Chapter 3

One dimensional
Steady state conduction
Methodology

Methodology of a Conduction Analysis

• Specify appropriate form of the heat equation.
• Solve for the temperature distribution.
• Apply Fourier’s law to determine the heat flux.

Simplest Case: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction with No Thermal Energy

Generation.

• Common Geometries:
– The Plane Wall: Described in rectangular (x) coordinate. Area
perpendicular to direction of heat transfer is constant (independent of x).
– The Tube Wall: Radial conduction through tube wall.
– The Spherical Shell: Radial conduction through shell wall.
Plane Wall
The Plane Wall
• Consider a plane wall between two fluids of different temperature:

• Heat Equation:
d  dT 
k 0 (3.1
dx  dx 
)

• Implications:
Heat flux  qx  is independent of x.
Heat rate  qx  is independent of x.
• Boundary Conditions: T  0   Ts,1, T  L   Ts,2

• Temperature Distribution for Constant k :

T  x   Ts ,1  Ts ,2  Ts ,1 
x
L (3.3)
Plane Wall (cont.)

• Heat Flux and Heat Rate:

 Ts ,1  Ts ,2 
dT k
qx   k (3.5)
dx L
qx   kA
dT kA
dx

L
 Ts ,1  Ts ,2 
(3.4)
 T 
• Thermal Resistances  Rt   and Thermal Circuits:
 q 
L
Conduction in a plane wall: Rt ,cond  (3.6)
kA
1
Convection: Rt ,conv 
hA (3.9)
Thermal circuit for plane wall with adjoining fluids:

1 L 1
Rtot   
h1 A kA h 2 A (3.12)
T ,1  T ,2
qx  (3.11)
Rtot
Plane Wall (cont.)

• Thermal Resistance for Unit Surface Area:

L 1
Rt,cond  Rt,conv 
k h
Units: Rt  K/W Rt  m 2  K/W
• Radiation Resistance:
1 1
Rt ,rad  Rt,rad 
hr A hr

hr   Ts  Tsur  Ts2  Tsur
2
 (1.9)
• Contact Resistance:

TA  TB Rt,c
Rt,c  Rt ,c 
qx Ac

Values depend on: Materials A and B, surface finishes, interstitial conditions, and
contact pressure (Tables 3.1 and 3.2)
Contact Resistance
Contact Resistance
Plane Wall (cont.) • Composite Wall with Negligible
Contact Resistance:

T ,1  T ,4
qx  (3.14)
 Rt

For the temperature distribution

shown, kA > kB < kC.

1  1 LA LB LC 1  Rtot
 Rt  Rtot       
A  h1 k A k B kC h4  A
• Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U) :
A modified form of Newton’s law of cooling to encompass multiple resistances
to heat transfer.
qx  UAToverall (3.17)
1
Rtot 
UA (3.19)
Plane Wall (cont.)

• Series – Parallel Composite Wall:

• Note departure from one-dimensional conditions fork F  kG .

• Circuits based on assumption of isothermal surfaces normal to x direction or

adiabatic surfaces parallel to x direction provide approximations forq x .
Series parallel configuration
Problem 3.12:
A thermopane window consists of two pieces of glass 7 mm
thick that enclose an air space 7 mm thick. The window
separates room air at 20oC from outside ambient air at -
10oC. The convection coefficient associated with the inner
(room-side) surface is 10 W/m2 .K.
(a) If the convection coefficient associated with the outer
(ambient) air is ho=80 W/m2.K, what is the heat loss through
a window that is 0.8 m long by 0.5 m wide? Neglect
radiation, and assume the air enclosed between the panes
to be stagnant.
Porous Media
• Porous Media: porous media that are
combinations of a stationary solid and a fluid.
When the fluid is either a gas or a liquid, the
resulting porous medium is said to be
saturated.
Porous Media

• Porous Media
• Saturated media
consist of a solid
phase and a single
fluid phase.

• Unsaturated media
consist of solid, liquid,
and gas phases.

• The effective thermal conductivity of a saturated medium depends on the solid (s)
material, its porosity , its morphology, as well as the interstitial fluid (f) (Fig.a).
keff A
qx  T1  T2  (3.21)
L
• The value of keff may be bracketed by describing the medium with a series
resistance analysis (Fig. b) and a parallel resistance analysis (Fig.c).
• The value of keff may be estimated by  k f  2k s  2 (k s  k f ) 
keff    ks
 k f  2k s   (k s  k f )  (3.25)
  0.25
Tube Wall
The Tube Wall

• Heat Equation:
1 d  dT 
 kr 0 (3.28)
r dr  dr 
What does the form of the heat equation tell us about the variation ofq r with
r in the wall?
Is the foregoing conclusion consistent with the energy conservation requirement?
How does qr vary with r?
• Temperature Distribution for Constant k :
Ts ,1  Ts ,2  r 
T r   ln    Ts ,2 (3.31)
ln  r1 / r2   r2 
Tube Wall (cont.)

