Malays. Appl. Biol.

(2019) 48(3): 141–147

DETECTION THRESHOLD AND SENSORY PREFERENCE

FOR SALTY TASTE AMONG MALAY, CHINESE AND
INDIAN STUDENTS IN HEALTH CAMPUS,
UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA

MARINA, A.M.1*, NURUL HUSNA, A.R.1 and RUHAYA, H.2

1Nutrition and Dietetic Programme, School of Health Sciences, Health Campus,

Universiti Sains Malaysia, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia
2School of Dental Sciences, Health Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia,

16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia

*E-mail: mareena@[Link]

Accepted 23 May 2019, Published online 30 June 2019

ABSTRACT

Most dietary sodium is consumed as common salt (sodium chloride). However, high consumption of salt is highly related to
several health problems such as hypertension, stroke and cardiovascular disease. The consumption of salt is related to
individuals’ detection threshold and preference for salty taste. Thus, this study was carried out to determine the detection
threshold and sensory preference for salty taste among Malay, Chinese and Indian undergraduate students in Health Campus,
Universiti Sains Malaysia. Ninety students from three ethnic groups (Malay, Chinese and Indian) were conveniently selected
as panelists in this study. Detection threshold for salty taste was conducted using three-alternative force choice (3-AFC)
method. Sensory preference test was conducted using a 9 point hedonic scale for saltiness in vegetable soup. Salt detection
threshold for Malay, Chinese and Indian students were 1.56, 1.19 and 0.90 mM, respectively, but no significant difference
was found among ethnics. Across gender, the lowest salt detection threshold was found in Indian females (0.74 mM) and
Chinese males (0.70 mM). Chinese and Indian students showed a decreasing trend in salt preference as salt concentration
was increased in vegetable soup. Malay students, however, demonstrated a more fluctuate trend across increasing salt
concentration, with 0.5 mM as the most preferred salt concentration. Malay and Chinese male students had higher preference
for saltiness compared to their females’ counterpart. No relationship was found between salt detection threshold and preference
for saltiness among Malay, Chinese and Indian students.

Key words: Chinese, detection threshold, Indian, Malay, preference, salt

INTRODUCTION High preference for high-salt food has shown to

develop ample of disease such as hypertension. This
Salt present abundantly in nature and usually used is because high-salt food is able to increase the rate
to season or preserve food in the industry. Salt and of blood pressure in an individual. According to
sodium are not exactly the same, although it is National Health and Morbidity Survey (NHMS)
often interrelated. According to American Heart 2015, the overall prevalence of hypertension among
Association (2016), sodium is a mineral that occurs ethnicity in descending order is other Bumiputras
naturally in foods or is added during manufacturing (33.4%), Indians (32.4%), Malay (31.1%) and
or both whereas table salt is a combination of Chinese (30.8%) (Institute for Public Health, 2015).
sodium (40%) and chloride (60%). The adult population is recommended to consume
Several epidemiological and clinical studies less than 2000 mg of sodium which is equivalent to
have demonstrated a clear relationship between salt 5 grams of salt per day according to the new
intake and hypertension (Al-Solaiman et al., 2009). guidelines issued by World Health Organization
High salt intake has become a major risk factor (WHO) (WHO, 2012). According to the Malaysian
related to many cardiovascular and renal diseases. Adult Nutrition Survey 2014 (Institute for Public
Health, 2014), the median sodium intake among
* To whom correspondence should be addressed. Malaysian adults is 1935 mg/day.
142 DETECTION THRESHOLD AND SENSORY PREFERENCE FOR SALTY TASTE

