1011171

research-article2021
ANZ0010.1177/18393349211011171Australasian Marketing JournalKapitan et al.

Article

Australasian Marketing Journal

Influencer Marketing and Authenticity 1­–10

© 2021 Australian and New Zealand
Marketing Academy
in Content Creation Article reuse guidelines:
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DOI: 10.1177/18393349211011171
https://doi.org/10.1177/18393349211011171
journals.sagepub.com/home/anz

Sommer Kapitan,1 Patrick van Esch,1 Vrinda Soma1

and Jan Kietzmann2

Abstract
Across four studies, over 1,100 participants, and two product categories, we examine the impact of endorser type (celebrity vs. influencer)
on consumers’ willingness to pay for an endorsed product (Study 1a). We determine whether the impact of endorser type on willingness
to pay is mediated by perceptions of authenticity (Study 1b). Finally, we test how perceptions that an endorser as a content creator (vs.
paid promoter) acts as a boundary condition on the effect of authenticity on willingness to pay (Study 2a). Moreover, consumers see an
endorsement by influencers who demonstrate they are intrinsically motivated and in creative control over their content as more believable
and authentic, which significantly drives their willingness to pay for an endorsed product (Study 2b). We propose that in influencer marketing,
marketing practitioners should seek to engage influencers who are authentic and retain control over their own content. Theoretical and
practical implications are discussed, and recommendations for future research are presented.

Keywords
authenticity, celebrity, content creator, content promoter, influencer, willingness to pay

Date received: 17 February 2021; accepted: 27 March 2021

Introduction endorsed goods likewise encourage and reinforce consumer infer-

ences of their self-driven, intrinsic motivation for endorsements
In the traditional marketing model, brands hire celebrity endorsers to (Hughes et al., 2019). Therefore, contrasting perceptions for how
use, discuss, and/or pose with the brand, and distribute content through influencers operate can affect how consumers respond to influencer
channels from television to print (Armstrong et al., 2020; Erdogan, endorsements.
1999). In parallel to this existing model, there has been an exponen- The literature on the outsourcing of brand messaging to content
tial uptake in the use of influencer marketing (Campbell & Farrell, creators and its impact on consumer engagement and brand out-
2020). In the United States, 75% of advertisers now employ social comes is nascent (Arora et al., 2019). Initial evidence shows some
influencers, creating an industry expected to be worth US$15 billion impacts on consumer attitudes and behaviors for brands endorsed by
by 2022 (Association of National Advertisers, 2018). This new mar- social media influencers (C. Liu et al., 2020). Yet the growing body
keting concept allows social influencers on Instagram and Facebook, of inquiries is limited, in that they tend to catalog consumer attitudes
Weibo, YouTube, and TikTok to exhibit their own initiative, skill, and in response to influencers (i.e., Taillon et al., 2020), or report how
artistry on their social media channels (Van Esch & Mente, 2018); influencers manage their audience relationships and handle advertis-
engage audiences via control of their own content; and directly con- ing disclosure (Audrezet et al., 2020; Evans et al., 2017; Weismueller
nect a brand to their audience. Advertising agencies and brands view et al., 2020; Woodroof et al., 2020). Further inquiry in the field of
social influencers in one of two ways, as either (a) content creators influencer marketing is required to examine the impact on outcomes
to whom brands can outsource and grant free reign and full creative key to brand success and to explore the underlying mechanisms that
license to, or (b) paid promoters who take scripts and direction from drive the effect of influencers on such brand outcomes. This research
brands to reach the influencer’s base of followers (Stanford, 2017; contributes to the influencer marketing literature by determining how
Vidal, 2019). This distinction could be key to the effectiveness of attribution theory and correspondent inferences and the evolving role
influencer marketing, in that perceptions about endorser motives of influencer authenticity in the brand endorsement context render
impact consumer acceptance of branded recommendations (Audrezet brand recommendations from influencers more believable (Kapitan
et al., 2020; Kapitan & Silvera, 2016).
Social media businesses—such as YouTube, Tumblr, and
1
Instagram—have coined social influencers as “creators” (Lorenz, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand
2
2019). Educated by such marketplace jargon, consumers often view University of Victoria, Canada
social influencers as content creators who design, script, film, and Corresponding author:
produce their own content with little to no “top down” or external Sommer Kapitan, Auckland University of Technology, 120 Mayoral Drive,
brand control. Influencers who post self-directed content and con- 1010 Auckland, New Zealand.
stantly discuss personal opinions, experiences, and judgments about Email: [email protected]
2 Australasian Marketing Journal 00(0)

Authenticity
Control Over Content
(Content creator vs. Paid promoter)

Endorser Type
Willingness to Pay
(Celebrity vs. Influencer)

Figure 1.  Conceptual framework.

