Module 2
INTRODUCTION: KEY CONCEPTS IN ETHICS
OBJECTIVES:
• Differentiate moral or ethical standards with that of the rules and norms of human interactions
• Understand and determine responses to moral dilemmas
RULES, MORAL and NON-MORAL STANDARDS
Rules refer to explicit or understood regulations or principles governing conduct within a specific
activity or sphere. Rules regulate behavior, guarantees each person’s rights and freedom, and
produced a sense of justice. (De Guzman et al, 2017)
Morality refers to the standards that a person or a group has about what is wrong, good or evil. Moral
standards involve the rules people have about the kinds of actions they believe are morally right and
wrong. Some ethicists equate moral standards with moral values and moral principles. Non-moral
standards, on the other hand, refer to rules that do not need any moral or ethical considerations. They
are not necessarily linked to morality. Examples of non-moral standards include rules of etiquette,
fashion standards, rules in games, and various house rules. (De Guzman et al., 2017).
Characteristics of Moral Standards:
1. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant benefits.
• Moral standards deal with matters which can seriously impact, that is, injure or benefit human
beings.
2. Moral standards have overriding character or hegemonic authority.
• If a moral standard states that a person has the moral obligation to do something, then he is
supposed to do it even if it will be in conflict with other non-moral standards, and even with self-
interest.
3. Moral standards are not created, invented, or formed by authority.
• Since no one generated or created these moral standards, they cannot be changed nor
declared as null by any authoritative body.
4. The universalizability of moral standards
• Moral principles must be applicable to everyone. Universalizability entails that the principle of
consistency should be applied in one’s value judgment.
5. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations.
• The principles in evaluating moral standards go beyond the interest of persons of group.
Impartiality requires providing equal or adequate consideration to the interest of everyone who
is concerned.
MORAL DILEMMAS
“Ethics is about choices which matter, and choices which matter are dilemmas. The Greek word means
“two horns”. The horns of the dilemma – only two choices: is or is not, to be or not to be, true or false or
indeed, only ONE choice, to find the way between the horns of the dilemma.” (Cohen, 2003)
Dilemma and Moral Dilemma (De Guzman et al., 2017)
“Dilemma” is a concept characterized by a situation in which a tough choice has to be made between
two or more options, especially more or less equally undesirable one. “ Moral dilemma‟ is characterized
by a difficulty in choosing between two courses of action that involves conflicts between moral
requirements.
Key features of a moral dilemma:
1. The agent is required to do each of the actions
2. The agent can do each action
3. But the agent cannot do all of the actions
Three Levels of Moral Dilemma
a. Personal Dilemma
• These are the dilemmas that are experienced and can be resolved by the agent on a personal
level. To provide an example, this is the moral dilemma experienced by a father who needs to
choose between the life of his wife and his child who is about to be delivered.
b. Organizational Dilemma
• This refers to the moral dilemma experienced and resolved by social organizations including but
not limited to businesses, the public sector, corporations, and the medical field. Moral dilemmas
in the business sector involve problems involving their policies and the conduct of their
employees, etc.
c. Structural Dilemma
• This involves cases between networks of institutions and theoretical paradigms. This is wider in
scope as compared to an organizational dilemma.
References:
• Cohen, M. (2003). 101 ethical dilemmas. Routledge.
• De Guzman, J. M. et al. (2017). Ethics: Principles of ethical behavior in modern society: Mutya
Publishing House, Inc
