UNIT 

II THERMAL BEHAVIOUR OF BUILDINGS
Thermal behaviour of multi layers: body, surface conductance, air‐to‐air resistance, cavity resistance, heat exchange in 
buildings, solar control – Radiation calculations – Solar heat gain ‐ Periodic heat flow calculations, steady‐state heat flow, 
insulation, thermal bridges, window wall ratio / skylight roof ratio ‐ Dynamic response of buildings – Insulation: resistive 
insulation, reflective insulation, capacitive insulation. 

Daylight and sunlight – Day‐lighting luminance, overshadowing, plotting sky cover – Determination of day lighting factors, 

control of sunlight, and beam sun‐lighting ‐ Experimental characterization for day‐lighting ‐ Innovative components. 
The human body continuously produces heat. This metabolic heat production can be of two kinds:

•Basal metabolism, due to biological processes which are continuous and non conscious
• Muscular metabolism, whilst carrying out work, which is consciously controllable (except in shivering).

The followingtable indicatethe rate of excessheat outputof the body in variousactivity

The process of conversion of

chemical energy contained in
food into heat and work is called
as “metabolism”. The rate at
which the chemical energy is
converted into heat and work is
called as “metabolic rate”.

The Body’s 
HEAT PRODUCTION
The heat produced must be dissipated to the environment, or a change in body temperature will occur.
The deep body temperature is about 37°C, while the skin temperature can vary between 31°C and 34°C
under comfort conditions.

Variations occur in time, but also between parts of the body, depending on clothing cover and blood
circulation. There is a continuous transport of heat from deep tissues to the skin surface, from where it is
dissipated by radiation, convection and evaporation – and to a lesser extent by Conduction.

Convection is due to the heat transmission from the body to the air in contact with the skin or
clothing which then rises and is replaced by cooler air. The rate of convective heat loss is increased
by a faster rate of air movement, by a lower air temperature and a higher skin temperature.

Radiant heat loss depends on the temperature of the body surface and the temperature of
opposing surfaces

Evaporation heat loss is governed by the rate of evaporation ,which depends on humidity in
air.(Dryer the air,the faster the evaporation) and the moisture available for evaporation.
Evaporation takes place in lungs through breathing and on the skin as imperceptible perspiration
The Body’s  and sweat.
HEAT LOSS Conduction depends on the temperature difference between the body surface and the object
the body is in direct contact with.
The Body’s 
HEAT or THERMAL BALANCE
CONDUCTIVITY

THERMAL COMFORT FACTORS  • The rate of heat flow through varies with different material and is described as a property of
AND INDICES. the material‐its thermal conductivity or k‐value

CONDUCTIVITY AND RELAVANCE OF DENSITY • Conductivity is defined as the rate of heat flow through unit area of unit thickness of the
CONDUCTANCE AND SURFACE CONDUCTANCE
TRANSMITTANCE
material when there is unit temperature difference between the two sides.
CAVITIES • The unit of measurement is W/m deg C
CONVECTION
RADIATION • Its value varies between 0.03 W/m deg C for insulating materials and up to 400 W/m deg C for
SOL AIR TEMPERATURE
SOLAR GAIN FACTOR metals
• The lower the conductivity the better the insulator a material is.
The thermal conductivity is a • Resistivity is the reciprocal of this quantity (1/k) measured in units of m degC/W. Better
characteristic property of a material and
its value may vary with a number of insulators will have higher resistivity values.
factors including density, porosity,
moisture content, fibre diameter, pore
• Density is often an indicator of conductivity, higher density materials have higher k‐value but it
size, type of gas in the material, mean might not always be true.
temperature and outside temperature
range. • The relationship is due to the fact that air has very low conductivity value ,and as lightweight
materials tend to be porous, thus containing more air, their conductivity tends to be less.
CONDUCTANCE