& Silvera, 2016; Moulard et al., 2015). The perceived authenticity of that have driven the persuasive appeal of influencer culture remains
an influencer’s recommendation, we theorize, mediates the impact of unclear.
branded promotions on willingness to pay (WTP). When a source has knowledge, experiences, or skills in a spe-
We contribute to the endorser effectiveness and persuasion lit- cific field and has the ability to confer accurate information, they
erature (Erdogan, 1999; Friedman & Friedman, 1979) by showing are recognized by the viewer as an expert (Eisend & Langer, 2010).
if and how influencer endorsements impact consumer attitudes and Trustworthiness, on the contrary, is when a communicator intends
WTP. Second, we contribute to the parasocial and authenticity lit- to transmit accurate information, and is honest and not deceptive in
erature (Giles, 2002) and attribution-based framework (Kapitan & what information they share (Priester & Petty, 2003). Yet how this
Silvera, 2016; Silvera & Austad, 2004) by showing authenticity as expertise and trustworthiness translate to important brand outcomes
a causal mechanism of endorser type on WTP. Across one pretest (e.g., WTP) for social influencers remains unanswered in scholarship
and four studies, we examine how key source characteristics such on endorser effectiveness.
as authenticity, expertise, trustworthiness, and attributions differ for Importantly, Instagram celebrities are perceived to be more trust-
social media influencers versus celebrities as endorsers of products worthy than traditional celebrities, driving more positive attitudes
(Study 1a) and determine whether the impact of endorser type on toward the brand (Djafarova & Rushworth, 2017; Jin et al., 2019).
product purchase is mediated by perceptions of authenticity (Study Prior work has shown strong relationships between the presence of
1b). Finally, we add to the marketing control and channel control influencers and greater brand awareness and purchase intentions
literature (El-Ansary & Robicheaux, 1974 ; Jaworski, 1988) by (Lou & Yuan, 2019). But it is not yet clear in the literature whether
examining whether consumer perceptions of an endorser as a content influencers drive greater, similar, or lower purchase intent than their
creator (vs. paid promoter) act as a boundary condition on the effect celebrity counterparts in endorsement roles. As brands invest more in
of authenticity on WTP (Studies 2a and 2b; Figure 1). influencer marketing, understanding how buying behavior relates to
We predict that control over content is an effective tactic employed endorser type is key. That is, in part, because persuasion work has typ-
by influencers when they endorse brands. The key to the disruptive ically shown more gains for brands that employ celebrity endorsers
nature of influencer marketing is, we propose, the role that authen- over any other type of endorser (Erdogan, 1999; Kapitan & Silvera,
ticity and the perception of authentic, intrinsic control over content 2016). Simply announcing a celebrity contract can yield an average
plays in influencer endorsements. In particular, influencers disrupt 4% boost in stock price (Badenhausen, 2013). Alternatively, brands
the marketing mix because they are seen as behaving more authen- are set to spend upward of US$15 billion on influencers in the coming
tically, driven by intrinsic motivations while eschewing the influ- years, due to influencers’ ability to boost sales leads and significantly
ence of external sources such as brands, in their content (Audrezet higher conversion rates (Business Insider, 2021). Endorser type effec-
et al., 2020). We theorize consumers are more likely to perceive that tiveness is thus a key question for the literature. Formally stated, we
endorsements are styled, created, and directed by an influencer’s hypothesize that consumers’ WTP is influenced by endorser type.
own values and preferences, rather than by a brand directing content.
We suggest that the more an endorser is viewed as being orchestrated Hypothesis 1 (H1): Does endorser type (celebrity vs. influencer)
and directed by a brand (vs. in charge of their own intrinsic con- affect consumers’ WTP?
tent creation), the less authentic their endorsement appears and the
less willing a consumer is to pay for recommended brands. That is,
The Role of Authenticity in Endorsement
endorsements from authentic influencers (vs. celebrities) are more
believable, and these authentic endorsements carry through to con- While the ability to post correct and reliable content (expertise) and
sumer acceptance of brand recommendations. the intent to post honest content (trustworthiness) are important to
endorser effectiveness, authenticity via creating and posting content
Theoretical Background that aligns with one’s true self is an important component of influ-
encer success (Kowalczyk & Pounders, 2016; Lou & Yuan, 2019;
Source characteristics have long been linked to persuasion outcomes. Woodroof et al., 2020). Social influencers tend to benefit from over-
Traits such as authenticity, expertise, trustworthiness, and attribu- all higher perceptions of authenticity in their communications and
tions drive positive attitudes, brand approach, and increased sales posts (Audrezet et al., 2020). They have “access to an audience by
(Erdogan, 1999; Kapitan & Silvera, 2016). For social influencers, virtue of their established credibility and authenticity. They include
operating in an always-on digital era, their reach stems from paraso- bloggers, vloggers, tweeters, instagrammers, journalists, celebrities
cial, friendship-like interactions fueled by daily and even hourly posts and people who are highly regarded in social circles, marketplaces
across platforms (Arora et al., 2019; C. Liu et al., 2020). As a con- or industries” (Advertising Standards Authority [ASA], 2019).
sequence, the relative importance and role of source characteristics Therefore, social influencers are respected role models who have
Kapitan et al. 3

Table 1.  Forms of Authenticity Key to Influencer Marketing.

Authors Construct Definition

Tisdell (2003, p. 32) Authenticity “Having a sense that one is operating from a sense of self that is defined by oneself as
opposed to being defined by other people’s expectations.”
Kernis (2003, p. 15) Relational authenticity “Being genuine and not ‘fake’ in one’s relationships with close others.”
Kernis and Goldman (2006, p. 294) Authenticity “The unobstructed operation of one’s true- or core-self in one’s daily enterprise.”
Wood et al. (2008, p. 386) Authenticity “Involves the extent to which one accepts the influence of other people and the
belief that one has to conform to the expectations of others.”
Brunell et al. (2010, p. 901) Authentic behavior “Authentic behaviour is acting in accord with one’s values, preferences, and needs
rather than engaging in ‘false’ behaviours to please others, obtain rewards, or avoid
punishments.”
Moulard et al. (2014, p. 579) Artist authenticity “The extent to which consumers perceive the artist is intrinsically motivated in that
the artist is passionate about and committed to producing his or her artwork.”
Moulard et al. (2015, p. 175) Celebrity authenticity “The perception that a celebrity behaves according to his or her true self.”
Kowalczyk and Pounders (2016, p. 347) Authenticity in social “Authenticity is defined as a post or photo that demonstrates some aspect of the
media postings celebrity’s true self.”
Audrezet et al. (2020, p. 565) Transparent “In the context of SMIs [social media influencers] and product placements,
authenticity transparent authenticity refers to providing fact-based information about the product
or services at the centre of the brand partnership. Transparent authenticity also
entails disclosing information about the contractual terms of the partnership with the
particular brand, as well as posting unedited content.”

