R.T Notes Complete

1

RT ABBREVIATIONS
ADS The address
(when the abbreviation is used
A to request receptions the
question mark (IMI) precedes
the abbreviation e.g. IMI ADS
A Amber (to br used in AFS as a
AAA ( or AAB,AAC…..ETC in sequence) procedure Signal)
Amended meteorogical message
( message type designator) ADS-B‡ Automatic dependent survilence
A/A Air to Air Contract
AAD Assigned altitude deviation
AAIM Aircraft autonomus integrity ADSU Automatic dependent
monitoring Surveillance unit
AAL Above aerodrome level ADVS Advisory service
ABI Advance boundry ADZ Advise
information AES Aircraft earth station
ABM ABEM AFIL Flight plan filled in the air
ABN Aerodrome beacon AFIS Aerodrome flight information
ABT About service
ABV Above AFM Yes or affirm or affirmative or
AC Altocumulus that is correct
ACARS† (to be pronounced “AY-CARS”) AFS Aeronautical fixed service
Aircraft AFT After…..(time or place)
commiunication addressing AFTN‡ Aeronautical fixed
reporting system telecommunication network
ACAS† Airborne collision A/G Air to ground
avoidnence accident AGA Aerodromes air routes and
ACC‡ Area control centre of ground aids
area control AGL Above ground level
ACCID Notification of an aircraft AGN Again
accident AIC Aeronautical information
ACFT Aircraft Circular
ACK Acknowledge AIDC Air traffic service interfacility
ACL Altimeter check location data communications
ACN Aircraft classification number AIP Aeronautical information
ACP Acceptance (message type publication
designator) AIRAC Aeronautical info regulation and
ACPT Accept or accepted control
ACT Active or activated or activity AIREP† Air report
AD Aerodrome AIRMET† Info concerning en route weather
ADA Advisory area phenomena which may affect the
ADC Aerodrome chart safety of low level of aircraft
ADDN Addition or additional operations
ADF‡ Automatic direction finding AIS Aeronautical info services
equipment ALA Alighting area
ADIZ† ( to be pronounced “AY-DIZ”) ALERFA† Alert phase
Air defence identification zone ALR Alerting (messages type Design)
ADJ Adjacent ALRS Alerting services
ADO Aerodrome office ALS Approach lighting system
ADR advisory route ALT Altitude

† When radiotelephony is used, the abbreviation and terms are transmitted as spoken words
‡ When radiotelephony is used, the abbreviations and terms are transmitted using the individual
letters in non-phonic
* Signal is also available for use in communicating with stations of the maritime mobile service
# Signal is also use in the teletypewriter service only
2

ALTN Alternate or altenating (light alternates in ASHTAM Special series NOTAM notifying by means of a
Colour) specific format change in activity of a volcano a
ALTN Alternate (aerodrome) volcanic eruption and/or volcanic ash cloud that
AMA Area minimum altitude is of significance to aircraft operations
AMD Amend or amended (used to indicator amended ASPEEDG Airspeed gain
meteorological message type designator) ASPEEDL Airspeed loss
AMDT Amended (AIP Amended) ASPH Asphalt
AMS Aeronautical mobile service AT……. At (followed by time at which weather change
AMSL Above mean sea level is forecast to occur)
AMSS Aeronautical mobile services ATA‡ Actual time of arrival
ANC….. Aeronautical chart---- 1:500000 ( followed by ATC‡ Air traffic control ( in general)
Name/little)
ATCSMAC.. Air traffic control surveillance minimum
ANCS….. Aeronautical navigation chart--- small scale
altitude chart (followed by name/tittle )
( followed by name/tittle and scale)
ANS Answer ATD‡ Actual time of departure
AOC……. Aerodrome obstacle chart (followed by type ATFM Air traffic flow management
And name/tittle) ATIS† Automatic terminal information
AP Airport service
APAPI† (to be pronounced “AY-PAPI”) Abbreviated ATM Air traffic management
Precision approach path indicator ATN Aeronautical telecommunication network
APCH Approach ATP At ( time or place)
APDC…. Aircraft parking docking chart(followed by ATS Air traffic services
Name/tittle ATTN Attention
APN Apron AT-VASIS† (to be pronounced “AY-TEE-VASIS”)
APP Aproch control office or approach control Abbreviated T visual approach slope
Or approaches control services indicator system
APR April ATZ Aerodrome traffic zone
APRX Approximate or approximately AUG August
APSG After passing AUTH Authorised or authorization
APV Approve or approved or approval AUW All up weight
ARC Area chart Aux Auxiliary
ARNG Arrange AVBL Available or availability
ARO Air traffic services reporting office AVG Average
ARP Aerodrome reference point AVGAS† Aviation gasoline
ARP Air-report (message type designator) AWTA Advise at what time able
ARQ Automatic error correction AWY Airway
ARR Arrival (message type designator) AZM Azimuth
ARR Arrive or arrival
ARS Special air report (message type designator)
ARST Arresting (specify (part of) aircraft arresting B
Equipment ) B Blue
AS Altostratus BA Braking action
ASC Ascend to or ascending to
ARO-VNAV† (to be pronounced “BAA-RO-VEE-
ASDA Accelerate stop distance available
ASE Altimetry system error NAV”) Barometric vertical navigation
BASE† Cloud base
BCFG Fog patches
3
BCN Beacon (aeronautical ground light) CH Chanel

BCST Broadcast Ch# This is a channel-continuity-check of transmission
BDRY Boundary To permit comparsion of your record of channel-
BECMG Becoming Sequence numbers of messages received on the
BFR Before Channel (to be used in AFS as a procedure signal)
BKN Broken CHG Modification
BL…… Blowing (followed by DU= dust, SA = sand CI Cirrus
Or SN = snow ) CIDIN Common ICAO data interchange network
BLDG Building CIT Near or over large towns
BLO Below clouds CIV Civil
BLW… Below CK Check
BOMB Bombing CL Centre line
BR Mist CLA Clear type of ice formation
BRF Short (used to indicate the type of approach CLBR Calibration
Desired or required ) CLD Cloud
BRG Bearing CLG Calling
BRKG Braking CLIMB-OUT Climb out area
BTL Between layers CLR Clear(s) or cleared to, or clearance
BTN Between CLRD Runway(S) cleared (used in METAR/SPECI)
CLSD Close or closed or closing
C CM Centimetre
…C Centre (preceded by runway designation number CMB Climb to or climbing to
To identify a parallel runway) CMPL Completion or completed or complete
C Degrees Celsius (Centigrade) CNL Cancel or cancelled
CA Course to an Altitude CNL Flights plan cancellation (message type
CAT Category designator)
CAVOK† (to be pronounced “KAV-OH-KAY”) CNS Communications, navigation and
Visibility,cloud and present weather better surveillance
Than prescribed values or conditi0ons COM Communications
CONC Concrete
CB‡ (to be pronounced “CEE BEE”)
COND Condition
Cumulonimbus
CONS Continuous
CC Cirrocumulus
CONST Construsction or constructed
CCA (or CCB,CCC…..etc.,in sequence) Corrected
CONT Continue(s) or continued
Meterological message ( message type
COOR Coordinate or coordination
designator )
COORD Coordinates
CD Candela
COP Change over point
CDN Coordination (message type designator)
COR Correct or correction or corrected (used
CF Change frequency to….
To indicate corrected meteorological
CFM* Confirm or I confirm(to be used in AFS as a
Messages type designator)
procedure signal)
COT At the coast
CGL Circling guidance light(s)
COV Cover or covered or covering
CPDLC Controller pilot data link communications
CPL Current flight plan (message type designator)
CRC Cycling redundancy check
CRM Collision risk model
4
CRZ Cruise DFTI Distance from touchdown indicator

CS Call Sign DH Decision height
CS Cirrostratus DIF Diffuse
CTA Control area DIST Distance
CTAM Climb to and maintain DIV Divert or diverting
CTC Contact DLA Delay or delayed
CTL Control DLA Delay (massage type designator)
CTN Caution DLIC Data link inhiation capability
CTR Control Zone DLY Daily
CU Cumulus DME ‡ Distance measuring equipment
CUF Cumuliform DNG Danger or dangerous
CUST Customs DOM Domestic
CVR Cockpit voice reorder DP Dew point temperature
CW Continuous wave DPT Depth
CWY Clearway DR Dead reckoning
D DR………. Low drifting (followed by DU = dust, SA =
D Downward (tendency in RVR during previous 10 Sand or SN = snow)
minutes) DRG During
D….. Danger area(followed by identificatiosn) DS Dust storm
DA Decision Altitude DSB Double sideband
D-ATIS† ( to be pronounced “DEE-ATIS”) Data DTAM Descends to and maintain
link DTG Date tandem wheels
DU Dust
automatic terminal info service
DUC Dense upper cloud
DCD Double channel duplex
DUPE# This is a duplicate message (to be used in
DCKG Docking
AFS as a procedure signal)
DCP Datum crossing point
DUR Duration
DCPS Direct controller pilot communications
D- VOLMET Data link VOLMET
DCS Double channel simplex
DVOR Doppler VOR
DCT Direct (in reletion to flight plan clearness and
DW Dual wheels
type
DZ Drizzle
of approach)
DE* From (Used to precede the call sign of the calling
\
E
Stations) (to be used in AFS as a procedure
E East or eastern longitude
signal )
EAT Expected approach time
DEC December
EB Eastbound
DEG Degrees
EDA Elevation differential area
DEP Depart or departure
EEE# Error (to be used in AFS as a procedure signal)
DEP Departure (message type designator)
EET Estimasted elapsed time
DER Departure end of the runway
EFC Expert further clearance
DES Descend to or descending to
EFIS (to be pronounced “EE-FIS” ) Electronic flight
DEST Destination
Instruments system
DETRESFA† Distress phase
EGNOS† (to be pronounced “EGG-NOS”)
DEV Deviation or deviating
European geostationary navigation overlay
DF Direction finding
Service
DFDR Digital flight data recorder
5
EHF Extremely high frequency [30000 to FATO Final approach and take off area
300000 MHz FAX Facsimile transmission
ELBA† Emergency location beacon—aircraft FBL Light (used to indicate the intensity of
ELEV Elevation Weather phenomena, interference or static
ELR Extra long range Reports, e.g. FBL RA = light rain)
ELT Emergency locator transmitter FC Funnel cloud (tornado or water spout)
EM Emission FCST Forecast
EMBD Embedded in a layer ( to indicate cumulonimbus FCT Friction coefficient `
Embeded in layers of other clouds) FDPS Flight data processing system
EMERG Emergency FEB February
END Stop end (related to RVR ) FEW Few
ENE East-north-east FG Fog
ENG Engine FIC Flight information centre
ENR En route FIR‡ Flight information region
ENRC Enroute chart (folowed by name/tittle) FIS Flight information service
EOBT Estimated off-block time FISA Automated flight information service
EQPT Equipment FL Flight level
ER* Here…. Or herewith FLD Field
ESE East- south- east FLG Flashing
EST Estimat or estimated or estimation (message FLR Flares
type FLT Flight
Designator ) FLTCK Flight check
ETA*‡ Estimated time of arrival or estimating FLUC Fluctuating or fluctuation or fluctuated
arrival FLW Follows(s) or following
ETD‡ Estimated time of departure or estimating FLY Fly or flying
Departure FM Course from a fix to manual termination
ETO Estimated time over significant point (used in navigation database coding)
EV Every FM From
EXC Except FM…… From (followed by time weather change
EXER Exercise or exercising or to exercise Is forecast to begin)
EXP Expect or expected or expecting FMC Flight management computer
EXTD Extend or extending FMS‡ Flight management system
FMU Flow management unit
F FNA Final Approaches
F Fixed FPAP Flight path alignment point
FA Course from a fix to an altitude FPL Filed flight plan (message type
FAC Facilities designator)
FAF Final approach fix FPM Feet per minute
FAL Facilitation of international air transport FPR Flight plan route
FAP Final approach point FR Fuel remaining
FAS Final approach segment FREQ Frequency
FRI Friday
FRNG Firing
FRONT† Front(relating to weather )
FROST† Frequent
FSL Full stop landing
6
FSS Flight service station GPS‡ Global positioning system

FST First GPWS‡ Ground proximity warning system
FT Feet (dimensional unit) GR Hail
FTE Flight technical error GRAS† (to be pronounced “GRASS” ground
FTP Fictitious threshold point Based regional augmentation system
FTT Flight technical tolerance GRASS Grass landing area
FU Smoke GRIB Proceeds meteorological data in the form of
FZ Freezing Grid point values expressed in binary form
FZDZ Freezing drizzle (meteorological code)
FZFG Freezing fog GRVL Gravel
FZRA Freezing Rain GS Ground speed
GS Small hail and/ or snow pellets
G GUND Geoid undulation
G Green H
G…… Variations from the mean wind speed(gusts) H High pressure area or the centre of high
(followed by figures in METAR/SPECI and TAF) Pressure
GA Go ahead resume sending (to be used in AFS as a H24 Continuous day and night service
procedure signal) HA Holding/racetrack to an altitude
G/A Ground to Air HAPI Helicopter approaches path indicator
G/A/G Ground to Air and Air to Ground HBN Hazard beacon
GAGAN† GPS and geostationary earth orbit HDF High frequency direction finding stations
augmented navigation HDG Heading
GAMET Area forecast for low level flights Hel Helicopter
GARP GBAS azimuth reference point HF‡ High frequency [3 000 to 30 000 kHz]
GBAS† (to be pronounced “GEE-BAS”) ground HF Holding/racetrack to a fix
Based augmentation system HGT Height or height above
GCA‡ Ground controlled approach system or HJ Sunrise to sunset
ground controlled approaches HLDG Holding
GEN General HM Holding/racetrack to a fix
GEO Geographic or true HN Sunset to sunrise
GES Ground earth station HO Service available to meet operational
GLD Glider requirements
GLONASS† ( to be pronounced :GLO-NAS”) HOL Holiday
Global orbiting navigation satellite HOSP Hospital aircraft
System HPA Hectopascal
GLS ‡ GBAS landing system HR Hours
GMC…. Ground movement chart (followed by HS service available during hours of
name/tittle) schedule operations
GND Ground HURCN Hurricane
GNDCK Ground check HVDF High and very high frequency direction
GP Glide path Finding stations(at the same location)
GPA Glide path angle HVY Heavy
GPIP Glide path intercept point
7
HVY Heavy(used to indicate the intensity INSTR Instrument

Weather phenomena. E.g. HVY RA = INT Intersection
Heavy rain) INTL international
HX No specific working hours INTRG Interrogator
HYR Higher INTRP Interrupt or interruption or interrupted
HZ Haze INTSF Intensify or intensifying
HZ Hertz (cycle per second) INTST Intensity
IR Ice on runway
IRS Inertial reference system
I ISA International standard atmosphere
IAC…. Instrument approach chart [followed by ISB Independent side bond
name/tittle] ISOL Isolated
IAF Initial approach fix
IAO In and out of clouds
IAP Instrument approach procedure
IAR Intersections of air routes J
IAS Indicated airspeed JAN January
IBN Identification beacon JTST Jet stream
IC Ice crystals ( very small ice crystals in suspension. JUL July
Also Known as diamond dust) JUN June
ICE Icing
ID Identifier or identify
IDENT† Identification K
IF Intermediate approach fix KG Kilograms
IFF Identification friend/foe KHZ Kilohertz
IFR‡ Instrument flight rules KIAS Knots indicated airspeed
IGA International general aviation KM Kilometres
KMH Kilometres per hour
ILS‡ Instrument landing system
KPA Kilopascal
IM Inner maker
KT Knots
IMC‡ Instrument meteorological conditions KW Kilowatts
IMG Immigrations
IMI* Interrogation sign (question mark) ( to
be used in AFS as a procedure signal) L
…..L Left (preceded by runway designation
IMPR Improve and improving Number to identify a parallel runway)
IMT Immediate or immediately L Locator (see LM,LO)
INA Innitial approach L Low pressure area or the centre of low
INBD inbound Pressure
INC In cloud LAM Logical acknowledgement (message
Type designator)
INCERFA† Uncertainly phase LAN Inland
INFO† Information LAT Latitude
INOP Inoperative
INP If not possible
INPR In progress
INS Inertial navigation system
INSTL Install or installed or installation
8
LCA Local or locally or location or located MAA Maximum authorised altitude

LDA Landing distance available MAG Magnetic
LDAH Landing distance available, helicopter MAHF Missed approaches holding fix
LDG Landing MAINT Maintenance
LDI Landing direction indicator MAP Aeronautical maps and charts
LEN Length MAPT Missed approaches point
LF Low frequency [30 to 300 kHz] MAR March
LGT Light or lighting MAR At sea
LGTD Lighted MAS Manual AI simplex
LIH Light intensity high MATF Missed approaches turning fix
LIL Light intensity low MAX Maximum
LIM Light intensity medium MAY May
LINE Line ( used in SIGMET) MBST Microburst
LM Locator middle MCA Minimum crossing altitude
LMT Local mean time MCW Modulated continues wave
LNAV† ( to be pronounced “EL-NAV”) MDA Minimum descent altitude
Lateral navigation MDF Medium frequency direction
LNG Long (Used to indicate the type of MDH Minimum descent height
approach desired or required) MEA Minimum en-route altitude
LO Locater, outer MEHT Minimum eye height over
LOC Localiser threshold (for visual approaches
LONG Longitude slope indictor systems )
LORAN† LORAN( long range air navigation MET† Meteorological or
System) meteorology
LPV Localiser performance with vertical METAR‡ Aerodrome routine
Guidance meteorological report
LR The last message received by me was… ( in meteorological code)
( to be used in AFS as a procedure signal) MET
LRG Long range REPORT Local routine
LS The last messages sent by me was… or meteorological report( in
Last message was…( to be used in AFS abbreviated plain languages)
As a procedure signal) MF Medium frequency [ 300 to
LTD Limited 3000 kHz]
LTP Landing threshold point MHDF Medium and high frequency
LTT Landing teletypewriter Direction- finding stations
LV Light and variable ( at the same locations)
LVE Leave or leaving MHDVF Medium, high and very
LVL Level high frequency direction-
LVP Low visibility procedures finding stations (at the
LYR Layer or layered same location)
MHZ Megahertz
MID Mid-point ( related to RVR)
M MIFG Shallow fog
…. M Metres (preceded by figures ) MIL Military
M… Mach numbers (followed by figures) MIN Minutes
M… Minimum value of runway visual range MIS* Missing….( transmission identification)
( followed by figures in METAR/ SPECI) ( to be used in AFS as a procedure
Signal)
MKR Marker radio beacon
MLS‡ Microwave landing system
MM Middle marker
MNM Minimum
MNPS minimum navigations performance
Specifications
9
MNT Monitor or monitoring or monitored NAT North Atlantic

MNTN Maintain NAV Navigation
MOA Military operating area NB Northbound
MOC Minimum obstacles clearance(required) NBFR Not before
MOCA minimum obstcles clearance altitude MOD NC No change
Moderate ( used to indicate the NCD No cloud detected ( used it
Intensity of weather phenomena, Automated METAR/SPECI)
Interference or static reports, e.g. NDB‡ Non-directional radio beacon
MODRA = moderate rain) NDV No directional variations available
MON Above mountains (used in automated METAR/SPECI)
MON Monday NE North east
MOPS† Minimum operational performance NEB North east bound
Standards NEG No or negative or permissions not
MOTNE Meteorological Operational granted or that is not correct
Telecommunication Network Europe NGT Night
MOV Move or moving or movement NIL*† None or I have nothing to send to
MPS Meters per second You
MRA Minimum reception altitude NM Nautical miles
MRG Medium range NML Normal
MRP ATS/MET reporting point NNE North-north-east
MS Minus NNW North-north-west
MSA Minimum sector altitude NO No negative ( to be used in AFS
MSAS† ( to be pronounced “EM-SAS”) Multi- As a procedure signal)
Functional transport satellite(MTSAT) NOF International NOTAM office
Satellite based augmentation system NOSIG† No significant change (used in
MSAW Minimum safe altitude warning Trend type landing forecast)
MSG Message NOTAM† A notice distributed by means
MSL Mean sea level Of telecommunications containing
MSR# Message… ( transmission identification) Info concerning the
Has been misrouted ( to be used in AFS Establishment condition or
As a procedure signal) Change in any aeronautical
MSSR Monopoles secondary surveillance Facility, service, procedure, or
Radar Hazards the timely knowledge
MT Mountain Of which is essential to personal
MTU Metric units Concerned with flight operations
MTW Mountains waves NOV November
MVDF Medium and very high frequency NOZ‡ Normal operating zone
Direction findings stations( at the NPA Non precision approaches
same locations) NR Number
MWO Meteorological watch office NRH No reply heard
MX Mixed type of ice formation (white NS Nimbostratus
and clear) NSC Nil Significant cloud
NSE Navigation system error
N NSW Nil significant weather
N No distinct tendency ( in RVR during NTL National
previous 10 minutes) NTZ‡ No transgression zone
N North or northern latitude NW North-west
NADP Noise abatement departure procedure NWB North west bound
NASC† National AIS system centre NXT Next
10
O PAPI† Precision approaches path indicator