Since hypertension is related to salt intake, the Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM/JEPeM/16110436).
factors that related to salt intake are therefore The number of panelists for each ethnic group was
indirectly affected hypertension. Sensory taste chosen as 30, by referring to the sensory threshold
perception for saltiness affects the amounts of salt testing method ASTM E679 (suggested between
individuals consume. The strategy to reduce salt 23 to 35) (ASTM, 2011).
intake will be difficult to achieve if an individual
is insensitive to salty taste. Therefore, it is worth to Sensory determination
study the sensory profile of individuals towards
salty taste to determine their sensitivity towards salty Detection threshold
taste. Detection threshold test can indicate the The detection threshold for salty taste was
sensitivity of individuals towards salty taste while determined using three-alternative forced-choice (3-
sensory preference test shows their preference for AFC) method according to ASTM E679 (ASTM,
salt content in foods. 2011). In this method, panelists were provided with
Cocores and Gold (2009) found that three samples containing a salt solution and two
adolescents tend to prefer higher levels of salt samples of pure water. Panelists were asked whether
compared with adults and Cowart (2011) reported they perceived a taste sensation different from the
that the importance of sensory context in item- water. The lowest concentration at which panelist
specific preferences established during childhood tasted a difference to the water sample was
and continues until adolescence. Both adolescents considered as threshold concentration.
and adults are exposed to greater sensory exposure Salt solution was prepared according to Uswatun
compared to young children. Previous studies have (2014) which were 0.31, 0.63, 1.25, 2.50, 5.00 and
found that restricted sensory exposure decreases 10.00 mM. There were six sets of salt concentrations.
appetite whereas greater sensory exposure will Each set of salt concentration consisted of a cup of
increase appetite. salt solution and two cups of water or blank (10 ml)
The level of salt detection threshold of a person presented in a small disposable cup and coded with
plays an important role in his or her health. Previous randomly three digit numbers.
research has shown that individuals who have high One hour before the testing, panelist was asked
detection threshold for salt taste sensitivity tend to not to eat, drink or brush their teeth. It is essential
eat saltier food than those who have low detection to avoid bias due to the difference in sensitivity of
threshold for salt (Jiang et al., 2016). In the present sense of taste. A tray consisted of six sets of salt
study, salt detection threshold and preference concentrations were presented in front of the
among major ethnics in Malaysia (Malays, Chinese panelists. The samples were presented from the
and Indians) were assessed which focused on lowest to the highest concentration. Before testing,
undergraduate university students. The subjects were panelists were asked to gargle first. Panelists were
chosen in this study because sodium intake was allowed to repeat the testing in the same concen-
found to be the highest in the group with the highest tration set if they were not confident of the answer.
educational level (2734 mg/day for college/ Panelists were required to provide the answer for
university students) compared to other groups each concentration, before proceeding to the next
(Mitchell, Brunton & Wilkinson, 2013). It is hoped higher concentration set. Before testing the next set
that this study would create awareness among the of samples, they were required to rinse their mouth
population about the relationship between high-salt with tap water.
intake and high-salt related disease.
Sensory preference
Sensory preference test was conducted by using
MATERIALS AND METHODS hedonic test. A 9-point hedonic scale was used in
this study to determine the preference level for salt
Sensory panel concentration in vegetable soup. The scale of 1
A cross sectional study, which involved 90 represented dislike extremely and 9 represented like
undergraduate students (untrained panels) of extremely. Subjects were asked to place a rating
Health Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia were preference for each of six concentration of salt in
carried out. The sampling method used was the vegetable soup that they tasted. The sensory
convenience sampling. Students who had used preference score was obtained by calculating the
tobacco product and had medical condition or average mean preference score for each concen-
evidence of conditions that could alter gustatory tration. Preferred concentration for each individual
sense were excluded. All research procedure was in this study refers to the concentration with the
approved by the Ethical Research Committee, highest preference rating.
DETECTION THRESHOLD AND SENSORY PREFERENCE FOR SALTY TASTE 143

The vegetable soup was chosen for salt BET group was derived by geometrical averaging
preference because the dish was familiar to subjects of BET individual.
and involved little preparation. The vegetable soup The data collected were analyzed using the
was prepared by adding vegetables namely carrot, Statistical Package of Social Science (SPSS)
parsley and celery into boiling water and cooked Version 22. The P value of < 0.05 was considered
to perfection. Once cooked, the vegetable soup statistically significant. The significant difference in
was filtered to obtain only the clear soup which was detection threshold and sensory preference for
used to serve the panelists. The vegetable soup saltiness among three ethnic groups was analyzed
was divided into six and added with different using the Kruskal-Wallis test. The Man Whitney test
concentration of salt. The concentrations of salt was used to determine the significant difference in
used were 0.38, 0.50, 0.61, 0.75, 0.88 and 1.00 mM salt detection threshold and sensory preference
(Uswatun, 2014). The vegetable soup was stirred among gender. The relationship for sensory
until salt dissolved completely. detection threshold and preference for saltiness was
The vegetable soup was served in disposable analyzed using Spearman’s correlation.
cups (15ml) and coded with randomly three digit
numbers. The position of each cups was randomly
placed, not according to the order of concentration. RESULTS
The samples for tasting were performed sequentially
from left to right. After tasting the first samples, the Table 1 shows the detection threshold for saltiness
panelists were required to indicate how much they among Malay, Chinese and Indian students. Indian
like the samples based on the saltiness intensity of (0.90 mM) had the lowest while Malay (1.56 mM)
the sample. Before tasting the next set of samples, students had the highest detection threshold for
they were required to rinse their mouth with tap salty taste among ethnics. However, there was
water. no significant different (P > 0.05) between Malay,
Chinese and Indian students in the detection
Statistical analysis threshold for salty taste. In terms of gender, males
The series of each panelist’s judgment for had lower detection threshold for saltiness than
detection threshold was expressed as (0) for an females in Malay and Chinese ethnics but Indian
incorrect choice and (+) for a correct choice arranged females scored lower detection threshold than their
in the order of ascending concentration. The males’ counterpart.
detection threshold was measured using the best- The preference score for saltiness in vegetable
estimation threshold (BET). This is a method of soup among different ethnics is shown in Figure 1.
estimation threshold of stimulation by using geo- Both Indian and Chinese students gave the highest
mean of concentration in which the last miss preference score for the lowest salt concentration
occurred (0) and the next higher concentration (0.38 mM) while Malay students preferred the next
designated by a (+). Geo-mean was obtained from higher concentration (0.50 mM). The saltiness
the following equation: preference scores for Malay students were more
fluctuate compared to other ethnics. The saltiness
Geo-mean = preference scores for Chinese and Indian students
showed a decreasing trend; in which the highest
preference score was assigned to the lowest salt
The BET individual score was calculated by
concentration while the lowest preference score
each individual. The average values of the total
was assigned to the highest salt concentration in
logBET individual were then calculated to get the
vegetable soup. There was no significant different
BET group for Malay, Chinese and Indian panelists.