created a following by posting frequently to portray their daily lives In influencer marketing, disclosing that a post or video is a
across social platforms (Arora et al., 2019; C. Liu et al., 2020) as “paid ad” can likewise result in less positive attitudes and lower
they cultivate their expertise in particular niche domains (e.g., fash- WTP (Boerman et al., 2017; Evans et al., 2017; Weismueller et al.,
ion, beauty, and technology; Van Esch et al., 2018). 2020; Woodroof et al., 2020). That is because the endorsement
In accord, the psychology literature indicates that authenticity tied to brand payment might no longer be seen as a testimony of
stems from being true to one’s self with actions that are reflective how much an endorsed product is liked, used, or valued by the
of one’s own desires rather than responsive to the expectations of endorser. Importantly, however, authenticity perceptions and close
others (Kernis, 2003; Kernis & Goldman, 2006; Tisdell, 2003; Wood relationships can drive response to influencer payment disclosure.
et al., 2008). Congenially, the persuasion literature shows authentic- Audrezet et al. (2020) show that influencers can manage brand
ity influences how a human brand is seen, due to perceptions that a relationships through transparent authenticity practices. That is,
celebrity or respected individual “behaves according to his or her full disclosure and parasocial engagement that creates perceptions
true self” (Moulard et al., 2015). In this research, we draw from the of authenticity can supersede the viewers’ response to ad disclo-
construct of authentic behavior (Brunell et al., 2010) in particular sures via “a truthful and exhaustive representation of the partner-
to define endorser authenticity as the perception of acting in accord ship and personal opinion to respect their own sense of integrity”
with one’s values, preferences, and needs versus acting in such a way (Audrezet et al., 2020, p. 563). Endorsers who fully disclose brand
to please others or obtain rewards (see Table 1 for alternate defini- relationships and compensation via transparent authenticity prac-
tions of authenticity). tices are seen as honest about their compensation and about liking,
We theorize that consumers are more likely to perceive authentic using, and valuing endorsed products. In this way, authenticity is a
endorsements from influencers (vs. celebrities) for two main reasons: tool to manage correspondent inferences about endorsers (Mishra
(a) influencers are perceived as being more intrinsically motivated et al., 2015).
and authentic (Audrezet et al., 2020), and (b) influencers cultivate a Formally, we predict that social influencers are seen as more
more friendship-like, close, parasocial relationship with their follow- authentic and generate more correspondent inferences, when they
ers (Frederick et al., 2012; Gong & Li, 2017; Lee & Watkins, 2016). truly believe in the endorsed product, which renders consumers more
This evolving view of influencer authenticity for brand recom- likely to act upon products recommended by influencers.
mendations is supported by correspondent inferences and attribu-
tion theory in the psychology of endorser effectiveness (Mowen Hypothesis 2 (H2): Authenticity mediates the relationship
& Brown, 1981). A behavior is perceived as being more authentic between endorser type (celebrity vs. influencer) and WTP.
when it is attributed to intrinsic motivations as opposed to extrinsic
pressures—that is, when an endorser acts as their true self (Audrezet
Endorsers Vary in Relationships, Control Over Content
et al., 2020; Moulard et al., 2015). When viewing an endorsement,
consumers can make attributions via correspondent inferences about Social influencers benefit from deeper relationships when com-
the endorser’s belief in the product (Kapitan & Silvera, 2016). For pared with traditional relationships that a consumer might experi-
instance, an endorser can be motivated to endorse a product in accord ence with any public figure or endorser with whom they engage with
to (a) their own intrinsic desires and disposition, such as liking for or (Frederick et al., 2012; Gong & Li, 2017; Lee & Watkins, 2016;
belief in a product, or (b) responding to the external situation, such Taillon et al., 2020). A mostly one-way experience with a celebrity
as being paid US$1 million to promote a product (Lisa, 2019). When becomes a more two-sided, parasocial relationship when it is experi-
consumers infer that an endorser is promoting a product merely for enced as if it were a real interaction (Eyal & Dailey, 2012). Posting
a paycheck, it devalues the endorser’s effectiveness and diminishes rate and virtual interactivity are key to influencer success in social
WTP for the endorsed product (Cronley et al., 1999; Folkes, 1988). media channels via outreach from daily and even hourly engagement
4 Australasian Marketing Journal 00(0)