PAR‡ Precision approach radar
OAC Oceanic area control centre PARL Parallel
OAS Obstacles assessment surface PATC…. Precision approaches terrain chart ( followed
OBS Observes or observed or observations By name/ tittle)
OBSC Obscure or observed or observation PAX Passenger(S)
OBST Obstacle PBN Performance based navigation
OCA Obstacles clearance altitudes PCD Proceed or proceeding
OCC Occulting (light) PCL Pilot controlled lighting
OCH Obstacles clearance surface PCN Pavement classification number
OCT October PDC‡ Pre departure clearance
OFZ Obstacle free zone PDG Procedure design gradient
OGN Originate ( to be used in AFS as a procedure PER Performance
signal) PERM Permanent
OHD Overhead PIB Pre flight information bulletin
OIS Obstacle identification surface PJE Parachute jumping exercise
OK* We agree or It is correct ( to be used is AFS as a PL Ice pellets
Procedure signal) PLA Practise low approaches
OLDI† On line data interchange PLN Flight plan
OM Outer maker PLVL Present level
OPA Opaque white type of ice formation PN Prior notice required
OPC Control indicated is operational control PNR Point of no return
OPMET† Operational meteorological PO Dust/sand whirls (dust devils)
(information) POB Persons on board
OPN Open or opening or opened POSS Possible
OPR Operator or operate or operative or operating PPI Plan Position indicator
or operational PPR Prior permission required
OPS† Operations PPSN Present position
O/R On request PRFG Aerodynamic partially covered by fog
ORD Order PRI primary
OSV Ocean station vessel PRKG Parking
OTLK Outlook (used in SIGMET messages for PROB† Probability
Volcanic ash and tropical cyclones) PROC Procedure
OTP On top PROV Provisional
OTS Organised track system PRP Point-in-space reference point
OUBD Outbound PS plus
OVC Overcast PSG Passing
PSN Position
P PSP Pierced steel plank
P…. Maximum value of wind speed or runway PSR‡ Primary surveillance radar
Visual range(followed by figures in PSYS Pressure system
METAR/SPECI and TAF) PTN Procedure turn
P… Prohibited area (followed by identification ) PTS Polar track structure
PA Precision approaches PWR Power
PALS Pricision approach lighting system (specify
Category)
PANS Procedure for air navigation services
11
Q R
…R Right (proceeds by runway designation number
QDL Do you intend to ask me for a series of To identify a parallel runway)
bearings? Or I intend to ask you for a series of R Rate of turn
bearings( to be used in radiotelegraphy as a Q R Red
code) R…. Restricted area ( followed by identification)
QDM‡ Magnetic heading( zero wind) R…. Runway (followed by figures in METAR/SPECI)
QDR Magnetic bearing R* Received (acknowledgement of receipt) ( to be
QFE‡ Atmospheric pressure at aerodynamic Used in AFS as a procedure signal)
Elevation ( or at runway threshold) RA Rain
QFU Magnetic orientation of runway RA Resolution advisory
QGE What is my distance to your station? Or Your RAC Rules of the air and air traffic services
Distance to my station is ( distance figures and RAG Ragged
Units) ( to be used Radiotelegraphy as a Q RAG Runway arresting gear
code) RAI Runway alignment indicator
QJH Shall I run my test tape/a test sentence? Or RAIM† Receiver autonomous integrity monitoring
Run your test tape/a test sentence ( to be RASC† Regional AIS system centre
Used in AFS as a Q code ) RASS Remote altimeter setting source
QNH‡ Altimeter sub-scale setting to obtain RB rescue boat
Elevation when on the ground RCA Reach cursing altitude
QSP Will you relay to…. Free of charge? Or I will relay RCC Rescue coordination centre
To… free of charge ( to be used in AFS as a Q code) RCF Radiocommunication failure (message type
QTA Shall I cancel telegram number…? Or Cancel Designator )
Telegram number… ( to be used in AFS as a code) RCH Reach or reaching
QTE True bearing RCL Runway centre line
QTF Will you give me the position of my station RCLL Runway centre line
According to the bearings taken by the D/F RCLR Recleared
Stations which you control? Or the position of RCP‡ Required communication performance
Your station according to the bearings taken by RDH Reference datum height
The D/F stations that I control was… latitude… RDL Radial
Longitude ( ot other indication of position), RDO Radio
Class…. At … hours( to be used in RE Recent
radiotelegraphy as a Q code) REC Receiver or receiver
QUAD Quadrant REDL Runway edge light (s)
QUJ Will you indicate the TRUE track to reach you? REF Reference to… or refer to….
Or the TRUE track to reach me is…. Degrees at.. REG Registration
Hours ( to be used in radiotelegraphy as a Q RENL Runway end light(s)
Code0 REP Report or reporting or reporting point
REQ Request or Requested
RERTE Re-route
RESA Runway end safety area
RF Constant radius arc to a fix
12
RG Range (lights) RTF Radiotelephone

RHC Right-hand circuit RTG Radiotelegraph
RIF Reclearance in flight RTHL Runway threshold light(s)
RIME † Rime (used in aerodrome warnings) RTN Return or returned or returning
RITE Right (direction of turn) RTODAH Rejected take-off distance available
RL Report leaving Helicopter
RLA Relay to RTS Return to service
RLCE Request level change en route RTT Radioteletypewriter
RLLS Runway lead in lighting system RTZL Runway touchdown zone light(s)
RLNA Request level not available RUT Standard regional route transmitting
RMK Remark Frequencies
RNAV† ( to be pronounced “AR-Nav”) area RV Rescue vessel
Navigation RVR‡ Runway visual range
RNG Radio range RVSM‡ Reduced vertical separation minimum
RNP‡ Required navigation performance (300 m (1000ft) ) between FL 290 and FL 410
ROBEX † Regional OPMET bulletin exchange (scheme) RWY Runway
ROC Rate of climb
ROD Rate of descent
ROFOR Route Forecast ( in meteorological code) S
RON Receiving only S South or southern latitude
RPDS Reference path data selector S…. State of the sea (followed by figures in
RPI ‡ Radar position indicator METAR/SPECI)
RPLC Replace or replaced SA Sand
RPS Radar position symbol SALS Simple approach lighting system
RPT* Repeat or I repeat (to be used in AFS as a SAN Sanitary
procedure signal) SAP As soon as possible
RQ* Request ( to be used in AFS as a procedure SAR Search and escape
signal) SARPS Standards and recommends practices
RQMNTS Requirements SAT Saturday
RQP Request flight plan (message type designator) SATCOM † Satellite communication
RQS Request supplementary flight plan (message SB Southbound
Type designator) SBAS† (to be pronounced “ESS-BAS”) Satellite
RR Report reaching Based augmentation system
RRA (or RRB, RRC …. Etc ..in sequence ) delayed SC Stratocumulus
Meteorological message ( message type SCT Scattered
designator ) SD Standard deviation
RSC Rescue sub centre SDBY Stand by
RSCD Runway surface condition SDF Step down fix
RSP Responder beacon SE South-east
RSR En-route surveillance radar SEA Sea(used in connection with sea-surface
RSS Root sum square Temperature and state of the sea )
RTD Delayed (used to indicate delayed SEB South-eastbound
Meteorological message: message type SEC Seconds
Designator ) SECN Section
RTE Route SECT Sector
13
SELCAL Selective calling system SPOC SAR point of contact

SEP September SPOT† Spot wind
SER Service or servicing or served SQ Squall
SEV Servere (used e.g. to qualify icing and SQL Squall line
Turbulence reports) SR Sunrise
SFC Surface SRA Surveillance radar approach
SG Snow grains SRE Surveillance radar element of precision
SGL Signal Approach radar system
SH………. Shower ( followed by RA = rain, SN= Snow, SRG Short range
PL = ice pellets, GR = hail, GS = small hail SRR Search and rescue region
and/or snow pellets or combinations SRY Secondary
therefore. E.g. SHRASN = Showers of rain SS Sandstorm
and snow SS Sunset
SHF Super high frequency [ 3 000 to 30 000 SSB Single sideband
MHz] SSE South-south-east
SI International system of units SSR‡ Secondary surveillance radar
SID† Standard instrument departure SST Supersonic transport
SIF Selective identification feature SSW South-south-west
SIG Significant ST Stratus
SIGMET† Information concerning en-route weather STA Straight instrument arrival
Phenomena which may affect the safety of STAR† Standard instrument arrival
Aircraft operations STD Standard
SIMUL Simulations or Simultaneously STF Stratiform
SIWL Single isolated wheel load STN Station
SKC Sky clear STNR Stationary
SKED Schedule or scheduled STOL Short take-off and landing
SLP Speed imitating point STS Status
SLW Slow STWL Stopway Light(s)
SMC Surface movement control SUBJ Subject to
SMR Surface movement radar SUN Sunday
SN Snow SUPPS Regional supplementary procedures
SNOCLO Aerodynamic closed due to snow ( used in SVC Service message
METAR/SPECI ) SVCBL Serviceable
SNOWTAM† Special series NOTAM notifying the presence SW South-west
Or removal of hazards conditions due to snow SWB South-westbound
Ice, slush and ice on the associated with SWY Stopway
snow, slush and ice on the movement area,
by means of a specific format
SOC Start of climbing T
SPECI† Aerodynamic special meteorological report T Temperature
( in meteorological code ) …T True ( preceded by a bearing to
SPECIAL† Local special meteorological report ( in Indicate reference true north)
Abbreviated plain languages ) TA Traffic advisory
SPI Special position indicator TA Transition altitude
SPL Supplementary flight plan ( message type
Designator)
14
TAA Terminal Arrival Altitude TP Turning point

TACAN† UHF tactical air navigation aid TR Track
TAF† Aerodrome forecast (in meteorological code) TRA Temporary reserved airspeed
TA/H Turn at an altitude/height TRANS Transmits or transmitter
TAIL† Tail wind TREND† Trend forecast
TAR Terminal area surveillances radar TRL Transition level
TAS True airspeed TROP Tropopause
TAX Taxing or taxi TS Thunderstorm ( in aerodrome reports and
TC Tropical cyclone Forecast, TS used alone means thunder
TCAC Tropical cyclone advisory centre heard but no precipitation at the aerodrome)
TCAS RA† ( to be pronounced “TEE-CAS-AR-AY”) Traffic TS…. Thunderstorm ( followed by RA = rain, SN =
Alert and collision avoidance system Snow, PL = ice pellets, GR = hail, GS = Small
resolution advisory Hail and/ or snow pellets or combinations
TCH Threshold crossing height Thereof, e.g. TSRASN = thunderstorm with
TCU Towering cumulus rain and snow )
TDO Tornado TSUNAMI† Tsunami (used in aerodrome warnings)
TDZ Touchdown zone TT Teletypewriter
TECR Technical reason TUE Tuesday
TEL Telephone TURB Turbulence
TEMPO† Temporary or temporarily T-VASIS† ( to be pronounced “TEE-VASIS”) T visual
TF Track to fix Approach slope indicator system
TFC Traffic TVOR Terminal VOR
TGL Touch-and-go landing TWR Aerodynamic control tower or
TGS Taxiing guidance system Aerodrome control
THR Threshold TWY Taxiway
THRU Through TWYL Taxiway-link
THU Thursday TX….. Maximum temperature ( followed by
TIBA† Traffic information broadcast by aircraft Figures in TAF )
TIL† Until TXT* Text ( when the abbreviation is used to
request a repetition. The question
TIP Until past…. (place)
mark (IMI) precedes the abbreviation,
TKOF Take-off
e.g. IMI TXT) ( to be used in AFS as a
TL. . . Till ( followed by time by which weather
procedure signal)
Change is forecast to end )
TYP Type of aircraft
TLOF Touchdown and lift-off area
TYPH Typhoon
TMA‡ Terminal control area
TN…. Minimum temperature ( followed by
Figures in TAF)
TNA Turn altitude U
TNH Turn height U Upward ( tendency in RVR during
TO……. To…. ( place) previous 10 minutes
TOC Top of climb UAB…. Until advised by…
TODA Take-off distance available, helicopter UAC Upper area control centre
TOP† Cloud top UAR Upper air route
TORA Take-off run available UDF Ultra high frequency direction-
finding stations
15
UFN Until further notice VHF‡ very high frequency [30 to 300 MHz]
UHDT Unable higher due traffic VI Heading to an airport
UHF ‡ Ultra high frequency [ 300 to 3 000 MHz] VIP‡ Very important person
UIC Upper information centre VIS Visibility
UIR‡ upper flight information region VLF Very low frequency [3 to 30 kHz]
ULR Ultra long range VLR Very long range
UNA Unable VM Heading to a manual termination
UNAP Unable to approve VMC‡ Visual meteorological conditions
UNL Unlimited VNAV † ( to be pronounced “VEE-NAV”) Vertical
UNREL Unreliable Navigation
UP unidentified precipitation ( used in VOLMET† Meteorological information for aircraft in
Automated METAR/SPECI ) Flight
U/S Unserviceable
UTA Upper control area VOR‡ VHF omnidirectional radio range
VORTAC† VOR and TACAN combination
UTC‡ Coordinated Universal Time
VOT VOR airborne equipment test facility
VPA Vertical path angle
VPT Visual manoeuvre with prescribed track
V
VRB Variable
...V... Variations from the mean wind direction
VSA By visual reference to the ground
( preceded and followed by figures in
VSP Vertical speed
METAR/SPECI, e.g. 350V070)
VTF Vector to final
VA Heading to an altitude
VTOL Vertical take-off and landing
VA Volcanic ash
VV . . . Vertical visibility ( followed by figures
VAAC Volcanic ash advisory centre
in METAR/SPECI and TAF)
VAC . . . Visual approach chart
VAL In valleys
VAN Runway control van
W
VAR Magnetic variation
W West or western longitude
VAR Visual-aural radio range
W White
VASIS Visual approach slope indicator
W... Sea-surface temperature ( followed by
Systems
figures in METAR/SPECI )
VC . . . Vicinity of the aerodrome ( followed by
WAAS† Wide area augmentation system
FG = fog, FC = funnel cloud, SH =
WAC . . . World Aeronautical Chart---- ICAO
Shower, PO = dust/sand whirls, BLDU
1:1 000 000 ( followed by name/title)
= blowing dust, BLSA = Blowing sand,
WAFC World area forecast centre
BLSN = blowing snow, DS = dust storm,
WB Westbound
SS = sandstorm, TS = thunderstorm or
WBAR Wing bar lights
VA = volcanic ash, e.g. VCFG = vicinity fog)
WDI Wind direction indicator
VCY Vicinity
WDSPR Widespread
VDF Very high frequency direction-finding
WED Wednesday
station
WEF With effect from or effective from
VER Vertical
WGS-84 World Geodetic System ----- 1984
VFR‡ Visual flights rules
WI Within
* Signal is also available for use in communicating with stations of the maritime mobile service#
Signal is also use in the teletypewriter service only
16
WID Width or wide X

WIE With immediate effect or effective X Cross
Immediately XBAR Crossbar ( of approach lighting system)
WILCO† Will comply XNG Crossing
WIND Wind XS Atmospheric
WINTEM Forecast upper wind and temperature for
Aviation Y
WIP Work in progress Y Yellow
WKN Weaken or weakening YC Yellow caution zone ( runway lighting )
WNW West-north-west YES* Yes ( affirmative) ( to be used in AFS as a
WO Without Procedure signal)
WPT Way-point YR Your
WRNG Warning
WS Wind shear
WSPD Wind speed Z
WSW West-south-west Z Co-ordinated Universal Time ( in
WTSPT Waterspout Meteorological messages)
WWW Worldwide web
WX Weather
17
ABBREVIATIONS FOR IDENTIFYING

AERONAUTICAL FIXEDE SERVICE (AFS) MESSAGES
Abbreviations for use as the first word of the text of message
ENCODE
Aircraft Accident Notification Messages Meteorological Messages
Data designators for meteorological

Notification of an aircraft accident ACCID Bulletins are given in the Manual of
Aeronautical Meteorological practice
( Doc 8896 )
Air Traffic Services Messages
Acceptance ACP Other messages

Alerting ALR
Arrival ARR Notice distributed by means of
Coordination CDN telecommunication containing
Current flight plan CPL information concerning in any
Delay DLA aeronautical facility, service, procedure or
Departure DEP hazard, the timely knowledge of which is
Estimate EST essential to personnel concerned with
Filled flight plan FPL flight operations NOTAM
Flight plan cancellation CNL Special series NOTAM notifying the
Logical acknowledgement LAM presence or removal of hazardous
Modification CHG conditions due to snow, ice, slush or
Radio communication failure RCF standing water associated with snow,
Request supplementary flight plan RQS slush and ice on the movement area, by
Supplementary flight plan SPL means of a specific format SNOWTAM
Service message ( to be used by AFS
Stations only) SVC
18
ABBREVIATIONS AND TERMS TO BE TRANSMITTED AS SPOKEN

WORDS WHEN USED IN RADIOTELEPHONY
DECODE
ACARS ( to be pronounced “ AY-CARS”) Aircraft GBAS ( to be used pronounced “GEE-BAS” ) Ground-

Communication addressing and reporting Based augmentation system
System GLONASS ( to be pronounced “GLO-NAS”) Global orbiting
ACAS Airborne collision avoidance system Navigation satellite system
ADIZ ( to be pronounced “AY-DIZ’) Air defence GRAS ( to be pronounced “GRASS”) Ground-based
Identification zone regional augmentation system
AIREP Air-report IDENT Identification
AIRMET Information concerning en-route weather INCERFA Uncertainly phase
Phenomena which may affect the safety of l INFO Information
Low-level aircraft operations LNAV ( to be pronounced “EL-NAV”) Lateral navigation
ALERFA Alert phase LORAN LORAN (long range air navigation system)
APAPI ( to be pronounced “AY-PAPI”) Abbreviated MET Meteorological or meteorology
Precision approach path indicator METAR Aviation routine weather report ( in aeronautical
ATIS Automatic terminal information service Meteorological code)
AT-VASIS ( to be pronounced “ AY-TEE-VASIS” ) MOPS Minimum operational performance standards
Abbreviated T visual approach slope MSAS ( to be pronounced “EM-SAS”) Multifunctional
indicator system Transport satellite ( MTSAT) Satelite-based
AVGAS Aviation gasoline augmentation system
BARO-VNAV ( to be pronounced “ BAA-RO-VEE-NAV” ) NASC National AIS system centre
Barometric vertical navigation NIL None or I have nothing to send you
BASE Cloud base NOSIG No significant change ( used in trend-type
CAVOK ( to be pronounced “KAV-OH-KAY” ) landing forecast )
Visibility, cloud and present weather NOTAM A Notice distributed by means of
Better than prescribed values or telecommunication containing information
Conditions concerning in any aeronautical facility, service,
CIDIN Common ICAO data interchange network procedure or hazard, the timely knowledge of
D-ATIS ( to be pronounced “DEE-ATIS”) Data link which is essential to personnel concerned with
Automatic terminal information service flight operations
DETRESFA Distress phase OLDI On-line data interchange
EFIS ( to be pronounced “ EF-FIS” ) Electronic OPMET Operational meteorological ( information )
Flight instrument system OPS Operations
EGNOS ( to be used pronounced “EGG-NOS” ) PAPI Precision approach path indicator
European geostationary navigation PROB Probability
overlay service RAIM Receiver autonomous integrity monitoring
ELBA Emergency location beacon--- aircraft RASC Regional AIS system centre
FRONT Front ( relating to weather ) RIME Rime ( used in aerodrome warnings)
FROST Frost ( use in aerodrome warnings )
GAGAN GPS and geostationary earth orbit
augmented navigation
19
RNAV ( to be pronounced “ AR-NAV”) Area TACAN UHF tactical air navigation system
Navigation TAF Aerodrome forecast
ROBEX Regional OPMET bulletins exchange (scheme) TAIL Tail wind
SATCOM Satellite communication TCAS RA ( to be pronounced “TEE-CAS-AR-AY”)
SBAS ( to be pronounced “ESS-BAS”) Satellite Traffic alert and collision avoidance system
Based augmentation system resolution advisory
SELCAL Selective calling system TEMPO Temporary or temporarily
SID Standard instrument departure TREND Treand forecast
SIGMET Information concerning en-route weather TIBA Traffic information broadcast by aircraft
Phenomena which may affect the safty of TIL Until
Aircraft operations TOP Cloud top
SNOWTAM Special series NOTAM notifying the TSUNAMI Tsunami ( used in aerodrome warnings)
presence or removal of hazardous T-VASIS ( to be pronounced “TEE-VASIS”) T visual
conditions due to snow, ice, slush or Approach slope indicator system
standing water associated with snow, VNAV ( to be pronounced “VEE-NAV”) vertical
slush and ice on the movement area, by Navigation
means of a specific format VOLMET Meteorological information for aircraft
SPECI Aviation selected special weather report ( in flight
In aeronautical meteorological code) VORTAC VOR and TACAN combination
SPECIAL Special meteorological report ( in WAAS Wide area augmentation system
Abbreviated plain languages ) WILCO Wil comply
SPOT spot wind
STAR Standard instrument arrival
20
RADIO FUNDAMENTALS
Communication by Sound Waves
When you speak, your voice box sets up vibrations in the air, called sound waves. Air is the
medium through which the sound waves travel to the ear of the listener.
At the receiving end the sound waves strike the listner’s ear drums, making them vibrate at
the same frequency as the sound waves. The ears convert these vibrations into electrical
signals that are sent to the brain.
RADIO WAVE
Radio wave. Radio wave is a transversal wave of energy containing electric and
magnetic fields. Which are at the to each other and both perpendicular to the direction of
the wave. Change of direction of any field will reverse the direction of travel of rdio wave.
Both the fields are in phase in a cycle and frequencies are same of the radio wave.
PROPERTIES OF ROAD WAVE

