MOTIVATION

Unit -4
MCOB
Dr. Nivedita Singh
The Nature of Motivation
 Motivation
 The set of forces that cause people to behave in certain ways.
 The goal of managers is to maximize desired behaviors and
minimize undesirable behaviors.

 Determinants of Individual Performance

 Motivation—the desire to do the job.
 Ability—the capability to do the job.
 Work environment—the resources needed to do the job.
The Motivation Process
Theories of Motivation

Needs theories Process theories

 Maslow’s hierarchy of
•Self Determination
needs
Theory
 Herzberg’s two factor •Self-Efficacy Theory
theory •Vroom’s Expectancy
 McGregor's theory X Theory
and Y • Equity Theory
•Reinforcement Theory
• OB MOD.
1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Source: Adopted from Abraham H. Maslow, “A Theory of

10–5 Human Motivation,” Psychology Review, 1943, Vol. 50, pp.
370-396.
The Need Hierarchy Approach (Maslow)
 People must, in a hierarchical order, satisfy five needs:
 Physiological needs for basic survival and biological
function.
 Security needs for a safe physical and emotional
environment.
 Belongingness needs for love and affection.
 Esteem needs for positive self-image/self-respect and
recognition and respect from others.
 Self-actualization needs for realizing one’s potential for
personal growth and development.
2. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and
Dissatisfaction

Herzberg's view
Motivators
Satisfaction No dissatisfaction

Hygiene Factors
No dissatisfaction Dissatisfaction
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Dissatisfaction Not dissatisfied Positive

and but satisfaction
demotivation not motivated and motivation

Hygiene Factors Motivational Factors

•Company policies
•Achievement
•Quality of supervision
•Career advancement
•Relations with others
•Personal growth
•Personal life
•Job interest
•Rate of pay
•Recognition
•Job security
•Responsibility
•Working conditions
MOTIVATING ORGANIZATION
MEMBERS

Needs in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs that

desirable hygiene and motivating factors generally satisfy

.
Needs Theories
Maslow Herzberg

Self-Actualisation
Motivators
Esteem

Social
Hygiene
Safety
Factors

Physiological
3. Theory X and Theory Y
McGregor’s Contribution to
Management Theory
 Theory X assumptions
❖The average person dislikes work and will avoid it
❖Most people must be coerced or controlled
❖People avoid responsibility and have little ambition

 Theory X outcomes
❖Work becomes a means to an end
❖Reinforces the rigid lines of authority
McGregor’s Contribution to Management
Theory
 Theory Y assumptions

❖Physical and mental work effort are natural

❖Committing to objectives will allow the full range of control
tools to be utilized
❖Commitment is a function of proper rewards
❖People learn to seek responsibility
❖People have the ability to creatively solve organizational
problems
❖Employees need the freedom to utilize their untapped
potential
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Self Determination Theory
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
Equity Theory
Reinforcement Theory
OB MOD.
1. Self-Determination Theory
 Self-Determination Theory, or SDT, is a theory that links
personality, human motivation, and optimal functioning.

 It posits that there are two main types of motivation—intrinsic

and extrinsic—and that both are powerful forces in shaping
who we are and how we behave .
 Extrinsic motivation is a drive to behave in certain ways that
comes from external sources and results in external rewards .
 Such sources include grading systems, employee evaluations,
awards and accolades, and the respect and admiration of others.

 Intrinsic motivation comes from within. There are internal

drives that motivate us to behave in certain ways, including our
core values, our interests, and our personal sense of morality.

 Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are highly influential

determinants of our behavior, and both drive us to meet the
three basic needs identified by the SDT model:
 Autonomy: people have a need to feel that they are the masters
of their own destiny and that they have at least some control over
their lives; most importantly, people have a need to feel that they
are in control of their own behavior.

 Competence: another need concerns our achievements,

knowledge, and skills; people have a need to build their
competence and develop mastery over tasks that are important
to them.