with followers (Arora et al., 2019; C. Liu et al., 2020). The fre- Hypothesis 3 (H3): The preceding effect of endorser type (celeb-
quency of content posts and interactions with followers, along with rity vs. influencer) on WTP will be moderated by consumers’ per-
the quality and control of the content itself, helps build a parasocial ceptions toward control over content. Specifically, the positive
friendship that can translate to brand outcomes. There is a significant effect through authenticity will be present if the focal endorser
relationship between parasocial interactions and the effectiveness of is perceived as a content creator. In contrast, if the endorser is
an endorsement (Frederick et al., 2012; Gong & Li, 2017; Lee & perceived as a paid promoter, this conditional positive effect will
Watkins, 2016). be diminished.
Followers, viewers, and fans can view and make inferences about
a social influencer’s behaviors across different social media channels Empirical Overview
as influencers respond to comments, questions, and posts from fol-
lowers. Existing as part of the daily stream of the average 5,000 mes- We test our predictions across four studies. In Study 1a, in support
sages consumers are exposed to each day (Holmes, 2019), followers of H1, we determine the impact of endorser type (celebrity vs. influ-
stay current with an influencer’s life, events, and opinions, often encer) on WTP for endorsed products. We further determine that
treating posts from influencers as if they were posts from friends social influencers are rated higher on key source characteristics such
(Swant, 2017; Taillon et al., 2020). This close, virtual, and interac- as authenticity, expertise, trustworthiness, and attributions that an
tive relationship strategically managed via authenticity (Audrezet endorser believes in the product they endorse, which distinguishes
et al., 2020) can also help establish a perception that influencers their form of endorsements.
have control over their own content creation. Importantly, by con- In Study 1b, we seek to replicate findings of Study 1a and in
stantly discussing internal motives (personal opinion, experiences, support of H2, we predict perceptions of authenticity will act as a
and judgments about the endorsed good) alongside external motives causal mechanism that underlies endorser type on consumer’s WTP.
(compensation from brand partners), authentic endorsers can control Moreover, we explore and rule out alternate explanations.
the impact of correspondent inferences on WTP. Finally, in Studies 2a and 2b and in support of H3, we examine
Celebrities work with directors, producers, and agents to present the boundary condition of the influencer as either content creator or
themselves in their art, via more traditional channels such as mov- paid promoter.
ies, television, or the music recording industry (Erdogan, 1999).
This characterizes most celebrity endorsements as being directed Studies 1a and 1b
by extrinsic motives (Kapitan & Silvera, 2016). Social influenc-
ers rely on their own talents to present themselves on many social In Study 1a, we determine the impact of endorser type (celebrity
media channels, whether it is a post, video, or image on Facebook, vs. influencer) on WTP for endorsed products. We also explore any
Instagram, Twitter, WeChat, TikTok, or YouTube (Kietzmann et al., variations in perceived source characteristics (e.g., expertise, trust-
2011). In this light, social influencers are more akin to artists and worthiness, attributions) when consumers encounter influencers in
creators, and the perceived authenticity of their motives can affect a product endorsement context. Study 1b replicates the effect of
perceptions and behavioral intentions (Moulard et al., 2014). This endorser type on WTP to verify whether this effect holds across a
illuminates influencers’ ability to reveal their intrinsic motives for new sample, and investigates authenticity as the underlying causal
endorsement (Kapitan & Silvera, 2016). Influencers who create and mechanism of endorser type on WTP.
direct their own visual, audio, and written content tend to embody the
internally driven content creator construct more fully than celebrities
Design and procedure (Study 1a)
who arise from the traditional media forms of art and entertainment
aided by producers and directors who help shape their images. A pretest (n = 117, 65% female, range = 18–35) determined
If that perception of authenticity is prevented from transfer- which endorsers matched with two product categories and were
ring to the viewer, follower, or fan, consumers will be less likely to similarly rated to pair up for comparison in the main study (i.e.,
infer that an endorsement is authentic, intrinsically motivated, and which celebrity and influencer pair rated similarly positive and
believable. Wood et al. (2008) show that accepting external influ- similarly likable). The literature shows that endorsers of differ-
ence from others or conforming to others’ expectations makes one’s ing physical attractiveness and likability yield differences in WTP
extrinsic motivations appear less authentic. Extant literature on (Khale & Homer, 1985; M. T. Liu & Brock, 2011), allowing for
persuasion knowledge (Friestad & Wright, 1994; Isaac & Grayson, the control of these factors in the main study stimuli. The study
2017) shows that the more a consumer perceives a persuasion agent was advertised on social media channels (Facebook, Instagram,
is attempting to sell or sells using ineffective tactics, the more their and LinkedIn) and was shared by individuals who saw the post.
recommendations are rendered insincere, which negatively impacts The pretest revealed that model Gigi Hadid (M = 4.54, SD = 1.32)
persuasion outcomes such as WTP. Exhibiting creative control over and YouTube makeup influencer Shannon Harris (also known as
content is an effective tactic many influencers use to sell their brand Shaaanxo; M = 4.15, SD = 1.69) were a matched pair for beauty
recommendations (Audrezet et al., 2020; Boerman et al., 2017; products as they generated nonsignificantly different attitudes
Isaac & Grayson, 2017). Thus, perceptions that influencers function on a scale of attractiveness, likability, and pleasantness—α = .93,
as intrinsically driven and independent creators of content should t(63) = –0.51, p = .62. Similarly, actor Ashton Kutcher (M = 4.49,
fuel perceptions of authentic recommendations (Stanford, 2017; SD = 1.22) and YouTube tech vlogger Marques Brownlee (also
Vidal, 2019). Alternatively, perceptions that influencers are instead known as MKBHD; M = 3.99, SD = 1.61) were also a match on
promoters with little control over their content—who are simply technology products as they generated nonsignificant differences
paid to read brand statements and responding to extrinsic motives— in attitudes, t(38) = 1.68, p = .10.
might undercut perceptions of authenticity in endorsement. The less In the main study, participants from an online panel (n = 252, 43%
authentically an influencer is viewed, in turn, the less impact the female, range = 18–35) in the United States were randomly assigned
influencer would have on WTP for the recommended brand. More to a single manipulation of endorser type (celebrity vs. influencer) by
formally: measured variable design to understand consumers who were more
Kapitan et al. 5