• Heat Flux and Heat Rate:

qr   k
dT

k
dr r ln  r2 / r1 
Ts,1  Ts,2  [W/m2]

2 k
qr  2 rqr 
ln  r2 / r1 
 Ts ,1  Ts ,2  [W/m]

2 Lk
qr  2 rLqr 
ln  r2 / r1 
Ts,1  Ts,2  [W]
(3.32)

• Conduction Resistance:
ln  r2 / r1 
Rt ,cond  [K/W] (3.33)
2 Lk
ln  r2 / r1 
Rt,cond  [m  K/W]
2 k

Why doesn’t a surface area appear in the expressions for the thermal
resistance?
Tube Wall (cont.)

• Composite Wall with

Negligible Contact
Resistance

T,1  T,4
qr 
Rtot

 UA T,1  T,4  (3.35)

Note that
For the temperature distribution
1
UA  Rtot shown, kA > kB > kC.

is a constant independent of radius,

but U itself is tied to specification of an interface.
1
U i   Ai Rtot  (3.3
7)
Composite material
Example 3.6
Spherical Shell
Spherical Shell

• Heat Equation
1 d  2 dT 
2 dr 
r 0
r  dr 
What does the form of the heat equation tell us about the variation of
q r with r ? Is this result consistent with conservation of energy?

How does qr vary with r?

• Temperature Distribution for Constant k :

T  r   Ts ,1  Ts ,1  Ts ,2 
 
1  r1/ r

1  r1 / r 2 
Spherical Shell (cont.)

• Heat flux, Heat Rate and Thermal Resistance:

dT
qr  k  2
k
dr r 1/ r1   1/ r2  
 Ts ,1  Ts ,2 

4 k
qr  4 r 2 qr 
1/ r1   1/ r2 
 Ts ,1  Ts ,2  (3.40)

Rt ,cond 
1/ r1   1/ r2  (3.41)
4 k

• Composite Shell:
Toverall
qr   UAToverall
Rtot

UA  Rtot 1  Constant

1
U i   Ai Rtot   Depends on Ai
Alternative conduction analysis
EXAMPLE 3.5
• The diagram shows a conical section fabricated from pyroceram. It is
of circular cross section with the diameter D=ax, where a=0.25. The
small end is at x1=50 mm and the large end at x2=250 mm. The end
temperatures are T1=400 K and T2=600 K, while the lateral surface is
well insulated.

1. Derive an expression for the temperature distribution T(x) in

symbolic form, assuming one-dimensional conditions. Sketch the
temperature distribution.
2. Calculate the heat rate qx through the cone.
Solution
Implications

Implications of Energy Generation

• Involves a local (volumetric) source of thermal energy due to conversion

from another form of energy in a conducting medium.

• The source may be uniformly distributed, as in the conversion from

electrical to thermal energy (Ohmic heating):
Eg I 2 Re
q  (3.43)
 

or it may be non-uniformly distributed, as in the absorption of radiation

passing through a semi-transparent medium.For a plane wall,

q  e  x

• Generation affects the temperature distribution in the medium and causes

the heat rate to vary with location, thereby precluding inclusion of
the medium in a thermal circuit.
The Plane Wall

The Plane Wall

• Consider one-dimensional, steady-state conduction
in a plane wall of constant k, uniform generation,
and asymmetric surface conditions:

• Heat Equation:
d  dT  d 2T q
k q0 2  0 (3.44)
dx  dx  dx k

Is the heat flux q independent of x?

• General Solution:
T  x     q / 2k  x 2  C1 x  C2 (3.45)

What is the form of the temperature distribution for

q  0? q > 0?

How does the temperature distribution change with increasing q ?

Plane wall (cont.)
Symmetric Surface Conditions or One Surface Insulated:

• What is the temperature gradient

at the centerline or the insulated
surface?
• Why does the magnitude of the temperature
gradient increase with increasing x?

• Temperature Distribution:
q L2  x2 
T  x  1  2   Ts
2k 
(3.47)
L 

• How do we determineTs ?
Overall energy balance on the wall →
 E out  E g  0

hAs Ts  T   q As L  0

qL
Ts  T  (3.51)
h

• How do we determine the heat rate at x = L?

Radial Systems

Radial Systems
Cylindrical (Tube) Wall Spherical Wall (Shell)

Solid Cylinder (Circular Rod) Solid Sphere

• Heat Equations:
Cylindrical Spherical
1 d  dT  1 d  2 dT 
 kr q0  kr q0
r dr  dr  r 2 dr  dr 
Radial systems (cont.)