THERMAL COMFORT FACTORS  • Conductance is the heat flow rate through a unit area of the body when the temperature
AND INDICES. difference between the two surfaces is 1 deg C. The unit measurement is W/m2 degC
• Thermal conduction is the process of heat transfer from one part of a body at a higher
TEMPERATURE
HEAT & SPECIFIC HEAT temperature to another (or between bodies in direct contact) at a lower temperature.
CONDUCTIVITY AND RELAVANCE OF DENSITY
CONDUCTANCE AND SURFACE CONDUCTANCE • This happens with negligible movement of the molecules in the body, because the heat is
TRANSMITTANCE
CAVITIES
transferred from one molecule to another in contact with it.
CONVECTION • While conductivity and resistivity are properties of a material, the corresponding properties of
RADIATION
SOL AIR TEMPERATURE body of a given thickness are described as conductance ( C ) or its reciprocal,
SOLAR GAIN FACTOR
resistance ( R ):C=1/R
• Resistance of a body is the product of its thickness and the resistivity of its material and its unit
measurement is m2 deg C/W
• R=bx1/k= b/k where b is the thickness in meters.
SURFACE CONDUCTANCE

THERMAL COMFORT FACTORS  • In addition to the resistance of a body to the flow of heat, a resistance will be offered by its
AND INDICES. surfaces, where a thin layer of film separates the body from the surrounding air.
• A measure of this is the surface or film resistance, denoted by 1/f (m2 deg C/W) f being the
TEMPERATURE surface or film conductance (W/m2 deg C)
HEAT & SPECIFIC HEAT • Surface conductance includes the convective and the radiant components of the heat exchange
CONDUCTIVITY AND RELAVANCE OF DENSITY
at surfaces.
CONDUCTANCE AND SURFACE CONDUCTANCE
TRANSMITTANCE • If the heat flow from air on one side ,through the body, to air or the other side is considered,
CAVITIES both surface resistances must be taken in to account.
CONVECTION • The overall air‐to‐air resistance (Ra)is the sum of the body's resistance and the surface
RADIATION resistances.
SOL AIR TEMPERATURE
SOLAR GAIN FACTOR Ra =1/fi +Rb+1/f0
where 1/fi= internal surface resistance
Rb = Resistance of the body
1/f0 =External surface resistance
TRANSMITTANCE
THERMAL COMFORT FACTORS 
AND INDICES.
• The reciprocal of this air‐to ‐air resistance is the air‐to‐air transmittance or U‐value
TEMPERATURE
HEAT & SPECIFIC HEAT • U=1/Ra
CONDUCTIVITY AND RELAVANCE OF DENSITY
CONDUCTANCE AND SURFACE CONDUCTANCE • Its unit of measurement is the same as for conductance‐ W/m2 degC.
TRANSMITTANCE
CAVITIES
CONVECTION
• This is the quantity most often used in building heat loss and heat gain problems, as its use
RADIATION
SOL AIR TEMPERATURE greatly simplifies the calculations..
SOLAR GAIN FACTOR
CAVITIES
THERMAL COMFORT FACTORS 
AND INDICES.
• If an air space or cavity is enclosed within a body, through which heat transfer is considered,
TEMPERATURE this will offer another barrier to the passage of heat.
HEAT & SPECIFIC HEAT
CONDUCTIVITY AND RELAVANCE OF DENSITY • It is measured as the cavity Resistance (Rc).
CONDUCTANCE AND SURFACE CONDUCTANCE • The reciprocal of this value is the cavity conductance.
TRANSMITTANCE
CAVITIES • At most the value of for an empty cavity may be the sum of internal and external surface
CONVECTION
RADIATION resistances. It is less if the cavity is less than 50 mm or if strong convection currents can develop
SOL AIR TEMPERATURE
SOLAR GAIN FACTOR
inside the cavity.
• An unventilated cavity is a good insulator (R=0.15 m2 deg C/W),equal to about 180 mm brick
wall.
• The inner leaf of the wall should be the main mass (ex.230mm brick wall) as the insulation
should happen outside the main mass and the outer leaf should be the lesser dense mass (ex
hollow blocks) reducing the conductivity thereby improving insulation
CONVECTION
