Chapter II

Man as a Person
Introduction

Knowing man as an individual and as a member of society is fundamental in the

study at values and ethics. To understand the nature of man is a courageous task owing to
his complexity. To study and judge his actions is an even more challenging function.
It is observed that everybody is presumed to understand what man is. But because man is
different from others, it is assumed that everybody else has a different view of a man. Man is
a complex organism, for he is composed of a physical body, intellect and emotions. He has
needs and wants to be satisfied in order to live a successful and happy life. He has needs
and appetites that are physiological, intellectual, psychological or emotional, social,
economic, political, moral, and spiritual in nature. All his efforts are geared towards the
fulfillment of these needs as he strives to live a full life. He has to work for the
satisfaction of these varied needs. These needs should be fulfilled to avoid frustrations. Man
is scientifically named Homo sapiens. He has distinct characteristics that make him different
from the other creatures on earth.
Every man is born inimitable, each one different from others. An individual‘s nature is
manifested and fashioned by heredity, culture. and environment
The word ―person‖ comes from the Greek word prosophon. meaning ―mask‖---that
which is used by stage actors. Its Latin equivalent personare refers to the mask through
which an actor forcefully projects his voice. We may, therefore, speak of a person as ahuman
being, hidden by the mask.
As Agapay (1991) concludes, a person exists distinctly and independently from
others and is capable of knowing and loving in an intellectual way, and of deciding forhimself
the purpose or end of his actions. He has his own set' of values and work ethics.
Hence, man, says Palispis (1995), has to be respected as a being who can think and
act as a person. Every values teacher must address himself to the processes of thinking
(cognitive or acquiring knowledge), feeling (affective or forming attitudes and values) and
acting (psychomotor or acquiring skills)

General Objectives:
1. Discuss what is philosophies of man
2. Distinguish man as a person
3. Distinguish personality from character
4. Explain moral habits and its moral significance
5. Differentiate virtues and vices
Lesson I. Philosophies of Man

The method that we use in studying the nature of man and the meaning or condition
of being human is basically Christian. But this requires a lot of analytic presentation of
various views about man. Some of these views are pagan _ while others are atheist. Only
after presenting these views will we engage into a synthetic Inquiry of man.
All men have the same anatomical and physiological structure. Several philosophers
and scholars present different views on how to
understand man as a person.

WHAT TO EXPECT

1. Describe man based on different philosophical views

2. Compare the different philosophical views of man
3. Express ones philosophy on the nature of man.

I. Different Philosophical Views of a Man

Biological
Man is a complex being who behaves uniquely as a result of his hereditary,
environmental, and cultural influences. He is curious; he imitates others and has his own
interests. Man reasons and improves the adaptive nature of his behavior in rational ways. He
makes and uses tools in a variety of ways. He is self-conscious, reflecting on his past and
future and on life and death. He makes mental abstractions, develops symbols and
communicates his ideas and knowledge through sign or oral language. Man has a sense of
appreciation for arts and beauty.
Man has his religion. He believes in a Divine Being, and has superstitions and beliefs
in animistic, supernatural, or spiritual things. A human being is a moral animal and has
developed himself through the influence of heredity, environment, and cultural factors. Thus,
man becomes an integral human being Created in the likeness of God.
Classical View
For the classical philosophers, man is a creature endowed with hierarchical virtues
whose nature is designed to serve as building blocks of society. Man is distinct from animals
as he is the sole being who possesses a physical body and a soul. Man‘s soul is composed
of intellect and will. From the point of view of Aristotle, man is a rational and a social being.
To him, man is not the center of the universe. He is only a part of it. He is born to be a part of
society. He is a political animal in the sense that outside the political organization or the
organized society, he is nothing. He is a beast who recognizes neither law nor
socialstructures.

Christian View
The Judaeo-Christian philosophers considered man as the ―image‖ of God." Genesis
1:27 (Holy Bible) states, ―God created man in mi own minim; in the image of God He
created him; male and female He created them.‖ This center on the notion that man is
endowed with divine attributes. These divine characteristics bring all men to a common bond
forming essentially one family. We share the same basis features that make us human and
enable us to know and to love one another. As is pointed out, biblical prophecy speaks of the
peaceful unity of all men.

