Chapter-7 Diversity in Living Organisms

Introduction:
 We must be aware of the multitude life forms that surround us.
 Every living organism is unique and this uniqueness is the basis of the vast diversity.
 The diversity in the living organisms is the result of evolution that occurred million
years ago.
 The huge biological diversity can be studied by the classification of living organisms.
Nomenclature:
 The branch of science that deals with the scientific naming of each plant and animal
is called as Nomenclature.
 One woman tells Lady’s finger as Bhindi and another woman tells it as Lady’s finger
itself. One boy who heard this understood what Bhindi is, but got collapsed when
heard the word Lady’s finger. In the given situation, the two women are asking for
the same vegetable but with different names… Different names caused confusion in
the boy’s mind…
 To avoid confusion in science, local or common names are substituted with scientific
names specific for each organism.
 Naming things is part of our general communication.
 Use of names of different things are in relation to word meanings and experiences.
 For example, on recalling a thing (person or other objects) image of that thing comes
immediately into the mind.
 Naming of different things is done in a systemic way, which is recognised in all parts
of the world.
 System of naming an organism (animals or plants) is called nomenclature.
 Scientific names are internationally recognised.
 Nomenclature of organisms done on the basis of:
o Characteristics that is common to a population.
o Some specific characteristics of group of individuals belonging to that
population.
Common names Scientific names
Toad Bufo melanostictus
Tomato Solanum lycopersicum
Lion Panthera leo
Tiger Panthera tigris
Mango Mangifera indica
Potato Solanum tuberosum

Nomenclature of Organisms

Polynomial system Binomial system

Earlier system; name composed of many Widely accepted; name composed of only
words and thus difficult to remember. two words.
Binomial Nomenclature System:
 According to binomial nomenclature (Introduced by the scientist Linnaeus) system,
the name of organism is composed of two parts (bi means two).
 Generic name (Genus): First part in the name indicates the group of organisms
having general similarities and relations.
 Specific name or Species: Second part denotes the specific name that distinguish
between different group of organism falling in the same genus.
Two Part Scientific Name:
Scientific names of
Genus Species
organisms
Homo saplens
Homo saplens
(Human)
Rana tigrina
Rana tigrina
(Frog)
Corvus splendens
Corvus splendens
(House crow)
Corvus macrorhynchos
Corvus macrorhynchos
(Hill crow)
 Scientific name of an organism is written as:
o Consists of genus and species.
o Genus name starts with capital letter and species name with small letter.
o Names are always underlined while writing but when printed, it is written in
italics.
 Example: Scientific name of mango is Mangifera indica.
o Mangifera is the generic name.
o indica is the species name.
o If typed, this can be typed as Mangifera indica.
 Similarly…
o Bos Taurus or Bos Taurus (Cow)
o Triticum vulgare or Triticum vulgare (Wheat)
Importance of Nomenclature:
 Clarity: Eliminates any possible confusions among research workers of different
countries.
 Differentiation: Between organisms belonging to same family.
 Uniqueness: Only one name for single species.
Classification:
 Grouping together of organisms on the basis of their similarities and dissimilarities is
called classification.
 One of the earliest classification schemes was established by a Greek philosopher
Aristotle (382-322 B.C.)
Basis of Classification

Type of Cell Number of Cells Modes of Nutrition Cell Wall

Types of Cell:
Types of Cell

Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Do not have membrane bound nucleus Membrane bound nucleus and cell
and cell organelles. organelles present.

E.g.,: Bacteria cell E.g.,: Yeast cell

Number of Cells:

Number of Cells

Unicellular Multicellular

Made up of a single cell. Made up of more than one cell.

E.g.,: Amoeba E.g.,: Human being

Modes of Nutrition:
Modes of Nutrition

Autotrophic Heterotrophic

Prepare own food from simple inorganic

Take their food from outside environment.
substances.

E.g.,: Plants E.g.,: Human being

Cell Wall:
Cell Wall

Presence of cell wall Absence of cell wall

E.g.,: Plant cell E.g.,: Animal cell

Classification and Evolution:
 Organisms have similarities and dissimilarities with one another on the basis of their
characteristics which change with time.
 The process of development of newer life forms and characteristics from older ones
is called evolution.
Phylogeny:
 Evolutionary history of species or group and their relationships with broad groups of
organisms.
 On the basis of evolution, organisms can be classified as:
o Primitive organisms:
 Organisms that evolved earlier.
 E.g.,: Monkey
o Advanced organisms:
 Organisms that evolved later from the primitive organisms.
 E.g.,: Human
 Ernst Haeckal (1894), Robert Whittaker (1959) and Carl Woese classified all the
organisms into the broad categories called kingdom.
Categories in Classification:
 Rank or level in the hierarchical classification of organisms.
 The unit of classification is termed as taxon.
 All categories together constitute taxonomical hierarchy.
Organisms are first of all classified into kingdoms.

Kingdom is further divided into various phyla (for animals) / division (for plants).

Each phylum / division is further divided into classes.

Each class is further divided into order.

Orders are further divided into families, which are again divided into genus.

Each genus consists of many species. The species are the group of organisms that can
interbreed to produce fertile offspring.

Hierarchy of Classification:
Kingdom

Phylum

Class
Organisms of a species share
more similarities than the Categories Order
organisms of a genus.
Family