likely to encounter social influencers in their daily lives as part of Findings.  Gender did not significantly impact evaluations of celeb-
their social media consumption (Tankovska, 2021). rities (vs. influencers) across the two product types (beauty and
Participants were exposed to a single, 1-minute video clip, technology), and again gender was collapsed for further analysis.
either Condition 1: two 30-second television endorser spots for the We replicate the findings of Study 1a in that there was a nonsignifi-
same product or same product category that were edited to play in cant result for endorser type on WTP for the endorsed product,
a single, 1-minute continuous clip for celebrities, or Condition 2: Celebrity = 2.90 versus Influencer = 3.02, F(1,224) = 0.55, p = .46. For
a 1-minute clip of a social influencer endorsing a beauty or tech- perceived source characteristics, influencers had significant higher
nology product. Males randomly viewed either celebrity Ashton ratings for authenticity, Celebrity = 4.32 versus Influencer = 5.18, F(1,
Kutcher or influencer Marques Brownlee endorsing a camera, while 224) = 19.01, p = .00; expertise, Celebrity = 4.35 versus Influencer = 5.30,
females randomly viewed either celebrity Gigi Hadid or influencer F(1, 224) = 24.08, p = .00; trustworthiness, Celebrity = 4.38 versus Influ-
Shannon Harris endorsing mascara. Videos were chosen over print encer = 5.28, F(1, 224) = 22.41, p = .00; and more attributions that the
or still image endorsements, as videos are more likely to be viewed endorser believes in the product they endorse, Celebrity = 4.08 versus
and shared by consumers (Templeman, 2017). Influencer = 4.70, F(1, 224) = 21.43, p = .00.
After viewing the endorsement video, participants were asked to Next, we examined the presence of suppressor variables that might
answer questions related to their evaluations of source authenticity undermine the relationship between endorser type and WTP (Rucker
(α = .90; Touré-Tillery & McGill, 2015), expertise (α = .94; Touré- et al., 2011). We tested the mediating role of authenticity on the effect
Tillery & McGill, 2015), trustworthiness (α = .94; Touré-Tillery of endorser type on WTP, using the PROCESS macro in SPSS (Model
& McGill, 2015), attributions about the endorser believing in the 4; 10,000 bootstrapped samples; Hayes, 2018). Supporting H2, the
endorsed product (α = .93; Cronley et al., 1999; Kapitan & Silvera, results show that the direct effect of endorser type on WTP was sig-
2016), and their WTP for the endorsed product featured (α = .94; nificant (β = –.31, 95% confidence interval [CI] = [–.58, –.04]). The
Grewal et al., 1998). negative coefficient of the direct effect shows that consumers were
more willing to pay after viewing the celebrity endorser condition
Findings.  Responses were not significantly different across gen-
(coded 0). Both endorser type on authenticity (Path A; β = .86) and
der and the two product types (beauty and technology), so gender
authenticity on WTP (Path B; β = .51) were statistically significant,
was collapsed for further analysis. Testing H1, a one-way analysis
as well as a significant indirect effect (β = .44, 95% CI = [.23, .65])”
of variance (ANOVA) revealed that endorser type did not yield
to be corrected to more clearly read: “Both endorser type on authen-
significantly different responses for WTP for the endorsed prod-
ticity (Path A; β = .86) and authenticity on WTP (Path B; β = .51)
uct, Celebrity = 3.26 versus Influencer = 3.38, F(1, 251) = 0.55,
were statistically significant, and there was also a significant indirect
p = .46.
effect (β = .44, 95% CI = [.23, .65]). Taken together, this shows that
However, when it came to perceived source characteristics, influ-
perception of authenticity is an indirect effect that partially mediates
encers were rated as significantly more authentic, Celebrity = 4.81 ver-
the impact of endorser type on WTP. The positive coefficients in the
sus Influencer = 5.81, F(1, 251) = 30.15, p = .00; expert, Celebrity = 4.71
indirect effects show that influencers (coded 1) drove greater percep-
versus Influencer = 5.44, F(1, 251) = 17.42, p = .00; trustworthy,
tions of authenticity than celebrities (coded 0) in their endorsements
Celebrity = 4.87 versus Influencer = 5.50, F(1, 251) = 11.97, p = .001; and
of products, which in turn increased WTP.
as earning significantly more attributions that the endorser believes
in the products they endorse, Celebrity = 4.37 versus Influencer = 5.27, F(1,
251) = 26.06, p = .00. Alternate accounts.  To rule out the possibility that our effect
may be arising through alternate mechanisms, we conducted par-
Design and procedure (Study 1b) allel mediation analyses (Model 4; 10,000 bootstrapped samples;
Hayes, 2018) that included expertise, trustworthiness, and attribu-
Participants from an online panel (i.e., CINT; n = 226, 57% female, tions. This is important to determine whether other source charac-
range = 18–35) were randomly assigned to a manipulation of teristics are undermining the total effect of endorser type on WTP.
celebrity versus influencer. The primary aim of Study 1b is first Importantly, the results revealed that neither expertise (β = .25, 95%
to determine whether the null effect of endorser type on WTP rep- CI = [–.04, .48]), trustworthiness (β = .14, 95% CI = [–.08, .37]), nor
licates in another sample, as Study 1a’s null results run counter to attributions (β = .18, 95% CI = [–.06, .45]) mediated endorser type
the literature that shows celebrity endorsers tend to yield higher (celebrity vs. influencer) on WTP. These findings rule out exper-
WTP (i.e., Erdogan, 1999). We also probe for mediation or indirect tise, trustworthiness, and attributions as alternate underlying causal
effects as we seek to investigate what variable(s) might obscure mechanisms.
the effect of endorser type on consumer outcomes (i.e., Hayes,
2018). Two important features of Study 1b are worthwhile to high- Studies 2a and 2b
light: (a) we examined the mediating role of authenticity and (b)
we empirically ruled out alternate mechanisms such as expertise, In Studies 2a and 2b, we examine the boundary condition of influencer
trustworthiness, and attributions. as content creator (vs. paid promoter) on the mediated path via authen-
In Study 1b, we followed Study 1a’s procedure, with par- ticity. In Study 2a, we test how awareness of content creators influ-
ticipants exposed to a single, 1-minute video clip of the same ences the mediated model, while in Study 2b, we directly test control
celebrity (vs. influencer) endorsements. Males viewed endorse- over content (content creator vs. paid promoter) as a manipulation on
ments of a tech product and females viewed endorsements of a the mediated path (Lorenz, 2019; Stanford, 2017; Vidal, 2019).
beauty product, with nonsignificant differences in evaluations due
to gender or product category. Participants then indicated their Design and procedure (Study 2a)
evaluations of authenticity (α = .90), expertise (α = .94), trustwor-
thiness (α = .92), attributions about the endorser believing in the Following similar study procedures as those in Studies 1a and 1b,
endorsed product (α = .94), and WTP for the endorsed product participants from an online panel (n = 311, 45% female, range = 18–
featured (α = .94). 35) were randomly assigned to a 2 (endorser type: celebrity vs.
6 Australasian Marketing Journal 00(0)