THERMAL COMFORT FACTORS  • Convection,(The transfer of heat by bodily movement of a carrying medium )may be due to
AND INDICES.
thermal forces alone (Self generating) or may be propelled by an applied force.
TEMPERATURE • The rate of transfer in convection depends on three factor:
HEAT & SPECIFIC HEAT
CONDUCTIVITY AND RELAVANCE OF DENSITY 1. Temperature difference
CONDUCTANCE AND SURFACE CONDUCTANCE 2. The rate of movement of the carrying medium in terms of kg/s or m3/s
TRANSMITTANCE
CAVITIES 3. The specific heat of the carrying medium in J/kg deg C or J/m3 deg C
CONVECTION
RADIATION • These quantities will be used in ventilation heat loss or cooling calculations.
SOL AIR TEMPERATURE
SOLAR GAIN FACTOR
RADIATION
THERMAL COMFORT FACTORS  • The rate of heat flow depends on temperatures of the emitting and receiving surfaces and on
AND INDICES.
certain qualities of these surfaces ‐ the emittance and absorbance.
TEMPERATURE • Radiation received by a surface can be partly absorbed and partly reflected: the proportion of
HEAT & SPECIFIC HEAT
CONDUCTIVITY AND RELAVANCE OF DENSITY these two components is expressed by the coefficients absorbance (a) and reflectance (r) .The
CONDUCTANCE AND SURFACE CONDUCTANCE sum of these two coefficients is always 1
TRANSMITTANCE
CAVITIES • Light coloured ,smooth and shiny surfaces tend to have a high reflectance and dark surfaces
CONVECTION
RADIATION tend to have high absorbance.
SOL AIR TEMPERATURE
SOLAR GAIN FACTOR
• The theoretical white body is a perfect reflector with coefficients a=0 and r=1 while the
theoretical black body is a perfect absorber with coefficients a=1 and r=0
• The practical significance of this is that both light coloured surface and dark coloured surface
when exposed to solar radiation will reflect and absorb same amount of heat but the light
coloured surface will re‐emit much of the absorbed heat where as the dark surface will not and
therefore will attain a high temperature.
SOL AIR TEMPERATURE
THERMAL COMFORT FACTORS  • In the design of buildings, for surfaces exposed to solar radiation, to calculate heat gain, it is
AND INDICES.
useful to combine the heating effect of radiation incident on the building with the effect of
TEMPERATURE warm air. This can be done using the sol‐air temperature concept.
HEAT & SPECIFIC HEAT
CONDUCTIVITY AND RELAVANCE OF DENSITY • A temperature value is found out which would create the same thermal effect as the incident
CONDUCTANCE AND SURFACE CONDUCTANCE radiation in question and this value is added to the air temperature.
TRANSMITTANCE
CAVITIES • Ts=To + (lXa)/fo
CONVECTION
RADIATION • Where Ts= Sol‐air temperature in 0C
SOL AIR TEMPERATURE
SOLAR GAIN FACTOR
• To= Outside temperature in 0C
• l=Radiation intensity in W/m2
• a=absorbance of the surface
• fo=Surface conductance (outside) in W/m2 deg C
SOLAR GAIN FACTOR (θ ).
Solar gain factor(θ) is defined as the heat flow rate through the construction due to solar radiation
THERMAL COMFORT FACTORS  expressed as a fraction of the incident solar radiation.
AND INDICES.
It is expressed as q/l =  (axU ) / fo (Non dimensional)
TEMPERATURE
HEAT & SPECIFIC HEAT where q= Extra heat flow rate per unit area cause by radiation
CONDUCTIVITY AND RELAVANCE OF DENSITY U= Transmittance value in W/m2 degC.
CONDUCTANCE AND SURFACE CONDUCTANCE l=Radiation intensity in W/m2
TRANSMITTANCE
CAVITIES a=absorbance of the surface
CONVECTION fo=Surface conductance (outside) in W/m2 deg C
RADIATION
SOL AIR TEMPERATURE
SOLAR GAIN FACTOR

The lesser the solar gain factor the lesser the heat transfer through windows or 
openings.
Thermal gradients
Transmittance In some cases (e.g. for the prediction of condensation) it will be necessary to know 
the temperature at any point within the wall, i.e. the thermal gradient through the 
wall, or other constructional elements.