Genus

Species

Linnaeus’s Contribution:
 ‘Father of Taxonomy’
 Divided organic world into two kingdoms – Animal kingdom and Plant kingdom.
 Each kingdom splits into smaller groups like phylum, class, order, family, genus and
species.
 He developed formal rules that provided constituency for a two-name system in
common use called binomial system of nomenclature.
 The first word is the genus name and the second word is species, e.g., human –
Homo sapiens.
 Linnaeus did not use other characteristics like cell structure, nature of cell wall, mode
of nutrition, habitat, methods of reproduction, evolutionary relationships etc. for the
basis of classification.
Five Kingdom Classification:
 Robert H. Whittaker’s five kingdom classification system gained acceptance in 1969
using prokaryotes were set apart from eukaryotes.
 Organisms can be classified into 5 kingdoms namely:
o Monera
o Protista
o Fungi
o Plantae
o Animalia
Kingdom – Monera:
 Organization inside the cells: Consists of Prokaryotes.
 Organization of cells in the body: Unicellular.
 Organisms obtain their food: Some of them are autotrophs like blue green algae
while others are heterotrophs.
 Presence of cell wall: Some lack a cell wall while others have a cell wall.
 Other Characteristics:
Includes most ancient, smallest and simplest prokaryotes (bacteria,
cyanobacteria, mycoplasma etc)
 Phyla:
o Archaebacteria
o Eubacteria
Phylum – Archaebacteria:
 Organization: Archaebacteria are simple in their organization.
 Environment: Found in extreme conditions.
 Shapes: Plate, flat or square shaped.
 Cell wall: Cell wall is composed of pseudo peptidoglycans.
 Classes:
o Halophiles
o Thermophiles
o Methanogens
Class – Halophiles:
 Definition: These are salt loving bacteria and they live in extremely salty water.
 Examples:
o Haloferax volcanii
o Halobacterium salinarum
Class – Thermophiles:
 Definition: They live in boiling water such as hot springs and volcanoes.
 Examples:
o Alicyclobacillus acidoterrestris
o Alicyclobacillus acidocaldarius
Class – Methanogens:
 Definition: They are found in the guts of animals like cow and sheep, they produce
methane gas from their dung.
 Examples:
o Methanosarcina barkeri
o Methanobrevibacter smithii
Phylum – Eubacteria:
 Organization: Eubacteria are more complex than archaebacteria.
 Environment: Found everywhere on earth.
 Shapes: Cocci (Sphere), Bacilli (Rods), Spirilla (Spiral), Vibrio (Comma).
 Cell wall: Cell wall is composed of peptidoglycans with amino acid.
 Classes:
o Gram positive
o Gram negative
Class – Gram positive:
 Definition: Gram positive bacteria are a group of bacteria which have a thick
peptidoglycan layer in their cell wall.
 Examples:
o Staphylococcus aureus
o Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Class – Gram negative:
 Definition: Gram negative bacteria are a group of bacteria which have a thin
peptidoglycan layer in cell wall.
 Examples:
o Escherichia coli
o Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Kingdom – Protista:
 Organization inside the cells: Eukaryotes – Most of them have appendages for
Movement:
o Flagella:
These are whip like structures. Chlamydomonas move with the help of
flagella.
o Cilia:
These hair like structures spread all over the body of an organism.
Paramecium moves with the help of cilia.
o Pseudopodia:
These are false feet formed by the extension of a cell. Amoeba produces
pseudopodia to move around.
 Organization of cells in the body: Unicellular.
 Organisms obtain their food: Some can synthesise their own food, whereas the
others take their food from the environment.
o Diatoms in sea are autotrophs, they act as phytoplanktons.
o Amoeba, Paramecium, etc. are heterotrophs.
 Presence of cell wall: Only some have cell wall.
 Other Characteristics:
o Eukaryotic, unicellular organisms.
o Consists of protozoans and unicellular algae.
o Occur in freshwater, saltwater or soil.
 Phyla:
o Algae
o Protozoa
o Slime mold
Phylum – Algae:
 Definition: Algae are plant-like eukaryotic aquatic organisms that lack true stem,
roots and shoots.
 Type of Nutrition: Autotrophs.
 Cell Wall: Contain a cell wall composed of cellulose.
 Chlorophyll: Contain chlorophylls.
 Cellular Organization: Unicellular or Multicellular.
 Harmfulness: Produce algal blooms.
 Examples:
o Chlamydomonas reinhardtii
o Spirogyra maxima
Phylum – Protozoa:
 Definition: Protozoa are unicellular animal-like aquatic organisms.
 Type of Nutrition: Heterotrophs.
 Cell Wall: Do not contain a cell wall.
 Chlorophyll: Do not contain chlorophylls.
 Cellular Organization: Unicellular.
 Harmfulness: Cause diseases.
 Examples:
o Amoeba proteus
o Paramecium caudatum
Phylum – Slime Mold:
 Definition: Slime molds are organisms with no chitin in their cell walls.
 Type of Nutrition: Saphrotrophs.
 Cell Wall: Contain a cell wall composed of cellulose.
 Chlorophyll: Do not contain chlorophylls.
 Cellular Organization: Unicellular or Multicellular.
 Harmfulness: Produce spores that causes allergies.
 Examples:
o Physarum polycephalum
o Stemonitis axifera
Kingdom – Fungi:
 Organization inside the cells: Eukaryotes.
 Organization of cells in the body: Initially unicellular, can become multicellular in
later stages of life. Yeast is the only unicellular fungus in all stages.
 Organisms obtain their food: They are heterotrophs. Some of them derive their
nutrition from dead and decaying matter and hence are called saphrophytes.
o The organisms which obtain their food from dead organic materials are called
saprophytes.
 Presence of cell wall: Have cell walls, they are made up of complex sugar called
chitin.
 Other Characteristics:
o There are some members of natural world who are strange and shy.
o They look little bit like plants but they possess no stems, no roots and no
leaves.
o Some even have gills, but they are not animals either.
o From slime molds to free mushrooms this is the world of fungi.
o They come in range of incredible shapes and sizes.
o They have one single purpose “Spore dispersal”.
o In only few days, a single mushroom can discharge ten thousand spores each
one a tiny reproductive cell.
o Some spores were disposal to winds.
o Some others use winds.
o Some spores are disposed by water.
o Some spread their spores using insects.
o Sting on fungus spores are contained in a slime that smells like rotten wheat.
o This odour attracts flies.
o As the fly feed on sugary slime mold, the spores get stuck on them to carry
them away.
o Here a massive filament makes up a dense fungal web, the living body of
strange organism.
o Many feed on dead, but others are life givers.
o Mycelium is the Interconnected Network of Hyphae.
o Mycoorhiza Fungi live inside the tree roots and allow them to absorb the
nutrients more effectively.
o Fungi are more important organisms and so distinct from plants and animals
that they have benlated the kingdom of their own in our classifications of life in
earth.
 Phyla:
o Phycomycetes
o Ascomycetes
o Basidiomycetes
o Deuteromycetes
o Lichinomycetes
Phylum – Phycomycete:
 Definition: Algal fungi.
 Reproduction: Reproduce from spores.
 Examples:
o Mucor mucedo
o Rhizopus stolonifer
Phylum – Ascomycete:
 Definition: Sac like fungi.
 Reproduction: Reproduce from ascospores.
 Examples:
o Aspergillus micheli
o Pencillium chrysogenum
Phylum – Basidiomycete:
 Definition: Club fungi.
 Reproduction: Reproduction takes place by fragmentation.
 Examples:
o Agarics bisporus
o Lentinula edodes
Phylum – Deuteromycete:
 Definition: Imperfect fungi.
 Reproduction: Sexual reproduction.
 Examples:
o Alternaria solani
o Trichophyton rubrum
Phylum – Lichinomycete:
 Definition: Symbiotic relation between Algae (autotrophs) - Make food for
themselves as well as for fungal partner and Fungi (heterotrophs) - Absorb nutrients
from substarate and provide it for algal partner for synthesis of food.
 Reproduction: Either through vegetative and spore-producing methods.
 Classes:
o Foliose
o Fruticose
o Cructose
Class – Foliose:
 Structure: Leaf-like.
 Position: Flattened body.
 Distinguishing: Distinguished upper and lower surfaces.
 Examples:
o Xanthoria parietina
o Physcia caesia
Class – Fructicose:
 Structure: Shrubby or hair-like.
 Position: Grow erect or hang straight down.
 Distinguishing: No distinguishable upper and lower surfaces.
 Examples:
o Usnea filipendula
o Cladonia rangiferina
Class – Cructose:
 Structure: Crust-like.
 Position: Lower surface grows on and among the particles of the substrate.
