Chapter Four: Synthesis of Array Antennas

Adama Science and Technolgy University

May 2022

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Outlines

1 Introduction

2 Two-Element Array

3 N-Element Linear Array with Uniform Amplitude and Spacing

Broadside Array
Ordinary End-Fire Array
Phased (Scanning) Arrays
Hansen-Woodyard End-Fire Array

4 Directivity of a Linear Array

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Introduction

• The radiation patterns of single-element antennas are relatively wide, i.e., they
have relatively low directivity (gain).
• In long distance communications, antennas with high directivity are
required.
Possible to construct by enlarging the dimensions of the radiating
aperture (maximum size much larger than λ).
To increase the electrical size of an antenna is to construct it as an assembly
of radiating elements in a proper electrical and geometrical configuration
called antenna array.
• Usually, the array elements are identical. This is not necessary but it is
practical and simpler for design and fabrication.
• The individual elements may be of any type (wire dipoles, loops,
apertures, etc.)
• The total field of an array is a vector superposition of the fields radiated
by the individual elements.
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Cont. . . .

• To provide very directive pattern, it is necessary that the partial fields

(generated by the individual elements) interfere constructively in the
desired direction and interfere destructively in the remaining space.

• There are five basic methods to control the overall antenna pattern:
[Link] geometrical configuration of the overall array (linear, circular,
spherical, rectangular, etc.),
[Link] relative placement of the elements,
[Link] excitation amplitude of the individual elements,
[Link] excitation phase of each element,
[Link] individual pattern of each element

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Two-Element Array
Assume we have an array of two infinitesimal horizontal dipoles positioned along
the z-axis
Where the first element is excited by current
I1 = I 0 e −jβ/2 and the second by I2 = I0e +jβ/2

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Cont. . . .

The total field radiated by the two elements is

E t = E1 + E2

kI 0l e−j (k r 1−β/2) e −j(kr 2 +β/2)

= aθjη cosθ1 + cosθ2 (1)
4π r1 r2

At far-field
θ ≅ θ1 ≅θ2
𝑑𝑑
r1 ≅ r − cosθ for phase variation
2
𝑑𝑑
r2 ≅ r + cosθ for phase variation
2

r1 ≅r2 ≅ r for amplitude variation

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Cont. . . .

OR

(2)

Element Factor Array Factor

Thus the total field of the array is equal to the product of the field created by
a single element located at the origin and the array factor, AF :

(3)

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Cont. . . .

In normalized form

(4)

The far-zone field of a uniform two-element array of identical elements is

the product of the field of a single element and the array factor of that
array

E t = [E(singleelementatreferencepoint)] × [arrayfactor] (5)

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Cont. . . .

Pattern multiplication rule valid for arrays of identical elements.

This rule holds for any array consisting of decoupled identical elements, where
the excitation magnitudes, the phase shift between the elements and the
displacement between them are not necessarily the same.

The total pattern can be controlled via the single-element pattern, or via
the AF.
Generally the AF depends on the:

The number of elements,

The mutual placement,
The relative excitation magnitudes and phases.

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N-Element Linear Array with Uniform Amplitude and Spacing

• Assume that each succeeding element has a β progressive phase lead

current excitation relative to the preceding one

• An array of identical elements with identical magnitudes and with a

progressive phase is called a uniform array.

• The AF of the uniform array can be obtained by considering the

individual elements as point (isotropic) sources.

• The total field pattern can be obtained by simply multiplying the AF by the
field pattern of the individual element (provided the elements are not
coupled).

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N-Element Linear Array with Uniform Amplitude and Spacing

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Cont. . . .
The AF of an N -element linear array of isotropic sources is

AF = 1 + ej(kdcosθ+β) + e2j(kdcosθ+β) + ... + e j(N−1)(kdcosθ+β) (6)

(7)

More convenient for pattern analysis:

  (8)

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Cont. . . .
The phaser factor e j[(N−1)/2]ψ
`

Not important unless the array output signal is further combined with the
output signal of another antenna.
It represents the phase shift of the array’s phase center relative to the
origin.

Neglecting the phase factor gives

(9)

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Cont. . . .

Normalizing the array factor we obtain

(10)

For small values of ψ, it reduces to

(11)

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Cont. . . .

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Cont. . . .
Null: To find the nulls of the AF, equation (10) is set equal to zero

(12)

Maxima: They are studied in order to determine the maximum directivity, the
HPBWs, the direction of maximum radiation.
The maximum values occur when

ψ = 1(kdcosθ + β) = ±mπ
m
2 2

(13)

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Cont. . . .

HPBW Calculated by setting the value of AFn equal to 1/2

(14)

For a symmetrical pattern around θm (the angle at which maximum radiation

occurs), the HPBW is calculated as

Θh = 2|θh − θm| (15)

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Cont. . . .
Maxima of Minor Lobes: They are the maxima of AFn , where AFn < 1.
They occur approximately where the numerator attains a maximum and the
AF is beyond its first null:

(16)

It can be also written as

(17)

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Cont. . . .

For large values of d (d ≫λ), it reduces to

(18)

The maximum of the first minor lobe occurs when s = 1

AF N = 0.212 = −13.46dB

The maximum of the first minor lobe of the array factor is 13.46 dB down from
the maximum at the major lobe.