 Relatedness (also called Connection):people need to have

a sense of belonging and connectedness with others; each of us
needs other people to some degree
2. Self Efficacy Theory
 Self-efficacy (also known as social cognitive theory or social
learning theory ) refers to an individual’s belief that he or she is
capable of performing a task.
 The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in
your ability to succeed.
 The researcher who developed self-efficacy theory, Albert
Bandura, proposes four ways self-efficacy can be increased:

 1. Enactive mastery.
 2. Vicarious modeling.
 3. Verbal persuasion.
 4. Arousal.
 According to Bandura, the most important source of increasing
self-efficacy is enactive mastery —that is, gaining relevant
experience with the task or job.
 If you’ve been able to do the job successfully in the past, you’re
more confident you’ll be able to do it in the future.
 The second source is vicarious modeling —becoming more
confident because you see someone else doing the task.
 If your friend slims down, it increases your confidence that you
can lose weight, too.
 Vicarious modeling is most effective when you see yourself as
similar to the person you are observing.
 The third source is verbal persuasion: becoming more confident
because someone convinces you that you have the skills necessary
to be successful.
 Motivational speakers use this tactic.
 Finally, Bandura argues that arousal increases self-efficacy. Arousal
leads to an energized state, so the person gets “psyched up” and
performs better.
3. Vrooms Expectancy Theory
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory argues that the strength of our tendency to act a
certain way depends on the strength of our expectation of a given
outcome and its attractiveness.
In more practical terms, employees will be motivated to exert a high
level of effort when they believe it will lead to a good performance
appraisal; that a good appraisal will lead to organizational rewards
such as bonuses, salary increases, or promotions; and that the
rewards will satisfy the employees’ personal goals.
Expectancy Theory
(Vroom)

Individual 1 Individual 2 Organisational

Effort Performance Rewards

1. Effort-Performance relationship = Expectancy

Personal
2. Performance-Rewards relationship = Instrumentality
Goals
3. Rewards-Personal goals relationship = Valence

Prentice Hall, 2001 Chapter 6 29

4. Equity Theory
 Caselet:
Jane Pearson graduated from State University last year with a
degree in accounting. After interviews with a number of
organizations on campus, she accepted a position with a top public
accounting firm and was assigned to its Boston office.
Jane was very pleased with the offer she received: challenging work
with a prestigious firm, an excellent opportunity to gain valuable
experience, and the highest salary any accounting major at State
was offered per month.
Twelve months have passed. Her employer is extremely pleased
with her performance; in fact, Jane recently received a $200-per-
month raise.
However, her motivational level has dropped dramatically in the
past few weeks.Why?
Jane’s employer has just hired a fresh graduate out of State
University who lacks the year of experience Jane has gained, and
earns more than Jane now makes!
Jane is irate. She is even talking about looking for another job.
Jane’s situation illustrates the role that equity plays in motivation.

 Employees perceive what they get from a job situation (salary

levels, raises, recognition) in relationship to what they put into it
(effort, experience, education, competence), and then they
compare their outcome–input ratio with that of relevant others.
Equity Theory

Referent
Comparisons:
Self-inside
Self-outside
Other-inside
Other-outside
Equity Theory
 People are motivated to seek social equity in the rewards they
receive for performance.
 Equity is an individual’s belief that the treatment he or she
receives is fair relative to the treatment received by others.
 Individuals view the value of rewards (outcomes) and inputs of
effort as ratios and make subjective comparisons of themselves
to other people:

Outcomes (self) Outcomes (other)

=
Inputs (self) Inputs (other)
 The referent an employee selects adds to the complexity of
equity theory
 There are four referent comparisons:
 1. Self–inside. An employee’s experiences in a different
position inside the employee’s current organization.
 2. Self–outside. An employee’s experiences in a
situation or position outside the employee’s current
organization.
 3. Other–inside. Another individual or group of
individuals inside the employee’s organization.
 4. Other–outside. Another individual or group of
individuals outside the employee’s organization.

 Employees might compare themselves to friends, neighbors, co-

workers, or colleagues in other organizations or compare their
present job with past jobs.
Based on equity theory, employees who perceive inequity will make
one of six choices:
1. Change inputs (exert less effort if underpaid or more if
overpaid).
2. Change outcomes (individuals paid on a piece-rate basis can
increase their pay by producing a higher quantity of units of lower
quality).
3. Distort perceptions of self (“I used to think I worked at a
moderate pace, but now I realize I work a lot harder than everyone
else.”).
4. Distort perceptions of others (“Mike’s job isn’t as desirable as I
thought.”).
5. Choose a different referent (“I may not make as much as my
brother-in-law, but I’m doing a lot better than my Dad did when he
was my age.”).
6. Leave the field (quit the job).
5. Reinforcement Theory
 The reinforcement theory of motivation is based on the “Law of
Effect” concept, i.e. an individual is likely to repeat those
actions having the positive consequences, and will avoid those
behaviors that result in negative or unpleasant outcomes.