 Distinguishing: Cannot be removed from the substrate in one piece.
 Examples:
o Acarospora fuscata
o Amandinea punctata
Kingdom – Plantae:
 Organization inside the cells: Eukaryotes.
 Organization of cells in the body: Multicellular.
 Organisms obtain their food: Autotrophs.
 Presence of cell wall: Have cell walls made of cellulose.
 Other Characteristics:
o Photosynthesis:
 Plants obtain energy from various sources but ultimately all the energy
required to sustain life comes from the sun.
 “Light sustain life on Earth”.
 Light energy is the one of the major factors that contribute in the
process photosynthesis.
 Photo (Light) + Synthesis (Putting together) = Photosynthesis (Putting
light together).
 Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants synthesise their
organic food (glucose) with the help of carbon dioxide (CO 2) and water
(H2O) in the presence of Chlorophyll and Sunlight (∆) to process sugar
(C6H12O6) and molecular oxygen (O2).
 Eventually, all ecosystems on earth depends on Photosynthesis as
their source of energy.
 All the oxygen in the atmosphere originates form the plants by this
process.
 Photosynthesis is vital for aerobic life in earth.
 Plants acts like sugar factory which produce millions of new glucose
molecules per second.
 Photosynthesis nourishes almost the entire living world.
 They use this sugar or glucose as an energy source to produce new
leaves, flower, fruits and seeds.
 Plants get the basic ingredients from the environment to
photosynthesise.
 Carbon dioxide comes from the air, and water from the soil.
The overall chemical reaction involved in photosynthesis shows that:
6 CO2 12 H2O Sunlight (∆) C6H12O6 6 O2 6 H2O
Carbon dioxide + Water Chlorophyll Glucose + Oxygen + Water
 Oxygen liberated during Photosynthesis is made from Oxygen in water
and not from Carbon dioxide.
o Classification of plant depends on:
 Level 1: Differentiation in plant body.
 Level 2: Presence or absence of specialised tissue for conduction of
water, minerals and ability to bear seeds.
 Level 3: Presence or absence of seed coat.
 SuperPhyla:
o Cryptogam
o Phanerogam
SuperPhylum – Cryptogam:
 Definition: Cryptogams refer to a plant or plant-like organisms that produce spores.
 Reproduction: Major reproduction method is the production of spores.
 Differentiation in parts: Most lack well-differentiated stem, leaves, and roots.
 Reproductive system: Contains hidden reproductive organs.
 Vascular tissue: Cryptogams have not developed vascular tissue.
 Seed: Seedless plants.
 Germination: Spores germinate and produce new plants.
 Phyla:
o Thallophyta
o Bryophyta
o Pteridophyta
Phylum – Thallophyta:
 Components of plants: No distinct components, undifferentiated Body.
 Presence of special tissues – Vascular tissue: No.
 Presence of seeds: No.
 Found in: Largely aquatic, both fresh and marine, but also found in a variety of
habitats like moist stones, soils and wood.
 Other Characteristics:
o Chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid and autotrophic.
o Include multicellular algae.
 Classes:
o Phycophyta
o Mycophyta
Class – Phycophyta:
 Definition: Simple, non-flowering, and typically aquatic plants of large group like
algae.
 Examples:
o Chondrus crispus
o Caulerpa lentillifera
Class – Mycophyta:
 Definition: Any of groups of spore-producing organisms feeding on organic matter
like fungi.
 Examples:
o Caulerpa lentillifera
o Microbotryum silenes-dioicae
Phylum – Bryophyta:
 Components of plants: Little differentiated body, distinct components are present
as leaves and stem.
 Presence of special tissues – Vascular tissue: No.
 Presence of seeds: No.
 Found in: First terrestrial plants but need water for sexual reproduction, so called
as Amphibian of plant kingdom.
 Other Characteristics:
o Lack true stem, leaf and root, but have similar structures.
o Attached to substratum by unicellular or multicellular thread like structures.
 Class:
o Liverwort
o Moss
Class – Liverwort:
 Definition: Liverworts are non-vascular plants consisting of leaves that are
arranged in two or three rows in a flattened pattern.
 Examples:
o Jungermanniales incertae
o Marchantia polymorpha
Class – Moss:
 Definition: Mosses are non-vascular plants consisting of leaves that are arranged
in a spiral or whorl.
 Examples:
o Oedipodium griffithianum
o Andreaea rupestris
Phylum – Pteridophyta:
 Components of plants: Distinct components are present as roots, leaves and
stem.
 Presence of special tissues – Vascular tissue: Yes.
 Presence of seeds: No.
 Found in: Terrestrial or dry areas.
 Other Characteristics:
o First terrestrial plants, possess a specialised tissue (i.e., xylem and phloem)
for conduction of water and minerals.
o Habitat: Found in cool, damp and shady places, however some grow in
sandy soils.
 Class:
o Horsetail
o Fern
Class – Horsetail:
 Definition: Plants with a hollow jointed stem which bears whorls of narrow leaves,
producing spores in cones at the tips of the shoots.
 Examples:
o Equisetum arvense
o Equisetum hyemale
Class – Fern:
 Definition: Flowerless plants which has feathery leaves and reproduce by spores
released from the undersides of the leaves with a vascular system for the transport
of water and nutrients.
 Examples:
o Asplenium nidus
o Adiantum capillus
SuperPhylum – Phanerogam:
 Definition: Phanerogams refer to the higher plants that produce seeds.
 Reproduction: Major reproduction method is the production of gametes.
 Differentiation in parts: Plant body is well-differentiated stem, leaves, and roots.
 Reproductive system: Contains well-developed reproductive organs.
 Vascular tissue: Phanerogams have well developed vascular tissue for the
conduction of water and minerals.
 Seed: Seed-bearing plants.
 Germination: Seeds germinate and produce new phanerogams.
 Phyla:
o Gymnosperm
o Angiosperm
Phylum – Gymnosperm:
 The ability to produce seeds: Seeds in these plants are not enclosed within fruits
because the ovules are not enclosed by any ovary wall and they remain exposed
both before and after the fertilisation.
 Existence: Exist for long time periods, evergreen.
 Type: Woody, no flowers.
 Meaning:
o Gymno – Naked
o Sperm – Seed
 Other Characteristics:
o Mainly perennial, evergreen and woody.
o Have xylem tracheids for conduction of water and phloem cells for conduction
of food and other substances.
o Stem: Unbranched (Cycas) or Branched (Pinus and Cedrus)
o Leaves: May be simple or compound. Pinnate leaves in Cycas persist for
few years.
o Thick cuticle and sunken stomata help to reduce water loss.
 Classes:
o Cycad
o Conifer
Class – Cycad:
 Definition: Palm-like plants of tropical and subtropical regions, bearing large male
or female cones and were abundant during the Triassic and Jurassic eras, but have
since been in decline.
 Examples:
o Cycas rumphii
o Cycadeoidea duvalii
Class – Conifer:
 Definition: Trees that bears cones and needle-like or scale-like leaves that are
typically evergreen and are of major importance as the source of softwood, and also
supply resins and turpentine.
 Examples:
o Taxus baccata
o Pseudotsuga menziesii
Phylum – Angiosperm:
 The ability to produce seeds: Seeds develop in an organ which then turns into the
fruit.
 Existence: Grow for varied time periods.
 Type: Flowering plants.
 Meaning:
o Angio – Covered
o Sperm – Seed
 Other Characteristics:
o Have specialised conduction system.
o Plant embryos in seeds have structures known as cotyledons (also called
seed leaves).
o Cotyledons – Leafy structures in seed.
 Classes:
o Monocot
o Dicot
Class – Monocot:
 Other name: Monocotyledons.
 Cotyledons (Seed Leaves): Single Cotyledon.
 Leaves: Long leaves, with parallel veins.
 Roots: Fibrous.
 Floral Parts: Multiples of three.
 Examples:
o Zea mays (Corn)
o Nelumbo nucifera (Lotus)
Class – Dicot:
 Other name: Dicotyledons.
 Cotyledons (Seed Leaves): Double Cotyledons.
 Leaves: Broad leaves with network of veins.
 Roots: Long taproot.
 Floral Parts: Multiples of four or five.
 Examples:
o Mangifera indica (Mango)
o Helianthus annuus (Sunflower)
Kingdom – Animalia:
 Organization inside the cells: Eukaryotes.
 Organization of cells in the body: Multicellular.
 Organisms obtain their food: Heterotrophs - They take their food from outside
environment. They can be parasitic, holozoic or saprotrophic.
 Presence of cell wall: No cell walls.
 Other Characteristics:
Basis for Animal Classification