Existentialist View
Teilhard de Chardin (1970) says that man is a being who knows what he knows.
Martin Heideger (cited by Palispis, 1995) believes that man is responsible not only for himself
but for all men. In his book Introduction to Philosophy, Engelber Van Crooverburg (1963), as
cited by Palispis (1995), mentions the following thoughts about man:

1. Man is raised above the abyss of nothingness.

2. He lives on the dividing line between the past, the present and the future.
3. He is embodied.
4. He is above all and subhuman.
5. He uses reason above the lower levels of his existence and teaches consciously
beyond himself into a being of which he partakes and becomes more than he is. ' Msgr.
Fulton Sheen (1948)7describes man on a three-level structure: body, soul and
spirit. His body, through his senses, makes him aware of the material universe. His soul,
which Msgr. Sheen also calls mind or psyche, makes him responsive to other people and to
the arts, sciences, philosophy and law. Man‘s spirit facilitates having a communion with God.
Karl Marx (cited by Palispis, 1995), suggests that human nature has given potentials,
the nature of which cannot be changed. Yet, man does change as a result of developing his
potentials which God has given him when he was born. This is certified true by several
studies. Van der Poel (1971) found that values have their own ―historicity‖. And for Andres
(1980), he believes in the relativity of values ―that values are relative to cultural influences
of historical changes, in the sense that the appreciation of values is affected by these
factors...since values is relative to time, time becomes an important indicator of one‘s
values.‖ As Havighurst and Neugarten (1976) reveal, when a society changes, its values
also change.
The existentialists consider the existence of man endowed with a free will. Not all
men have the same essence.

Oriental Philosophical Views

Mencius (cited by Cruz, 1993) speaks of human nature as originally good. He
mentions the four beginnings that belong to man‘s original nature, namely:

1. jen - the feeling of commensuration, which is the beginning of the virtue of human
heartedness.
2. yi -the feeling of shame and dislike, which is the start of righteousness. 3. Li- the
feeling of modesty and yielding towards the good. This is the beginning of ritual or
propriety.
4. chin -the sense of right and wrong.
Man is naturally bestowed with the knowledge of what is right and what is wrong or
what is good and what is bad. These four beginnings of man differentiate him from the beast.
Man is expected to develop these four beginnings to become truly a man. Through the full
development of his nature, man cannot only know Heaven but also becomes one with
Heaven.
The only way for man to be happy is to free himself from the slavery of his selfishness
and inordinate sexual desires. Gautama Buddha says: ―Never in this world does hatred
cease by hatred. Hatred ceases by love... Let us live happily by not hating those who hate
us. Let us live free among men who hate. Let a man overcome anger by kindness, evil by
good, and hate by love.‖
To Confucius, life is not a delusion, a curse, or a misery. It is a living reality, a
blessing, a natural priceless right and opportunity to work together with your fellows for the
common good and attain happiness. He says that man‘s perfection and happiness is realized
and achieved in social life. He advocates harmony among men in society. The social order
predicted by Confucius is patterned after the natural order of things in the
universe and the moral order reflected and embodied in the life of the moral man. Confucius
states that the life of the moral man is an exemplification of the universal moral order. The
life of the vicious man is its contradiction.
In constantly doing what is good as commanded by his nature, man becomes one
with the natural law, is adjusted to the rhythm of the universe, and thus enjoys peace and
happiness. Confucius says ―Mans greatest achievement is to find the central clue to our
moral being that unites us with the universal order‖

Contemporary View
Man is said to be a multi-bejeweled crown of creation. He radiates the variousaspects
and facets of his being which he alone possesses his physical, mental, moral, spiritual,
social, civic, economic, psychological, aesthetic, and sensual aspects. These gifts are not
mere adornments but are meant to serve a noble purpose: to serve for the betterment and
perfection not only. of himself but also of humanity. In the end, man will be judged not only
by his possession, power or influence but also by the nature of his work (Montemayor, 1995)
Immanuel Kant Concludes that man is the only creature who governs and directs
himself and his actions. He sets up ends for herself and his purpose and freely orders means
for the attainment ‗of his aims. Every man is an END in himself and should never be treated
merely as a means as per the order of the Creator and the natural order of things
(Montemayor, 1995)
Man is a human being. As (a true human being-he has the power to become the best
among all creations. The Divine Providence created man in His own likeness; gifted him with
an intellect and will in order to know the truth and to make the right decisions. With the use of
these endowments, man has the capacity to learn and be educated in the right sense of the
word. Through education, man will be equipped with the necessary knowledge, skills,and
values needed as he explores the world of work. Through his values, ideals, intelligent
insights, and productive efforts, man has the capacity to become progressive (Baking, 1982).

