 0460 - 2226087
ANNEXURE 393
Annexure
RICE AND PULSES

1. Principles of SRI

z Adaption in areas where regulation of water is possible in second crop season

z Seed rate @ 5kg/ha

z Spacing 25-30 cms using markers/rope

z Transplant seedlings of 8-12 days old

z Provide drainage channels at every 5 m in main field for proper drainage

z Maintain field without flooding

z Let in water before development of cracks

z Remove weeds using cono-weeder for 4-5 times at 15-20 interval

z Apply lime, manures and PP chemicals as per POP

2. Management of Bacterial Leaf Blight (BLB)

z Spraying Streptocycline 250 ppm at the onset of the disease

z Copper hydroxide (2g l-1) as seed treatment, seedling dip and foliar applications at 30
and 45 DAT (Adhoc reccommendation)

z In Organic Management spraying cowdung extract 2% + Pseudomonas fluresenes

2%

3. Management of Cowpea Spotted Pod Borer

z Bacillus thuringiensis (1g l-1) or Beauvaria bassiana (20 g l-1) two sprays (one at the
time of 50% flowering followed by 15 days interval).