Symmetry

Coelom formation

Germ Layers

Notochord
o Symmetry:
 Regularity of form with respect to some central point, axis or plane.
 Radial:
 Body divided into a number of equal parts by many planes.
 Example: Starfish
 Bilateral:
 Body can be divided into two equal halves by a single plane.
 Example: Human
o Coelom:
Coelom

Cavity present between gut and body wall of an organism

No coelom False coelom True coelom

Animals do not have a Instead of true coelom, A true cavity is present
cavity in their body animals have a coelom between the body wall and
between the body wall and like cavity the gut.
gut.
o Germ Layers:
Germ Layers

During the development of an organism from the embryo, two or three layers of cell, called
germ layers, give birth to various body tissues.

Diploblastic Triploblastic

Animals with two germ layers in their Animals with three germ layers in their
embryo. embryo.

o Notochords:
 It is a long rod-like supporting structure.
 It runs along the back of an animal separating the nervous tissue from the gut.
 It provides an attachment place for muscles to facilitate easy movement.
On the basis of the presence or absence of notochord, animals can be grouped into two
categories:

Non-chordates Chordates

Do not possess notochord at any stage of

Have notochord in all stages of their life.
their life.

Examples: Starfish, Earthworm Examples: Bird, Animal, Amphibian, Fish

 Phyla:
o Porifera
o Coelenterata
o Platyhelminthes
o Nematoda
o Annelida
o Arthropoda
o Mollusca
o Echinodermata
o Protochordata
o Vertebrata
Phylum – Porifera:
 Level of Organization: Cells are present.
 Symmetry: Asymmetrical.
 Segmentation: No segments.
 Body Cavity / Coelom: No.
 Presence of Organs: No.
 Other Characteristics:
o They cannot move and are attached to a support.
o They have a skeleton made of spongin protein and calcium carbonate – hard
covering on them.
o Commonly called sponges.
o Sessile, i.e., cannot move from one place to another.
o Aquatic mainly found in marine habitats.
o Canal system in Sponges:
 Sponges have a water canal system. Water enters the cavity of a sponge
through small pores, called ostia.
 These pores are present all over the body of the sponge.
 After passing through the cavity, the water comes out through a large
pore, called osculum.
 It helps in circulation of food, oxygen and removal of waste from body.
o General Characteristics:
 In animal kingdom, Phylum Porifera includes the most primitive
multicellular spore spearing simple metazoan organisms called Sponges.
 The term “Porifera” was coined by Robert Grant.
 In Greek, “Porus” means pores and “Ferre” means bearer.
 There are about more than Five thousand species of Marine Sponges and
about 150 species of Sponges live in Freshwater.
 They are found in various colours like pale yellow, red, pink, blue, etc…
 Like all other animals, sponges are composed of multiple cells and they
have Cellular Level of Organisation.
 The sponge is Sessile, Highly branched, Cylindrical and Hollow.
 They vary from 1cm to 1 m in length.
 The sponges are either asymmetrical or radially symmetrical.
 They are attached to the sub stratum through an Adhesive disc.
 The body of sponge is perforated with numerous spores called Ostia
(singular Ostium), through which water enter into the body cavity and
comes out through an large opening called Osculum located at the
terminal end.
 The minute pores called Ostia leads into a canal whose central spacious
cavity is called Spongocoel.
 Sponges are diploblastic as they have only two germ layers ectoderm,
endoderm during development.
Each layer consists of cells which are specialised to perform various
functions.
 A jelly like substance called Mesohyl is present between the two layers of
the sponge’s body.
 Large intercalated Spicules are embedded in the Mesohyl that constitutes
the endoskeleton of the body.
 The sponges are generally hermaphrodite i.e., both sexes are present on
an individual.
 They can reproduce asexually and sexually.
 Hence, sponges are the Simplest Multicellular Animals on the planet and
scientists believe that the sponges have been living for over six hundred
million years.
 Examples:
o Spongillina Manconi (Spongilla)
o Sycon ciliatum (Sycon)
Phylum – Coelenterata:
 Level of Organization: Tissue level of organisation, Animals with two embryonic
layers during developmental stage i.e., ectoderm and endoderm.
 Symmetry: Radial.
 Segmentation: No segments.
 Body Cavity / Coelom: Have a cavity in their body, which opens outside though a
single opening, surrounded by tentacles.
 Presence of Organs: No.
 Other Characteristics:
o Some of them live in colonies - They are physically attached to each other
such as Corals.
o Some of them live solitary such as Hydra.
o Mostly marine and few are fresh water forms.
o Also called as Cnidaria.
o Sessile or free swimming.
o A non-cellular gelatinous layer, called mesoglea, is present in between
epidermis and gastrodermis.
o Gastro-vascular cavity with only one opening i.e., mouth (blind sac body plan).
o Digestion is both extracellular and intracellular.
 Examples:
o Hydra vulgaris (Hydra)
o Aurelia aurita (Moon jelly)
Phylum – Platyhelminthes:
 Level of Organization: Organs, Triploblastic: Animals with three embryonic layers
during development, i.e., ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.
 Symmetry: Bilaterally Symmetrical: Left half of the body is identical to the right half.
 Segmentation: No segments.
 Body Cavity / Coelom: No so called as Acoelomates.
 Presence of Organs: Yes.
 Other Characteristics:
o The body is usually flattened dorsoventrally (i.e., from top to bottom), hence
they are called flat worms.
o Found in marine, fresh water and terrestrial habitats.
o Free-living or parasites – Parasitic forms have certain modifications with the
help of which they can survive in the body of their hosts.
o Parasitic forms like tapeworms (have scolex with suckers) have suckers for
sucking digested food from the host.
 Examples:
o Taenia saginata (Tapeworm)
o Fasciola hepatica (Liverfluke)
Phylum – Nematoda:
 Level of Organization: Tissues so are called Triploblastic.
 Symmetry: Nematodes have a bilaterally symmetrical body, therefore they are
called as roundworms - Left half of the body is identical to the right half.
 Segmentation: No segments.
 Body Cavity / Coelom: No true body cavity, but a cavity called pseudocoelom is
present. Hence, they are also called pseudocoelomates.
 Presence of Organs: Organ System Level Organisation.
 Other Characteristics:
o They are called as Round Worms.
o Sexual dimorphism visible - Female and male worms are distinct.
o Most roundworms are parasitic.
o Also called as Aschelminthes.
 Examples:
o Ascaris lumbricoides (Ascaris)
o Wuchereria bancrofti (Wuchereria)
Phylum – Annelida:
 Level of Organization: Organ system level, the cells have three layers so
called Triploblastic.
 Symmetry: Bilaterally Symmetrical.
 Segmentation: Body is divided into segments, hence they are called segmented
worms (organs can be identified separately).
 Body Cavity / Coelom: True body cavity so called as Coelomates.
 Presence of Organs: Definite organs.
 Other Characteristics:
o They are found in freshwater and marine water.
o They have closed Circulatory system.
 Examples:
o Nereis abbreviata (Nereis)
o Lumbricus terrestris (Earthworm)
Phylum – Arthropoda:
 Level of Organization: Organ systems.
 Symmetry: Bilaterally symmetrical.
 Segmentation: Have their body divided into segments externally as well as
internally (organs can be identified separately).
 Body Cavity / Coelom: Have a true body cavity called coelom, which is filled with
blood.
 Presence of Organs: Definite organs.
 Other Characteristics:
o They have jointed legs.
o They have an open circulatory system – There are no well-defined blood
vessels.
o They have chitinous exoskeleton.
o Have jointed legs (‘arthropod’ means ‘jointed legs’).
o It is the largest group of the animals.
o Open circulatory system.
o Amazing Armour:
 Arthropoda are small and often meant as invulnerable.
 So many miniature creatures develop strung and beautiful armour to
protect themselves.
 An insect’s skeleton is in the outside of its body creating a living suit of
armour.
 Every part of its soft inside just protected by a waterproof armour plate
with flexible joints.
 The hard outer shell is made of Chitin which like fibre glass in structure
that said to have the tensile strength of steel.
 The soft flexible joints are also made of chitin which is slightly ordered
chemical mix.
 This same incredible material is also used to make the delicate insect
wings.
 Only here it so thin. It is transparent.
 The wings are stored away under protective armour plates, covers that
can be flipped up out of the way, when the beetle wanted to fly.
 The size of a snail is equivalent to a shell.
 The snail lives inside this shell by compressing its body.
 By extending its body, it comes out of the shell for mobility.
 More surprisingly with a perfect home once the snail dies, then the crab
quickly moves in.
 The crab goes inside the shell, for a short period of time, as the place
is not enough for it.
 Then the crab moves to the seas.
 In freshwater, caddisfly larvae makes their own armour case out of
things they find around them like leaves, pieces of wood or even small
stones.
 Beetles have the toughest armour of all.
 Fast scrawling beetles have light armour.
 But generally, the slow the beetle is, the tougher its shell.
 Hemisphere rota beetles have armours like a steel helmet.
 Even predatory ant tries to feed on them by their ability to break it
down, but gets failure because of the tough armour.
 Scare needles of the beetle are just extensions of the skeleton.
 The skeleton is strong enough to squeeze other organisms.
 They will feel it is hard to be hurt each other.
 Sometimes, some small beetles can walk for a long way even in a
desert, as their body is designed to meet the challenge.
 Examples:
o Danaus plexippus (Butterfly)
o Musca domestica (Housefly)
Phylum – Mollusca:
 Level of Organization: Organ systems, the cells have three layers–
called Triploblastic.
 Symmetry: Bilaterally symmetrical.
 Segmentation: Little segmentation.
 Body Cavity / Coelom: Reduced.
 Presence of Organs: Definite organs.
 Other Characteristics:
o Mollusca are the most diverse and second largest phylum of invertebrate
animals.
o They are soft-bodied animals often with hard shells for protection.
o Mollusca are mostly marine.
o Some are freshwater or found in damp soil.
o The body is un-segmented and bilaterally symmetrical.
o They are triploblastic with ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm; having reduced
coelom lined by mesoderm.
o Their body cavity is called Haemocoel.
o Their body is divided into Head, Visceral Mass, Mantle and Foot.
o Head carries Eyes, Tentacles and Mouth.
o Foot is thick, ventral and muscular modified for Creeping, Burrowing and
Swimming.
o Mantle is the thin fold of the Dorsal body wall that encloses a Mantle cavity.
o Body is covered by hard calcerous shell secreted by the Mantle.
o It may be coiled, reduced or absent.
o Their alimentary canal consists of Mouth, Oesophagus, Stomach and Intestine.
o The Buccal cavity has a rasping organ called Radula.
o Aquatic forms respire through gills called ctenidia and terrestrial forms respire
through pulmonary sac.
o Most Mollusca have open circulatory system.
o Class cephalopoda has a closed circulated system.
o Their blood is blue due to the presence of haemocyanin.
o The excretory organs are a pair of tubular Nephridium that empty waste into the
Mantle Cavity.
o The nervous system consists of Paired ganglia that are connected by Nerves and
Connective commissure.
o These Ganglia are Cerebral, Pleural and Pedal.