Lesson II. Man as a Person,

Personality and Character
Understanding man as a person is fundamental in ethics. How we treat ourselves
and others depends on our concept of what man is.
While character and personality are both used to describe someone‘s behaviors, the
two examine different aspects of that individual. One‘s personality is more visible, while
one‘s character is revealed over time, through varying situations.

WHAT TO EXPECT
1. Distinguish and explain what is man as a person.
2. Discern personality ethics from character ethics
3. Evaluate ones personality and character

Lesson Outline

I. Person, Personality and Character

A. Mas a Person
Person is human nature manifested as an individual. It is define as a complete
substance, subsisting by itself, separate from all else and endowed with a rational nature
and free will.
II. Personality and Character
Personality is the sum total of the factors of physique and constitution and those
enduring, underlying tendencies of a person which determine his characteristic behavior. In
the language of laymen, personality refers to those physical attributes and mannerism of an
aesthetically refined person. In psychology, those ―enduring and underlying tendencies‖
which determine characteristic behavior are the talents, powers, and habits which are
accidental to
a person. Thus, one individual is not more of a person than another, but he may have more
personality than another.

Also, personality can be described more specifically as "how a person affects others,
how he understands and views himself and his pattern of inner and outer measurable traits."

From this definition, it can be understood one's physical appearance and behavior affects
others. Understanding oneself means one is unique with a set of attitudes and values and a
self-concept. Finally, the pattern of measurable traits refers to a set of characteristics that the
person exhibits.

Some of the other definitions are "Personality is a vehicle to integrate perception,

learning, values and attitudes and thus to understand the total person." "Personality is an
individual's total sense of self, an organizing force for the persons particular pattern of
exhibited traits and behaviors." "Personality is the culmination of experiences and genetic
influences." Personality is influenced by the personal life and where he is working. The
person of a man does not grow in stature; but personality of a man develops and enlarges
itself according to the pattern of his actions, the mature use of his powers, and the schema
of his habits. Whereas person is entirely a gift and a birthright, personality is largely a matter
of one‘s achievement. There is no such thing as the cultivation of person; but there is such a
thing as the cultivation of personality.
Character is often taken as synonymous with personality. This is correct if personality is
taken as the sum-total of psychophysical systems in an individual which enable him to adjust
to his environment but character assumes a restricted meaning. Character refers to a
person‘s choice of values and this intelligent and free conversion of such values into practical
goal.
If personality is a psychological entity, character is an ethical entity. We do not say
that a man has good or bad personality, but we do say that a man has a good character.
Thus, if personality is a principle of rational action, character is a principle of moral action.
Personality might be defined as the sum-total of our rational habits grouped around the axis
of intellect. Character might be similarly defined as the sum-total of all our moral habits
grouped around the axis of will.
―Personality is easy to read, and we‘re all experts at it. We judge people [as] funny,
extroverted, energetic, optimistic, confident—as well as overly serious, lazy, negative, and
shy— if not upon first meeting them, then shortly thereafter. And though we may need more
than one interaction to confirm the presence of these sorts of traits, by the time we decide
they are, in fact, present, we‘ve usually amassed enough data to justify our conclusions.
―Character, on the other hand, takes far longer to puzzle out. It includes traits that
reveal themselves only in specific—and often uncommon—circumstances, traits like
honesty, virtue, and kindliness‖ (Lickerman, 2011).
While personality is easier to spot, it‘s largely static and slow to evolve. Character, on the
other hand, takes longer to discern but is easier to change. That‘s because character is
shaped by beliefs, and with enough effort and motivation, changing one‘s perspective and
view of the world can lead to a shift in one‘s character.
The malleability of character makes sense when you look at human evolution. In
order for our ancestors to survive, they had to adapt to new environments and change with
the times—and this remains true in the modern era.
If an individual deems a change in his or her surroundings to be significant, then his or her
beliefs will transform to accommodate the change.
For instance, an individual who might have a shy personality can learn to switch his
attitude toward public speaking when stepping into the role of a teacher. The new social and
external demands lead to an internal shift that changes his demeanor.
In this way, even if an individual‘s inborn preference is to shy away from the public, the
beliefs and values that shape his behavior can evolve to reflect the values of hisimmediate
groups and communities. Such awareness and adaptability help with survival (Kurtus, 2011).
The bottom line is, despite the significance of our inborn personality traits, we can
overcome them as required by personal or cultural demands.