1. Radio wave travels in a straight line
2. It travels at the speed of light i.e. 3x10 raised to the power 8 meters per sound, in free
Space
3. It can be reflected, refracted and diffracted
4. It is a vector quantity
5. Frequency of electric and magnetic field is the same that of the radio wave itself
Free space is space that does not interfere with the normal radiation and propagation of radio
waves. Thus it has no magnetic or gravitational fields, no solid bodies and noionised particles. Such a
space does not exist at least not on the earth.
1 NM = 1.85 Kilometres
Speed of Radio Wave in different units

A radio wave, in free space, travels at the speed of light:
186,000 statute miles per second
162,000 nautical miles per second
300,000,000 meters per second
300,000 kilometres per second
Diffraction
The process of a radio wave to split when passing through an orifice or over sharp
edges of corners of buildings is called diffraction.
21
Polarization
Electric field is either in vertical direction or in horizontal. The direction in which the
electric field lies determines the polarisation of radio wave. That is if electric field is vertical
thn the radio wave is vertically polarized and when the electric field is in horizontal direction
then it is horizontally polarized.
Wave Front
The plane containing the continuous lines of forces of electric and magnetic field is
called Wave Front.
Spreading
The field intensity of a wave is inversely proportional to the distance from the
source. Thus if in a uniform medium one receiving point is twice as far from the transmitter
as another, the field strength at the more distance point will be just half the field strength at
the nearer point. This results from the fact that the energy in the wave front must be
distributed over a grater area as the wave moves from the source.
Cycle
When the radio wave completes a full turn of changes of its values it is said to be
Cycle.
Amplitude
When a radio wave attains its maximum displacements from its normal axis the
height of displacement is known as Amplitude.
Frequency
Number of cycles a radio wave makes in one second is called the frequency of the
radio wave.
22
Hertz
Hertz is a unit meaning I per second and is Radio to represent frequency.
One cycle Is called one Hertz(HZ). Formerly the frequency was represented as cycles but has
been changed to Hertz in honour of an eminent scientist Heinrich Rudolph Hertz who
demonstrated existence of radio waves and carried out pioneering works on radio.
Frequency of domestic current (AC) used in homes is 50 Hz.
Wavelength
The horizontal distance that a wave travels in one cycle is called wavelength.
Power frequencies
25, 40 and 60 hertz are used for power transmission. These frequencies are
often called ‘ commercial’ or ‘power’ frequencies.
Audio Radio frequencies

20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. Human ear can hear 20 Hz to 20 khz frequencies hence the
name.
The range of human speech is normally between frequencies of approx. 100 Hz
and 10,000 Hz
Radio frequencies
Frequencies above 20,000 to 25,000 hertz can be radiated from an antenna,
thus these frequencies are called ‘radio frequencies’.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH
Suppose a radio wave has a frequency of 3,000,000 Hertz per second. The wave
will go complete one cycle in 1/3,000,000 second. In the same time the wave will travel
300,000,000 / 3,000,000 metres or 100 metres. By the time the wave has travelled that
distance the next wave has started out. The first wave, covers a distance of 100 meters
before the beginning of the next and so on. The distance is the wavelength.
The longer the time of the cycle, that is lower the frequency, the longer the wavelength.
The relationship between the wavelength and the frequency is shown by the formula
Wave length = speed of radio wave / frequency

X F =c
Frequency = speed of radio wave/ wave length
Example: wavelength corresponding to a frequency of 3650 kilohertz is

= 300,000 / 3650 = 82.2 metre
23
Kilohertz and megahertz

The frequency are of high values, that is in the hundreds of thousands or
millions of cycles per second. For convenience these frequencies are expressed in Kilohertz
and Megahertz. Abbreviated as kHz and MHz . Kilo is a prefix meaning thousands. Hence
one kilohertz. The prefix Mega means million hence one Megahertz is 1,000,000 hertz.
Gain
Gain of the system is the ratio of the output to input. Thus in an alternating system gain is
the radio of the max amplituted of the alternating quantity in the output to that in the
input.
Antenna gain
Antenna gain is power density of the concentrated radiation in a particular direction that
would be greater than the power density of an omni direction antenna.
Directive gain
It is the ratio of power density of an antenna radiated in a particular direction to the
power be greater that would be radiated by an isotropic antenna.
Power gain
It is ratio of the power radiated by isotropic antenna to develop certain field strength at
a certain distance to the power which is feed to the directive antenna to develop same field
strength at the same distance in its direction of maximum radiation.
Antenna loss
In addition to energy which is radiated by an antenna, power may be dissipated as a
result of antenna and ground resistance, discharge and losses induced in the metallic object
with in the induction field of antenna.
Decibel. Decibel is a unit of measurement use to indicate the ratio of two powers on a
logarithmic scale.
RADIO WAVE FREQUENCY BANDS
Radio Frequency Frequency Limits Wavelength Remarks

Very low frequency 3 to 30 kHz 100,000 to Long range comm
24
(VLF) 10,000 meters unication
Low frequency(LF) 30 to 300 kHz 10,000 to Broadcast, long-range

1,000 metres comm. & nav aids.
Medium
Frequency(MF) 300 kHz to 1,000 to 100 Broadcast, short-range
3 MHz metres comm. & nav aids
High frequency 3 to 30 MHz 10 to 1 metre Short range comm.

Nav & approach aids
Radar, TV programs
Ultra high 300 to 3000 10 to 1 Short range comm.

Frequency MHz decimetre TV & military a/c.
Super high 3 to 30 10 to 1 Radar

Frequency Giga hertz(GHz) centimetre
Extremely high 30 to 300 10 to 1 Experimental band.

Frequency GHz Millimetre
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Region Hertz
Electrical waves 10 raised to power 4

Radio waves 10 raised to power 11
Infra red 10 raised to power 14
Visible 10 raised to power 15
Ultra violet 10 raised to power 17
X-rays 10 raised to power 19
Gamma rays 10 raised to power 21
Cosmic rays 10 raised to power 25
Phase
Radio wave in a cycle makes a sinusoidal waveform wherein the amplitude of the
alternating quantity continuously varies through out its full cycle. This cycle completes 360
degree hence the amplitude of the wave at any instant is proportional to the sine value of
the angle ( hence the name sinusoidal ). Thus each point in the waveform can be associated
25
with a specific angle. The instantaneous value of this angle is called the phase of the sine
wave. Thus the phase varies continuously from 0degrees to 360 degrees in one cycle.
The angular representations of any an instant value of a radio wave is Phase.
Phase difference
When two transmissions of a frequencies take place at the same instant, they are
called ‘in phase’ , but when one of them is delayed then it lags all the time in reaching the
value of the leading one thus creating phase difference is the angular difference between
the corresponding points on the waveform and is measurable.
Gain
Gain of a system is the ratio of output to input. It could be a voltage be gain, power
gain etc. Thus in an alternating system gain is the ratio of the maximum amplitude of the
alternating quantity in the output in the input.
Decibel
Decibel is a unit of measurement used to indicate the ratio of two powers on a
logarithmic scale.
RADIO WAVE TRANSMISSION

26
Radio waves from transmitting antenna to receiving antenna principally in two

ways. One is by ground waves and the other by Sky waves.
1. Ground wave/Surface wave

The ground wave is actually composed of two separate component waves. These
are surface wave and the Space wave.
A surface wave travels along the surface of the earth. A space wave travels over the
surface.
A surface wave reaches the receiving antenna by travelling along the curvature of the
earth’s because of its process of attention and diffraction.
2. Space wave
Space wave follows two distinct paths from the transmitting antenna to the
receiving antenna – one through the air directly to the receiving antenna, the other
reflected from the ground to the receiving antenna. See figure below.
Space waves though suffer less attenuation but are subjected to fading.
27
3. Sky waves
The radio waves that go up in atmosphere and return to earth after getting reflected
from ionosphere are known as sky waves. Transmission by means of sky waves is a tricky
affair. It is subjected to Fading and erratic changes, night and day, and atmospheric
conditions.
4. Direct ( line of sight ) wave

In this a wave travels directly in an almost straight line from transmitter to receiver.
The path is not completely straight because of certain amount of refraction or bending
occurring in the earth’s atmosphere. For this reason the direct wave travels somewhat
farther than the optical line of sight. This distance so travelled is called as radio horizon
distance.
28
Direct line of sight transmission commences with the VHF band from 30 MHz up
approximately. In this way with the contribution from the ground reflected wave, VHF and
UHF transmission take place exclusively by the direct wave. Thus radar, microwave relays,
navigation aids and short distance communication depend on line of sight transmissions.
5. Escape wave/ray
The wave above a certain frequency that does not get reflected by the ionospheric
and escapes into the sky is called escape wave. This happens above 3
Attenuation
As vertically polarised ground wave travels it induces currents in the earth’s,
thereby losing its own energy and becoming weaker until it becomes un-detectable.
As the attention takes place the bottom of vertically polarised wave front is slowed
down causing the top of the wave to lean forward. The leaning causes the waves to curve
along the surfaces of the earth giving long ranges.
Horizontally polarized waves attenuate very fast just by traveling short distance.
Attenuation depends on two factors.

1. (a) Type of surface: For given output a radio wave travels greater ranges over
The sea and least over dry soil.
(b) Frequency in use: Higher the frequency, more the contact with ground
Surface therefore greater the attentions
Distance ranges
1. Low frequency - several thousands miles
29
2. Medium frequency - 300 – 500 miles, maximum 1,000 miles

3. High frequency - 100 nautical miles
4. VHF & above - only line of sight ranges possible.
IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION
Expect for distance of a few miles most of the communication on frequencies below
30 MHz is by means of sky wave. Upon leaving the antenna, this wave travels upward from
the earth’s surface at such an angle that it travels into space till it enters into a region of
ionosphere that starts bending it back to earth’s. Ionosphere is a region above a height of
about 60 miles where free ions and electrons exist sufficient quantity to effect a radio wave.
Ionization is believed to be caused by ultraviolet radiation from the sun that acts on
the free molecules of the thin atmospheric, and sets free electrons from their atoms, which
collectively are called Ionosphere. Ionosphere is not a single region but is composed of a
series of layers consist of a central region of relatively dense ionisation that reduces off both
above and below .
Refraction
The greater the intensity of ionization in a layer the more the path of the layer is
bent. The bending or the refraction ( often also called the reflection ) also depends on the
wavelength; the longer the wave, the are more the path is bent for a given degree of
ionization. Thus low frequency waves are more readily bent than those of high frequency.
Absorption / Attenuation
In travelling through the ionospheric the wave looses some of its energy while
setting ionised particles in motion. When the moving particles collide with others this
energy is lost. The absorption from this cause is greater at low frequencies. It also increases
with the intensity of ionisation and with the intensity of the ionised layer.
Structure of Ionosphere
The ionosphere has three distinct layers known as D,E and F layers These are
generally at heights as given below.
D layer 50 to 100 kms averages 75 kms
E layer 100 to 150 kms averages 125 kms
F layer 175 to 350 kms averages 200 kms
In dynamic the increased solar activity increases ionic density in all layers and the
reflective heights move down. But at night the D layer nearest to the earth completely
30
disappears while the E layer rises up as its intensity decreases. The F layer that forms two
layers during day as F1 an F2, combines into one layer as F layer.
SKY-WAVE PROPAGATION
Wave Angle
The smaller the angle the wave leaves the earths the less the bending required in
the atmospheric to bring it back. Also smaller the angle greater the distance the wave will
31
return on earth. The vertical angle that the wave makes with the earth is called the wave
angle.
Skip Distance
Skip distance is the distance between the transmitting point of a radio wave and the
point where reception of sky wave ( radio wave returning from the ionosphere ) begins.
The extent of the skip distance depends upon:
1. the frequency in use
2. state of ionospheric
3. height of the reflecting layer in which the reflection takes place.
Higher layers give longer skip distance for same wave angles.
32
Skip Zone / Dead space.

This is a space where no signals are received. Such a space takes place between the
points where ground wave ends and the reception of sky wave begins.
Critical and Maximum Usable Frequencies

If the frequency is low enough, a wave sent vertically to the ionospheric will be
reflected back down to the transmitting point. If the frequency is gradually increased,
eventually a frequency will be reached where this vertical reflection will fail to occur.
This is critical frequency for the layer under consideration. When the operating frequency is
below the critical value there is no skin zone.
The critical frequency is a useful index as the highest frequency that can be used to
transmit over a specified distance – the maximum usable frequency
Critical angle
The angle that a radio wave makes with a normal at transmission point from where
the return of radio wave after being reflected by ionosphere begins is called the critical
angle.
Multi hop refraction

In cases when the running signal is strong it gets reflected by the earth back to
ionosphere where it will be refracted again to earth, and this process may go on again and
again giving very long ranges of communication. This is multi hop refraction.
33
Duct propagation
An extension of ground waves range occurs on VHF and higher frequencies when n
abnormal reflecting layer appears only a few thousands feet above the surface of the earth.
Under certain conditions ground waves travel almost parallel to earth and achive great
distances. This occurs during meteorological phenomena of investment. Even VHF band and
above also get subjected to this phenomena and give freak receptions at long ranges.
Fading
Variation in signal of incoming signals is called ‘Fanding’. Two weeks taking different
paths may reach the receiver out of phase. If they are out of phase, they cancel each other.
If they are in phase the signal strength will increase.
In Rx AVC is used to counter the effect of fading.
Two or more parts of a radio wave may follow slightly different paths in travelling to
the receiving point, in which case the difference in path lengths will cause a phase
difference to exist between the wave. Components at the receiving antenna. The total field
strength will e the sum of the components and may be larger or smaller than one
component alone. Since the paths change from time to time, this causes a variation in signal
strength called fading.
SELECTIVE FADING. It frequently happens that transmission conditions are different

for waves of slightly different frequencies, so that in the case of voice modulated
transmission, involving sidebands differing slightly from the carrier in frequency, the carrier
and various sideband components may not be propagated in the same relative amplitudes
and phase they had at the transmitter. This affect known as selective fading causes several
distortions to the signal. The distortion is most marked on amplitudes modulated signals
and at high percentages of modulation. It can be reduced by single side band technique that
reduces the modulation percentages at the receiver.
Backscatter
Even though the operating frequency is above the maximum usable frequency for a
given distance, it is usually possible to hear from within the skip zone. This phenomena
called backscatter, is caused by reflections from distances beyond the skip zone.
34
OTHER FEATURES OF
IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION
Sporadic – E Ionization
Scattered patches or clouds of relatively dense ionisation occasionally appear at
heights approximately the same as that of the E layer, for reasons not yet known. This is
most prevalent in the equatorial regions, where it substantially continuous. It accounts for
much of the night time short distance work on lower frequencies (3.5 to 7 MHz) and when
more intense then 14 to 28 MHz When extensively dense then it gives ranges from 400 to
500 miles on 50 MHz band.
Tropospheric Propagation
Changes in temperatures and humidity of air masses in the lower atmosphere often
permit transmissions over than normal ground wave distances on 28 MHz and above.
Signal
Signal is defined as the form or variations with time of a wave whereby the
information, messages or effect is conveyed in communications.
Signal wave
This is a wave the form of which conveys the signal.
Carrier wave
This is an un-modulated radio wave that carriers no signal.
35
Modulated wave
This is a wave of which either the amplitude, frequency is varied in accordance with
the signal.
Modulation is of the following types.

1. Amplitude modulation. In this process frequency of the radio wave ( carrier wave ) is
kept constant while its amplitude is varied in accordance to the amplitude of the modulating
signal and the rate of change of amplitude in accordance to the frequency of the signal.
A.M. is used for VHF RTF and LF/MF broadcasts.
Depth of modulation/precedent of modulation

This is a means of expressing the degree to which the signal modulates the carrier wave. The
percent of modulation is proportional to the amplitude to the ratio of the maximum values
of the signal and carrier waves. It is quite common to refer the amplitude modulation to the
percent of modulation.
2. Frequency modulation. In this process the amplitude is kept constant while frequency of
the radio wave is varied in accordance to the amplitude of the moulding signal and the rate
of changes in accordance to the frequency of the signal. It is used in radio altimeter and
VOR.
Frequency modulation requires simple transmitters and less modulating power. It is free of
static disturbances thus it gives clear reception.
36
3. Pulse modulation. In this process the amplitude modulated radio wave is transmitted in
pulse. It is used in Radar.
4. Phase modulation. In this process carrier wave is changed by changing the phase of the
signal. This is used in transmitting digital information, as in global positioning system ( GPS )
signals, where the phase is reversal every time the binary changes.
RECEIVER
Receiving antenna: The receiving antenna picks up the radio waves sent by transmitting
antenna.
Selector: The selector or the tuner of the receiver is set for the proper frequency, a certain
amount of energy enters the receiver.
Select & Radio Frequency Amplifier: Since the received signal is very weak, its strength is
increased in the RF Amplifier.
Detector/Demodulation: Here the audio waves are separated from the carrier wave.
37
Audio Frequency Amplifier: As the audio waves received from the detector are too weak to
operate a loud speaker they are strength through the audio frequency amplifier before
sending them to the loud speaker.
Classification of Receivers in accordance to service.
Broadcast Receivers.
Amplitudes modulated. These are for receiving broadcast program for public, on Low
wave, Medium wave and Short wave bands amplitude transmitters.
Frequency modulated. These are for receiving FM broadcast program on VHF usually.
Broadcast receivers are very simple to operateas they are to be used by general public.
Essentially they contain
- Band switch to select the band of frequencies
- Tuning control for tuning to the right station
- Volume control to adjust the volume
And in addition also
- Tone control
- Magic eye for correct tuning
- Band spread control
Half bandwidth per channel. As the bandwidth is reduced to half so double the amount of
channels can be transmitted in a given bandwidth, for example 3kHz is used instead of usual
6 kHz.
Elimination of distortion due to fading. In SSB fading is negligible.
Reduction in operating cost. It is economical in operating cost.
Privacy. As the receivers are of special types so some degree of privacy can be acquired.
Disadvantages of SSB
The receiver and transmitter are highly complex and need high degree of
maintenance.
Emissions
A0 : Carrier wave ( freq. transmitted continuously AM )
A1 : Continuous wave ( Carrier is interrupted – Carrier is broken into morse code )
A2 : Modulated Continuous wave ( Fixed AF is modulated with the carrier to make
morse code )
A3 : Radio Telephony / Broadcasting ( AIR ) Am., “DSB”
A3A SSB, Reduced Carrier
A3H : SSB Full Carrier
A3B : Two independence Side Bands
A3J : SSB using USB
A4 : Facsimile ( Picture Transmission – TV)
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‘A’ stands for Amplitude Modulation.
F0 : Carrier wave FM.

F1 : Telegraphy by Freq. Shift keying
F3 : Telephony / Broadcasting ( FM Broadcasting )
F4 : Facsimile
‘F’ stands for Frequency Modulation.
P0 : Pulse Carrier Wave used in RADAR.
SERVICE
NDB NON / A2A
Enroute HF J3E
Terminal VHF A3E

VOR
DME P0N
ILS A1A
H3E
P3E
First Symbol
N – Carrier A – DSB P – PULSE
J – SSB Suppressed Carrier
H – SSB Full Carrier
F – Frequency Modulation B – Independent Side Band.
Second Symbol
0 – Carrier I – Un-modulated Continuous wave
2 – Modulated Continues Wave 3 – R/T
8 – Two or More Channels 9 – Composite System
Third Symbol
N – No Information A – Telegraphy
B – Telegraphy Automatic C – Facsimile
E – Telephony ( including sound Broadcasting )
F – Television (video) W – Combination of above
39
RADIO TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION.