This can be established quite simply by a graphic method, as shown by an example, :
assume that the internal temperature Ti = 20°C
and the out‐door temperature To = 0°C

Draw a cross‐section of the wall to a scale representing the resistances of the 
individual layers, instead of the thicknesses. A scale of 1 mm =0.01 m2 degC/W will be 
suitable,thus the external surface resistance is represented by 7.6 mm and the 
resistance of the brickwork is shown as 9.9 mm, etc. 

Alongside this, draw a cross‐section of the wall to a physical scale of 1:10.
Set up a temperature scale vertically, which is to apply to both sections (3 mm = 1 
degC).Establish the To and Ti points at the faces of the resistance section, and 
connect these points with
STEADY STATE ASSUMPTIONS
The equation and calculation methods given in are valid if, and only if, both out‐door
THERMAL COMFORT FACTORS  and indoor temperatures are constant. As perfectly static conditions do not occur in nature, the
AND INDICES. basis of the above methods is the assumption of steady state conditions. This is an obvious
simplification of the actual situation but the results can be taken as reliable if the fluctuations of
TEMPERATURE temperature do not exceed ±3 degC. Such a situation may prevail in the winter of moderate
HEAT & SPECIFIC HEAT climates when the interior is heated and kept at a given temperature or in a warm‐humid climate
CONDUCTIVITY AND RELAVANCE OF DENSITY
where the indoor temperature is kept constant by air conditioning.
CONDUCTANCE AND SURFACE CONDUCTANCE
TRANSMITTANCE
CAVITIES Calculations based on steady state assumptions are useful to determine the maximum rate of 
CONVECTION heat loss or heat gain, also for the purpose of establishing the size and capacity of heating and 
RADIATION cooling installations. 
SOL AIR TEMPERATURE
SOLAR GAIN FACTOR Prediction of the thermal behavior of the building is not the aim of the exercise – the mechanical 
STEADY STATE ASSUMPTIONS
controls will provide the necessary adjustments – the designer only has to make sure that enough 
capacity is provided in heating or cooling to cope with the reasonably likely worst conditions.
In nature the variation of climatic conditions produces a non‐steady state. Diurnal
Periodic heat flow variations produce an approximately repetitive 24‐hour cycle of increasing and
decreasing temperatures. The effect of this on a building is that in the hot period heat
flows from the environment into the building, where some of it is stored, and at night
during the cool period the heat flow is reversed from the building to the
environment. As the cycle is repetitive, it can be described as periodic heat flow.

The diagram given in Figure 41 shows the diurnal variations of external and internal
temperatures in a periodically changing thermal regime. In the morning, as the out‐
door temperature increases, heat starts entering the outer surface of the wall. Each
particle in the wall will absorb a certain amount of heat for every degree of rise in
temperature, depending on the specific heat of the wall material . Heat to the next
particle will only be transmitted after the temperature of the first particle has
increased. Thus the corresponding increase of the internal surface temperature will
be delayed, as shown by the broken line.
Periodic heat flow calculation
The steady state equation Q = A × U × ΔT can be used to find the balance of heat flow or average
heat flow rate over a full cycle in a periodically changing thermal regime. To find the momentary
rate of heat flow, it can only be used if the wall or element considered has a negligible thermal
capacity.
Periodic heat flow
If the indoor temperature is assumed to be constant (a reasonable assumption in controlled
environments), the momentary rate of flow can be calculated fairly simply if it is split in two parts:

a first, the average heat flow rate is found for the full cycle (one day), using the steady state
equation, except that the temperature difference is taken between the daily mean out‐door
temperature and the indoor temperature:
Qʹ = A × U × (Tm – Ti)

b the momentary deviation from the average heat flow rate is found: if the time‐lag of the wall is
ϕ hours, then the heat flow now will depend on the out‐door temperature φ hours previously: Tϕ