I. Personality Ethics vs. Character Ethics

What is personality ethics vs character ethics? In the lesson we have learned the
definition that distinguishes personality from character and they are both use to describe a
person‘s behavior. Here we to examine personality ethics against character ethics to have an
in depth understanding what makes the two similar and differ and in what aspects.
For us to be able to evaluate our personality and character, let us start by examining and
adjusting your character, your motives, and how you see the world; only when you start from
the foundation of your character and your worldview can you make lasting behavior changes.
This inside-out approach entails:
Making improvements to your character before your personality
Focusing on principles before practices
Adjusting your paradigms, or how you see the world, in order to change your actions
Improving yourself (achieving so called ―private victories‖) before you can build better
relationship with others (―public victories‘)
So this brings us to character ethics versus personality ethics. Character ethics focuses
on foundational traits, including integrity, humility, hard work, loyalty, self-control, courage,
justice, patience, modesty and morality. These are the basic principles that any person in
culture or time period could agree. Character ethic versus personality ethic is determined by
each individual person, but can also be influenced by societal norms and expectations.
Personality ethics emphasizes skills and practices that affect your public image, attitudes,
and behaviors. This approach offers quick-fix solution how to be more charming, have a
positive outlook, make people like you, influence people to do what you want.However, these
solutions generally work temporarily, while underlying problems remains and ultimately
surfaces. After World War 1, success literature largely shifted focus from Character Ethic to
Personality Ethic. The difference between Character Ethic versus
Personality Ethic can be seen in certain time periods and what people focused on self
improvement.
Character ethic versus personality ethic can be addressed this way: Character ethics
addresses primarily traits, while personality ethics encompasses secondary traits, like
communication skills, interpersonal strategies, and positive thinking. These techniques are
often essential for success, but they are flimsy and ineffective if they are not based on
character that supports them; you must start with the foundation. For example, if you try to
use
communication skills to make people trust you, but your character is not honest and
trustworthy, the effects will be hollow and eventually people will see through the act. You may
also think character ethic versus personality ethic this way: in one-time or short term
scenarios, you may be able to get by on personality alone. But without the foundation of
primary traits—character ethic--- the secondary traits will never have a lasting impact.
Working on personality improvements without first establishing the necessary character traits
would be like a farmer trying to fit all his work in one season. If the farmer skips planting in
the spring and neglects to water and nurture the buds all summer, then tries to plant, water,
and harvest in the fall won‘t work. You can‘t shortcut the process, and cannot ignore the
differences between Character Ethic versus Personality Ethic when you need for self
improvement.

Lesson III. Habits and its Moral

Significance
Man is a creature of habits. He is born with a wide assortment of powers that open up
limitless horizons for development. Reason stands to the apex of the vast array of
potentialities. Man, if he must integrate all his powers in one wholesome personality, must
rely on the powers of reason. Man must for the habits of reason.
WHAT TO EXPECT
1. Explain the moral significance of habits
2. Articulate how your habit affects your education.

Lesson Outline
Habit comes from a Latin habere, meaning to have. Habit is either the disposition to
have something, or the disposition to act in a certain manner. The first is called imitative
habit, that which disposes a thing to have a certain nature or quality of being, such as to be
beautiful, talented or to be obese. The latter is called operative habit, that which disposes for
doing something in a certain manner, such as painting, writing or talking. We are primarily
interested with operative habits. They may be defined as the readiness to do something.
Habits are acquired. Once acquired, they become very difficult to alter. They are
therefore relatively permanent. Acquiring habit is like starting a pathway across a lawn. At
first, our foot impressions are hardly visible but with each successive step, as more andmore
people walk across the lawn, the pathway comes out clearly.
In like manner, habits are not formed in an instant. They result from constantly
repeated actions. After they are formed, they do not vanish instantly. It would require a
tremendous effort to change a habit.
Habits are largely dominant and subconscious patterns of action established and
maintained by repetition. So, habits are patterns of action, such as tying our shoes, with three
distinguishing features:
1. Dominance
2. Unconsciousness
3. Repetition
(1) Dominance means that we perform the habitual actions the vast majority of the time. In
almost every case that we pick up the ends of our shoelaces, we tie our shoes. (2) Sub
consciousness means that we are not consciously choosing or 2 attending to the habitual
actions. We don‘t have to think about each loop and pinch in order to tie our shoelaces. (3)
That habits are established and maintained by repetition means that we automatize the
actions by practicing them over and over again. We have all tied our shoes a billion and one
times, so now we can do it in our sleep.
Moral habits share all of these features of ordinary habits, plus one more: moral
habits arise out of a commitment to particular moral principles. We might adopt the moral
habit of consciously setting aside time to rest and rejuvenate in order to achieve the value of
being more productive while working. We might adopt the moral habit of being aware of our
emotional states in order to achieve the value of greater clarity of thought. In other words,
moral habits
are habits which aim to achieve moral values.