Figures below presents a simple picture of the operations required to send a signal
wave out into space and to have it received miles away.
TRANSMITTER
Microphone: the audible sound waves are picked up and transferred into electrical
impulses.
Amplifier: Since the signal waves are weak from the microphone, these waves are
amplified in the amplifier.
Oscillator: This unit sets up carrier wave of the transmitter.
Modulator: In units the signal waves from amplifier are superimposed on the carrier
wave.
Antenna The modulated carrier wave is transmitted into space by the transmitting
antenna.
Classification of Transmitters in according to type of service.
Radio Broadcast transmitters

40
These transmitters are employed for entertainment and news etc to the public and are
either amplitude modulated or frequency modulated and operates on
Long wave i.e. below 300 kHz, in temperature countries where atmospheric disturbance
are less,
Medium wave i.e. on frequencies from 550 to 1650 kHz popularly known as Broadcast
Band
Short wave i.e. from to 3 to 30 MHz
The FM broadcast transmitters operate on VHF or UHF.
Radio Telephone Transmitters

These transmitters transmit telephone signals over long distance by means of radio.
The amplitude modulated transmitters usually work o short waves and the frequency
modulated ones work on UHF and are used on short distance communications.
Radio Telegraphic Transmitters

These transmitters transmit telegraph signals from one radio stations to another.
They work on AM and as well as on FM.
Radar Transmitters
Radio detection and ranging. These are of two types.
1. Pulse Radar. This radar is pulse modulated and operates on microwave
Frequencies i.e. 3000 MHz ( 10 cm wave length ) or 10,000 MHz ( 3cm w/l) on a
Power output of 100 kW.
2. CW ( continuous wave ) Radar. This works on frequency modulation.
Navigational Transmitters
These are of varied types and operate on different frequencies and power as
required for the purpose.
Television Transmitters
For television there are two transmitters, one for the picture and the other for the
sound. They both operate in VHF or UHF range. The picture transmitter is generally AM in a
band of 4.25 MHz The sound transmitter is FM on about 6 MHz
Airborne Transmitters
These transmitters are generally fixed on board the aircraft ad operate on 6 to 28
volts dc supplies obtained from storage batteries. Whereas for airbone radar operations
supply is generated in the aircraft.
41
Trans Receivers.
These are low powered radiotelephonic and telegraph trans-receivables capable of
transmitting and receiving. These are low powered and are AM or FM. They operate on dry
battery over short distances.
Adaptability to different antennas. To be capable to operate with different types of

antennas.
TV Receivers
These receivers receive TV broadcasts on VHF an UHF bands.
Communication receivers
These super-heterodyne receivers and contains
- Beat oscillators for code reception
- Noise limiter or noise suppressor
- Band spread for fine tuning
- Crystal filter for high and adjusted selectivity
- Sensitivity control
- Automatic volume control
- Automatic frequency control
- Volume expander
- Inter channel noise suppressor
- Fine tuning etc
These are complicated once and needs knowledges to operate and certainly are
expensive.
SUPER HETRODYNE RECEIVER.
Mixing of two frequencies is called heterodyning.

“ AVC and ‘SQUELCH’ switches get power from Detector.
BFO is switched ON for ‘AIA’ signals and for SSB switched OFF for A2A A3B signals.
42
When we tune our receiver to a particular frequency, the voltage of that freq. Is
allowed into RF amplifier. The voltage Is small ( micro volt ). This voltage is amplified in RF
amplifier.
In Mixer another freq. produced by Local Frequency Oscillator (LFO) is fed. It is
ganged ( inter connected ) with Rx tuning and produces a freq., higher, or, lower, than
tunned freq. Depending upon Intermediate Frequency IF used by Rx.
If we tune 8000 kHz, LFO gets tunned to 8455 kHz ( 8000 + 455 kHz)
automatically because it is gaged with the tunning of Rx. These two frequencies are mixed in
Mixer and difference ( 8455 – 8000 ) of 455 kHz is fed into IF. Amplifier In If amplifier it is
further amplified and then fed to DETECTOR. When we tune to 9000 kHz.
LFO gets tuned to 9455 kHz automatically. Thus whatever frequency is tuned LFO gets tuned
to 455 kHz higher to produce the difference of 455 kHz in mixer.
DETECTOR or DEMODULATOR separates AF from Carrier. Then AF is amplified and

goes to loud Speaker or Head phones. When A1A signals are there then there is no AF from
N0N (carrier). To hear such signals we switch on BFO (Beat Frequency Oscillator).
In BFO we can tune a freq. Higher than or lower than IF to get BEAT Freq (AF).
When we keep BFO + 2 kHz it oscillates on 457 kHz. This 457 kHz mixes up with IF (455 kHz)
in DETECTOR and produce 2 kHz AF which is amplified in AF amplifier and felt to
loudspeaker. BFO is switched ON to receive Morse signals and not used to receive R/T. BFO
is not available in domestic receivers as such Morse signals cannot be received by them. BFO
is also used to receive SSB.
Advantages of IF or Super Heterodyne Rx.

43
Whatever freq. is tuned at is converted to a fixed frequency (IF). It ha better

‘Selective’, Sensitively and Stability.
Adjacent station interference is eliminated.
CONTROL IN RECEIVER
ON / OFF and Volume control switch
Band switch
Tuner
Automatic volume control
Beat Frequency Oscillator
Emission switch
Noise Limiter
Squelch switch
Antenna tuning.
Volume control
It is a Variable Resistor (Potentio Meter) to increase or decrease the strength of
incoming signals. More resistance less volume.
Band switch
Selects the Band required
Automatic Volume Control (AVC) or Automatic Gain Control (AGC)

On account of Fading the amplitude of IF carrier at the detector, input may vary by
30 to 40 decibels and effect the reproduced program at the receiver output. When the
carrier is at its minimum the output becomes inaudible, when the carrier is at its
Maximum then the loudspekaers output intolerably high. To counteract this is the most
common system is AVC. It reduces the amplitude variation from a high volume of 30 dB
To 40 dB to a small value of 3 to 4 dB and its vice versa to increase the volume. AVC thus
smoothens out the variations in carrier amplitude to a great extent.
Tuning Control
Variable air condenser ganged together usually does tun9ing of RF circuits and
oscillator circuits. A separate condenser tuning is used for each frequency band. Seprate
coils are used for condenser tuning one coil in each rf circuits and one coil in oscillator
circuit. All these coils can be selected first with a band switch corresponding to its
frequencies. Thus a three-band receiver has a medium wave band 200 to 500 metres, short
wave 2 – band of frequency range from 91 to 41 metres and fro 31 to 13 metres
Band spreading
In short wave band the interval between adjacent frequencies is very small thys
making the tuning of stations difficult. A small movement of tuning thus makes the tuning of
stations difficult. A small movement of tuning condenser makes a large variation in tuned
circuit frequency. It is therefore advantageous to spread out the tuning range so that
considerable movement of tuning dial results in only a small frequency change. This is
44
achieved by allocating one tuning band to a small frequencies. Thus instead of normal 3
bands a receiver may have 8 bands.
Automatic Frequency Control

Frequency drift of local oscillations mistunes the receiver. The AFC system
automatically shifts the frequency of the local oscillator by such amounts to continually
keep the tuning perfect.
Squelch
It is used in VHF receivers to eliminate Internal Receiver Noise produced by receiver
when there is no signal
Noise Limiter
This reduces Static Interference.
Beat Frequency Oscillator (BFO)

This is used to receive Morse Code signal.
Emission Switch
It selects the emissions like A1A, A3E, J2E etc. When it is put on A1A BFO gets
automatically connected to it.
Good fidelity
To have a large and uniform response over the almost entire audio frequency band
i.e. in AM up to 5 kHz and FM to 15 kHz
Good selectivity
To have a good response to the desired signal of medium or low streangths but not
so high that is picks up the electrical disturbances from vicinity.
Good stability
Quality of Rx to remain stable to the tuned frequency. No drift.
PUBLIC ADDRESS SYSTEM

It is used on aircraft and at airports to make announcements. It consist of:
Microphones to convert sound waves into AF
AF amplifier to amplify AF
Loud Speaker to convert AF into Sound waves
INTER COMMUNICTION IN AIRCRAFT

It is like line telephone with wire connection between two telephones.
MICROPHONES
LOUD SPEAKER / HEADPHONES

45
The loudspeakers or headphones consists of magnetic field produces by a magnet.

In this field a ‘Voice Coil’ is kept which is attached to a paper cone or called Diaphragm.
When audio frequency from the receiver passes through the voice coil, it cuts the magnetic
field and a small current is induced. The induced current moves the paper cone diaphragm
up and down produces sound according to A.F.
MICROPHONES
DYNAMIC MICROPHONE
It consist of a magnetic field produced by a magnet. In this field a ‘Moving Coil’ is kept which
is attached to a diaphragm.
When we speak the sound waves vibrates the diaphragm which makes the moving coil to
vibrate accordingly. This movement cuts the magnetic field thus generating voltage in
accordance to the movement ( sound ) in the the coil itself. This is amplified by AF amplifier
and taken to Modulator.
Microphone coverts Sound Waves into Electrical energy.

Microphone can be used as Headphone.
CARBON MICROPHONE
In a carbon microphone ‘Loose Pile of Carbon Granules ( DUST)’ is contained in an insulted
cup called Button which is in constant touch with a thin ‘Steel Diaphragm.
When sound waves strike the diaphragm, it moves up and down putting varying pressure on
the granules. Thus variation of pressure is converted into A.F. and taken to A.F. amplifier.
Normally carbon microphones are usually used in aircraft.
CRYSTAL MICROPHONE.
In this ‘PIEZO EFFECT’ is utilized. It is subjected to mechanical strain and a PD

appers across them. By the presence of sound waves bending of crystals produces EMF
across the crystal. It is pressure operated Device.
ANTENNA
Function of an antenna is to radiate electro-mgnetic energy into space in the
form of Electro Magnetic Waves or to receive Electro Magnetic Waves from Space.
HERTZ ANTENNA
One half of wavelength long or any even or odd multiple of a half wavelength
is called Hertz Antenna.
DIPOLE
Lambda / 2 in metres.
FOLDED DIPOLE
When unfolded it equals full wavelength. It is used in TV.
46
WIRE ANTENNA
This is one of he simplest and most commonly used AF consisting of a horizontally
supported wire with lead attached near one end. In acft it is used for HF communication.
WHIP (VERTICAL) ANTENNA

Quarter wavelength grounded within itself. This is normally mounted on vehicles. In
acft it is used for VHF communication.
FERRET ROD ANTENNA

In this a lengthy wire is wound on a Ferret rod and is used to receive MW stations.
PARABOLIC ANTENNA
A highly directive type of antenna for VHF & UHF. It uses reflecting surface curved in
a shape of parabola. It radiates EMW in the form a very narrow beam.
ANTENNA TUNING
It provides a method of electrically lengthening or shortening the antenna by adding
captions or indicator at the point where Ant is fed.
ANTENNA LENGTH
The physical length of an antenna is made approx. 5% shorter than the electrical length to
compensate for the electrical effects other elements around the Ant.
ANTENNA INPEDENCE
For maximum transfer of power from Tx to Ant., the output Impendence of the Tx must be
matched to the Impendence of Ant.
NON-DIRECTIONAL BEACON
Popularly known as NDB is a radio transmitter, which provides guidance to aircraft in all
directions equality. It is a low or medium frequency navigational aid. It is located at the
ground stations and the direction finder equipment known as radio. Compass is fitted in the
aircraft.
Principle of operation
A non-directional beacon transmits modulated carrier wave in all directioms. This is
picked up by the radio compass in the aircraft and with help of a directional antenna
magnetic bearing of the NDB stations is obtained on the metering panel. The pilot of an
aircraft can them ‘ HOME’ on to the station.
Frequency of Operations
In India NDB operates within a frequency range of 200-455 KHz. The Radio Compass
in the aircraft operates within the Range of 200-1700 Khz. The extra frequency range is to
tune in All India Radio Broadcast Transmissions in case of the NDB failure
47
NDB transmittes a continuous radio frequency stations identification tone at 1020

Hz. The identification tone is that if two or three letter morse code group transmitted at a
rate approximately 7 words per minute.
Range
a. Lower power - 10 to 50 W with range of 45 NM. Used for Locaters along with outer
marker and middle marker of ILS.
b. Medium power – 250 to 500 W range of 150 NM. Used for Homing and Holding
c. High power – 1 KW to 10 KW with range of 250 – 500 NM. Used for En- route and
long range navigation .
AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER ( Airborne Equipment )

Radio Compass
The airborne equipment consists of

1. LF/MF radio receiver
2. Control Box
3. Loop & Sense antenna
4. Indicators
WORKING
This is the corresponding airborne NDB receiver. It has an Omni antenna also called as
Sense antenna and a rot table Loop antenna. When the loop antenna picks up an incoming
signal phase difference forms up due to the distance between the two limbs of the antenna.
This causes a current to pass through the limbs and is passed on to the receiver equipment.
The current flow will be maximum when the plane of the loop is in line of the direction of
the incoming signal and zero when the plane of the loop is at right angle to the signal Each
individual limb of the loop makes a circular polar diagram and both make together a
combined diagram that will be a figure of eight. This figure has two maximum and two
minimum.
The minimum are called ‘NULL’ positions. But these positions give an ambiguity
Of 180 degrees as the ground stations may be right ahead or right behind. To resolve this
ambiguity a Sense antenna whose polar diagram is circular is imposed on the figure of eight
diagram. It results into a heart shaped figure called Cardoid. This cardoid has one null
position that solves the ambiguity of 180 degrees. The loop antenna is rotated with respect
to fore and aft axis of the aircraft the bearing so obtained is Relative Bearing.
Service provided by NDB

1. En-route aid. NDB is most useful as long range en-route aid as it gives ranges as
large as 1000 miles
2. Position fixing. Pilot can get its position fixed by getting relative bearings from
two or more NDBs
3. Holding. To hold over it due to traffic density or for other reasons
4. Homing. Pilot ca home on to the NDB by keeping RBI indications at 000 degrees
and can home in from any direction.
5. Landing aid Instrument let down can be carried out with the help of NDB
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6. Aid in ILS. Low powered NDBs located along with middle marker and router
marker help the pilot to reach and djust the approaches path in ILS.
Advantages
1. Simple equipment and easy to handle
2. Economical
Disadvantages
1. Bearing accuracy is +/-5 degrees
2. Bearing errors are caused by the interaction of the normal ground waves and
understand sky waves
3. Bearing errors caused by the ground surface to water or vice-versa.
4. The range improves in onsoon / rainy seasons: but deterioratesin summer due
to change in conductivity of the earth.
VERY HIGH FREQUENCY OMNIRANCE ( VOR )

VOR is a navigational facility that operates in VHF range 108 to 118 MHz. It provide bearing
information to aircraft in all directions of 360 degree. We may say that it provides bearings
like a bicycle wheel spokes, known as Radials. An aircraft follows a radial either to fly
towards the stations or away from its .its range or service is line of sight hence it is short
navigational range, 200 NM at 35,000 ft high.
Types of VOR
1. Convectional VOR ( C VOR )
2. Doppler VOR ( D VOR )
3. Terminal VOR ( T VOR )
49
VOR works on the principle of phase comparison. Two signals of 30 Hz are
transmitted. One signal, known as reference signal, remains constant at 00 degrees while
the other signal, known as variable signal, varies its phase by one degree with every degree
of azimuth.
Aircraft determines its bearing by comparing reference phase with variable phase
and flies its desired radial either TO or FROM the VOR. The directions are magnetic and the
indications in the in the cockpit are converted to give QDM.
Service provided
1. It provides the pilot continues visual indications of theh magnetic bearing either
TO the station or FROM the station
2. It transmits station identification morse code signal every 7.5 seconds and voice
transmissions like weather reports.
3. It is generally co-located along with DME to provides distance information to help
the pilot to determines hi position. DME gives slant distances information.
50
Uses
1. Homing and en-route navigation
2. Instrument approach let down
3. Co located with DME it provides continuous information to the pilot of his
position
4. Network of VORs long an ATS route provide good navigational facilitates.
5. Terminal VORs that are located within terminal control area as useful for ATC
purposes.
Cone of confusion
Right over the VOR is airspace like of a cone where no transmission takes place. An
aircraft flying through it receives no signals and the airborne equipment givs erratic
indications. The duration depends upon the height of the aircraft. It indicates that the
aircraft is right over the station.
DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME)

Distance Measuring Equipment or popularly known as DME is ment to measure slant
distance of an aircraft from the place where it is situated. It operates in UHF band between
960 MHz and 1215 MHZ. This equipment is generally co-located with VOR or with ILS.
It works on Radar principle i.e. the time required for a radio pulse to travel to the
aircraft and back from the aircraft. The time taken is calibrated in distance of nautical miles.
In fact it works on secondary radar system. It contains mainly two components situated in
the aircraft and the Transponder. In aircraft system the Interrogator is situated in the
aircraft and the Transponder is on the ground. The airborne transmitter sends very short
and widely spaced interrogation pulses. These are picked up by the Transponder on the
ground at the station, whose output triggers the associated transmitters into sending out
replies on a different channel. The time takes for this process is converted into nautical
miles distance, which is shown in the DME metre in the cockpit. This distance as a matter of
fact is slant distance covering from the DME station to the aircraft high in the air.
The DME reading on an over flying aircraft while approaching the DME station
keeps reducing as the aircraft the stations, when right overhead the DME stations the
airbore equipment shows the height of the aircraft and as the aircraft flies away the
distance reading reappears showing the slant distance of the aircraft from the station.
The frequencies of interrogator and Transponder differ by 63 MHz. if the

Interrogator sends pulses ( PON ) on 1150 MHZ the transponder will receive and get
triggered and send pulses back on 1087 MHz ( 1150-63=1087) They are paired. The
transponder will not et triggered on freq. other than 1150 MHZ.
51
A/c INTERROGATOR CHANNEL TRANSPONDER
1025 – 1087 MHZ 1 TO 63 962 - 1024

1088 – 1150 MHZ 64 TO 126 1151 – 1213
Uses
1. As navigation aid in conjunction with VOR. This helps pilot to determines his position.
2. As component of ILS to provide exact distance to touch down.
3. As component of Microwave Landing System ( MLS )
INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS)
Instrument Landing System or ILS is meant to provide the pilot or auto pilot of a
landing aircraft with guidance to approaches and glide to the point of landing at the runway.
Ground Components
An ILS comprise of the following:
1. Localiser – for azimuth guidance
2. Glide Path – for elevation guidance
3. Markers – For range information
4. DME ( co-located with Glide Path ) for range information. Optinal.
The lay out of the ILS is as per figure below

52
Localizer
Localizer provides Course direction along the centre line of the runway towards the
approaching aircraft. Deviation of an aircraft left or right of he intended path is indicated in
the aircraft by a vertical needle.
Frequency range of operation is between 108 to 112 MHz
Coverage range is 25 NM from the transmitting antenna within 10 degrees of the on
the either side of the extend centre line of the runway, and 17 NM between 10 degrees and
35 degrees at a height of 1000 ft.
The radiation from the localiser antenna produces a composite pattern that is
amplitude modulated by 90 MHZ on a carrier frequency of 108 to 112 MHZ.
To an aircraft making an approach on the localizer the depth of modulation of the
150 Hz is predominant on the right side and that due to 90 Hz tone is predominant on the
left side. The two tones have equal amplitude along the extended centre line of the
The Localiser antenna is situated at a distance across the end of the downwind
runway and transmits back beam also that can be useful for aircraft carriying out missed
approaches.
53
Glide Path
Glide path provides glide angle along the approaches path of the localizer.
Deflection of authorised needle in the cockpits shows the pilot the position of the aircraft
‘ above or below’ the glide path.
Frequency range of operation is in UHF band from 328 to 336 MHz.
Coverage range is 10 NM from the threshold. It has azimuth coverages of 8
degrees on either side of the extended centre line of the runway in the direction of the
approach.
Radiation pattern produces a composite field pattern which is amplitude
modulated by 90 and 150 Hz tone on carrier of 328 to 336 MHz. the pattern is arranged to
provide a straight line descent with 150 Hz and 90 Hz tone predominating below and above
the path. The glide path angle is between 2 to 4 degrees generally it is of 3 degrees.
Glide Path Transmitter is located approximately 150 m from the centre line of
the runway about 300 m upwind from the threshold.
54
Markers
These are Fan Markers and operate on 75 MHz to provide specific distance
information along the approach path, from the landing threshold. The OUTER MARKER is
located approx. 3.5 to 6 NM from the threshold and the other is MIDDLE MARKER at an
approx. distance of 3500 feet from the threshold. While over flying these Markers the
indications in the cockpit are as under.
Marker Visual indication
Outer Purple
Middle Amber
Inner marker white
55
Locators
These are low powered NDBs of range 25 Nm only and are co-located with the
Markers. They are intended to provide additional guidance information for aircraft that
begins the ILS approach, or for Holding or for missed approaches. The NDBs are identified by
their two lettered morse code signals.
Distance Measuring Equipment