• Solution for Uniform Generation in a Solid Sphere of Constant k

with Convection Cooling:

Temperature Distribution Surface Temperature

dT q r3
kr 
2
 C1 Overall energy balance:
dr 3 q ro
 E out  Eg  0  Ts  T 
q r 2 C1 3h
T    C2
6k r
dT Or from a surface energy balance:
|r  0  0  C1  0
Ein  E out  0  qcond  ro   qconv  Ts  T  o
dr qr
q ro 2 3h
T  ro   Ts  C2  Ts 
6k
q ro 2  r2 
T r   1    Ts
6k  ro 2 

• A summary of temperature distributions is provided in Appendix C

for plane, cylindrical and spherical walls, as well as for solid
cylinders and spheres. Note how boundary conditions are specified
and how they are used to obtain surface temperatures.
Extended Surfaces, Fin
Finned Configuration
Fin Configuration
Nature and Rationale

Nature and Rationale of Extended Surfaces

• An extended surface (also know as a combined conduction-convection system
or a fin) is a solid within which heat transfer by conduction is assumed to be
one dimensional, while heat is also transferred by convection (and/or
radiation) from the surface in a direction transverse to that of conduction.

– Why is heat transfer by conduction in the x-direction not, in fact, one-

dimensional?
Extended Surfaces, Fin
Extended Surface Fin
Fins Of Uniform Cross Section
Fin Equation
The Fin Equation
• Assuming one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in an extended
surface of constant conductivity  k  and uniform cross-sectional area Ac  ,
with negligible generation  q  0 and radiation  qrad
  0  , the fin equation
is of the form:

d 2T hP
2
 T  T   0 (3.67)
dx kAc

or, with m2   hP / kAc and the reduced temperature   T  T ,

d 2
2
 m 2  0 (3.69)
dx

How is the fin equation derived?

Fin Equation (cont.)

• Solutions (Table 3.4):

Base (x = 0) condition
  0   Tb  T  b

Tip ( x = L) conditions
A. Convection:  kd / dx |x  L  h  L 
B. Adiabatic: d / dx |x  L  0
C. Fixed temperature:   L    L
D. Infinite fin (mL  2.65):   L   0

• Fin Heat Rate:

d
q f  kAc |x 0   h  x  dAs
dx Af
Fin Boundary Conditions
Fin With Convection Tip Boundary
Condition
At X=0

At X=l
Fins of Uniform Cross Section, Results
Performance Parameters
Fin Performance Parameters
• Fin Efficiency:
qf qf
f   where 0   f  1 (3.91)
qf , max hAf b

How is the efficiency affected by the thermal conductivity of the fin?

Expressions for  f are provided in Table 3.5 for common geometries.
Consider a triangular fin:
1/ 2
Af  2w  L2   t / 2  
2
 
Ap   t / 2  L
1 I1  2mL 
f 
mL I 0  2mL 

• Fin Effectiveness:
qf
f 
hAc ,bb (3.86)
 f  with  h,  k and  Ac / P
• Fin Resistance:
b 1
Rt , f   (3.97)
qf hAf  f
Fins With Non Uniform Cross Section
Arrays
Fin Arrays
• Representative arrays of
(a) rectangular and
(b) annular fins.

– Total surface area:

At  NA f  Ab (3.104)

Number of fins Area of exposed base (prime surface)

– Total heat rate:

b
qt  N f hA f b  hAbb  o hAtb  (3.105)
Rt , o
– Overall surface efficiency and resistance:
NAf
o  1 
A
1  f  (3.107)
b t 1
Rt , o  
qt o hAt (3.108)
Arrays (Cont.)

• Equivalent Thermal Circuit:

• Effect of Surface Contact Resistance:

b
qt  o  c  hAtb 
Rt , o  c 
NA f   f  (3.110a)
o  c   1  1  
At  C1 
C1  1   f hA f  Rt, c / Ac ,b  (3.110b)

1
Rt , o  c  
o  c  hAt (3.109)
Problem 3.117:
A motor draws electric power Pelec from a supply line and
delivers mechanical power Pmech to a pump through a rotating
copper shaft of thermal conductivity ks, length L, and
diameter D. The motor is mounted on a square pad of width
W, thickness t, and thermal conductivity kp. The surface of the
housing exposed to ambient air at T∞ is of area Ah, and the
corresponding convection coefficient is hh. Opposite ends of
the shaft are at temperatures of Th and T∞, and heat transfer
from the shaft to the ambient air is characterized by the
convection coefficient hs. The base of the pad is at T∞.
• (a) Expressing your result in terms of Pelec, Pmech, ks,
L, D, W, t, kp, Ah, hh, and hs, obtain an expression for
(Th -T∞).
Fin Problem
Fin Problem: Solution
• Assumptions 1 Steady
operating conditions exist. 2
The temperature along the fins
varies in one direction only 3 cm

D=0.25 cm
(normal to the plate). 3 Heat

0.6
cm
transfer from the fin tips is
negligible. 4 The heat transfer
coefficient is constant and
uniform over the entire fin
surface. 5 The thermal
properties of the fins are
constant. 6 The heat transfer
coefficient accounts for the
effect of radiation from the
fins.