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Broadside Array
• it is desirable to have the maximum radiation of an array directed normal to
the axis of the array, 𝜃𝜃0 = 90𝑜𝑜 .
• To optimize the design, the maxima of the single element and of the array
factor should both be directed toward𝜃𝜃0 = 90𝑜𝑜 .
• The requirements of the single elements can be accomplished by the judicious
choice of the radiators, and those of the array factor by the proper separation
and excitation of the individual radiators.
• For maximum radiation in 𝜃𝜃0 = 90𝑜𝑜 we have,

• This means, to have the maximum of the array factor of a uniform linear
array directed broadside to the axis of the array, it is necessary that all the
elements have the same phase excitation.
• To ensure that there are no maxima in the other directions (called
grating lobes), the separation between the elements should not be
equal to multiples of a wavelength: d ≠ nλ, n = 1, 2, 3, . . . (20)

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Broadside Array
• A uniform array with β = 0 and d = nλ, in additionto having the maxima of the
array factor directed broadside (𝜃𝜃0 = 90 ◦) to the axis of the array, there
are additional maxima directed along the axis (𝜃𝜃0 = 0 ◦ , 180 ◦) of the
array (endfire radiation).
• To avoid any grating lobe, the largest spacing between the elements should
be less than one wavelength (dmax < λ).

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Ordinary End-Fire Array
• An array which has its maximum radiation along the axis of the array (θ = 0◦,
180◦ ).
To direct the first maximum toward θ = 0◦,

𝛽𝛽 = − 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 (21)
If the first maximum is desired toward θ0 = 180◦

• If the element separation is d = λ/2, end-fire radiation exists simultaneously in

both directions (θ0 = 0◦ and θ0 = 180◦).
• If the element separation is multiple of a wavelength, d = nλ, then in
addition to the end-fire maxima there also exist maxima in the broadside
directions.
• As with the broadside array, in order to avoid grating lobes, and have
only one end-fire maximum, the maximum spacing between the
element should be less than λ/2:
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Cont. . . .

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Phased (Scanning) Arrays
• Having discussed broad side arrays and end-fire arrays, it is logical to think
that the maximum radiation can be oriented in any direction to form a
scanning array.
• Let the maximum radiation of the array is required to be oriented at angle
θ0 (0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 180◦). To accomplish this, the phase excitation β between the
elements must be adjusted so that.

ψ = kdcosθ + β|θ=θ0 = kdcosθ0 + β = 0

⇒ β = −kdcosθ0 (23)
• Thus by controlling the progressive phase difference between the elements,
the maximum radiation can be squinted in any desired direction to form a
scanning array.
• This is accomplished electronically by the use of ferrite or diode phase
shifters.

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Hansen-Woodyard End-Fire Array

• To enhance the directivity of an end-fire array, Hansen and Woodyard

proposed that the phase shift of an ordinary end-fire β = ±kd be increased
for closely spaced elements of a very long array as

(24)

(25)

are known as the Hansen-Woodyard conditions for end-fire radiation. They

follow from a procedure for maximizing the directivity.

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Hansen-Woodyard End-Fire Array
• To realize the increase in directivity as a result of the Hansen-Woodyard
conditions, it is necessary that, in addition to the above conditions, |ψ| assumes
values of
• For maximum radiation along 𝜃𝜃0 = 0 ◦

• For maximum radiation along 𝜃𝜃0 = 180 ◦

• The condition of |ψ| = π/N above is realized by the use of the conditions in (24)
and (25).
• The requirement |ψ| = π, for an array of N elements, is satisfied by using (25)
for 𝜃𝜃𝜃 = 0 and (24) for 𝜃𝜃𝜃 = 180𝑜𝑜 and choosing for each a spacing of
𝑁𝑁 − 1 λ
𝑑𝑑 =
𝑁𝑁 4
• If the number of elements is large, the above can be approximated by
λ
𝑑𝑑 =
4
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Hansen-Woodyard End-Fire Array
• Thus for a large uniform array, the Hansen-Woodyard condition can only yield
an improved directivity provided the spacing between the elements is
approximately λ/4 .

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Directivity of a Linear Array
Directivity of Broadside Array

the radiation intensity averaged over all directions is.

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Cont. . . .

The directivity becomes

The length of the array L = (N − 1)d

For large arrays (L » d )

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Cont. . . .

Directivity of Ordinary End-Fire Array

In a similar way the directivity of an end-fire array becomes

The length of the array L = (N − 1)d

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Cont. . . .
For large arrays (L » d )

Directivity of Hansen-Woodyard Array

The directivity of Hansen-Woodyard array is

The length of the array L = (N − 1)d

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Cont. . . .

For large arrays (L » d )

(38)

Exercise Given a linear uniform array of isotropic elements with

N = 10, d = λ/4, find the directivity if:
a. β = 0 (broadside)
b. β = −kd (end-fire)
c. β = −kd − π/N (Hansen-Woodyard)
ans. a. 5 (=6.999 dB) b. 10 (10 dB) c. 17.89 (12.53 dB)

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Thank You!!!

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