Table 1. Detection threshold for salty taste among Malay, Chinese

and Indian students

Group Best Estimated Threshold (BET)

Ethnicity for saltiness (mM)
Total Female Male

Malay 1.56 ± 0.96 2.26 ± 0.94 0.91 ± 0.97

Chinese 1.19 ± 0.89 1.69 ± 0.93 0.70 ± 0.83
Indian 0.90 ± 1.06 0.74 ± 1.11 1.73 ± 0.91

P value = 0.686.
144 DETECTION THRESHOLD AND SENSORY PREFERENCE FOR SALTY TASTE

Fig. 1. Sensory preference for salty taste in vegetable soup among Malay, Chinese
and Indian students (P = 0.06).

Fig. 2. Sensory preference for salty taste in vegetable soup among Malay students
(P = 0.43).

(P > 0.05) between preferred concentration for salty females (Figure 4). Indian males preferred vegetable
taste among Malay, Chinese and Indian students. soup the most at salt concentration of 0.5 mM but
Figure 2 shows the preference score for saltiness the preference score slowly declined afterward.
in vegetable soup among Malay students according There was no significant different (P > 0.05)
to gender. Malay males scored higher preference between the preferred concentration of salty taste
than females for all of the salt concentrations. Malay among male and female students. There was also no
males allocated the highest preference score for the significant relationship between the detection
salt concentration of 0.88 mM while Malay females threshold and preferred concentration for salty taste
preferred less salty soup (0.50 mM). According to (r = -0.132, p > 0.05) among the students.
Figure 3, Chinese males preferred vegetable soup
the most at concentration of 0.75 mM. Chinese
females, on the other hand, did not prefer much salt DISCUSSION
in their soups. The higher the salt concentration in
the vegetable soup, the lower the preferences score The salt detection thresholds obtained in the present
assigned by the Chinese females. Indian females study (0.90 – 1.56 mM) were consistent with
followed the same preference pattern as Chinese findings by Hatae et al. (2009) and Uswatun (2014)
DETECTION THRESHOLD AND SENSORY PREFERENCE FOR SALTY TASTE 145

Fig. 3. Sensory preference for salty taste in vegetable soup among Chinese students
(P = 0.71).

Fig. 4. Sensory preference for salty taste in vegetable soup among Indian students
(P = 0.49).

with salt detection threshold obtained in those study conducted by Uswatun (2014) which found
studies were 0.719 and 1.982 mM, respectively. The that female subjects had significantly lower
present study shows that Indian students had the detection threshold for salt, compared to male
lowest detection threshold for saltiness, followed by subjects. Another study conducted by Michelle et
Chinese and Malay students. The lower detection al. (2013) also reported that there was a significant
threshold indicates higher taste sensitivity towards difference between males and females in salt
salty taste. However, the result shows that there is detection threshold aged between 22-56 years old
no significant difference in the detection threshold subjects. Differences in the detection threshold
for saltiness among Malay, Chinese and Indian might be influenced by some other factors such as
students. Consuming a low sodium diet has the age, experience as well as exposure to foods.
potential to increase sensitivity towards salt and The present study found that Indian students
increase preference for low sodium foods. However, had the highest preference for the lowest salt
several studies reported that taste sensitivity might concentration in vegetable soup, as compared to
change depending on bodily needs (Bartoshuk & Malay and Chinese students. The preference score
Beauchamp, 1994). continued to decline as the salt concentration
The present study indicates that male students increased. This indicates that Indian students do not
from Malay and Chinese groups had lower detection prefer much salt in their foods. Although not
threshold for saltiness, compared to females, but the significant, Indian students also were generally most
result was not significant. This is in contrast to the sensitive to salty taste, as indicated by their lowest
146 DETECTION THRESHOLD AND SENSORY PREFERENCE FOR SALTY TASTE