The Function of Habits in Life

Without habits, without the capacity to automatize frequently repeated actions, we
could never move beyond the most simple of tasks. We would barely be able to walk, let
alone perform amazing feats of multi-tasking, such as walking and chewing gum at the same
time. Our conscious mind would be wholly engaged in tasks that, with habits, we relegate to
the background.
The exact same analysis applies to moral habits. Imagine not being in the habit of
honesty. Imagine having to consciously determine, with every new fact of which you became
aware, whether to accept it or pretend that it isn‘t true. Imagine, in every sentence of every
conversation, consciously deciding whether to tell the truth or to lie. You‘d be thinking very
little and speaking even less! Only through habit, only by automatizing these moral decisions
-- so that we are always accepting facts and always telling the truth -- can we actually go
about living our lives. Having no habits, making all moral decisions consciously and
deliberately, is simply not an option.
Thus the question is not: Should I have habits? Our brains naturally form habits, whether we
deliberately cultivate them or not. The real question is: Should I form habits consciously or
unconsciously? Should I choose my own habits or have them chosen for me? To show why
consciously-cultivated habits are so worthwhile, let‘s take a peek at the three of benefits that
well-developed and consciously-chosen moral habits bring us, namely
(1) reduction of cognitive load, (2) the disposition to act morally, and (3) consistency
between our words and our deeds.

Benefit #1: Moral habits reduce our cognitive load. Moral habits automatize decisions
for us, freeing us from the time and effort of deliberating most everyday moral choices. As I
mentioned, without any such automatization, we would be mentally crippled. But
morebroadly speaking, our moral habits allow us to both focus our attention on the more
interesting and complex aspects of life and act quickly.
Benefit #2: Moral habits dispose us to act morally. Good moral habits make virtuous
action easy and natural, and render vice difficult and unpleasant. In forming habits, we
condition our emotions to take pleasure in acting on principle and feel pain in acting against
principle. That emotional feedback naturally inclines us towards the right thing to do.
Benefit #3: Moral habits give us consistency between our words and our deeds. Moral
habits connect our abstract moral principles to the concrete moral choices we face every day.
As such, habits strengthen the bond between what we say and what we do. They strengthen
our integrity. However, integrity concerns more than the ―trickle-down‖ effect from our
principles to our actions. It also concerns the ―trickle-up‖ effect from our actions to our
principles. To put it bluntly, what we do affects what we think. If our actions are inconsistent
with our beliefs, we will change our beliefs in order to reconcile the two.
Lesson IV. Intellectual
Virtues and the Effects of Vices

People‘s virtues are a subset of their good qualities. They are not innate, like eyesight, but
are acquired by practice and lost by disuse. They are abiding states, and they
thus differ from momentary passions such as anger and pity. Virtues are states of character
that find expression both in purpose and in action. Moral virtue is expressed in good purpose
— that is to say, in prescriptions for action in accordance with a good plan of life. It is
expressed also in actions that avoid both excess and defect. A temperate person, for
example, will avoid
eating or drinking too much, but he will also avoid eating or drinking too little. Virtue chooses
the mean, or middle ground, between excess and defect. Besides purpose and action, virtue
is also concerned with feeling. One may, for example, be excessively concerned with sex or
insufficiently interested in it; the temperate person willtake the appropriate degree of interest
and be neither lustful nor frigid.

WHAT TO EXPECT
1. Differentiate intellectual and moral virtue
2. State the effects of vices to personal life and education.

Lesson Outline
Virtues may pertain to intellect or to the will. Those that pertain to the intellect are
called intellectual virtues. They help man acquire knowledge and perfection on that aspect
only. Those that pertain to the will are called moral virtues. They dispose the will towards
proper conduct and contribute to the perfection of the whole person.