This is co-located with the glide path and gives continuous distance information to
the pilot from the touch down.
Categories of ILS . There are three categories of ILS that are capable to bring down the
aircraft up to certain heights in gien visibility conditions.
Cat I - Decision height 200 ft; RVR 550 m

Cat II - Decision height between 200 ft to 100 feet RVR 300 m
Cat III A - Down to the touch down of runway with RVR 200 m
Cat III B - Down to the touch down of runway and taxiways with RVR 50 M
Cat III C - Down to the touch down of runway and taxiway without external
Visual reference.
RVR is runway range for along a particular runway tht is in use for landing measured by
transmissometer during poor visibility.
56
MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM
ILS is suitable for big bodied and medium type of aircraft but not for helicopters and short
take off and landing aircraft. For these is Micro Landing System being introduced by ICAO.
In this system approaches may be made its horizontal and vertical coverage whereas
in ILS this is restricted to fixed directions of localizer and glide path.
Components
Azimuth Transmitter ( like localizer ). It provides a fan shaped horizontal approaches
zone usually +40 degrees of runway centre line.
Elevation transmitter ( like glide path ). It provides fan shaped vertical approach
zone usually 0.90 to 20 degrees.
Ranging. DME is provided to provide distance information.
Frequency. It works on radar frequency of gigahertz.
Operation
Time reference scan beam (TRSB) system determines position of the aircraft as it
sweeps to and fro by 80 degrees in a azimuth and 19 degrees in elevation. The airborne
equipment determines its position and the pilot can select an appropriate approaches path.
Advantages
1. very good guidance
2. Incentive to ground terrain. Hence can be installed where ILS can not be installed.
3. Very wide dimential coverages allowing curved flight path and final approaches on
different glide angles.
4. Expeditious movement to advantage of ATC.
RADAR
Radar stands for Radio Detection and ranging. It is based on principle of transmission
of high power of energy into space and receiving it back after getting reflected by an object
aircraft. This is displayed visually on the screen that gives the direction and distance if the
object. The energy transmitted is tiny burst of carrier wave in the form of pulses modulating
a sine wave carrier. The energy received back is called Echo.
57
Radar frequency range

Frequencies for modern radars are normally within 500 MHz to 100 GHz.
Classification of Radars
There are two types of radars Primary and Secondary.
Primary Radar
It works on echo principle where one frequencies transmitted and is received back
after getting reflected from an object. The reflected energy is very weak and has to be
amplifier for the purpose of deriving information. Time taken by this process is halved to
determines distance and the direction from where it returned gives the direction of the
object, like aircraft, moisture laden clouds etc.
Most of the radars used for air traffic control purposes are primary radars, like:
1. Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR)
2. Air Route Surveillance Radar(ARSR)
3. Weather Radar
4. ASMI ( Airport Surface Movement Indicator)
Advantages
1. It works independently i.e. the active co-operation from the target is not required
2. It engages several targets at the same time and generally does not get saturated
3. It requires only one set of transmitter an receiver
Disadvantages
1. Poor efficiency as the size of echo depends upon the size of the echo
2. Transmitting power has to be high, as the same energy has to return after getting
reflected.
3. Receiver ha to be very sensitive as the strength of the echo is weak.
4 Transmitter and receiver have to be critically aligned for the frequency.
5. Fixed targets give permanent echoes and hamper in detecting moving targets.
Secondary Radar
58
In this system interrogating pulses are transmitted by the transmitter, known as

Interrogator these pulses are received by the equipment fixed in the target known as
Transponder that then sends back the signal on a different frequency.
Advantages
1. Distance range increases as the radar transmission has to travel the distance
between the transmitter and the targets one way only.
2. Requires ow power.
3. Echo is not dependant on the size of the targets.
4. As the frequencies are different of interrogator and Transponder it is free of
permanent targets.
5. By suitable coding useful information can be transmitted from the targets to the
ground station, like that in case of a highjack.
Disadvantages
1. It can be used for targets having the requisite transponder.
2. All secondary radars are likely to get saturated.
Applications of Radar
1. Air traffic Control – ASR, ARSR, ASMI ( Airport Surface Movement Indicator)
2. Navigation – Airborne weather radar fitted in the nose of aircraft, Radio
altimeter, Ground mapping and Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS)
3. Military applications
4. Meteorological applications
5. Space applications.
6. Police – to detect speed vehicles.
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Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

It is unit gives visual displays of radar signals and has the following main parts.
1. Cathode. It is a barium oxide cylinder with a low tension heater. When heated it
Omits electrons.
2. Grid. It is a metal cylinder that surrounds the Cathode.
3. Anodes. These three anodes for the purpose of streamlining the electrons.
4. Y-plates These are horizontal plates that are used to move the beam in upward
or downward position along the Y-axis of the vertical scale.
5. X-plates. These plates help the beam to be moved in right or left position.
6. Screen. It gives the visual displays where the beam falls on it fluorescent
Graphite coated on it.
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RADIO ALTIMETER
Radio altimeter works on the principle of frequency shift in the band of 4200 to 4400
MHz it transmits FM radio wave on a particular frequency that changes at a particular rate
of 60 MHz at known rate, and receives its echo from the ground in its reception unit. The
frequency of the reflected signal is different signal is different than that of the transmitted
at that instance.
Difference in frequency = rate of change of frequency x time.

The half of the time taken is the height of he aircraft. This is indicated either by a
needle over a dial of meter or by digits.
Errors
1. Fixed error. If the pointer moves in steps of 5 ft an error of 2,5 ft may be present.
Overall accuracy is 5 ft + 3 % of indicated height.
2. Mushing error. When the aircraft is standing on the ground then the radio
altimeter gives the heights between the ground and the transmitter. In air this is corrected
for, but still it remains a little. This is known as Mushing error.
Pulse Modulation Altimeter (Radar Altimeter)

In this instead of frequency modulation pulse transmission in the 1600 MHZ band is
used Accuracy is + 2 ft.
WEATHER / AIRBORNE RADAR

Airborne Search Radar also called Weather Radar Displays gives the following information
1. Pictorial display of dangerous clouds that lay ahead of the aircraft.
2. Map painting for the purposes of navigation.
Principle of operations
1. It works on primary radar system utilizing echo principle.
2. It operates on SHF band using 10 cm to 3 cm wave lengths. For detection of clouds conical
beam is transmitted which widens with the distance. In a broad beam width signal individual
weather calls may merge into one it would be difficult to distinguish each cloud cell.
3. Detection of clouds depends upon:
a. Size of water droplet
b. wave length of the frequency in use
c. Beam width
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Aerial
The aerial scanner consists of a parabolic disc with a central dipole system. It is
installed in the nose of the aircraft. It is called Reflector.
Hazards level of Wx Radar is 10 micro volt / cm sq. ( Airbus 300 ).
Safe distance of radar antenna is 30 meters (Wx Radar of an a/c)
Power output of a/c Wx radar 65 Kilo Watts
Power output of airbus Wx Radar 100 Watts
Wx Radar—C Freq 5.5 GHz

Wx Radar—X Freq 9.4 GHz
TRAFFIC ALERT AND COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEM ( TCAS )
The Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) is a family o airborne devices that
provide collision avoidance protection and airspace situational awareness that is completely
independent of the ground radar based ATC system. Its primary purpose is to make aware
the pilot by displays and aural voice system of the aircraft that comes in close proximity of
creating a collision hazards
Working
TCAS airborne equipment transits a radio frequency interrogation signal to nearby
aircraft transponders and then processes the subsequent replies. It determines Range,
Relative bearing and relative altitude of the other aircraft and its flight distance is
determined by the time it takes the RF signals to go from TCAS to nearby transponders and
back. Bearing is determines by TCAS directional antennas no the top and bottom of the
aircraft. Altitude of the intruder is determined by decoding the barometric altitude reported
by the transponders Mode-C or Mode-S reply. The resulting aircraft targets are displayed on
the cockpit displays. TCAS predicts flight paths from the info received and if the flight path
of an aircraft is predicated to penetrate the collision area surroundings a TCAS issues aural
warnings like “Traffic, Traffic “. If the collision threat increases then certain types of TCAS
issue commands like” Climb, Climb”.
ACAS Is Airborne Collision Avoidance System as Called by ICAO for TCAS.
GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM ( GPWS )

This system gives visual and as warning signals to a pilot when the aircraft in close proximity
to the ground that may be potentially dangerous. It alerts the pilot only of ground
underneath about not that ahead like a mountain.
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GLOBAL POSITINING SYSTEM ( GPS )

This is a USA developed system that gives an accurate area navigation system. It comprise of
the following
Space Element. This consists of 21 active satellites orbiting the earth every 12hours in six
orbital planes with four in each plane at an angle of 55 degree at heights of 11,000 NM.
Satellite control. Tis is for orbital accuracy and control
Navigation Receiver / Computer. This receiving and Identifying signals from satellites at a
particular time and place.
Advantages
Available 24 hrs and world wide
Provides three dementia positions
Unrestricted range
Being in UHF it has got line of sight advantages
It is light weight, portable and inexpensive.
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Basic Operation
Each satellite transmits its position and time UTC in the form a computer code on
frequency 1575.42 1000 times per second. From this data the distance form the satellite
and the receiver is determined. At a given time four satellites re in view . GPS receivers use
accurate clocks and appropriate software to ascertain position by receiving and computing
data from at least three satellites for a two dimensional fix, and four satellites for a three
dimential fix, such as ground position and altitude.
MISCELLANEOUS
Standard Frequencies & Time Signal Service

In India National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi call sign ‘ATA’ Transmits time signal
on 5 MHz (HN) 10 MHZ (H24) nad 15 MHZ (HJ). The announcements is made every 15
minutes. Emission is A3E.
AIR also transits time. The last pip denotes the given time. Frequencies can be
obtained from AERADIO.
Power Output
In Aircraft VHF Transmitter output is 25 Watt

HF Transmitter output is 100 Watt
On Ground VHF Transmitter output is 200 watt

HF Transmitter output is 500 watt
Directional VHF Transmission called Extended Range on Ground gives 400 miles as the
radiation is Beaned in a particular direction.
In aircraft voltage is 115V / 400 Hz
AIR TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT

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INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION

ICAO
BIRTH OF INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORAGANIZATION (ICAO)
Chicago Convention of 1944, also known as Convention on International Civil Aviation

gave to INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANISATINO, a permanent body responsible
administering the general principles and arrangements embodied in the Convection.
ICAO is composed of:

1. The ASSEMBLY. It comprises of representatives of all major States and
Holds a meeting once every three years that analogues with General
Assembly of United Nation.
2. THE COUNCIL. A permanent body responsible to the Assembly and is
composed 33 contracting states elected by the Assembly for a three
them.
3. THE SECRETARIAT. It is a body of members of technical competence in
Their respective fields.
Headquarter of ICAO is at Montreal in Canada.
ANNEXES TO THE CONVENTION (SARPS).

International Standards and Recommended Practises are adopted by the Council
in accordance with Articles of the Convention on International Civil Aviation and are
designed, for convenience as ANNEXES to the Convection. To date the following 18 Annexes
have been adopted.
Annex 1 – Personnel Licensing

Annex 2 – Rules of the air
Annex 3 – Meteorological Service for international Air Navigation
Annex 4 – Aeronautical Charts
Annex 5 – Units of Measurements
Annex 6 – Operation of Aircraft
Part 1 – Intnl. Communication Air Tpt. – Aeroplanes
Part 2 – International General Aviation – Aeroplanes
Part 3 – international operations – Helicopters
Annex 7 – Aircraft Nationality & Regn. Marks.
Annex 8 – Airworthiness of Aircraft
Annex 9 – Facilitation
Annex 10 – Aeronautical Telecommunications
Vol. 1 radio Navigation
Vol. 2 Communication Procedures
Vol. 3 Digital Data communication Systems
Vol. 4 Surveillance Radar & Collision Avoidance Systems
Vol. 5 Aeronautical Radio Frequency Spectrum Utilization
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Annex 11 – Air Traffic Services

Annex 12 – Search & Rescue
Annex 13 – Aircraft Accident & Inncident Investigation
Annex 14 - Aerodromes
Vol. 1 – Aerodrome Design And operations
Vol. 2 – Helicopters
Annex 15 – Aeronautical Information Services
Annex 16 – Environmental Protection
Vol. 1 – Aircraft Noise
Vol. 2 – Aircraft Engine Emissions
Annex 18 – Security
Annex 19 – The Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air.
PROCEDURES FOR AIR NAVIGATION SERVICE (PANS)

They are operating procedures regarded as not yet having attained sufficient
degree of maturity for adoption as International Standards and Recommended Practices. As
well as material of a more permanent character which is considered too detailed for
incorporation in Annex, or is susceptible to frequent amendment, for which the process of
the convention would be too cumbersome. E.g. RAC – Rules of Air And Doc 4444.
REGIONAL SUPPLEMENTRY PROCEDURES (SUPPS)

These are similar to PANS but only for application in the respective Regions.
INTERNATIONAL TELECOMUNICATION UNION
At first were International Telegraph Union of 1865 and International Radio

Telegraph Convection of 1906. In 1932 at Madrid conference both were combined to form
International Communication Union. It came into effect in 1934. In 1847 it became a United
Nations specialised agency with Headquarters at Geneva, Switzerland. It has 191 member
States.
ITU works in three sectors, 1) Radio 2) Telecommunication 3) Development. It
encourages international co-operation in all forms of telecommunication. It activities
include maintaining order in allocation of radio frequencies setting standards on technical
matters assisting countries in developing their own telecommunication.
RADIO REGULATIONS. (RR)

The first international Radiotelegraph Conference held in 1996 in Berlin signed the first
Radiotelegraphy Convection and annex to this convention contained the first governing
wireless telegraphy. These Regulations, are known as Radio Regulations. Thus we may say
66
that the regulations adopted by Radio Conference as annexure to the International

Radiotelegraphy Conference of 1906 are called Radio Regulations.
Standards
The international standards that are produced by ITU are referred to as
Recommendations. Due to ITU’s longevity and status as a specialised agency of United
Nation, standards promulgated by ITU carry a high degree of formal international
reorganization.
WIRELESS PLANNING & COORDINATION (WPC)
The wireless planning & coordination wing of Ministry of Communications created in 1952 is
the National Radio Authority responsible for Frequency Spectrum Management, including
lichenising and caters for the needs of all users ( Government and Private) in the country. It
exercise the statutory functions of central govt. and issues licenses to establish, maintain
and operate wireless stations. WPC is divided into major sections like Licencing and
Regulation (LR), New Technology Group ( NTG) and Standing Advisory Committee on Radio
Frequency Allocation (SACFA).
AIR TRAFFIC SERVICE

Air Traffic Service.
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A generic term meaning variously, Flight information service. Alerting service, Air
traffic advisory and Air traffic control service.
Objectives of Air Traffic Services:

1. to prevent collision between aircraft
2. to prevent collisions between aircraft and obstructions like vehicles buildings
Etc. on ground
3. to provide orderly and expeditions flow of air traffic
4. to provide and information for the safe and efficient conduct of flights
5. to notify appropriate ORG in case of search and rescue and provide assistance.
1. ATC is main division of Air Traffic Service, meant to achieve first three objectives of ATS.
i) Area control Service : To provide Act Service to controlled flights under its
judications to accomplish objectives 1 & 3.
ii) Approach Control Service : To provide ATC service to those parts of controlled
flights
associated with arrival and departure to accomplish objectives 1 & 3.
iii) Aerodrome Control Service : To provide ATC service to aerodrome traffic to
accomplish objectives 1,2 & 3.
2. Flights Information Services : to accomplish objective 4
3. Alerting Service : to accomplish Objective 5.
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Flight Information Regions. These are airspace where flight information service and alerting
are provide to air traffic.
Indian airspace is divided into four FIRs and one sub FIR. These are
1. Delhi FIR from GND to UNL
2. Mumbai FIR from GND to UNL
3. Chennai FIR from GND to UNL
4. Kolkata FIR from GND to UNL
5. Guwahati sub – FIR from Ground level to FL 265 (excluding)
CONTROLLED AIRSPACES
Controlled Airspace. An airspace of defined dimensions within which Air Traffic Control
service is provided in accordance with the airspace classification.
Control Zone. A controlled airspace extending upwards from the surface of the earth to a
specified upper limit.
Control Area. A controlled airspace extending upwards from a specific limit above the earth.
Advisory airspace. An airspace of defined dimensions or designated route, within which air
traffic advisory service is available.
TIME IN AIR TRAFFIC SERVICE

Air traffic Services work on Co-ordinated Universal Time (UTC) and express the time
in hours and minutes of the 24 hour day. Midnight shall be designated as 2400 for the end
of the day and 0000 for the beginning of the day.
Time check is given to pilot to the nearest half minute.
A date time group shall consist of six figures, the first two figures representation the
date of the month and the last four figures and minutes in UTC.
UTC is local mean time of place, Green which in England situated on Zero degree Meriden.
Local mean time of India is 5.30 hrs ahead of UTC. LMT of India is the local time of
Allahabad.
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Aircraft Nationality and Registration Marks

The nationality mark for aircraft registered in india are the letter ‘VT’ or Civil aircraft
and VU for Air force aircraft. The nationality mark is followed by a happen and a registration
mark consisting of 3 letters e.g. VT-ERC or VU-AWB.
AERODROME CONTROL SERVICE

Aerodrome
A defined area on water (including any buildings, installation and equipment)
intended to be used either wholly or in the part the arrival, departure and surface
movement of aircraft.
Aerodrome Reference Point

It is a designed point established in a horizontal at or near the geometric centre of
the landing area. It is marked with a metric plate embedded in the ground in the horizontal
position engraved with name of the aerodrome, latitude & longitude and elevation of the
highest point of landing area.
Aerodrome Elevation
The elevation of aerodrome reference point. ( AIP Gen 1.7.5)
Apron
A defined area, on a land aerodrome intended to accommodate aircraft for purpose of
loading or unloading passenger, mail or cargo, fuelling, parking, or maintenance.
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Stand
A designated place on apron for the purpose of parking of aircraft.
Taxiway
A define path on a land aerodrome established for the taxing of aircraft and intended
to provide a link between one part of the aerodrome and another, including;
a) Aircraft stand taxi lane. A portion of an apron designated as a taxiway and intended to
provide access to aircraft stand only
b) Apron taxiway. A portion of a taxiway system located on an apron and intended to
provide a through taxi route across the apron.
c) Rapid exit taxiway. A taxiway connected to a runway at an acute angle and designed on
other taxiways there by minimising runway occupancy times.
Taxiway Identification
Each taxiway identified by an England alphabet A to Z. A taxiway that brakes into
parts due to intersections or otherwise may have a numerical nuber along with its English
letter, for e.g. C1, C2. C3, etc.
Runway Holding Position

A designated position intended to protect a runway, an obstacles limitation surface,
or an ILS critical/sensitive area at which taxing aircraft and vehicles shall stop and hold
unless otherwise authorized by the aerodrome control tower.
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Intermediate holding position

A designated position intended for traffic control at which taxiing aircraft and
vehicles shall stop and hold until further cleared to proceed, when instructed by aerodrome
control tower.
Wind Sock
It is a conical device made of cloth through which wind flows and swivels along the direction
of wind. This gives visual indication of the direction of the wind and its approximate speed.
It is installed in open area near runway.
Signal area
An area an aerodrome used for the displays of ground signals.
Runway
A define rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and take
off of aircraft.
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Runway Designator
A whole number to the nearest one-tenth of Magnetic North. Additional parallel
runways are labelled “L” ( left ). “R” ( right and “C”( centre).
Threshold
The beginning of that portion of runway usable for landing.
Touchdown
The point where the nominal glide path intercepts the runway.
Runway strip
A defined area including the runway and stop way, if provide.
Shoulder
An area adjacent to the edge of a pavement so prepared as to provide a transition
between the pavement and the adjacent surface.
Selection of Runway
Selection of runway to be used for arrivals and departure of aircraft is made by
Aerodrome Control. Factors that are taken into consideration for selection of runway in use
are as under:
1. Wind direction
2. Traffic conditions
3. Type of approaches to land
4. Type of aircraft
5. Sun
Stop way .
A define rectangular area on ground at the end of take off run available prepared
as a suitable area in which an aircraft can be stopped in case of an abandoned take off.
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Clearway. A defined rectangular area on the ground or water selected or prepared as a

suitable area over which an aeroplane may make a portion of initial climb to a satisfied
height.
Take Off Run Available (TORA). A length of runway declared available and suitable for the
ground run of an aeroplane taking off.
Take Off Distance Available (TODA). The length of take off run available plus the length of
Clearway, if provided.
Accelerated Stop Distance Available (ASDA). The length of take of run available plus the
length of stop way.
Landing Distance Available (LDA). The length of runway, which is declared available and
suitable for, the ground run of an aeroplane landing.
Aerodrome Control Tower