influencer) by 2 (control over content: content creator vs. paid pro- a consumer is to pay for the endorsed product (β = .47). The index of
moter) between-subjects design. moderated mediation is significant, β = –.14, 95% CI = [–.98, –.02].
In addition, prior to viewing the continuous 1-minute endorse- A significant direct effect of endorser type on WTP, β = –.66, 95%
ment video clips of either tech or beauty products, participants read a CI = [–.94, –.39], and a conditional indirect effect of endorser type
mock blog post that varied in its emphasis of whether influencers are (celebrity = 0, influencer = 1) on WTP when the moderator is content
best known for being content creators or paid promoters (Appendix creator (coded 1), shows that authenticity perceptions, and therefore
1). As a manipulation check, respondents were asked to rate how easy WTP, are significantly higher when the endorser is an influencer (vs.
the blog post was to read and how enjoyable it was before providing celebrity) acting as content creator (vs. paid promoter).
a brief summary of the main point of the blog post. Male respondents
again viewed 1-minute video clips of male technology endorsers and General Discussion
females viewed 1-minute clips of female beauty product endorsers.
Across four studies, over 1,100 respondents, two product categories,
Findings.  The manipulation check functioned as intended. Support- and different operationalizations and measures, we obtained support
ing H3, a moderated mediation (Model 7; 10,000 bootstrapped sam- that “endorser type” influences WTP. We show “authenticity” as an
ples; Hayes, 2018; Figure 1) shows that control over content (content underlying causal mechanism and “control over content” as a bound-
creator vs. paid promoter) acts as a boundary condition to the causal ary condition on this effect.
mechanism of authenticity on endorser type and WTP. Overall, we show that influencers persuade consumers to buy
A significant interaction of endorser type with control over con- when they are viewed as content creators who have control over
tent (paid promoter vs. content creator), β = .57, predicts authenticity their authentic endorsements of brands. Main effects show neither
perceptions. Authenticity (α = .82) then mediates the effect of content endorser type is more (vs. less) effective at driving uptake from
creation on WTP, such that the higher the perception of authentic- endorsements. However, we confirm that celebrity endorsers con-
ity, the more willing a consumer is to pay for the endorsed product tinue to have an impact on WTP. For the most part, celebrities still
(β = .60). The index of moderated mediation is significant, β = .34, encourage consumers to buy endorsed products. Social influencers
95% CI = [.01, .70]. A significant direct effect of endorser type on also encourage consumers to consider recommended products, albeit
WTP (β = –.56, 95% CI = [–.81, –.31]), and a conditional indirect via a different mechanism than celebrities: via perceptions of authen-
effect of endorser type (celebrity = 0, influencer = 1) on WTP when ticity (Studies 1b, 2a, and 2b) and the view that influencers exert
the moderator is content creator (coded 1), shows that authenticity more control over content creation (Studies 2a and 2b).
perceptions, and therefore WTP, are significantly higher when the Our research identifies key insights into the disruptive potential
endorser is an influencer (vs. celebrity) acting as a content creator of influencer marketing. First, this is the first known academic study
(vs. paid promoter). that shows influencers are as effective as celebrities in driving WTP
outcomes when they endorse products. Second, influencers are effec-
Design and procedure (Study 2b) tive in driving approach to brands via a distinct pathway in consum-
ers’ minds. That is, influencers (vs. celebrities) tend to be viewed as
In Study 2b’s conceptual replication, we sought to strengthen and
independent, self-directed content creators who are more authentic
make explicit the content control manipulation of Study 2a. Amazon
in their endorsements, and this is what drives increased WTP for a
Mechanical Turkers (MTurkers) with a 95% Human Intelligence Task
product endorsed by an influencer.
(HIT) approval rating or higher (n = 246, 48% female, range = 18–35)
were randomly assigned to a 2 (endorser type: celebrity vs. influ-
encer) by 2 (control over content: content creator vs. paid promoter) Theoretical Implications
between-subjects design.
Our research makes three important theoretical contributions. First,
Participants read a mock blog post that described whether the
we contribute to the endorser effectiveness literature (Friedman &
endorser viewed was a content creator or a paid promoter (Appendix
Friedman, 1979) by demonstrating that not only are influencers dis-
2). Participants next answered one manipulation check as per Study
rupting the traditional way in which marketing is practiced but also that
2a, and then another manipulation check that showed endorsers per-
consumers deem influencers (vs. celebrities) as having more expertise,
formed as a content creator (vs. paid promoter). Finally, they were
trustworthiness, more correspondent inferences, and more authentic-
exposed to a single, 1-minute video clip in either beauty or tech prod-
ity when it comes to WTP for the product the influencer endorses. A
uct categories as per prior studies.
celebrity endorser’s image is aligned with a branded product, which,
Findings.  Open-ended responses showed that respondents in each when purchased and used, can be transferred to an individual consumer
condition correctly identified the main point of the blog post, and via purchase (McCracken, 1986, 1989). Yet when it comes to influ-
whether the endorsers they viewed were either content creators or encer marketing, meaning transfer can stem directly from the image
paid promoters. the influencer cultivates. The influencer creates personal, product and
Supporting H3 and affirming Study 2a results, a moderated brand meaning and extends meaning via the products they chose to
mediation model (Model 7; 10,000 bootstrapped samples; Hayes, recommend. This extends their roles as not only content creators in
2018; Figure 1) shows that when an endorser is known to act as a control of the scripting, style, directing, and production of their content
content creator in charge of content decisions (vs. a paid promoter but also as endorsers and product recommenders.
with no control over content), this forms a boundary condition to the Second, our findings add to the parasocial literature (Giles, 2002)
underlying causal mechanism of authenticity (α = .86) on endorser and attribution-based framework (Kapitan & Silvera, 2016; Orth et al.,
type and WTP. 2012) by showing authenticity as an underlying causal mechanism of
A significant interaction of endorser type with control over content endorser type on WTP. In this way, a modern social influencer is any
(content creator vs. paid promoter; β = .29) predicts authenticity per- content creator who fosters a parasocial relationship with followers
ceptions. Authenticity mediates the effect of content creation on WTP, and trades more on authenticity, expertise, and trustworthiness in their
such that the higher the perception of authenticity, the more willing chosen niches to create meanings they transfer into consumer products
Kapitan et al. 7