The intellectual virtues are:

1. Understanding which is the habit of the first principles, such as, ―do good and
avoid evil‖, ―the whole is greater than the sum of any of its parts‖;
2. Science which is the habit of proximate causes, such as, concluding from the
facts of experience or inference;
3. Wisdom which is the habit of ultimate causes, such as, being aware that the
ecosystem binds both man and lower creatures;
4. Art which is the habit of making or producing things, such as, paintings, music,
sculpture;
5. Prudence which is the habit of doing or choosing from alternative values, such as
saving for the ―rainy days‖.

Understanding, science and wisdom pertain to speculative intellect. Art and prudence
pertain to practical intellect.
The Moral Virtues
The moral virtues are those that build the character of a person. These are
justice, temperance and fortitude.

1. Justice is the virtue which inclines us to render to another what is due to him. The
biblical just man is one who respects himself, worships God and helps others. 2.
Fortitude is the virtue which gives us the strength in facing dangers and vicissitudes of
life. In Filipino we refer to it as tatag ng kalooban so that we describe a man of fortitude
as matibay, matatag, or malakas ang loob.

Fortitude must be tempered by prudence. It belongs to the prudent man to

decide whether to assume a risk or to avoid it.
3. Temperance is the virtue which helps us regulate our passions and our use of earthly
goods. In the philosophy of Aristotle, temperance or moderation provides the
―golden mean‖ so that nothing is done in excess or in defect because anything
excessive or defective constitutes a vice, it has been said that virtue stands in the
middle of both extremes, or as the Latin say, ―virtus stat en medio‖.

The of Vices

A vice is the habit of doing an evil acquired through the repetition of an evil act. One
single act of immorality does not constitute an immoral habit. But it is no less imputable to
the subject. So much for the expression -―We don‘t hate the sinner but the sin" .The fact is
that every evil act speaks ill of the Character of the person acting.

A vice is opposed to virtue either by excess or by defect.

1. Vices opposed to prudence by excess are: cautiousness, fraud, flattery, trickery,

etcetera; by defect are: imprudence, precipitateness, impulsiveness,
carelessness, and stubbornness.
2. Vices opposed to justice by excess: profligacy, idolatry. fanaticism and
superstition; by defect: all forms of unjust activities by omission, such as
disrespect for elders, irreligion, non-payment of legitimate debts, etcetera.
3. Vices opposed to fortitude by excess: rashness, boldness, recklessness; by defect:
cowardice, timidity, sensitivity, and depression.
4. Vices opposed to temperance by excess: rigorousness, lack of self-confidence,
moroseness, by defect: pride, lust, hatred gluttony, vanity and others.

Chapter Summary
• Knowing man as an individual and as a member of society is fundamental in the study
at values and ethics.
• Man is a complex organism, for he is composed of a physical body, intellect and
emotions. He has needs and wants to be satisfied in order to live a successful and
happy life. He has needs and appetites that are physiological, intellectual,
psychological or emotional, social, economic, political, moral, and spiritual in nature.
• There are different philosophical views of a man such as: Biological, classical view,
Christian view, existentialist view, oriental philosophical view, and contemporary view. •
Personality is a psychological entity while character is an ethical entity. • Personality is a
principle of rational action while character is a principle of moral action.
• Personality might be defined as the sum-total of our rational habits grouped around the
axis of intellect.
• Character might be similarly defined as the sum-total of all our moral habits grouped
around the axis of will.
• Habit comes from a Latin habere, meaning to have.
• Entitative habit disposes a thing to have a certain nature or quality of being, such as to
be beautiful, talented or to be obese.
• Operative habit disposes for doing something in a certain manner, such as painting,
writing or talking.
• Dominance, Unconsciousness and repetition are the features of habits. • The benefits
of well-developed and consciously-chosen moral habits are: reduction of cognitive load,
the disposition to act morally, and consistency between our words and our deeds.
• Virtues may pertain to intellect or to the will. Those that pertain to the intellect are called
intellectual virtues. Those that pertain to the will are called moral virtues. • The
intellectual virtues are: Understanding, science, wisdom, art and prudence. •
Understanding, science and wisdom pertain to speculative intellect. Art and prudence
pertain to practical intellect.
• The moral virtues are those that build the character of a person. These are justice,
temperance and fortitude.
• A vice is the habit of doing an evil acquired through the repetition of an evil act. •
A vice is opposed to virtue either by excess or by defect.