The deviation is found by using a temperature difference value between this Tφ and the mean. The
transmittance, or U‐value, is modified by the decrement factor (μ).
Qʹʹ = A × U × (Tϕ – Tm)
The two equations can be added to get the equation describing the periodic heat flow rate:
Q = A × U × [(Tm – Ti) + μ(Tϕ – Tm)]
where Q = momentary heat flow rate in W
A = area in m2
U = transmittance, W/m2 degC
Tm = daily mean out‐door temperature, °C
Ti = indoor temperature (constant), °C
Tϕ= out‐door (sol‐air) temperature
ϕ hours earlier, °C
μ = decrement factor
ϕ = time‐lag in hours
Periodic heat flow
THERMAL BRIDGES
Window wall ratio
SL RR
WWR
Resistive insulation: of all common materials, air has the lowest thermal
DYNAMIC RESPONSE  conductivity: 0.025W/m. K(other values are given in data sheet D.1.1), as long as it is
OF BUILDINGS – INSULATION  still. In a cavity, convection currents will effectively transfer heat from the warmer to
the cooler face.
RESISTIVE INSULATION
REFLECTIVE INSULATION The purpose of resistive insulation is just to keep the air still, dividing it into small
CAPACITIVE INSULATION cells, with the minimum amount of actual material. Such materials are often
referred to as ’bulk insulation’. The best ones have a fine foam structure, consisting
of small closed air cells separated by very thin membranes or bubbles, or consist of
fibrous materials with entrapped air between the fibers.

The most often used insulating materials are expanded or extruded plastic foams,
such as polystyrene or polyurethane or fibrous materials in the form of batts or
blankets, such as mineral wool, glass fibres or even natural wool. Loose cellulose
fibres or loose exfoliated vermiculite can be used as cavity fills or poured over a
ceiling. Second class insulator include wood wool slabs (wood shavings loosely
bonded by cement), wood fibre softboards and various types of lightweight
concrete (either using lightweight aggregate or autoclaved aerated concrete). Heat
flow into (and out of) buildings is driven by two external (climatic) forces: air
temperature and solar radiation.
Reflective insulation: where the heat transfer is primarily
DYNAMIC RESPONSE 
OF BUILDINGS – INSULATION 
radiant, such as across a cavity or through an attic space; the
emittance of the warmer surface and the absorptance of the
RESISTIVE INSULATION receiving surface determine the heat flow.
REFLECTIVE INSULATION
CAPACITIVE INSULATION
A shiny aluminium foil has both a low emittance and a low
absorptance, it is therefore a good reflective insulator. It will be
effective only if it is facing a cavity, so it does not itself have an
R‐value, but it modifies the R‐value of the cavity.

For example, a cavity, at least 25mm wide, in a wall would have

the following resistances: – with ordinary building materials
0.18m2K/W – if one surface is lined with foil 0.35 – if both
surfaces are lined with foil 0.6
Capacitive insulation, i.e. material layers of a high thermal capacity
DYNAMIC RESPONSE  (massive construction) affect not only the magnitude of heat flow, but also
OF BUILDINGS – INSULATION  its timing.
RESISTIVE INSULATION
REFLECTIVE INSULATION Both reflective and resistive insulation respond to temperature changes
CAPACITIVE INSULATION instantaneously. As soon as there is a heat input at one face, a heat output
on the other side will appear, albeit at a controlled rate. Not so with
capacitive insulation.

This relies on the thermal capacity of materials and their delaying action on
the heat flow. In a non‐steady, randomly varying thermal environment the
tracing of heat flows requires sophisticated and lengthy calculation
methods, which are feasible only if included in computer programs. There is
a sub‐set of non‐steady heat flow regimes, the periodic heat flow, the
analysis of which is quite easy. Most meteorological variables (temperature,
solar radiation)showa regular variation, a repetitive 24‐h cycle.
UNIT II THERMAL BEHAVIOUR OF BUILDINGS
Thermal behaviour of multi layers: body, surface conductance, air‐to‐air resistance, cavity resistance, heat exchange in 
buildings, solar control – Radiation calculations – Solar heat gain ‐ Periodic heat flow calculations, steady‐state heat flow, 
insulation, thermal bridges, window wall ratio / skylight roof ratio ‐ Dynamic response of buildings – Insulation: resistive 
insulation, reflective insulation, capacitive insulation. 