A unit establish to provide ATC service to aerodrome traffic.
Manoeuvring Area
That part of an aerodrome to be used for take off, lading and taxing of aircraft,
excluding apron.
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Movement Area
That part of an aerodrome to be used for take off landing and taxing of aircraft and
the apron.
Aerodrome Traffic Circuit

The specific path to be flown by aircraft operating in the vicinity of an aircraft
Aerodrome Traffic
All traffic on manoeuvring area of an aerodrome and all aircraft flying in the vicinity
of aerodrome.
Note: An aircraft is in the vicinity of an aerodrome when it is entering or leaving an

aerodrome traffic circuit.
Aerodrome Traffic Zone

An airspace of defined dimensions established around an airdrome for the
protection of aerodrome traffic.
Air Traffic
All aircraft in flight or operating on the manoeuvring area of an aerodrome.
DEFINATIONS
Taxiing. Movement of an aircraft on the surface of an aerodrome of an aerodrome under its

own power excluding take-of and landing.
Air Taxiing. Movement of a helicopter/ VTOL above the surface of an aerodrome, normally
in ground effect and at a ground normally less than 37 KMPH (20 Kts)
Aerodrome Elevation. The elevation of Aerodrome Reference Point (AIP Gen 1.7.5)
Aerodrome Control Tower. A unit established to provide ATC service to aerodrome traffic.
Aerodrome traffic circuit. The specified path to be flown by aircraft operating in he vicinity
of an aerodrome.
Aerodrome traffic zone. An airspace of defined dimensions established around an.
Aerodrome Traffic. All traffic on Manoeuvring area of an aerodrome and all aircraft flying in
the vicinity of an aerodrome.
Note: An aircraft is in the vicinity of an aerodrome when it in, entering or leaving an
aerodrome traffic circuit.
Air Traffic. All traffic in flight or operating on the manoeuvring area of an aerodrome.
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Visibility. The ability as determined by atmospheric conditions and expressed in units of

distance, to see and identify prominent unlighted objects by day prominent lighted objects
by night.
Flight Visibility. The visibility forward from the cockpit of an aircraft in flight.
Ground Visibility. The visibility at an aerodrome as reported by an accredited observer.
Runway visual range. The range over which the pilot of an aircraft on the centre line of the
runway can see the runway surface markings or te light the runway or identifying its centre
line.
VFR flight. A flight conducted in accordance with the visual flight rules.
Special VFR Flight. A VFR flight cleared by Air Traffic Control to operate within a control
zone in meteorological conditions below VMC.
Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC). Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of

visibility distance from cloud and celling equal to or better than specified minimum.
Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC). Meteorological conditions expressed in terms

of visibility distance from cloud and ceiling less than the minimum specified for visual
Meteorological conditions.
Dewpoint
It is the temperature to which a given parcel of air must be cooled at constant barometric
pressure for water vapor to condense into water.
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
The specification of the standard atmosphere is formulated by ICAO as follows:
a. The air is a perfect dry gas;
b. Sea atmospheric pressure: 1013.25 HPa;
c. Sea level temperature 15 degree C
d. The rate of fall of temperature with height 6.5 degree C / km up to 11 km
e. the temperature of air remains uniform at -56.5 degree C at 11 km and upto 20 km
f. From 20km to 30 km A rise of temperature with height about 1 degree C/km or 0.3 degree
C / 1000 ft.
For aviation purposes it is not necessary to specify standards atmosphere above 32 km.
Transition Level.
It is the lowest useable flight level above an aerodrome, below which the vertical
distance is measured as altitude.
Transition altitude
It is a level at or below which the vertical distance is measured as altitude.
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AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFORMATION SERVICE (ATIS)
At busy airports it becomes difficult for the ground controllers to give routine
information about the aerodromes and weather conditions to aircraft now and then. So the
required information is fed into a tape recording system that transmits it on a particular
frequency continually during the specified times. This facilitates pilots to monitor the
information as and when they require without distributing the controller. This system of
providing current and routine info by means of continuous and respective broadcasts is
known as ATIS. The ATIS message consist mainly of the following elements:
Name of aerodrome
Designator – the word INFORMATION and identification letter from ICAO alphabet
Time of observation
Type of approaches (es) to be expected
Runway in use
Transition level
Essential operational information
Surface wind direction and speed
Visibility / RVR
Present weather
Cloud below 5000 feet or below the highest minimum sector altitude, which ever
is greater Cumulonimbus.
Dew point
Altimeter setting
Trend forecast
Specific instructions.
When rapidly changing Meteorology conditions make it impractical to transmit an

up-to-date weather report, the ATIS message will indicate that weather information will be
supplied on initial contact appropriate ATS unit.
ATIS freq. 126.4, 126.6, 126.8.
D-ATIS is data link ATIS system, in which pilot gets a written message in the aircraft about all
the broadcast of ATIS. This removes chances of a pilot listening or writing wrongly of any of
the information.
The provision of ATIS via Data link.
V-ATIS is voice ATIS system wherein the pilot gets voice transmission of ATIS only. The
provisions of ATIS by means of continues and respective voice broadcasts.
METAR. This is routine weather report of an aerodrome issued every half an hour. It gives
Surface wind, Visibility, Prevailing weather conditions, Temp, Dew Point, QNH and Trend
forecast.
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SPECI. This is Selected Special Weather report that is issued when a significant change in
METAR report takes place. SPECI is issued in between immediately and is valid till the
issuance of the next METAR.
VOLMET. Current Weather Reports and Aerodromes Forecasts SIGMET of certain stations
are broadcast in HF from Mumbai and Kolkata at half hourly intervals.
CAVOK. This is a code word that is spoken for Cloud and Visibility OK. It replaces visibility,
weather and cloud if:
Visibility is 10 kms. Or more
No Cumulonimbus cloud and no other cloud forecast below at 1500 meters (5000
feet) or below
No precipitation, Thunderstorm, sandstorm Dust storm, Fog forecast.
CLOUD Amount is given as :

FEW – Few 1 to 2 Oktas
SCT. – Scattered (half or less than half the sky covered), 3 to 4 Oktas
BKN. – BROKEN ( More than half but less than OVC), 5 to 7 Oktas
OVC. – OVERCAST ( entire sky covered ), 8 Oktas
SIGMET Information
Information issued by a meterological watch office concerning the occurrence or expected
occurrence or specified en- route weather phenomena, which may affect the safety of aircraft
operations.
AIRMET Information
Information issued by a meterological watch office concerning the occurance or expected
occurance of specified en-route weather phenomena which may affect the safety of low level
aircraft operations which was not included in the forecast issued for low- level flights
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ALTIMETERY TERMS
Altitude. The vertical distance of a level, a point or an object considered as a point,

measured from mean sea level.
Height. The vertical distance of a level, a point or an object considered as a point, measured
from a specified datum.
Flight level. A surface of constant atmospheric pressure, which is related to a specific

pressure datum, 1013.2 hectopascals, and is separated from other surfaces by specified
pressure intervals.
Level. A generic term related to the vertical position of an aircraft in flight and meaning
variously, height, altitude, or flight level.
Elevation. The vertical distance of a level, a point or an object considered as point, on the
surface of the earth measured from mean sea level.
QNH. Aerodrome pressure deduced to mean sea level pressure under standard atmospheric
conditions.
79
QFF. Aerodrome pressure deduced to mean sea level pressure under existing atmospheric
conditions.
QNE. Height of an object or a place measured from the datum of 1013.2 hPa.
Note- An altimeter
1. When set to a QNH altimeter setting, will indicate altitude;
2. When set to QFE altimeter setting will indicate height above the QFE reference
datum.
3. When set to pressure of 1013.2 hPa, may be used to indicate flight levels.
Transition altitude. The altitude at or below which the vertical position of an aircraft is
controlled by reference to altitudes.
Transition level. The lowest flight level available for use above the transition altitude.
Transition layer. The airspace between the transition altitude and the transition level.
VISUAL FLIGTH RULES
1. Except when operating as a special VFR Flight, VFR flights shall be conducted so that the
aircraft is flown in conditions of visibility and distance from clouds equal to or greater than
specified in Table 1.
2. Except when a clearance is obtained from an aircraft from an air traffic control unit, VFR
flights shall not take off or land at an aerodrome within a control zone, or enter the
aerodrome traffic zone or traffic pattern:
a) when the celling is less than 450m (1500ft): or
b) when the ground visibility is less than 5 Km.
3. VFR flights shall not be operated between sunset and sunrise, expect when exempted by
ATC for local flight and such training flights of flying club aircraft as may be cleared by Air
Traffic Control.
*Local flight is a flight wholly conduced in the immediate vicinity of an aerodrome. (Aircraft
Manual (India), Vol 1 page 113, Sch 1V Rules of Air.)
4) VFR flights shall not be operated

a) at or above FL 150
b) at transonic and supersonic speeds
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c) More than 100NM seaward from the shoreline within the controlled airspace.
5. Except when necessary for take-off or landing, or exept by permission from the
appropriate authority, a VFR flight shall not be flown:
a) Over the congested areas of cities, towns or settlements or over an open-air assembly
of persons at a height less than 300m (1000ft) above the highest obstacle within a radius of
600m from the aircraft;
b) Elsewhere than as specified in 5 a), at a height less than 150m(500ft) above the
ground or water.
F, G F, G
Above 900m At and below 900m
Airspace Class D,E (30000ft) AMSL or (300ft) or 300M
above (1000ft)above (1000ft) above
terrain, whichever is terrain, whichever is
higher higher
Distance from cloud 1500M horizontally 300M(1000ft)vertically Clear of cloud and in
sight of the surface
Flight Visibility 8KM at and above 3050M(1000ft)AMSL 5KM
5KM below 3050m(1000ft) AMSL
a) When the height of the transition altitude is lower than 3050m (10000ft)
**Helicopters may be permitted to operate in 1500 m flying visibility or higher if
maneuvered at a speed that will give adequate opportunity to observe other traffic or any
obstacle in time to avoid collision.
INSTRUMENTS FLIGHT RULES
Aircraft sall be equipped with suitable instruments and with navigation

equipment appropriate to the route to be flown.
MINIMUM LEVELS
Except for takeoff or landing or except when specifically authorised by the

appropriate authority, an IFR flight shall not be flown at a level which is not below the
minimum flight altitude has established by the state whose territory is overflown, or where
no such minimum flight altitude has been established:
Over high terrain or in mountains areas, at a level which is at least 600 metres (2000 feet)
above the highest obstacles located within 8 kms of the estimated position of the aircraft.
Elsewhere than as specified above at a level which is at least 300 metres (1000 feet) above
the highest obstacles located within 8 kms of the estimated position of the aircraft.
ATS ROUTES.
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When air traffic flow between two places increases to an extent that it becomes
necessary to make control then ATS route is established between those two places.
Hence ATS route is a corridor meant to channelize the movement of aircraft from one
place to other.
An ATS route over land is 20 NM wide that is !) NM on either side of its centre line and is 40
NM wide over sea that is 20 NM on either side of the centre line.
Identification of ATS routes

ATS routes are identified by their designators. A designators consists of one letter of
alphabet followed by 1 to 999 like G 452. W 11 etc. ‘W’ is allotted to domestic routes only.
Sometimes these designators have a prefix to the basic designators that is of the following
types:
1. K to indicate low level route for use primarily by helicopters
2. U to indicate that the route or portion thereof is established in the upper airspace
3. S to indicate a route establshe exclusively for Supersonic aircraft during
acceleration deceleration and while in supersonic flight.
Airway.
Airway is a control area or portion thereof in the form of a corridor having

navigational aids.
CLASSIFICATION OF AIRSPACE
Flights fly under either Visual Flight Rules or Instrument Flight Rules. In order to
provide air traffic service to them, airspace are classified and designators as under.
Class A: In this airspace only IFR flights are permitted to operate the are provided
with ATC service and are separated from each other.
Class B: In this airspace both types of IFR and VFR flights are permitted and all are
provided with ATC service and are Separated from each other.
Class C: In this airspace IFR and VFR flights are permitted, ATC service is provided to
all flights to separate IFR flights from each other and also from VFR flights. The VFR flights
are separated from IFR flights and receive only traffic information about other VFR flights.
Class D. In this airspace IFR and VFR flights are permitted, ATC service is provided to
all flights to separate IFR flights from each other but are given traffic information in respect
of VFR flights. VFR flights are provided with traffic information about all other flights.
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Class E: In this airspace IFR and VFR flights are permitted and ATC service is provided
to IFR flights and are separated from each other. All flights receive traffic information, as for
as practicable. Control zones are not classified as class E.
Class F: In this airspace IFR and VFR flights are permitted, all IFR flights receive air
traffic advisory service and all flights receive flight information service if requested.
Class G: IFR and VFR flights are permitted and receive flight information service if
requested.
ATS AIRSPACE IN INDIA ARE DESIGNED AS D,E,F, &G.
Class D applicable to airspace in Terminal Ares, control zones and aerodrome traffic
zones
Class E applicable to airspace in designated ATS routes outside terminal and control areas.
Class F applicable in ATS route segments outside CTAs, TMAs, CTRs, ATZs.
Class G applicable is applicable to airspace other than those in class D,E, and F.
SYSTEMS OF CRUSING LEVELS

Semi-circular systems of cruising level is applicable up to FL 460 within Indian
Airspace.
Minimum Sector Altitude

It is established within a radius of 25 NM the aerodrome. Quadrants of the
compass are used for determining minimum sector altitudes in Instrument approach
procedures.
FLIGHT PLANS
Flight Plan
Specified information provided to Air Traffic Service Units, relative to an intended
flight or portion of a flight aircraft.
Filed Flight Plan

The flight plan as filed with an ATS unit by the pilot or his designated representative,
without any subsequent changes.
Repetitive Flight Plan

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A flight Plan related to a series of frequently recurring, regurly operated individual

flights with identical basic features, submitted by an operator for retention and repetitive
use by ATS unit.
Current Flight Plan

The flight plan, including changes, if any, brought about by subsequent clearances.
Operational Flight Plan.

The operators flight plan for safe conduct of flight based on considerations of
aircraft performance other operating limitations and relevant expected conditions on the
route to be followed and at the include airports concerned.
Alternate Aerodrome
An aerodrome to which an aircraft may proceed when it becomes either impossible
or in advisable to proceed to or land at the aerodrome of intended landing. Alternate
aerodromes include the following:
Take-off alternate
An alternate aerodrome at which an aircraft would be able to land after experiencing
an abnormal or emergency condition while en-route.
Destination alternate
An alternate aerodrome to which an aircraft may proceed should it becomes either
impossible or inadvisable to land at the aerodrome of intended landing.
SUBMISSION OF FLIGHT PLAN
For every intended flight or portion of a flight, relative information shall be provided
to ATS units in the form of a Flight Plan.
Requirement to submit a flight plan
Every flight shall be submitted at least 60 minutes before departure, or when in air
then at least 10 minutes with the appropriate ATS unit before the aircraft is estimated to
reach:
b) the point of entry into a control area; or
c) the point of crossing an airway or advisory route.
PROCEDURE FOR SUBMISSION OF FLIGHT PLAN
Before departure
A flight plan should be submitted to the Air Traffic Services Reporting Office at the
departure aerodrome or the designated to serve that aerodrome before departure of flight.
In the event of delay of 30 minutes in excess of a controlled flight or a delay of one
hour for an uncontrolled for which a flight plan has been submitted, the flight plan should
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be amended or a new flight plan submitted and the old flight plan cancelled which is
applicable.
During Flight
During flight a flight plan should be transmitted normally to the Aeronautical
Telecommunication Stations serving appropriate ATS unit.
Local / Training Flight
1. For all local training flights or test flights flight plans must b submitted as per
procedures prescribed for Non Schedule Flights.
2. Training flights conducted by flying clubs with in ATZs may submit flight plan
on telephone giving the following info:
i. Aircraft identification
ii. Flight rules
iii. Name of pilots and trainee if any
iv. Number of persons on board
NOTE. At aerodrome where no ATZs is established or no air space has been reserved as local
flying area, then an area of 5 NM radius from Aerodrome Reference Point and vertical limits
up to 3000 ft AGL shall be considered as vicinity of aerodrome for VFR flights.
d) For cross country flights conducted by flying clubs and general

aviation operators, where ATS unit does not exist flight plans can
be submitted on telephone to Flight information Centre giving
information as given above for local/training flights.
SIDs– STANDARD INSTRUMENT DEPARTURES

STARs – STANDARD TERMINAL ARRIVALS
DEFINATIONS
Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA)

For IFR flights, the time at which it is estimated that the aircraft will arrive occur that
designated point defined by reference to navigational aids, from which it is intended that an
instrument approach procedure will be commenced, or, in case of VFR flights or where no
navigational aids are available then the time over the aerodrome that the flight will arrive.
Expected approach time. The time which ATC expects that an arriving aircraft, following a
delay, will leave the holding point to complete its approach for a landing.
Air Traffic Services Unit.

A generic term meaning variously, air traffic control unit, flight information centre or
air traffic services reporting office..
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Cruise Climb
An aeroplanes cruising technique resulting in a net increase in altitude as the
aeroplanes mass decreases.
Cruise Climb in India is not permitted
Essential Traffic
Essential traffic is that controlled traffic to which the provision of separation by ATC is
applicable, but which, in relation to a particular controlled flight is not separated there from
by the minimum of separations as laid down.
Reporting Point
A specified geographical location in relation to which the position of an aircraft can
be reported.
Using the same navigational aid:

This is achieved when aircraft are at the same level at a minimum given distance
and at a minimum angular difference from each other from the same navigational facility.
For example
a. VOR: At least 15 degree and at a distance of 15 NM or more from the facility

b. NDB: At least 30 degree and at a distance of 15 NM or more from the facility
c. Dead Reckoning: At least 45 degree of 15 NM or more from the point of the
intersection of their tracks determined either visually or by a navigational
aid.
NOTE: when two aircraft use different navigational aids co-located to each other then
separation minimum requiring higher separation shall be applicable
II. Longitudinal Separation
Aircraft on same track at same cruising level:

a. 15 minutes. That is when two aircraft are flying on same track at same level then the
succeeding aircraft should be 15 minutes behind the preceding one. Or 20 NM
DME distance provided each aircraft uses ‘on track’ DME stations.
b. 10 minutes, if navigational aids permit frequent determination of position and speed.
Or 10 NM DME distance if the leading aircraft is 20 knots or more faster than the
succeeding one and both the aircraft use ‘on truck’ DME stations.
c. 5 minutes, in case the preceding aircraft is maintaining a true airspeed of 20 knots or
more faster than the succeeding one.
d. 3 minutes, in case the preceding aircraft is maintaining a true airspeed of 40 knots or
more faster than the succeeding one.
Aircraft flying on crossing tracks:

a. 15 minutes. Or 20 NM DME distance provided each aircraft report distance
from the stations located at the crossing point.
b. 10 minutes if navigational aids permit frequent determination of position and
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speed. Or 10 NM DME distance provided each aircraft report distance from the
station located at the crossing point, and the leading aircraft is knots or more
faster than the succeeding one.
Aircraft flying on crossing tracks

a. 15 minutes. OR 20 NM DME distance provided each aircraft report distance
from the station located at the crossing point.
b. 10 minutes if navigational aids permit frequent determination of position and
speed. Or 10 NM DME distance provided each aircraft report distance from the
station located at the crossing point, and the leading is 20 knots or more faster
than the succeeding one.
Aircraft climbing or descending on same track:

15 minutes while separation does not exist. Or 10 NM DME distance provided each
aircraft uses on track DME station.
10 minutes while vertical separation does not exist provided that the navigational
aids permit frequent determination of position and speed.
5 minutes while vertical separation does not exist provided the level change is
commended within 10 minutes of the second aircraft reported over an exact
reporting point.
Aircraft climbing or descending on crossing tracks:

a. 15 minutes while vertical separation does not exist.
b. 10 minutes while vertical separation does not exist provided navigational facilities
permit frequent determination of position and speed.
Traffic on reciprocal tracks:

Vertical separation must exist between aircraft on reciprocal tracks for at least a
time of ten minutes prior to and after the aircraft are estimated to pass or have passed. Or
provided it is positively established that both the aircraft have crossed each other are at
least 10 NM DME distance away.
FLIGHT INFORMATION SERVICE
Flight Information Centre

A unit established to provide flight information service and alerting service.
Flight Information Service

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A service to provide advice and information useful for the safe and efficient conduct
of flights.
Advisory Airspace
An airspace of defined dimensions, or designated route, within which air traffic
advisory service is available.
Air Traffic Advisory Service