(McCracken, 1986, 1989). A successful influencer is thus one who community will perceive the endorsement to be authentic and the
operates as an authentic, self-directed individual who generates cor- recommended brand to be worthy of their consideration.
respondent inferences about their beliefs in the products and services
they endorse. We further show that perceptions of endorser motives Conclusion and Directions for Future
impact consumer acceptance of branded recommendations (Audrezet Research
et al., 2020; Kapitan & Silvera, 2016). Authentic, full disclosure can
thus aid influencers. By constantly discussing internal motives (per- We foresee the current research being extended in several ways.
sonal opinion, experiences, and judgments about the endorsed good) For instance, future research should test and add to this model of
alongside external motives for an endorsement (compensation from influencer marketing impact on persuasion attempts. Although we
brand partners), authentic influencers better control the impact of cor- test alternative explanations in Study 1b with key source charac-
respondent inferences on WTP. teristics as mediators, there may be factors other than authenticity
Third, we add to both the theory of marketing control (Jaworski, that drive influencer marketing effects. In particular, do consumers
1988) and the theory of channel control (El-Ansary & Robicheaux, assess perceptions of internal versus external motivations differently
1974) by showing that an influencer’s control over their own for content creators and paid promoters, or other emerging types of
content acts as a boundary condition on the effect of authentic- influencers? Scholars could also explore new and emerging factors
ity (underlying causal mechanism) on the endorser type and WTP that lend influencer marketing its ability to create culturally consti-
relationship. The outcomes of the influencer marketing process are tuted meanings (McCracken, 1989). Work to identify other causal
thus persuasion outcomes from enduring attitude change to brand mechanisms and/or boundary conditions could provide additional
approach and action. explanation for why influencer marketing yields impact on persua-
sion and marketing outcomes. Future research might also be able
to better determine predictions for certain kinds of actions, such as
Practical Implications positive word-of-mouth, instead of just purchase behavior.
Our research identifies that both types of endorsers (celebrity vs. influ- Governmental and regulatory response to the rise of influencer
encer) are effective in generating brand consideration for purchase. marketing may also generate more scholarship and theory testing in
First, brands who can afford higher fees should continue to employ the persuasion domain (Kapitan & Van Esch, 2020). For instance,
celebrity endorsers to augment awareness in their marketing strategies. several social platforms and countries’ advertising authorities have
Celebrity endorsers tend to have a mass reach that can satisfy broader adopted rules that influencers must indicate when their product rec-
marketing goals. Yet, a word of caution is due in the disruption era. As ommendations come with pay or in-kind compensation (ASA, 2019).
the total number of devices around the world with ad blockers installed Does an “#ad” or “#sponsored” hashtag or the addition of a brand
rises, an alternative strategy to present branded information to con- logo enhance an influencer’s image as a content creator or detract
sumers may present a wiser course for many brand marketers. from the perception that they are independent or act without direc-
Second, this research yields pivotal insights for marketers on the tion from a brand? Audrezet et al. (2020) describe management of
utility of influencers, who have a different reach in online commu- transparent authenticity as key to this process, but this is yet to be
nities that are formed based on similar interests and shared experi- empirically tested. Influencers also have impact on consumer beliefs
ences with the influencer (Gong & Li, 2017). Influencers are more beyond the domain of product recommendations, including opinions
affordable and cost-effective for brands and could potentially lead to and information they post—which can have a potent effect on con-
a long-term partnership that affects brand equity. They also present sumer information processing if trusted influencers share dangerous
information as part of their content, blended into their daily stream or misleading misinformation (Junn, 2020). The same pathways to
of posts and videos in a way that, so far, eludes most ad blockers. achieve behavioral alignment with brand goals also function when
Third, we show influencers are perceived as having more creative influencers endorse or advocate for or against public policy, nonprofit
control over their content, which renders their endorsements more support, and social justice concerns or brand activism (Vredenburg
authentic. Brands that use influencers in their marketing campaigns et al., 2020). Authentic content creators have power in many arenas:
will be better positioned to engage with specific, highly targeted mar- How do influencer recommendations in favor of (or against) pub-
kets and potentially build conversation around their products. The lic health advice, such as wearing masks during a pandemic, impact
emerging influencer marketing strategy is thus to engage a series of consumer uptake of the advice (Van Esch et al., 2021)? As influenc-
more cost-effective micro-influencers (250,000 or less followers), ers emerge with their own brand equity, they may also find them-
with some rising stars (250,000–999,999 followers) and macro- selves human brands that seek differentiation via activism that has a
influencers (1 million+ followers) included. Each type of influencer unique impact on consumer participation and behavior.
is seen as expert regarding their topic or genre, though depending on
their scale of reach (Yuki, 2019). Declaration of Conflicting Interests
A complement of influencers lending their voices to a given cam-
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect
paign can legitimize a brand in a series of niche interest groups and
to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
related target markets, build interest and awareness, and ultimately,
as we predict, increase WTP. In a cost comparison for brand market-
Funding
ers, influencer marketing offers two clear and disruptive practices
to traditional marketing models. By engaging an influencer, a brand The author(s) received no financial support for the research, author-
pays for both (a) an endorsement and (b) to outsource content crea- ship, and/or publication of this article.
tion, direction, and presentation to an influencer. Brands can face risk
in letting go of creative control in this influencer marketing strat- ORCID iDs
egy. Yet we demonstrate that the more a brand trusts an endorser
Sommer Kapitan https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4069-9111
to present the brand to their audiences in their own unique way, the
more a receptive audience of niche consumers in the influencer’s Jan Kietzmann https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3576-994X
8 Australasian Marketing Journal 00(0)