detection threshold for saltiness. Earlier research According to Baharuddin and Sharifudin
suggested a connection between an individual’s (2013), there was a significant correlation between
salt taste sensitivity and their acceptance and taste threshold and preferred concentration for
consumption of sodium rich foods (Mitchell et al., saltiness among Kadazandusun ethnic in Sabah.
2013). This is supported by Choong et al. (2012) However, the present study established no
in a study between Chinese and Indians, which found relationship between salt detection threshold and
that Indians consumed less sodium than Chinese. preference for saltiness. This is probably due to the
According to the Malaysian Adult Nutrition Survey small sample size. Similar to the present study,
2014 (Institute of Public Health, 2014), among the Mitchell et al. (2013) found no association between
three ethnics, Chinese consumed the most salt, salt detection threshold and vegetable soup
followed by Indians and Malays. However, acceptability scores. It is proposed that the
according to the National Health and Morbidity sensitivity to salt is different between salt in water
Survey (NHMS) 2015, the overall prevalence of solution and salt in more complex food such as
hypertension among Chinese was the lowest vegetable soup. Thus, an individual’s sensitivity to
among all ethnics (Institute for Public Health, 2015). salty taste does not necessarily make a difference
This shows that the relationship between the in their preference for salty taste in foods they
consumption of salt and hypertension is not always consumed (Uswatun, 2014).
positive or straight forward, but more complex as Lucas et al. (2011) also found no association
hypertension is a multifactorial complication. For between sodium intake and parameters such as salty
example, a study among French adults found that taste recognition thresholds, liking and perceived
age-adjusted systolic blood pressure was not intensity. The impact of saltiness on liking is quite
significantly associated with salt consumption in complex and it has been suggested that hedonic
women, and not associated with either gender after responses to differing sodium concentrations
multiple adjustments (Lelong et al., 2015). might be food specific (Hayes et al., 2010). The
In terms of gender, male students had a higher relationship between the detection threshold and
salt preference score in Malay and Chinese ethnics. preference for saltiness might also be influenced
This result might be due to several factors such as by some factors such as genetic factors and
genetic, environmental and their culture of eating. environmental factors.
According to Boek et al. (2012), male students were
more likely to choose unhealthy foods which
contain sodium over high fat foods, as compared to CONCLUSION
female students even though both male and female
students chose high fat foods as the primary In conclusion, the current findings showed that no
determinants of unhealthy foods. This is also significant different established in salt detection
supported by finding of Malaysian Adults Nutrition threshold between different ethnics. There is also no
Survey 2014 (Institute for Public Health, 2014), relationship between salt detection threshold and
which reported that Malaysian men had a higher preference for saltiness among Malay, Chinese and
median intake of sodium compared to women. Indian students. Although not significant, the
According to Choong et al. (2012), both genders Indian students generally had the lowest salt
preferred western based salty foods, but male detection threshold and the lowest preference for
subjects showed a higher intake of these salty salty taste. In addition, male students tend to give a
foods compared to female subjects. higher score in salt preference as compared to female
In another study, it was found that across gender students. Since salt is the primary cause of salty
and ethnicities, the saltiness intensity perception taste, a complete understanding of the factors that
increased as the sodium content of solutions or food contribute to salt consumption is needed in order
increased (Hayes et al., 2010). In that particular to develop an efficient strategy to reduce salt intake.
study, the intensity of the foods that generally For example, the salt reduction in food products
‘tasted less salty’ was not perceived as significantly needs to be carried out gradually after appropriate
different among gender and ethnicity, but females adjustment with the sensory preference for salt.
perceived foods that ‘tasted saltier’ significantly
higher than males, which supported some findings
that indicated women perceived significantly more ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
saltiness from high-sodium foods compared to men.
In a study done by Mojet et al. (2003), women also The authors would like to express gratitude to all
reported a larger difference in perceived intensity subjects for their participation. The authors also
for sodium chloride and potassium chloride acknowledge School of Health Sciences, Universiti
concentration. Sains Malaysia for providing facility and support to
conduct this study.
DETECTION THRESHOLD AND SENSORY PREFERENCE FOR SALTY TASTE 147

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