Daylight and sunlight – Day‐lighting luminance, overshadowing, plotting sky cover – Determination of day lighting factors, 

control of sunlight, and beam sun‐lighting ‐ Experimental characterization for day‐lighting ‐ Innovative components. 
DAYLIGHT AND SUNLIGHT
• Daylight and sunlight

• Day‐lighting illuminance  Light outdoors can arrive directly from the sun, which is
referred to as SUNLIGHT, or can be diffused by the
• overshadowing 
atmosphere, e.g. by clouds. The term DAYLIGHT, in a loose
• plotting sky cover sense is often used for both, but in technical language, it means
only the DIFFUSED LIGHT.
• Determination of day lighting 
factors

• control of sunlight Daylight is defined as being the volume of natural light that

• beam sun‐lighting enters a building to provide satisfactory illumination of internal
accommodation between sun rise and sunset. This can be
• Experimental Characterization  known as ambient light. Sunlight refers to direct sunshine.
for Day‐lighting Innovative 
Components.
• Daylight and sunlight

• Day‐lighting illuminance 

• overshadowing 

• plotting sky cover

• Determination of day lighting 
factors

• control of sunlight

• beam sun‐lighting

• Experimental Characterization 
for Day‐lighting Innovative 
Components.
• Daylight and sunlight

• Day‐lighting illuminance 

• overshadowing 

• plotting sky cover

• Determination of day lighting 
factors

• control of sunlight

• beam sun‐lighting

• Experimental Characterization 
for Day‐lighting Innovative 
Components.
The CIE standard OVERCAST SKY has a luminance distribution defined as a function of altitude
• Daylight and sunlight angle (γ). If the zenith luminance is Lz, then at any altitude angle
i.e. the zenith luminance is three
• Day‐lighting illuminance  times that at the horizon and it
increases from horizon to zenith
• overshadowing  following a sine function. The
average luminance is found at an
• plotting sky cover altitude angle of 42◦.

• Determination of day lighting  The illuminance produced by an overcast sky strongly depends on the solar 
factors
altitude angle (ALT) behind the clouds. In the absence of measured data, it 
• control of sunlight
can be estimated as 

• beam sun‐lighting

• Experimental Characterization 
for Day‐lighting Innovative 
Components.
(CIE stands for Commission Internationale de l’Éclairage: the International Lighting Commission.) 
UNDER CLEAR SKY CONDITIONS, direct sunlight can give an
• Daylight and sunlight
illuminance of 100 klx (1 kilo‐lx = 1000 lx), but if the sunlight
• Day‐lighting illuminance  itself is excluded, the sky can give 40–50 klx diffuse illuminance.
With clear skies the sky luminance is taken as uniform.
• overshadowing 

• plotting sky cover
In many climates, INTERMEDIATE SKY CONDITIONS occur
• Determination of day lighting 
most of the time. The average illuminance produced by such a
factors
sky (excluding direct sunlight) can be estimated as
• control of sunlight

• beam sun‐lighting

• Experimental Characterization 
for Day‐lighting Innovative 
Components.
(CIE stands for Commission Internationale de l’Éclairage: the International Lighting Commission.) 
• Daylight and sunlight
In temperate climates it is desirable to admit some sunlight into
habitable rooms (including schools or hospital wards), if not for
• Day‐lighting illuminance  physical, certainly for psychological reasons. Some codes of
• overshadowing 
practice prescribe that such rooms should be able to receive
sunlight for at least one hour per day for 10 months of the year
• plotting sky cover (if available).
• Determination of day lighting 
factors This ‘right to sunlight’ has precedence from the eighteenth
century, but the problem became more acute after the 1973
• control of sunlight
energy crisis when installations of various solar energy devices
• beam sun‐lighting proliferated.
• Experimental Characterization 
for Day‐lighting Innovative 
Components.
A task before starting a design would be to assess any obstructions around the site
• Daylight and sunlight and establish the extent and duration of overshadowing. Fig. shows a method of
assessing overshadowing in a simple case.
• Day‐lighting illuminance 
Take point A, at the ground floor window sill level of the proposed building. Lines
• overshadowing  drawn on plan to the edges of the obstructing existing building can be transferred to
the shadow angle protractor, to delineate the horizontal extent of overshadowing (in
• plotting sky cover this case −45◦ and +28◦).