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stand: Authentic activism or woke washing? Journal of Public Policy & brand’s consent and oversight.
Marketing, 39(4), 444–460. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743915620947359 “we tend to think about a creator as someone who’s a true maker
Weismueller, J., Harrigan, P., Wang, S., & Soutar, G. N. (2020). Influencer and publisher of their own content,” says Kami Lee, CEO of Active
endorsements: How advertising disclosure and source credibility affect marketing agency.
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Journal, 28, 160–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ausmj.2020.03.002 “from writing copy to filming, shooting and editing, they creatively
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The authentic personality: A theoretical and empirical conceptualization hear the term influencer, they’re usually looking at product promot-
and the development of the Authenticity Scale. Journal of Counseling ers and the brand is in charge of their videos, stories, images and
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warc.com/content/paywall/article/admap/celebrities_macroinfluenc-
ers_risingstar_creators_and_microinfluencers_what_brands_need_to_ Condition: Blog Post on Content Creators
know/124860 Psssst . . . the secret that only brands know about social influencers
10 Australasian Marketing Journal 00(0)

The best influencers are content creators In the past decade, social influencers have taken the world by storm.
In the past decade, social influencers have taken the world by storm: More than 90% of YouTube’s viewers believe that YouTubers drive
More than 90% of YouTube’s viewers believe that YouTubers drive modern culture.
modern culture.
Why might that be? For brands, it’s because the best influencers
Why might that be? For brands, it’s because the best influencers are what are what are known as product promoters. They take scripts from
are known as content creators. They create, edit, produce, write, and brands and use images, ideas, filming, and production direction
script out their own content, without a brand even knowing about it. from brands about the products, producing all their content with a
“We tend to think about a creator as someone who’s a true maker and brand’s consent and oversight.
publisher of their own content,” says Kami Lee, CEO of Activate
“We tend to think about an influencer as someone who’s a good pro-
marketing agency.
moter and does what a brand wants them to do,” says Kami Lee,
“From writing copy to filming, shooting and editing, they creatively CEO of Activate marketing agency.
produce their content and publish it for their audiences. When people
hear the term influencer, they’re usually looking at content creators “From writing copy to filming, shooting and editing, they do what
who are in charge of their videos, stories, images and writing.” the brand asks them to do for their content and publish it for their
audiences. When people hear the term influencer, they’re usually
Thanks for completing Part 1! In the next part, we hope you can looking at product promoters and the brand is in charge of their
help us rate a consumer video that has been posted to YouTube. videos, stories, images and writing.”

This YouTube video was loaded by an endorser who is a content

creator for the brand. Thanks for completing Part 1! In the next part, we hope you can help
us rate a consumer video that has been posted to YouTube.
Condition: Blog Post on Paid Promoters
Psssst . . . the secret that only brands know about social influencers This YouTube video was loaded by an endorser who is a paid pro-
The best influencers are paid promoters moter for the brand.