A service provided for the purpose of giving advice and information useful for the
safe and efficient conduct of flights.
Pre-flight Information Bulletin (PIB)

A presentation of current NOTAM information of operational significance prepared
prior to flight.
Air Traffic Services Reporting Office

A unit established of the purpose of receiving reports concerning air traffic services
and flights plans submitted before departure.
Alerting Service
A service provided to notify appropriate organisations regarding aircraft in need of
search and rescue aid, and assist such organisations as required.
EMERGENCY PHASE
A generetic term meaning, as the case may be, uncertainly phase, alert phase or distress
phase.
Uncertainly Phase
A situation wherein uncertainly exists as to the safety of an aircraft and its occupants.
Uncertainly phase is declared when:
1. no communication has been received from an aircraft within a period of 30 minutes after
the time the communication should have been received or from the time an unsuccessful
attempt to establish communication with such aircraft was first made, whichever esrlier or
when
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2. an aircraft fails to arrive within 30 minutes of the estimated time o arrival last notified to
or estimated by ATS units, which ever is later except when the safety of aircraft or
occupants is assured.
INCERFA
The code word to designate an uncertainly phase.
Alert Phase
A situation wherein apprehension exists as to the safety of an aircraft and its
occupants.
Alert phase is declared when:
a. following the uncertainly phase, communication with the aircraft is not madde
b. an aircraft has been cleared to land and fails to land within five minutes of the
estimated time and there is no communication
c. information has been received that the operating efficiency of the aircraft has
been affected but not to the extent that a forced landing is expected.
d. Am aircraft is known or believed to be subjecte of unlawful interference.
ALERFA
The code word used to designated an alert phase.
Distress Phase
A situation wherein there is reasonable certainty that an aircraft and its occupants
are threatened by grave and imment danger or require immediate assistance.
Distress phase is declared when:
a. following the alert phase further attempts to establish contact with the aircraft fail
b. the fuel on board is considered to be exhausted
c. information is received that the operating efficiency of the aircraft is impaired and a
forced landing is likely to take place
d. aircraft has forced landed.
DETERSFA
The code word used to designated to distress phase.
LIST OF EMERGENCY FREQUENCIES & IMPORTANT BANDS
Air-ground communications HF 2850 – 22 000 kHz

Air-ground & air-air communications VHF 117.975 – 137 kHz
Search & rescue 3023 & 5680 kHz
406 – 406.1 kHz
Emergency frequencies 121.5, 123.1 & MHz
International Distress Frequencies 500 kHz
2182 kHz
Emergency frequencies for use in aircraft emergencies and in FLT in 121.5 and for scene of
search communication is 123.1 MHz
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Emergency frequency in mobile service is 243 MHz Survival craft stations using VHF are
normally fitted 121.5 and 243 MHz
COMMUNICATION WATCH
a. During the flight ACTF maintains watch as instructor and shall not cause watch
except for reasons of safety without informing the aeronautical station.
b. ACTF on lon over- water flights, shall continuously guard VHF emergency
frequency 121.5 MHz except for those periods when ACTF is carriying out
communication on other VHF channels or cockpit duties do not permit
simultaneous guarding of two channels.
c. When ACTF suspends operation for any reason, it shall, if possible inform other
stations
d. In areas or en-route where radio communications (length of flights) the regular
stations should between them responsibility of Primary Guard stations.
SEARCH AND RESCUE
India has a Satellite Aided Search & Rescue program. It operates on 121.5 Mhz,
243.0 Mhz and 406Mhz. Location accuracy is normally within 25 Kms on 121.5 and 243 Mhz
and 5Km on 406 Mhz The system will detect transmission on these three frequencies
through the Indian SRR.
Two Local User Terminals LUT Have been established one at Banglore and the
other at Lucknow with the Indian Mission Control MCC Bangalore which would be
responsible for coordinating with Rescue Coordination Centres and Other International
Mission Centres.
The MCC at Bangalore is connected with the RCC at Mumbai, Delhi, Calcutta,
Chennai and Guwhati through AFS network and any distress alert received from the areas
covered is automatically transmitted to the RCC.
AERONAUTICAL PUBLICATIONS
The aeronautical Information is provided in the form of the integrated Aeronautical

Information Packages consisting of the following elements.
Aeronautical Information Publication
Amendment service to the AIP (AIP AMDT)
Supplement to the AIP (AIP SUP)
NOTAM and pre-flight information bulletins (PIB)
Aeronautical information circulars (AIC)
Check lists and summaries.
NOTAMS and the related check lists are issued via AFS, while PIB are made available at ATS
Reporting office. All other documents of the Packages are distributed by mail.
AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION PUBLICATION

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This is a publication that contains aeronautical information of a lasting character

essential to air navigation. It contains under mentioned sections:
1. General
2. Aerodromes (AGA)
3. Communication (COM)
4. Meteorology (MET)
5. Rules of Air & Air Traffic Services (RAC)
6. Facilitation (FAL)
7. Search and Rescue (SAR)
8. Aeronautical Charts Published (MAP)
AIP India is published in two volumes.

Vol. I – Part I: General and Part II: Enroute, regarding the first seven sections
Vol. II – Aerodromes (A to J), regarding MAP
Vol. III – Aerodromes (K to Z), regarding MAP
AIP Is in loose leaves contained in a ringer file, in English lnguages for use in International
and Dom3estic Operations.
Airports Authority of India’s publishes AIP under the authority of Director General of CIVIL
Aviation (DGCA).
AIP Supplement. Temporary changes to the information contained in the AIP, which are
published by means of special pages.
AIP Amendment. Permanent changes to the information contained in the AIP.
Aeronautical Information Circular (AIC)

A notice containing Information that the does not qualify for the organization of a
NOTAM or for inclusion in AIP, but which relates to flight safety, air navigation, technical,
administrative or legestive matters. For example:
- Forecasts of important changes in the air navigation, procedures, service

and facelifted provided
- Forecasts of implementation of new navigational systems
- Significant information arising from accident/ incident having bearing on air
Safety
- Advice on medical matters
- Effect of certain weather phenomena on aircraft operations
- Regulations relating to carriage of restricted articles
- Aircrew licensing arrangements
- Training of aviation personal
- Carriage of radio equipment
- Selected airworthiness directive. Etc. etc.
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AIRAC (Aeronautical Information Regulation and Control)

An acronym signifying a system aimed at advance notification, basedon common
effective dates of circumstances that necessitate significant changes principles in operating
practises.
Civil Aviation Requirements (CAR)

The Director General of civil Aviation promulgates CARs to specify detailed
procedures of the Aircraft Rules 1937 as these Rules are board principles of law.
AERADIO
It is an Airports Authority of India’s publications that contains detailed information on
the location indicator, communication, navigation and surveillance facilities at airports and
Aeronautical Communication stations of India. It contains information on time signal and
Public Broadcasting stations of All India Radio and also information on Meteorological
Broadcast stations for use airline operators.
NOTAM
A notice distributed by means of telecommunications containing information
concerning the establishment condition or change in any aeronautical facility, service,
procedure or hazards the timely knowledge of which is essential to personnel concerned
with flight operations.
PROVISION OF NOTAM
NOTAMS are originate by the international OTAM office Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi
and Madras, The NOTAMs listed for international distribution are promulgated in Series
A,B,C and G
Series A: Contain information in respect of changes / un- service abilities etc of

aeronautical facilities likely to last for more than 2 hours in respect of locations of direct
importance to international aircraft operations requiring international distribution.
Series B: Contain information in respect of changes / unserviceability etc likely to

last for more than 30 minutes but less than 2 hours, in respect of locations of direct
importance to international aircraft operations, requiring limited distribution to adjacent
states only.
Series C: Contain information in respect of changes / unserviceability etc of

aeronautical facilitates I respect of locations utilized by domestic flights only and for which
no separate “A” series international class I NOTAM distribution is given.
Series D: Contain information in respect of changes / unserviceability etc of

aeronautical facilities in respect of defence controlled aerodromes only.
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Series G: Contains information of a general and lasting character affecting aircraft

operations in general. This series is operated only by the International NOTAM office, Delhi
and issued under the authority of Director General of Civil Aviation and given wide publicity
SNOWTAM
A special series NOTAM notifying the presence of a or removal of hazards
conditions due to snow, ice, slush or standing water associated with snow, slush and ice on
movement area, by means of specific format.
ASHTAM
A special of NOTAM notifyingby means of specific format change in activity of a
volcano, a volcanic eruption and/ or volcanic ash cloud that is of significant to aircraft
operations.
NOTAM – NOTAM new

NOTAMR—NOTAM renewed
NOTAMC – NOTAM cancelled
Class I NOTAM distribution. Distribution that is done by AFTN services

Class II NOTAM distribution. Distribution done by methods other Class I.
Check list and Summary of NOTAM

A check list of all NOTAM current 1st of each month is originated by respective
NOTAM office. In addition a monthly check list and summary of NOTAM in force at the end
of the month Complete. The complete summary is prepared once a year on a 1 st January.
PRE-FLIGHT INFORMATION BULLETIN (PIB)

Contains recapitulation of current NOTAMs and other information of urgent
character for the operator/flight crews.
Pre-flight Information Service at Aerodromes
Pre-flight information is available at the following aerodromes:

1.Delhi
2. Mumbai
3. Kolkata
4. Chennai
Automatic Self Briefing System (ASBS)

ASBS provides an automatic method of receiving storing and retrieving the data,
essentially required for pilots pre-flights briefing. It has the capability to include the
information pertaining to the stations and routes concerned with the following Data:
1. General information
2. Visual aids
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3. AGA information
4. Communication facilities
5. Navigational facilities
6. NOTAMS.
CLEARANCE AND REPORTS
DEFINITIONS
Air Report
A report from an aircraft in flight prepared in conformity with requirements for
position and operational and/or meteorological reporting.
Reporting Point
A specified geographical location in relation to which the position of an aircraft can
be reported.
Air Traffic Control Clearance

Authorization for an aircraft to proceed under conditions specified by an air traffic
control unit.
POSITIONS REPORTS
Transmission of Position Reports

Whenever an aircraft passes over designated significant points, position reports
shall be made by pilots and transmitted to appropriate ATS unit. Additional reports between
these reporting points may be asked for by ATS unit and that should reported by the pilot.
On routes where these points are not designated position report shall be made
as soon as possible after first half hour of the a flights and thereafter:
a. at hourly intervals in VMC
b. at half hourly in IMC nd during night
c. on entering or leaving a Flight Information Region.
Last position report before passing from one FIR to another adjacent FIR should
also be made to the ATS unit serving the air space about to be entered.
All aircraft transiting from a foreign country’s FIR to Indian FIR shall forward estimates for
FIR boundry including flight lrvrl to the appropriate ATS unit of the Indian FIR at least 10
minutes prior to entry.
While flying in control zones and controls areas an aircraft shall report positions both in
VMC and IMC as below.
Soon after take off and thereafter as required by ATC unit
On entering an leaving a control zone or control area.
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Contents of position Report

Aircraft identification followed by spoken word ‘position’
Name of reporting point
Time
Flight level or altitude
Next position and time of estimate
Ensuing significant point.
Contents of Routine Air Report

Routine air reports shall be transmitted by voice or data link containing following:
Position information
1. Aircraft identification
2. Position
3. Time
4. Flight level or altitude
5. Next position and time of estimate
6. Ensuing significant point
Operational Information
7. Estimated time arrival
8. Endurance
Meteorology
9. Air Temperature
10. Wind Direction
11. Wind Speed
12. Turbulence
13. Aircraft icing
14. Humidity (if available)
Contents of special Air Report (AIREP SPECIAL)

Special Air Reports are made by aircraft when it encountered the following
conditions.
1. Severe turbulence ; or
2. Severe icing; or
3. Severe mountain wave; or
4. Thunderstorm; or
5. Heavy dust storm; or
6. Volcanic ash cloud; or
7. Pre-eruption volcanic activity or a volcanic eruption
In case of transonic and supersonic
8. Moderate turbulence; or
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9. Hail; or
10. Cumulonimbus clouds.
Special VFR Flights.
When traffic conditions permit, special VFR flights may be authorised subjected the
approval from the unit providing Approach Control Service.
Requested for such authorization shall be handled individually.
Separation as applicable to IFR flights shall be applicable between Special VFR

flights and between Special FR flight and IFR flight.
1. When ground Visibility is not less than 1500 M special VFR flights may be
authorised to enter a control zone for the purpose of landing or take off and
depart directly from a control zone if the aircraft is equipped with functioning of
two wave VHF R/T for communication with appropriate ATC units.
Provided that performance Class I and Class II helicopters may be authorised to
operate special VFR flights when the ground visibility is not less than 1000 metres.
Provided further that military helicopters may be authorized to operate special
VFR flights when ground visibility is not less than 1000 metres provided the
helicopters is manoeuvred at a speed that will adequate opportunity to observe
other traffic or any obstacles in time to avoid collision.
2. Special VFR flights shall be operated only by pilots holding Instrument Rating,
Asstt. Instructor or Flight Instructor Rating.
3. Special VFR flights may be authorised to operate locally within a control zone
when the ground visibility is not less than 1500 M, provided:
a. the aircraft is equipped with a functioning radio receiver and the pilot
guards the appropriate frequency or
b. if the aircraft is not equipped with a functioning radio receiver
adequate arrangements have been made for the termination of the flight
Prohibited area
Restricted area
Danger area
SIGNALS
DISTRESS SIGNALS
The following signals, used either together or separately mean that grave and
imminent danger threatens and immediate assistance is required:
b. a signal by radiotelegraphy or by any other signalling method consisting of a

group SOS in the morse code.
c. A radiotelegraphy distress signal consisting of the spoken word MAYDAY
d. A distress message sent b data link transmitting MAYDAY
e. Rockset or shells throwing red lights, fired one at a time at short intervals
f. A parachute flare showing a red light
URGENCY SIGNALS
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The following signals used either together or separately mean that an aircraft wishes
to give notice of difficulties which complete it to land without requiring immediate
assistance:
a. the repeated switching on and off of the landing lights
b. the repeated switching on and off of the navigation lights in such a manner
as to be distinct from flashing navigational lights.
The following signals used either together or separately mean that an aircraft has
very urgent message to transmit concerning the safety of a ship aircraft or other vehicle, or
of some person on board or within sight
a. transmitting signals by radiotelegraphy or by other method group XXX
b. radiotelegraphy spoken words PAN PA
c. an urgency message sent via ata link which transmits spoken words PAN PAN
SAFETY SIGNALS
The following signals used either together or separately mean that an aircraft is about
to transmit a message concerning the safety of navigation or giving important
meteorological warnings.
a. Transmitting by radiotelegraphy or by other method group TTT
b. Radiotelegraphy spoken word SECURITE.
WARNING SIGNALS
To warn an aircraft that is flying in the vicinity of a restricted prohibited or danger
area the following signals are given.
A series of projectiles discharged at intervals of 10 seconds on bursting they will show
red and green lights or stars. The aircraft should take immediate remedial actions.
VIP, VIR, VID

VAP, VAR, VAD
VEP, VER, VED
ATC VISUAL SIGNALS

In case of radio communications failure or where radio communication is not
available then the following visual signals will be shown to aircraft in accordance to their
meaning.
For aircraft on ground For aircraft in air

STEADY GREEN
Cleared for take off Cleared to land
STEDAY RED
Stop Give way to another a/c &
Continued circling.
GREEN FLASHES
Cleared to taxi Return for landing
RED FLASHES
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Taxi clear of landing area I use Aerodrome unsafe do not land

WHITES FLASHES
Return to starting point
RED PYROTECHNICAL
Not with standing any previous instructions do not land for the time being.
PCN / CAN
Airport pavement involves determining and controlling the aircraft loading that can operate
safety on the pavement without causing structural damage to either the aircraft or the
pavement.
Airport pavements will deteorate rapidly if they subjected to aircraft loadings that exceed
the structural design strength of the pavement. To prevent pavements from being
overloaded and falling structurally their strength must be evaluated and reported and
aircraft loads should not be allowed to exceed the reported strengths.
It is commonly thought that the most critical loading on an airfield pavement is at the time
when the aircraft touches down on runway – but this is not so. As a general rule 50% of
weight is airborne at that time. Actually aircraft is at maximum weight when parked on
apron prior to departure being full with fuel and payload. The loading remains critical during
taxiing and gradually lessens as it accelerates through the take-off run.
Pavement surface stability is also critical under heavy aircraft loads. High tire pressures can
easily tear shove an unstable asphalt surface.
ICAO develop and introduced a system known as Aircraft Classification Number/Pavement

Classification Number (ACN/PCN). It is a single international method of classifying and
reporting pavement bearing strength for aircraft above 5700 kgs
ACN is a number expressing the relative effect of an aircraft load on a pavement for specific
subgrade strength. The PCN is a number expressing the bearings strength of a pavement for
un-restricted operations. A pavement with a particular value can support without weight
restrictions, an aircraft has an CAN value equal to or less than the pavement’s PCN value.
PCN is reported as a 5- part code. Fpr example: PCN 65/F/A/W/T:
Part 1 – 65 the PCN highest permitted CAN at the appropriate subgrade category
Part 2 – F, the type of pavement (F = flexible, R = rigid)
Part 3 – A, the pavement subgrade category ( A=high; B=Medium; C=Low; D=Ultra low)
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Part 4—W, maximum tire pressure authorized for the pavement (W=high, no limit; X=
medium, Limited to 217 psi; Y= low, Limited to 145 psi; Z = very low, limited to 73 psi.)
Part 5 – T, pavement design/evaluation method. T= derived from an engineering study; U=
based on satisfactory aircraft usage.
MISCELLANEOUS
RADIOTELEGRAPHY
It is mode of communication by speech with help pf radio waves
Advantages of RT
Messages are in simple spoken language
Messages are transmitted faster
Dis-advantages of RT
No secrecy
Messages can be misunderstood
More transmitting power is required
Prone to static disturbances
Air Defence Identification Zones (ADIZ)
1. ADIZ Bombay
2. ADIZ West
3. ADIZ North
4. ADIZ Delhi
5. ADIZ Central India
6. ADIZ East
7. ADIZ South
Requirement for Issue of ADC
Every flight that originates within the ADIZs and those penetrating in to ADIZs must
have Air Defence Clearance.
Procedure for issue of ADC
Every flight when operating to through or within the AIDZ shall obtain Air Defence
Clearance before take off through ATC except the local flights that are conducted within an
airspace of 5 NM radius ARP and vertical limits of 1000 feet a.g.l.
ADC shall be valid for the entire route irrespective of intermediate halts for flights
originating in one ADIZ/FIR and transiting through other ADIZs/FIRs.
All flights shall obtain ADC clearance ten minutes before entering Indian Airspace
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In event of delay of more than 30 minutes in departure or at intermediate

aerodromes halts, fresh ADC should be obtain. In case of communication difficulty aircraft
equipped with Radio may take off but should obtain ADC immediately after getting
airborne.
Aircraft Communication and Navigation Equipment
Communication Equipment
A. All aeroplanes shall be fitted with radio communication equipment capable of:
Conducting two ways communication for aerodrome control purposes Receiving
Meteorological information at any time during flight and Conducting two-way
Communication at any time during flight with at least one
Aeronautical station and with such other aeronautical stations and so on frequencies as
May be prescribed by the appropriate authority. All aircraft fitted with HF
communication equipment shall be capble of operating SSB mode.
B. The radio communication equipment shall provide communications on emergency

frequency 121.5 MHz
Navigation Equipment for Operations Under IFR
A. All aeroplanes shall be provided with navigation equipment which will enable it to
proceed:
b) In accordance with its Operational Flight Plan.
c) In accordance with prescribed Required Navigational Performance (RNP) types;
d) In accordance with the requirements of air traffic services.
Except when, if not so precluded by the appropriate authority, navigation for flights under
Visual Flight Rules.
B. For flight in defined portion of airspace where based on regional air navigation
agreement minimum navigation performance specifications (MNPS) are prescribed an
aeroplane shall be provided with navigation equipment which:
a) Continuously provides indications to the flight crew of adherence to or departures from

track to the required degree of accuracy at any point along with the track; and
b) Has been authorized by DGCA for MNPS operations concerned.
For flight in airspace of RVSM above FL 290:

Shall be provided with equipment which is capable of:
i) Indicating the Flight Level being flown

ii) automatically maintaining a selected Flight Level
iii) providing an alert to the flight crew when a deviation occurs from the
selected flight level.
100
iv) Automatically reporting pressure altitude; and
b) shall be authorized by DGCA for operation in the airspace concerned
D. The aeroplanes shall be sufficiently provided with the navigation equipment to ensure
that in the event of failure of one item of equipment at any stage of flight the remaining
equipment will enable the aircraft to navigate as required.
E. On flights in which it is intended to land in IMC then the aircraft shall have radio
equipment capable of receiving signals providing guidance to a point from where visual
landing can be made.
F. The communication and navigation equipment shall be such that failure of one unit
should not lead to failure of the other.
AIR TRAFFIC ADVISORY SERVICE
Air Traffic Advisory Service is provided to aircraft operating outside controlled

airspace on ATS routes classified ‘F’
FLIGHTS INFORMATION SERVICE
FIS is provided to all flights in addition to air traffic control /advisory service as
applicable. However only FIS is provided in airspace / ATS routes classified ‘G’
All VFR flights and IFR flights outside controlled airspace shall maintain watch on
the frequency used by the unit providing FIS and provide information as to their position
with that unit.
AERODROMES / APPROCH CONTROL SERVICE
Aerodromes / approach Control issue ATC clearance and information to aircraft to

ensure a safe, orderly and expeditious flow of traffic.
Radio communication shall be established with appropriate Aerodrome /
Approach Unit—
Prior to taxiing for departure; or

When intending to operate in a Class ‘D’ airspace
While operating in class ‘D’ airspace only direct controller – pilot communication is
Permitted. RTF communication through interpreter shall not be permitted.
- For IFR or VFR operation in class ‘D’ airspace, aircraft shall be equipped with appropriate
VHF radio apparatus and a radio compass.
A pilot-in-command under IFR or VFR intending to enter cross or operate within a CTR or
ATZ shall request a Clearances from Aerodrome / Approach Control on the appropriate
radio frequency. He shall :-
Pass the a/c position, level, track and estimated time of crossing the airspace
101
Maintain a continuous Listening watch on that frequency while the aircraft is

with in airspace.
Carry out any instructions received from Aerodrome / Approach Control.
DEFINATIONS
Services
Aeronautical broadcasting service.