o Eyes act as Photoreceptors and Tentacles as Touchreceptors.
o Statocysts are balancing organs and Osphradia (singular – Osphradium) are
Chemoreceptors.
o Sexes are separate and fertilisation may be external or internal.
o Development may be direct or through larval stages like Trochophore and
Veliger.
 Classes:
o Monoplacophora
o Amphineura
o Scaphopoda
o Gastropoda
o Bivalvia
o Cephalopoda
Class – Monoplacophora:
 Definition: Monoplacophora is a class of mollusca with a cap-like shell living at the
bottom of deep sea.
 Examples:
o Patella vulgate (Limpet)
o Cyrtolites budleighensis (Cyrtolites)
Class – Amphineura:
 Definition: Amphineura are bilaterally symmetrical marine mollusca of varying size.
 Examples:
o Chiton magnificus (Chiton)
o Mopalia spectabilis (Neoloricata)
Class – Scaphopoda:
 Definition: Scaphopoda are members of marine mollusca with worldwide
distribution.
 Examples:
o Dentalium neohexagonum (Dentalium)
o Siphonodentalium colubridens (Gadilidae)
Class – Gastropoda:
 Definition: Gastropoda are a large class of phylum Mollusca which live in
freshwater, saltwater, and land.
 Examples:
o Cornu aspersum (Snail)
o Limax maximus (Slug)
Class – Bivalvia:
 Definition: Bivalvia is a class of marine and freshwater mollusca that have laterally
compressed bodies enclosed by a shell.
 Examples:
o Saccostrea glomerata (Oyster)
o Mytilaster moneterosato (Mytilidae)
Class – Cephalopoda:
 Definition: Cephalopoda is a member of exclusively marine mollusca that are
bilaterally symmetrical with a prominent head and set of arms or tentacles modified
from the primitive molluscan foot.
 Examples:
o Enteroctopus dofleini (Octopus)
o Sepia officinalis (Cuttlefish)
Phylum – Echinodermata:
 Level of Organization: Organ systems, the cells have three layers ––
called Triploblastic.
 Symmetry: Bilaterally symmetrical in larval stage and Radially symmetrical in
Adults.
 Segmentation: No.
 Body Cavity / Coelom: True body cavity.
 Presence of Organs: Definite organs.
 Other Characteristics:
o They have Spiny dermis made of calcium carbonate.
o Exclusively free living marine animals.
o Water Vascular System – Network of canals that branch into extensions
called tube-feet which help in locomotion and feeding.
 Examples:
o Echinometra viridis (Sea urchin)
o Fromia monilis (Star fish)
Phylum – Protochordata:
 Level of Organization: Organ systems, the cells have three layers–
called Triploblastic.
 Symmetry: Bilaterally symmetrical.
 Segmentation: No.
 Body Cavity / Coelom: Present.
 Presence of Organs: Definite organs.
 Other characteristics:
o All live in marine environments.
o Have a notochord, which may not be present at all stages of their lives or may
not be present for entire length of their body.
 Examples:
o Herdmania grandis (Herdmania)
o Branchiostoma lanceolatum (Amphioxus)
Phylum – Vertebrata:
 Level of Organization: Organ systems, highly developed tissues, the cells have
three layers – Upper layer and the inner layer – called Triploblastic.
 Symmetry: Bilaterally symmetrical.
 Segmentation: Yes.
 Body Cavity / Coelom: Present, well-defined.
 Presence of Organs: Definite organs.
 Other Characteristics:
o They have vertebral column developed from notochord.
o The internal skeleton muscles can attach at various points of the body.
o There is a dorsal hollow nerve cord in the upper side of the back.
o Have paired fill pouches.
 SubPhyla:
o Poikilothermic
o Homeothermic
SubPhyla – Poikilothermic:
 Other Name: Cold-blooded mammals.
 Constant temperature: They cannot maintain a constant body temperature.
 Energy: They obtain heat from the environment surrounding them.
 Body temperature: Their body temperature can vary as per the surrounding
temperature.
 Rate of Metabolism: They regulate heat in their bodies by changing colours or by
being in sunlight.
 Classes:
o Pisces
o Amphibia
o Reptilia
Class – Pisces:
 Body Type: They have scales or plates on their body, a muscular tail, some have
skeleton made up of cartilage, some have skeleton made up of bones and cartilage.
 Heart Chambers: Two Chambers.
 Respiration: Gills.
 Reproduction: Eggs.
 Found at: Water.
 Other Characteristics:
o Fish have been in existence for more than hundred million years during which
we have evolved repeatedly to fit into almost every type of aquatic habitats.
o Certain kinds of fish travel together in groups.
o The position which the group of fish twists and dives in union is one of the
natures of wonder.
o More than twenty thousand living kinds of fish were unknown which vary in
shapes and sizes.
o Fish is a fascinating aquatic animal.
o Some live along sea floor, while rest roam in the open sea.
o A fish is a cold-blooded animal that has a back-bone and breathes by means
of gills.
o The gill openings are covered with a smooth flap called Operculum.
o Fish swims by sideways by muscular movements of its streamlined-body.
o The fins are used for balancing and routing.
o Fins are composed of a web of skin supported by horny rays.
o They are two paired fins: Pectoral fins and Pelvic fins.
o And many unpaired fins like Dorsal, Caudal or Tail-end fins.
o Nearly all the fins are protectively coloured to resemble the surroundings and
to sieve enemies or prey.
o Fish are found nearly in all aquatic environments from the sunny surface of
the ocean to the darkest depth where light never penetrates.
 Orders:
o Chondrichthyes
o Osteicthyes
Order – Chondrichthyes:
 Other name: Cartilaginous.
 Definition: Skeleton made completely of cartilage.
 Examples:
o Squalus acanthias (Dog fish)
o Carcharodon carcharias (Shark)
Order – Osteicthyes:
 Other name: Bony.
 Definition: Skeleton made up of cartilage and bones.
 Examples:
o Labeo Rohita (Rohu)
o Exocoetinae Risso (Flying fish)
Class – Amphibia:
 Body Type: Mucus glands present in skin, keep their skin moist and slimy. Body
naked without scales. Paired fins absent, unpaired fins in larval stage.
Metamorphosis usually found.
 Heart Chambers: Three chambered heart (2 auricles and 1 ventricle).
 Respiration: Gills in larval stage and lungs in adult stage.
 Reproduction: Eggs.
 Found at: Land, Water.
 Other Characteristics:
o There are approximately six thousand four hundred species of amphibians.
o Amphibians are the lowest and earliest tadpoles which live partly in freshwater
and partly in land.
o Three hundred and fifty million years ago, amphibians became the first
terrestrial animals to live on land.
o In fact, the class Amphibia represents a transitional group between the true
aquatic and true land vertebrates.
o This transition from water to land is the greatest event in the evolutionary
history of the vertebrates in land, which final resulted in the evolution of
reptiles.
o At first, amphibians are the dominant land animals on the Earth.
o But later, they faced competition from the descendants, the reptiles who are
later adapted to land.
o So they burrows themselves into soil and leaves.
o However, this saves them from the meteoroid impact, sixty five million years
ago.
o Many land areas were underwater and this environment was hospitable for
the survival of amphibians.
o Amphibians can breathe through their skin.
o The skin of amphibians does not hold moisture and leaves out slime which
does not allows air and water to easily pass through it.
o Later, when the land became drier, amphibians evolved adaptations such as
breathing through lungs, which allow them to stay out of water for longer
periods.
o However, they never develop the amniotic egg which does prevented the
developing embryo from drying out.
o So they had to get back to water, in order to lay the shell-less eggs.
o After several days, the eggs develop into tadpole which looks like fish.
o Amphibians exhibit primitive form of parental care.
o The tadpoles undergo metamorphosis and develop legs while the tail gets
absorbed.
o After several months, they are ready to leave the water.
o So, every generation reacts to the change from water to land.
o The more successful amphibians living today are the frogs and toads.
o The living close associations are ponds, lakes, rivers or near marshy areas.
o The largest varieties live in some of the wettest places on the Earth; The
Tropical Rainforests.
o Some species are tree dwellers.
o The tree frogs spend their whole life on tree tops; even breeding in water felt
cirrhosis the tree.
o With the passage of time, these frogs had developed sticky pads to grip the
smooth leaf surface.
o Some frogs have unique colour pattern that may be used by us to discriminate
the species of one and another.
o But for frogs this helps them to avoid being eaten by predators.
o Frogs are generally eaten by birds and snakes when on land and by fish in
the water.
o But some use camouflage to avoid being detected.
o Special markings and patterns on the skin help them to blend in the
surroundings.
o The skin pigments are synthesised by specialised cells called
Chromatophores.
o Other species contains poison glands and use bright dazzling patterns to
warn the potential predators of the toxicity.
o Some frogs adopt a defensive pose when attacked to exhibit the bright
colours to the attacker.
o When a frog is bitted by a snake, sticky mucus comes out of snake’s jaws for
days.
o Though amphibians have generally adapted to life on land, but they have to
be near the water to complete the life cycle.
 Examples:
o Rana tigrina (Common frog)
o Bufo Bufo (Toad)
Class – Reptillia:
 Body Type: Body is covered by dry and cornified skin with epidermal scales.
 Heart Chambers: Three Chambers except Crocodile which has Four heart
chambers.
 Respiration: Have lungs for respiration as these are found on land and take oxygen
directly from air.
 Reproduction: Lay eggs with tough coverings.
 Found at: Land, Water.
 Other Characteristics:
o Reptiles are the first vertebrates of class reptillia which includes nearly seven
thousand living species.
o Reptiles have dry and scaly skin and are cold-blooded animals and not like
birds and mammals.
o Lizards are the member of the class reptillia.
o They live in diverse environment and are the most geographically wide-spread
of all the reptiles.
o Some of the lizards like Eguana are large and herbivores specie of lizards.
o The physical plates of crocodiles allow them to be successful predators.
o These are the highest evolved reptiles with four chambered heart like
mammals.
o Crocodiles live in freshwater habitats like rivers, lakes and wetlands.
o Crocodiles have long, cylindrical body with massive and compressed tail.
o The limbs are short but strong enough to form a powerful swimming organ.
o Crocodiles are able to swim underwater but they have lungs and thus come
up of air.
o Turtles are reptiles characterised by special bony protective shell.
o Forelimbs are modified into flippers for swimming.
o Turtles spend most of the life in sea but they lay their leathery shelled eggs on
land.
o Terrestrial tortoise can draw its body completely into its shell.
o Except herbivore tortoise, all present day reptiles are carnivorous.
o Snakes are the limbless burrowing reptiles.
o Snakes pick up sound vibrations from the ground.
o Their Bifid tongue works as an organ of smell and touch.
o Poisonous snakes possess specialised poisonous teeth to inject venom into
the body of the prey.
o Thus, reptiles vary in size from very small snakes, lizards and turtles upto
huge alligators and crocodiles.
o Their colourations also vary.
o But it frequently allows the reptiles to blend with their environments.
 Examples:
o Ophiophagus hannah (King Cobra)
o Hemidactylus frenatus (House wall lizard)
SubPhyla – Homeothermic:
 Other Name: Warm-blooded mammals.
 Constant temperature: They can maintain a constant body temperature.
 Energy: They obtain heat from the food they eat.