• Determination of day lighting 
factors

• control of sunlight

• beam sun‐lighting

• Experimental Characterization 
for Day‐lighting Innovative 
Components.
Then on a section, the line drawn from point A to the top edge of the existing
• Daylight and sunlight building gives the vertical shadow angle (VSA), in this case 40◦, which is represented
by the 40◦ arc of the protractor. This completes the shading mask. If this is
• Day‐lighting illuminance  superimposed on the sun‐path diagram for the location, according to orientation (in
this case S/E, or 135◦) the times end dates of overshadowing can be read: on
• overshadowing  midsummer day only for a few minutes at about 7:30, but on equinox dates from 6:00
to about 11:00 h.
• plotting sky cover

• Determination of day lighting 
factors

• control of sunlight

• beam sun‐lighting

• Experimental Characterization 
for Day‐lighting Innovative 
Components.
• Daylight and sunlight

• Day‐lighting illuminance 

• overshadowing 

• plotting sky cover

• Determination of day 
lighting factors

• control of sunlight

• beam sun‐lighting

• Experimental Characterization 
for Day‐lighting Innovative 
Components.
• Daylight and sunlight

• Day‐lighting illuminance 

• overshadowing 

• plotting sky cover

• Determination of day 
lighting factors

• control of sunlight

• beam sun‐lighting

• Experimental Characterization 
for Day‐lighting Innovative 
Components.
• Daylight and sunlight

• Day‐lighting illuminance 

• overshadowing 

• plotting sky cover

• Determination of day 
lighting factors

• control of sunlight

• beam sun‐lighting

• Experimental Characterization 
for Day‐lighting Innovative 
Components.
• Daylight and sunlight

• Day‐lighting illuminance 

• overshadowing 

• plotting sky cover

• Determination of day 
lighting factors

• control of sunlight

• beam sun‐lighting

• Experimental Characterization 
for Day‐lighting Innovative 
Components.
• Daylight and sunlight

• Day‐lighting illuminance 

• overshadowing 

• plotting sky cover

• Determination of day 
lighting factors

• control of sunlight

• beam sun‐lighting

• Experimental Characterization 
for Day‐lighting Innovative 
Components.
• Daylight and sunlight

• Day‐lighting illuminance 

• overshadowing 

• plotting sky cover

• Determination of day 
lighting factors

• control of sunlight

• beam sun‐lighting

• Experimental Characterization 
for Day‐lighting Innovative 
Components.
Climatic data, such as hours of clear
• Daylight and sunlight sunshine can give an indication of the
available resource, or the magnitude of the
• Day‐lighting illuminance  sunlight problem. Solar irradiation data
could be converted to luminous quantities
• overshadowing  by using luminous efficacy values.

• plotting sky cover The sun’s position in relation to the

window at that critical time is to be
• Determination of day lighting  established first. The horizontal shadow
factors angle (HSA) at the time in question is the
azimuth difference between the sun’s
• control of sunlight direction andthe orientation. The solar
altitude (ALT) must be projected onto a
• beam sun‐lighting plane perpendicular to the window, to get
the VSA. Once these two angles are
• Experimental Characterization  known, the sun penetration, the sunlit
for Day‐lighting Innovative  patch on the floor or on the work plane can
Components. be constructed, as shown in Fig. .
A beam of solar radiation incident on a window pane may produce an irradiance of
• Daylight and sunlight up to 450W/m2.With a glass transmittance 0.78 this would be reduced to 350W/m2.

• Day‐lighting illuminance  If the luminous efficacy of this is taken as 100lm/W (an average value), the
illuminance produced will be some 35 000 lx.
• overshadowing 
In such a situation the general illuminance is also increased, perhaps to 1000 lx. So
• plotting sky cover the contrast is 35:1.

• Determination of day lighting  This is too much for comfort. The occupants must be given the option of some
factors control, such as a curtain or blind.

• control of sunlight It is however likely that irradiance would be controlled for thermal reasons,
preferably by some external shading devices, possibly by some adjustable
• beam sun‐lighting mechanisms.