 The change in the behavior caused due to the reinforcement

(Positive reward or punishment) given after the response is often
called as Operant Conditioning
 The managers use the following methods for controlling the behavior
of the employees:
 Positive Reinforcement- This implies giving a positive response
when an individual shows positive and required behavior. For example
- Immediately praising an employee for coming early for job. This will
increase probability of outstanding behavior occurring again
 Negative Reinforcement- This implies negative response on
undesirable behavior of employee .
 Punishment-punishment means applying undesirable consequence
for showing undesirable behavior. For instance - Suspending an
employee for breaking the organizational rules.
 Extinction- It implies absence of reinforcements. For instance - if an
employee no longer receives praise and admiration for his good work,
he may feel that his behavior is generating no fruitful consequence.
Extinction may unintentionally lower desirable behavior.
6. OB MOD
 Organizational behavior modification, called OB-mod, plays a key role. OB
Mod or Behavioral modification has its roots in modern behaviorism, which
draws heavily on the work of B.F. Skinner. It is based on the operant
conditioning approach to learning, which advocates that desirable
behaviors should be reinforced.

 Modern behaviorists lay great emphasis on operant conditioning

for molding behavior of individuals and motivating them.
 Behavior modification, popularly known as OB MOD makes use
of various reinforcements to influence the behavior of
individuals.
 This technique helps the managers in modifying or eliminating
undesirable behavior and replacing it with behavior that is more
compatible with goal attainment.
 OB Mod in simple words can be defined as a technique for
modifying the behavior of the organizational members so that
they are engaged in undesirable behavior and replacing it with
desirable behavior. It can be used for motivating the employees as
well as for enhancing organizational effectiveness.

 OB Mod is a program where managers identify performance

related employee behaviors and then implement an intervention
strategy to strengthen desirable behavior and weaken undesirable
behaviors.
 There can be two contingencies of behavior:

 (i) The Antecedents. These are the events preceding the behavior.
 (ii) The consequences i.e. the events that follow a particular
behavior.

 Both these variables put together form the A-B-C model.

 The main aim of this model is to change Behavior by managing its
antecedents and consequences.
 These steps are discussed as follows:
 1. Identification:
 The first step in the OB Mod is identification of performance
related behaviors. First of all the behavior should be identified
as desirable or undesirable from the point of view of the
organization. Then in the next stage, critical behaviors, that
have significant impact on the employees’ performance, should
be given due attention.
 Some of the critical behaviors which affect job performance are
absenteeism or attendance, tardiness or promptness, complaints
or constructive criticism, listening to or not listening to the
instructions, etc. If such behaviors are modified, good results
could be expected. Due attention should be given to the critical
behavior because they get repeated again and again.
 2. Measurement:
 After the critical behaviors of the employees have been
identified, the next step for the manager is to measure the
frequency of the critical behavior over time. The
measurement can be done by observation and by
extraction of information from records. If the frequency is
within the acceptable limit, it will require no action, but if
it exceeds the acceptable limit, it will need immediate
attention.
 3. Analysis:
 At the next step, the managers will have to do a functional
analysis of the behavior that requires modification. This analysis
will determine what circumstances lead to a particular type of
behavior, what are the consequences of such behavior etc.
 4. Intervention:
 Once the critical behaviors have been identified and the
circumstances which cause such behaviors have been determined,
the next step will be to develop an effective intervention
strategy. There are several strategies that can be used at this stage.
These include positive or negative reinforcement, extinction or
punishment.
 The use of a particular strategy will depend upon the type of
situation faced. After developing and implementing a particular
strategy, the frequency of resulting behavior is measured. If a
behavior change has occurred in the right direction, the manager
will select a reinforcement schedule that will maintain the
desired behavior.
 5. Evaluation:
 The last stage in OB Mod is the evaluation whether the
intervention strategies are working properly or not. The basic
purpose of OB Mod is to bring change in undesirable behaviors
so as to improve performance. Evaluation will reveal whether the
undesirable behaviors have been substituted by desirable behavior
or not. If there has been a change in behavior, whether it is
permanent or just temporary.
 Further, the evaluation will also show whether there is
improvement in the performance or not.