 Body temperature: They maintain a temperature of around 35 – 40 degree Celsius
irrespective of the surrounding temperature.
 Rate of Metabolism: They regulate their body heat by metabolic processes and
adaptive mechanisms such as hibernation and sweating.
 Classes:
o Cyclostomata
o Aves
o Mammalia
Class – Cyclostomata:
 Body Type: Jawless fish and has many tentacle-like growths around the body.
 Heart Chambers: Two chambers.
 Respiration: Gills.
 Reproduction: Eggs.
 Found at: Water.
 Other Characteristics:
o The body is round and elongated like an eel.
o The paired fins are absent.
o Median fins with cartilaginous fin rays.
o No paired appendages.
o The skin is soft and smooth, devoid of any scales.
o Spleen is absent.
o The exoskeleton is absent. The endoskeleton is cartilaginous with no bones.
o The notochord is present throughout their lives.
o The digestive system is devoid of any stomach.
o The nostril is single and median.
o The gills are five to sixteen in pairs.
o The brain is visible.
o The lateral line acts as a sense organ.
o About ten pairs of cranial nerves are present.
o The sexes are separate. Some hagfish species are believed to be
hermaphrodite.
o A pair of mesonephric kidneys make up the excretory system.
o Development may be direct or indirect.
 Examples:
o Myxine glutinosa (Hagfish)
o Petromyzon marinus (Lamprey)
Class – Aves:
 Body Type: They have waterproof skin which is covered with feathers, They have a
beak or bill rather than teeth, Their forelimbs are developed into wings, They have
hollow bones or pneumatic bones.
 Heart Chambers: Four Chambers.
 Respiration: Lungs.
 Reproduction: Eggs.
 Found at: Land, Air.
 Other Characteristics:
o Forelimbs modified into wings for flight.
o Upper and lower jaws modified into toothless beak.
o Lungs with air-sacs.
o Hollow bones with air cavities.
o Meteorite Impact caused the Extinction of Dinosaurs which caused the Origin
of Birds.
o So, we think dinosaurs are extinct but they had taken other look.
o For in fact, they are all around us today because dinosaurs live on in birds.
o By the time a meteoroid crush to Earth 65 million years ago, two different
groups of reptiles were taken to the air.
o The Pterosaurs were flying giants that dominated the skies.
o Their huge wings were leathery flaps of skin which were difficult to fold and
didn’t work if so torn.
o The other group were the birds.
o They had a much different design.
o Birds evolved from small tree living dinosaurs and from the fossils remains of
one of the earliest Archeopteryx (E.g., Archeopteryx Lithographica).
o They clearly had feathers.
o Feathers must have given warmth to move quite fast even during cool hours
of the day.
o When the meteoroid hit, the Pterosaurs died out from cold and starvation.
o Whereas, the crow sized descendant of Archeopteryx were able to fly off and
find better surroundings.
o Though very possession of a feather defines the creature as bird.
o With the special tool, they have become super flying machines.
o The secret of their success is in the design of their wings.
o A bird’s wing is slightly curved from front to back, produced an aerofoil profile
which literally pulls the bird up into the air.
o And ofcourse different wing shapes allow for different kinds of flight.
o Hunters like Eagle fly silently in the skies.
o While the small birds fly speedy and in the rainforest tiny humming birds can
beat their wings hundred times a second.
o As insulation feathers are even more effective than far.
o They give the birds advantage when the climate cooled after the meteoroid.
o Today only a bird can survive on the Antarctic Ice capping winter, the coldest
place on Earth, here a no predators on land, Penguins have an abundant
flight in favour of swimming.
o So that feathers are used purely for warmth.
o With its feathery under belly the Penguins can keep its eggs, warm enough for
the young ones to hatch.
o Incubating their eggs was another reason for the bird’s success after the
meteoroid.
o It meant their chicks had a greater chance of hatching rather than freezing to
death.
o But it put the parents at greater risk of being caught by predators on the
ground.
o Though to avoid being sitting dark, they have taken to nesting in places where
other animals find hard to risk.
o Only birds are the most successful animals every to have lift.
o The essential design of their wings have been changed for over hundred and
forty million years.
o So when the meteoroid struck the literally flew is the diversity.
 Examples:
o Ciconia ciconia (White Stork)
o Columba livia (Pigeon)
Class – Mammalia:
 Body Type: Have skin with hair and sweat glands.
 Heart Chambers: Four Chambers.
 Respiration: Lungs.
 Reproduction: Mammals give birth to young ones, hence they are called viviparous
animals, except egg laying mammals, i.e.,
o Duck billed platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus)
o Spiny ant eater (Tachyglossus aculeatus)
 Found at: Land, Water, Air.
 Other Characteristics:
o Muscular diaphragm between abdomen and thorax.
o Small, circular, biconcave and enucleated erythrocytes.
o External ear (pinna) present.
o Kangaroos give birth to poorly developed young ones.
o Extinction of Dinosaurs caused the age of Mammals.
o After a Meteorite hit Earth sixty five millions years ago, the forests were silent.
o But in the undergrowth things were turning.
o Small furry warm-blooded creatures similar to the Shrew today, were hunting
insects with no dinosaurs around.
o These early mammals know longer have to come out at night.
o They were free to live and free to stay where they wanted.
o From have come the modern mammals greaten small and they have
conquered the world.
o After the meteorite struck Sunlight was blocked out by dust and ash; and the
world turned very cold.
o But mammals have something special to overcome this, Fur.
o Only mammals have it, and that includes us.
o For its fantastic insulation and it allows mammals to live in coldest places on
Earth.
o Arctic fox has luxurious coat to keep out the cold wind and rain.
o But not only it is for the protection from the cold, mammals have their own
central heating – Warm blood.
o This means Ice Seals keep their body in such a constant temperature which is
slightly warmer from their surroundings.
o So together with fur they can stand active in ice cold water.
o Mammals survive the big freeze by the cold blooded dinosaurs and able to
keep warm died out.
o Now with few predators to hold them back, mammals increased in number,
developing in amazing different varieties of shapes and sizes.
o But there was another secret in their success i.e., adapting to a change in
new world.
o They were clever.
o Mammals have the biggest brain in relation to their body size and they have
become cleverest of all animals.
o But the brain needs to be feed information a bit like computers today.
o So parents like chimpanzees put a lot hardwork educating their young.
o The mother virtues in the care of her baby feeding it in a way that is unique to
mammals with milk in special mammary glands in her body.
o In body the milk is the complete food providing all the goodness the baby
needs to grow.
o Play also helps to growing child.
o Through play mammals develop their ability to learn and solve problems.
o It also strengthens mussels and gives the better coordination, skills which
connect the difference between life and death.
o After the impact of the wiped out of dinosaurs it became the age of mammals.
o For we are one out of four thousand species of mammals.
o Yet humans became the most intelligent of all large animals.
o Now it’s our impact on Earth will determine not only our own future but that of
all other living organisms on the planet.
 Examples:
o Homo sapiens (Human)
o Rattus norvegicus (Rat)
Insights:
Plants:
 Angiosperms vary in size from very small and microscopic like Wolffia (0.5 mm) to
very tall tress like Eucalyptus (100 m).
 Roots of gymnosperms are generally tap roots, which have association called
mycoorhiza with fungus, as in case of Pinus.
 Bryophytes are pioneer species in ecological succession as they can decompose
rocks.
 Half of carbon dioxide on earth is fixed by algae through the process of
photosynthesis.
Animals:
 Ancestors of mammals were a group of reptiles known as Therapsids and the first
true mammals evolved from Therapsids during the Jurassic period.
 All arthropods possess a exoskeleton (external skeleton), composed primarily of
chitin which provide protection as well as support for the body.
 Many mammals spend their childhood running, jumping, and playing, but giraffe
calves play less as they use their energy to grow.
 The Chinese giant salamander is the world’s biggest amphibian. It weigh about 100
pounds and reaching up to more than six feet in length.
Chapter-15 Improvement in Food Resources
Crop Production and Management
Introduction:
 We notice a significant increase in crop yield as compared to total cultivable area.
 Let us discuss in more detail what could be the reason behind such a significant
increase in crop production.
Needs for Sustainable Practices in Food Industry:
 Growing demands of food products.
 No scope for increase in land or area under cultivation.
 Increase in food production without degrading the environment.
Growing Demands of Food:
 India’s population is more than one billion.
 To fulfil their needs, we require more than a quarter of a billion tonnes of grain per
year.
 As farm land in India is intensively cultivated, there is very less scope for increasing
the area of land under cultivation.
 Thus, it is necessary for us to increase production efficiency.
Green Revolution:
 The significant increase in agricultural productivity by the introduction of high yielding
varieties of grains, use of pesticides and fertilisers, and improved management
techniques.
 From 1960 to 2004, food grain production showed fourfold increase with only 25%
increase in cultivable land area.
 White revolution exponentionally increased the production of milk and milk products
to meet the requirement of the growing population.
Environmental Balance:
 Revolution in food industry increased the efficiency of food production due to
intensive use of natural resources.
 It is important to increase food production without degrading our environment.
 Scientific management of agricultural practices should be undertaken to obtain high
yields from farms.
 For efficient crop production, following practices should be undertaken:
o Mixed farming
o Intercropping
o Integrated farming
 It is an agricultural system which integrates livestock and crop
production.
 For example, agriculture can combine with:
o Livestock
 These are domesticated animals reared in an agricultural setting to
produce food and fibre and used for labour.
o Poultry
o Fisheries
o Bee-keeping
Different types of Crops:
Carbohydrates providing crops:
 The sources of carbohydrates are wheat, rice, maize, millets, sorghum, etc.
 Function: Carbohydrates provide energy to our body.
Proteins providing crops:
 Pulses are the source of protein.
 E.g., gram, black gram, green gram, pea, etc.
Fats providing crops:
 Oil seeds are source of fatty acids.
 E.g., soyabean, ground nut, castor, mustard, sunflower, etc.
Vitamins and minerals providing crops:
Vegetables and fruits are the sources of vitamins and minerals.
Fodder providing crops:
 Raised as food for livestock.
 E.g., berseem, oats, etc.
Cropping Seasons:
 For growth and completion of their life cycle different crops require different:
o Climatic conditions
o Temperature
o Photoperiods
 Photoperiods are related to duration of sunlight.
 Hence, growth and flowering in plants are dependent on sunlight.
On the Basis of Climatic Conditions