• Experimental Characterization  The use of tinted (heat absorbing or reflective) glasses may provide a remedy, avoid
for Day‐lighting Innovative  glare and reduce sunlight. The problem is that they affect diffuse light as much as
Components. beam light and as their properties are fixed, they have no selectivity in time: perform
the same way in winter as in summer, they would reduce day lighting even when it is
scarce.
Beam sun lighting is very useful in areas of the building that are not reached by day
• Daylight and sunlight lighting through side windows. Several techniques are in use:

• Day‐lighting illuminance  1. Prismatic glass is

often employed,
• overshadowing  normally for the top
one third of a window
• plotting sky cover to divert the beam of
sunlight (by refraction)
• Determination of day lighting  upwards, to the ceiling,
factors which will then diffuse it
to the rear part of the
• control of sunlight room (Fig.2.33 )

• beam sun‐lighting 2. Laser‐grooved acrylic sheets, divided into small elements by laser cuts to some 90% of
the thickness, which will serve the same purpose partly by refraction, but mainly by full internal
reflection in each element (Fig. 2.34). These have a particular relevance for roof lights in low
• Experimental Characterization  latitude climates, where the midday sun can be quite a problem. In a prismatic roof light, they
for Day‐lighting Innovative  can completely reject high altitude (near zenith) radiation, but would admit the morning and
Components. late afternoon sunlight (Fig. 2.35)
• Daylight and sunlight
3. Light shelves

• Day‐lighting illuminance  have been used for similar purposes

• overshadowing 
for many years. In its simplest form
this would be a horizontal element
• plotting sky cover (an extended transom) across the
• Determination of day lighting 
window at a height of about 2.1 m,
factors with a reflective upper surface, which
directs the light up to the ceiling (Fig.
• control of sunlight
2.36). These would work well in a
• beam sun‐lighting fairly high room (≈ 3 m). If mounted
externally , they could also serve as a
• Experimental Characterization 
for Day‐lighting Innovative 
shading device for the lower part of
Components. the window, but it may
Beam sunlighting is also used for roof lights.
• Daylight and sunlight
As Fig. 2.38 shows a heliostat (a motorized
system, the mirror tracking the sun) and a
• Day‐lighting illuminance 
fixed mirror can direct the solar beam
• overshadowing  downwards where it may enter the room
through a diffuser. Such a system serving a
• plotting sky cover single storey building (or the top floor of a
multistorey building) can have an efficiency
• Determination of day lighting  of around 50%.
factors
This means that if a solar beam of 60 klx is
• control of sunlight
incident on the primary mirror of 1m2, of the
• beam sun‐lighting 60 klm light flux some 30 klm is emitted by
the ceiling diffuser, which can produce an
• Experimental Characterization  average illuminance of 300 lx over a 100m2
for Day‐lighting Innovative  area of the work plane.
Components.
Window to Wall Ratio

Window design is one of the factors, which will affect the building energy

consumption. More thought should be given to window design as they play a big role in

ventilation, lighting system of a room. The added challenge of designing windows and

other openings for natural ventilation is on how to control or filter out traffic noise in

urban areas. A determinant factor of window design in the transmission of solar

radiation into interior space is window to wall ratio (WWR). A window to wall ratio is

the measure of the percentage area of a building’s exterior envelope that is made up of

glazing, such as windows. ASHRAE 90.1-2007 has established that Window to Wall

Ratio (WWR) of 0.24 is considered ideal to allow optimum indoor daylight and natural

ventilation. This does not mean that the higher of WWR, the better performance for the

windows. The larger a window, more heat or light will penetrate into the room which

cause overheating and glare. Windows with WWR more than 0.30 will create

overheating into the building. Table 4.1 shows the summary of standard requirement

for WWR.

Table 4.1: Standard requirement for WWR (ASHRAE 90.1-2007)

WWR x<0.24 0.24 >0.30

Value POOR GOOD OVERHEAT

Five British Colonial residences have been selected for the calculation of Window To

Wall Ratio (WWR), for the efficiency of the window design. The WWR were

calculated on all walls of the main building. The results were analysed to determine the

adequacy of each WWR according to orientation for natural ventilation and daylight

while at the same time controlling the internal heat gain and visual comfort, following

ASHRAE 90.1-2007 standard requirement.

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