A broadcasting service intended for the transmission of information relating to air
navigation.
Aeronautical fixed service (AFS)

A telecommunication service between specified fixed points provided primariliy for the
safety of air navigation and for the regular, efficient and economical operation of air service.
Aeronautical fixed telecommunication network (AFTN).

A world-wide system of aeronautical fixed circuits provided, as part of the aeronautical fixed
service, for the exchange of messages and/ or digital data between aeronautical fixed
stations having the same or compatible communications characteristics.
Aeronautical mobile service.

A mobile service between aeronautical stations and aircraft stations, or between aircraft
stations, in which survival craft stations may participate; emergency position-indicating
radio beacon stations may also participate in this service on designed distress and
emergency frequencies.
®
Aeronautical mobile service.
An aeronautical mobile service reserved for communications relating to safety and
regularity of flight primarily along national or inter-national civil air routes.
Aeronautical mobile-satellite service.

A mobile satellite service in which mobile earth stations are located on board aircraft;
survival craft stations and emergency position-indicating radio beacon stations may also
participate in the service.
®
Aeronautical mobile-satellite service
An aeronautical mobile-satellite service reserved for communications relating to safety and
regularity of flights, primarily along national or international civil air routes.
Aeronautical radio navigation service.

102
A radio navigation service intended for the benefit and for the safe operation of aircraft.
Note – The following radio Regulations are quoted for purpose of reference and/or clarity in
understanding of the above definition of the aeronautical radio navigation service.
RR 11 Radio navigation: Radiodetermination used for the purpose of navigation including

abstraction warnings.
RR 10 Radiodetermination: The determination of the position, velocity and/or other

characterstics of an object or the obtaining of information relating to these parameters by
means of the propagation properties of radio waves.
Aeronautical telecommunication service.

A telecommunication service for any aeronautical purpose
International telecommunication service.

A telecommunication service between offices or stations of different States, or between
mobile stations which are not in the same State, or are subject to different States.
Stations
Aerodromes control radio station.

A station providing radio communication between an aerodromes control tower and aircraft
or mobile aeronautical stations.
Aeronautical fixed station.

A station in the aeronautical fixed service.
Aeronautical station.
A land station in the aeronautical mobile service. In certain instances, an aeronautical
station may be located for example on board ship or on a platform at sea.
AFTN station.
A station in the aeronautical fixed telecommunication network (AFTN) and oerating as such
under the authority or control of a safe.
Aircraft station.
A mobile station in the aeronautical mobile service, other than a survival craft station,
located on board an aircraft.
Communication centre.
An aeronautical fixed station which relays or retransmits telecommunication traffic from (or
to) a number of other aeronautical fixed stations directly connected to it.
Mobile surface station.

A station in the aeronautical telecommunication service, other than an aircraft station,
intended to be used while in motion or during halts at unspecified points.
103
Radio direction finding.

Radiodetermination using the reception of radio waves for the purpose of determining the
direction of a station or object.
Radio direction-finding station.

A radiodetermination station using radio direction finding.
Note – The aeronautical application of radio direction finding is in the aeronautical radio
navigation service.
Communication methods
Air- ground communication.

Two-way communication between aircraft and stations or locations on the surface of the
earth.
Air-to-ground communication.
One-way communication from aircraft to stations or locations on the surface of the earth.
Blind transmission.
A transmission from one stations to another station in circumstances where two-ways
communication cannot be established but where it is believed that the called station is able
to relative the transmission.
Broadcast.
A transmission of information relating to air navigation that is not addressed to a specific
station or stations.
Duplex.
A method in which telecommunication between two stations can take place in both
directions simultaneously.
Ground-to-air communication.
One-way communication from stations or locations on the surface of the earth to aircraft.
Interpilot air-to-air communication.

Two-way communication on a designated air-toair channel to enable aircraft engaged in
flights over remote and ocenic areas out of VHF ground stations to exchange necessary
operational information and to facilitate the resolution of operational problems.
Readback.
A procedure whereby the receiving stations repeats a received message or an appropriate
part therof back to the transmitting stations so as to obtain confirmation of correct
reception.
Simplex.
104
A method in which telecommunication between two stations takes place in one direction at
a time.
Telecommunication.
A continues portion of the frequency spectrum appropriate for a transmission utilising a
specified.
Offset frequency simplex.

A variation of signal channel simplex where in telecommunication between two stations is
effected by using in each direction frequencies that are intentionally slightly different but
contained within a portion of the spectrum allotted for the operation.
Simplex.
A method in which telecommunications between two stations takes place in one direction
at a time.
Note – In application to the aeronautical mobile service this method may be subdivided as
follows.
a) singles channel simplex
b) Doubles channel simplex
c) Offset frequency simplex
Single channel simplex.

Simplex using the same frequency channel in each direction
For use in aeronautical fixed service planning
Location indicator.
A four-letter code group formulated in aerodrome with rules prescribed by ICAO and
assigned to the location of an aeronautical fixed station.
For use in aeronautical mobile service planning
Aeronautical station.
A land station in the aeronautical mobile service. In certain instances, an aeronautical
station may be placed on board a ship or an earth satellite.
Aircraft station.
A mobile station in the aeronauticals mobile services, other than a survival craft station,
located on board an aircraft.
Air-ground communication.
Two -way communication from aircraft to stations or locations on the surface of the earth.
Ground-to-air communication.
One-way communication from stations or locations on the surface of the earth to aircraft.
105
Message Category
Distress messages……………………………………………………………………….. SS
Urgency messages ………………………………………………………………………DD
Flight safety messages …………………………………………………………………FF
Meteorological messages……………………………………………………………..GG
Flight regularity messages…………………………………………………………….GG
Aeronautical information messages …………………………………………….GG
Aeronautical administrative messages………………………………………….KK
Service messages ………………………………………………………………………… (as appropriate)
TRANSMISSION OF LETTERS
Syllables to be emphasized are underlined.
Letter Word Pronunciation
A Alpha AL FAH
B Bravo BRAH VOH
C Charlie CHAR LEE OR
SHAR LEE
D Delta DELL TAH
E Echo ECK OH
F Foxtrot FOCKS TROT
G Golf GOLF
H Hotel HO TELL
I India IN DEE AH
J Juliet JEW LEE ETT
K Kilo KEY LOH
106
L Lima LEE MAH

M Mike MIKE
N November NO VEM BER
O Oscar OSS CAH
P Papa PAH PAH
Q Quebec KEH BECK
R Romeo ROW ME OH
S Sierra SEE AIR RAH
T Tango TANG GO
U Uniform YOU NEE FORM or
OO NEE FORM
V Victor VIK TAH
W Whiskey WISS KEY
X X-Ray ECKS RAY
Y Yankee YANG KEY
Z Zulu ZOO LOOO
DIRECTION FINDING
A pilot may require Bearings from a station either to Home on to the station or may require
bearings from different Stations to determine its position. This service is provided by
HOMER and can also by APPROACH or by TOWER.
Pilot requests for bearing by using the appropriate phrases or ‘q’ code to specify the service
required.
QTE—true bearing
QDM—Magnetic Heading to be steered by the aircraft (nil wind conditions)
to reach the VDF station
QDR—Magnetic bearing of the aircraft from the station
Example question 1. You are pilot of VT SJP, in order or home on to home on to Lucknow
obtain magnetic bearings to steer to Lucknow. Use proper ‘Q’ code.
Lucknow Homer (Approach/Tower)

VT SPJ on 119.2
VT SPJ Lucknow Homer Go ahead
Request QDM, Transmitting for bearing
1,2,3, 3,2,1 VT SPJ
QDM 310 degrees class Bravo.
QDM 310 degrees class bravo.
Example question 2. You are pilot of VT EMC in order to determine your position abtain
necessary bearings by using appropriate ‘Q’ code.
Allahabad Homer (Approach/Tower)

107
VT EMC on 118.1
VT EMC Allahabad Homer Go Ahead
Request QTE, Transmitting foe bearing
1,2,3,,3,2,1, VT EMC
VT EMC QTE 290 degrees Class Bravo
QTE 290 degrees class Bravo
Kanpur Approach VT EMC on 121.9

Request QTE, Transmitting for bearing
1,2,3,3,2,1, VT EMC VT EMC QTE 070 degrees Class Bravo
QTE 070 degrees Class Bravo

VT EMC
CHENNAI FIR
BANGLORE VOBG
BANGLORE INTL VOBL
BIDAR VOBR
CALICUT VOCL
CHENNAI VOMM
COCHIN INTL VOCI
COIMBATORE VOCB
HYDERABAD VOHY
MADURAI VOMD
MANGALORE VOML
PORT BLAIR VOPB
RAJAMUNDARY VORY
TRIUCHCHIRAPPALI VOTR
TRVANDRUM VOTV
VIJAYWADA VOBZ
KOLKATA FIR
AGATALA VEAT
AIZWAL VEAZ
BAGDOGRA VEBD
BHUBNESHWAR VEBS
108
COOCHBEHAR VECO
DIBRUGARH VEMN
GAYA VEGY
GUWAHATI VEGT
IMPHAL VEIM
JAMSHEDPUR VEJS
JORHAT VEJT
LENGPUI VELP
KOLKATA VECC
PATNA VEPT
RANCHI VERC
SILCHAR VEKU
VISHAKAPATNAM VEVZ
LOCATION INDICATORS
DELHI FIR
AGRA VIAG
ALLAHABAD VIAL
AMRITSAR VIAR
CHANDIGARH VICG
DEHRADUN VIDN
DELHI VIDP
GWALIOR VIGR
JAIPUR VIJP
JAMMU VIJU
JODHPUR VIJO
LEH VILH
PANTNAGAR VIPT
PATHANKOT VIPK
SRINAGAR VISR
SIKANDRABAD VISB
VARANSI VIBN
MUMBAI FIR
AHEMDABAD VAAH
AURANGABAD VAAU
BHOPAL VABP
109
BELGIUM VABM
GOA VAGO
INDORE VAID
KHAJURAHO VAKJ
MUMBAI VABB
NAGPUR VANP
PUNE VAPO
VAUD VAUD
VADODRA VABO
RECOMMENDED ABBREVIATIONS & SYMBOLS

FOR RTR (A) EXAMINATION.
Following abbreviations and symbols may be used by examinee his answers in RTR (A)
examination part- I
A
Abm Abeam
Abt About
Abv Above
Acft Aircraft
ACC Area control or area control centre
A/c Aircraft
Ack Acknowledge
Acpt Accept or Accepted
AD Aerodrome
Adj Adjacent
Ady Advise; Advisory
Adz Advice
Aft After
Agn Again
Attn Attention
Alt Altitude
Altn Alternate
AP Airport
A/P Auto pilot
Apch Approach
App Approach control or Approach control services
Apn Apron
Aprx Approximate or approximately
110
Apv Approve or approved

Arng Arrange
Asc Ascent or ascending to
ATA Actual time departure
ATD Actual tie of arrival
Attn Attention
Auth Authorised or Authorisation
Avbl Available
AWY Airway
Azm Azimuth
B
BA Braking action
Bat Battery
Bcst Broadcast
Bdry Boundary
Becmg Becoming
Bfr Before
BKN Broken
Bldg Building
Blw Below
Brg Bearing
Brk Brake
Btn Between
C
Capt Captain
Cb Cumulonimbus
Cfm Confirm
Cld Cloud
Clr Clear(s) or cleared to, or Clearance
Clsd Close, or closed, or closing
Cmpl Complete
Cnl Cancel
Com Communication
Cond Condition
Cons Continuous
Co-ord Co-ordinate or coordination
Crs Course
Ctn Caution
D
DA Decision altitude
Dct Direct
Dev Deviation
Div Divert or diverting
Dep Departure
111
Dtrt Deteriorate, Deteriorating

Des Descend to or descending to
Desmst Destination
DH Decision height
Dist Distance
Dla Delay
Dng Danger
Doc Document
Dur Duration
E
EB East bound
Elect Electric, Electricity
Elev Elevation
Emer Emergency
Eng Engine
Engg Engineering
Eqpt Equipment
Est Estimate or estimated
Exer Exercises or Excepted or exercise
Ext External
Extd Extend or extending
F
Fcst Forecast
FL Flight level
Flr Flares
Flg Flashing
Flt Flight
Fluc Fluctuating or fluctuated or fluctuation
Flw Follow (s) or following
Fm From
FSL Full stop Landing
Fwd Forward
G
GA Go around or Going around
Gld Glider
Gnd Grnd
GP Glide path
Gr Group
GS Ground speed
G/S Glide slope
H
Hdg Heading
112
Hgt Height
Hldg Holding
Hr Hours
Hyd Hydraulic
I
Ident Identification
Impr Improve or Improving
Imt Immediate or Immediately
Inbd Inbound
Info Information
Inop Inoperative
Instr Instrument
Int Intersection
Intst Intensity
Isol Isolated
K
Kt Knots
L
Lat Latitude
Ldg Landing
Len Length
Lgt Light
Lgtd Lighted
LH Left hand
LLZ Localizer
Long Longitude
LSq Line squall
Lvl Level
LW Landing weight
M
M Mach number (followed by figures); Metres (preceded by figures)
M,m Metre
Mag Magnetic
Maint Maintenance
Max Maximum
Met Meteorology
MM Middle marker
Mnm Minimum
Mnt Monitor or monitoring or monitored
Mntn Maintain
113
Mntng Maintaining
Mod Moderate
Msg Message
N
N/a Not available or Not applicable
Nav Navigation
NC No change
Ngt Night
NM Nautical mile
Nml Normal
Nr Number
Nxt Next
O
Obs Observe or observed or observation
Obstr Obstruction
OM Outer Maker
Opn Open or Opened or Opening
P
P. . . Prohibited area (followed by identification)
Parl Parallel
Pax Passenger (S)
Per Performance
Perm Permanent
PJE Parachute jumping exercise
PN Prior notice required
POB Persons on board
Poss Possible
Pri Primary
Prkg Parking
Prov Provisional
PS Plus
Psn Position
Pt Point
Ptn Procedure turn
Pvt Private
Pwr Power
Q
Quad Quadrant
R
R. . . Rescue area (followed by identification )
114
R Runway (runway identification)

Rad Radius
Rash Rain showers
RCF Radio Communication Failure
RCL Runway Centre Line
Rdl Radial
Rdo Radio
Rd Road
RH Right Hand
Rec Receive or receiver
REDL Runway edge light (s)
Ref Reference to or refer to
Reg Registration
RENL Runway end light (s)
Rep Report or reporting or reporting point
Req Request
Rerte Reroute
RG Range
RH Rescue Helicopter
RLCE Request Level change en-route
RNN Resume Normal Navigation ‘
Rif Re clearance in Flight
ROC Rate of climb
ROD Rate of descent
RON Receiving only
RPL Repetitive flight plan
RPLC Replace or replaced
Rpt Repeat
RR Report reaching
RTE Route
Rwy Runway
S
SAP As soon as possible
SAR Search & rescue
Sec Seconds
Sect Sector
Sfc Surface
Sgl Signal
Spd Speed
SPOT Spot wind
SQ Squall
Sry Secondary
STA Straight in approach
Std Standard
Stn Station
Stnr Stationary
115
Subj Subject to
Svcbl Serviceable
Sys System
T
T Temperature
TA Transition altitude
Tail Tail wind
TAS True Air Speed
Tax Taxi
Tfc Traffic
TGL Touch & go landing
Thru Through
Til Until
Tkof Take-off
T/o Take off
TOC Top of climb
TOD Top of decent
Trng Training
Turb Turbulence
Twr Tower
Txy Taxi
Typ Type of aircraft
U
UFN Until further notice
UNA Unable
Unrel Unreliable
U/S Unserviceable
V
Vey Vicinity
Vis Visibility
Vrb Variable
Vsp Vertical Speed
W
WDI Wind Direction Indicator
WEF With effect from
WIE With immediate effect
WIP Work in Progress
Wpt Way point
Wrng Warning
WS Wind Shear
Wt Weight
Wx Weather
WXR Weather Radar
116
X
X Cross
Xng Crossing
XCVR Trans receiver
XFR Transfer
Xmtr Transmitter
Y
Yr Yours
Z
SYMBOLS
Maintaining M
Climb
Descent
Co-ordinate/d C
Passing level 150
Reached Level 70
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1

BCN Beacon (aeronautical ground light) CH Chanel

CRZ Cruise DFTI Distance from touchdown indicator

FSS Flight service station GPS‡ Global positioning system

HVY Heavy(used to indicate the intensity INSTR Instrument

LCA Local or locally or location or located MAA Maximum authorised altitude

MNT Monitor or monitoring or monitored NAT North Atlantic

O PAPI† Precision approaches path indicator

RG Range (lights) RTF Radiotelephone

SELCAL Selective calling system SPOC SAR point of contact

TAA Terminal Arrival Altitude TP Turning point

WID Width or wide X

ABBREVIATIONS FOR IDENTIFYING

Data designators for meteorological

Acceptance ACP Other messages

ABBREVIATIONS AND TERMS TO BE TRANSMITTED AS SPOKEN

ACARS ( to be pronounced “ AY-CARS”) Aircraft GBAS ( to be used pronounced “GEE-BAS” ) Ground-

PROPERTIES OF ROAD WAVE

Speed of Radio Wave in different units

Frequency of domestic current (AC) used in homes is 50 Hz.

Audio Radio frequencies

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH

Wave length = speed of radio wave / frequency

Frequency = speed of radio wave/ wave length

Example: wavelength corresponding to a frequency of 3650 kilohertz is

Kilohertz and megahertz

RADIO WAVE FREQUENCY BANDS

Radio Frequency Frequency Limits Wavelength Remarks

(VLF) 10,000 meters unication

Low frequency(LF) 30 to 300 kHz 10,000 to Broadcast, long-range

High frequency 3 to 30 MHz 10 to 1 metre Short range comm.

Ultra high 300 to 3000 10 to 1 Short range comm.

Super high 3 to 30 10 to 1 Radar

Extremely high 30 to 300 10 to 1 Experimental band.

Electrical waves 10 raised to power 4

RADIO WAVE TRANSMISSION

Radio waves from transmitting antenna to receiving antenna principally in two

1. Ground wave/Surface wave

4. Direct ( line of sight ) wave

Attenuation depends on two factors.

2. Medium frequency - 300 – 500 miles, maximum 1,000 miles

Skip Zone / Dead space.

Critical and Maximum Usable Frequencies

Multi hop refraction

SELECTIVE FADING. It frequently happens that transmission conditions are different

Modulation is of the following types.

Depth of modulation/precedent of modulation

Classification of Receivers in accordance to service.

‘A’ stands for Amplitude Modulation.

F0 : Carrier wave FM.

‘F’ stands for Frequency Modulation.

P0 : Pulse Carrier Wave used in RADAR.

Terminal VHF A3E

RADIO TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION.

Classification of Transmitters in according to type of service.

Radio Broadcast transmitters

The FM broadcast transmitters operate on VHF or UHF.

Radio Telephone Transmitters

Radio Telegraphic Transmitters

Adaptability to different antennas. To be capable to operate with different types of