Kharif crops Rabi crops

Kharif Crops:
 These crops are grown in the months from June to October.
 E.g., rice, maize, soyabean, cotton, etc.
 These crops are completely dependent on the quantity of the rain water as well as
on its timing.
Rabi Crops:
 These crops are grown in the months of November to April.
 E.g., wheat, gram, mustard, peas, etc.
Stages Involved in Farming Practices:
Choice of seeds

Nurturing of crop plants

Protection of cultivated and harvested crop

Improvement in Crop Yields:

Improvement in Crop Yields

Crop Variety Improvement

Strategies

Crop Production Improvement

Crop Protection Management

Crop Variety Improvement:
 This approach depends on developing a crop variety which can provide better yield.
 Varieties of crops can be selected on the basis of valuable features like:
o Disease resistance
o Response to fertilisers
o Product quality
o High yield
For new variety of crops:
 It is necessary that the variety produces high yields under different conditions that
are found in different areas.
 The seeds should be of the same variety and germinate under the same conditions.
 Hence, farmers would need to be prepared with good quality seeds of a particular
variety.
 Cultivation practices and crop yield are related to:
o Weather
o Soil quality
o Availability of water
 Weather conditions such as drought, flood, etc. also influence cultivation practices
and crop yield.
Hybridisation:
 Hybridisation is the process of combining different varieties of organism to create a
hybrid.
 For example, Maize:
Small and dense
growth of seeds + Long and scattered
growth of seeds → Hybrid variety with long and
dense growth of seeds

Types of Hybridisation

Intervarieta
Interspecific Intergeneric
l

Crossing between plants Crossing between plants of Crossing between

of different varieties different species falling under plants of different
same genus genera
Genetic Engineering:
 It refers to set of technologies which are used to change the genetic makeup of an
organisation.
 Techniques involved are highly sophisticated.
 Varieties developed using this technique are called Genetically Modified Plants.
Factors influencing Crop Variety Improvement:
 High yield
 Improved quality
 Biotic and Abiotic resistance
 Change in duration of maturity
 Wider adaptability
 Desired Agronomic characteristics
Higher Yield:
Increases the productivity of the crop per acre in order to meet the demands of
growing population.
Improved Quality:
 Quality consideration of crop products differs from crop to crop.
 For e.g.,
o Protein quality in pulses
o Oil yielding quality in oilseeds
o Baking quality in wheat
o Preserving quality in fruits and vegetables
Biotic and Abiotic Resistance:
 Biotic resistance is the resistance of plants against biotic factors like bacteria, fungi,
viruses, etc.
 Abiotic resistance is the resistance of plants against abiotic factors like drought, flood
water, etc.
Change in Duration of Maturity:
 Shorter the duration of crop maturity right from sowing to harvesting, more
economical is the crop variety.
 Benefits of short duration for farmers are:
o Multiple rounds of crop in an year.
o Reduction in the cost of crop production.
o Uniform maturity results into easier harvesting processes.
Wider Adaptability:
 A variety can be grown under different climatic conditions in different areas.
 It helps in stabilising the crop production under different environmental conditions.
Desired Agronomic Characteristics:
 Some physical characters help to increase crop productivity, such as height,
branching pattern, etc.
 Desirable characters for:
o Fodder crops: tallness and profuse branching
o Cereals: dwarfness (hence less nutrients are consumed by these crops).
Crop Production Management:
 There is a correlation between higher inputs and yields.
 Therefore, a farmer’s purchasing capacity for inputs decides:
o Cropping systems
o Production practices
Production Practices

No Cost Production

Low Cost Production

High Cost Production

No Cost Production:
 No cost farming utilises the traditional knowledge and seeds through:
o Mixed cropping practice
o Seed exchange
 Increases household food security and protects local biodiversity.
Low Cost Production:
 Waste products are recycled and used in other processes.
 It allows maximum utilisation of resources.
 It enhances the effectiveness of production, e.g., organic farming.
High Cost Production:
 High cost farming system utilises:
o Commercial seeds of high quality
o Branded fertilisers and pesticides
o Advanced irrigation system
o Modern equipments
 It gives a very high productivity.
Nutrition Management:
 Nutrients are essential components for the proper growth of a plant.
 There are two types of nutrients:
o Macronutrients: Nutrients needed in relatively large amount.
o Micronutrients: Nutrients needed in small amount.
Different sources from which plants obtain nutrients:
Source Nutrition
Air Supplies carbon and oxygen
Water Supplies hydrogen
Soil Supplies other nutrients
 The deficiency of these nutrients affects the physiological processes in plants such
as:
o Growth
o Reproduction
o Susceptibility to diseases
 Crop productivity can be improved by increasing the nutritional value of crops by
adding:
o Manure
o Fertilisers
Criteria Manure Fertilizer
It is a natural substance obtained by the
It is a salt of inorganic
Definition decomposition of animal wastes and
compound.
plant residues.
Nutrients It is not nutrient specific. It is nutrient specific.
It is soluble in water and easily
Solubility It is not easily soluble in water.
absorbed by plants.
Humus It provides humus to the soil. It does not provide humus.
Preparatio
It is prepared in the fields or rural homes. It is prepared in factories.
n
It is compact and concentrated,
It is bulky and inconvenient to store and
Storage transport.
so is east to store and
transport.
Nitrogen (N) – Helps with leaf
and makes lawn green.
Straw
Phosphorus (P) – Helps in root
Husk
Examples Animal / Cow dung
growth
Potassium (K) – Vital for
Compost
disease resistance and root
development
Manure:
 It is the organic matter which is used as an organic fertiliser in agriculture.
 It is an excellent fertiliser containing nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and other
nutrients.
 It adds organic matter to the soil which may improve the soil structure, aeration, soil
moisture-holding capacity and water infiltration.
 Manure is prepared by the decomposition of animal waste and plant waste.
 Utilising the biological waste material is also a way of recycling in the farm waste.
 Advantages of using manure:
o It inhibits the excessive use of fertilisers.
o It also allows recycling of the farm waste.
Types of Manure

Compost and Vermicompost Green manure

Compost and Vermi-compost:
Compost:
 Composting is a process in which the farm waste materials such as livestock
excreta, vegetable waste, animal refuse, domestic waste and sewage waste are
decomposed in pits.
 Compost is a rich source of organic matter and nutrients.
Vermicompost:
 It is prepared by using the earthworms to speed up the process of decomposition of
plant’s and animal’s refuse.
 Species of worms used are:
o Red wigglers
o White worms
o Earthworms
Green Manure:
 Prior to sowing of crop seeds, plants like sun hemp or guar are grown and then
mulched by ploughing them in the soil.
 These green plants turn into green manure, which helps to enrich the soil with
nitrogen and phosphorus.
Manures:
 All plants require nutrients for their growth, development and production.
 Plants derive nutrients from soil.
 Some are required in large amounts called Macro-nutrients such as Nitrogen,
Potassium, Calcium, Phosphorus, etc…
 While some are required in small quantities called Micro-nutrients such as Copper,
Zinc, Manganese, etc…
 But all these nutrients are essential for plants.
 With time and repeated cultivation the soil nutrients are reduced which in turns
affects the growth and yield of crop.
 Various measures are adopted to replenish the soil nutrients and enhance the
productivity.
 It involves both the natural and the artificial methods.
 Natural measures include addition of manures while the artificial measures include
addition of chemical compounds in the form of fertilisers.
 Manures are natural substances obtained from decomposition of biological wastes
such as animal, plant and human wastes.
 It is comparatively richer in organic matter (humus) than the nutrients and increases
the fertility of the soil.
 The organic matter present in manure helps to improve the soil structure and texture.
 Based on the kind of biological waste utilised in its formation, manures can be
classified as Compost and Green Manures.
 Let’s see how compost is prepared.
 All the organic waste such as Cow dung (Animal refuse), Domestic waste, Sewage
waste (Straw), Eradicated weeds are all buried in the deep pits.
 All these wastes are mixed well inside the pit.
 These pits are then covered with Mud, Soil and Dried Leaves.
 Finally water is sprinkled to provide moisture and fasten the process of
decomposition.
 Turning the pile frequently in regular interval speed up the process of decomposition.
 Bacteria present in the soil, decompose the organic matter into inorganic matter.
 After the period of four to five months approximately, the waste products are
completely decomposed.
 This decomposed matter is called as Compost.
 The dark layer present on the top is called Humus.
 It makes the soil porous helping the water to retain.
 The compost found is rich in organic matter and nutrients.
 Preparation of compost using Earthworms is also being practised these days.
 Vermicompost is the product of composting, utilising earthworms to create
heterogenous mixture of decomposed matter and vermicast.
 Earthworms hasting a rich in microbes that hastens the process of decomposition
from plant and animal waste.
 The compost obtained from the process is called Vermicompost.
 Vermicompost is richer in many nutrients in comparison to compost produced by
other composting methods.
 Green Manure is a kind of crop cover grown at top of soil in order to enrich the soil in
nutrients like Nitrogen and Phosphorus.
 Plants like Sunn Hemp, Cowpeas, Sorghum, Millets, etc… are grown and ploughed
into the soil so that they act as mulch.
 Thus, green plants are converted into Green Manure.
Fertilisers:
 Commercially produced plant nutrients.
 Fertilisers are a source of:
o Nitrogen (N)
o Phosphorus (P)
o Potassium (K)
 Used to ensure good vegetative growth, i.e., leaves and branches.
Fertilisers and their Comparative account:
 Fertilisers are artificially synthesised chemical salts or organic compounds rich in
nutrients specially: Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium.
 Some commonly used fertilisers are Ammonium sulfate, Urea, Ammonium nitrate
and Sodium nitrate.
 Fertilisers are used when soil is deficit of particular nutrient.
 They insure development of healthy plants with good vegetative growth.
 But prolong uses may change the nature of soil making it too acidic or alkaline.
 For example prolong use of sodium nitrate in same soil increases its alkalinity while
ammonium sulphate increases the acidity of the soil.
 Experiment:
o Farmer taking soil from the same land.
o Soil taken to the lab to test its pH.
o Red litmus changes to blue.
o Change in colour indicates the increase in alkalinity of soil.
 Excess of fertilisers of upright instead of being absorbed the plants gets washed
away due to rain or irrigation.
 It reaches the pond and lakes leading to water pollution.
 Thus, fertilisers need to be carefully applied in terms of proper dose and time as well
as considering the free and post application consequences.
 Usage of fertilisers over a long period of time in the same area makes the soil
infertile as organic matter is not replenished as fertilisers do not provide any humus
to the soil.
 Low yield as soil becomes infertile.
 This also affects the micro-organisms present in the soil.
 Thus the farmers and agriculturists should be aware of the long term benefits of
manures and short term benefits of fertilisers as well as their requirements for the
soil before selecting any means of nutrients.
Advantages of Manures Over Fertilisers
Manures Fertilisers
Presence of organic matter and humus Prolonged use makes soil infertile due to
makes the soil fertile. absence of organic matter.
Soil becomes enriched with micro- Repeated use affects presence of micro-
organisms. organisms in soil.
Negative Impacts of Fertilisers:
 Continuous use of fertilisers on the same land can destroy the soil fertility because:
o Organic matter in the soil cannot be restored in a short period of time.
o They harm the population of microorganisms present in the soil.
 Short-term benefits of using fertilisers and long-lasting benefits of using manure have
to be considered while planning for optimum yield of crops.
Organic Farming:
 It is a type of farming that uses natural and biodegradable inputs, avoiding the use of
synthetic fertilisers.
 E.g., use of bio-agents such as culture of blue green algae in the preparation of
biofertilisers and neem or turmeric used as biopesticides.
Case Study:
 Ramesh Chandra Dagar, a farmer in Sonipat, Haryana:
o Follows integrated organic farming by bee- keeping, composting, dairy
farming, water harvesting, agriculture etc.
o All these activities make his work very sustainable and economical.
 Cattle dung used as manure.
 Crop waste used to make compost.
 Compost used as natural fertiliser, so, no need to use chemical fertilisers.
 Compost generates natural gas to supply power to the farm.
 To spread information about integrated organic farming, enthusiastic Dagar formed
the Haryana Kisan Welfare Club.
Do You Know?
 Biopesticides: These are the naturally occurring substances that help to control pests
and microorganisms.
 Neem leaves or turmeric are kept in the storage of container of grains because they
act as biopesticides.
Irrigation:
 It means watering of land by artificial means to support crop development .
 In India, the crop yield is dependent on timely monsoons and adequate rainfall.
 Low rainfall can cause crop failure.
Traditional method:
 Examples:
o Moat (Pulley System)
o Chain Pump
o Dhekli
o Rahat (Lever System)
 Advantages:
o Less Expensive
o Depend mainly on monsoon for rains
 Disadvantages:
o At times when rains or pour fails, crops fail to grow resulting to drought.
o At times of heavy rainfall, crops damage due to flood.
Modern method:
 Examples:
o Drip System
o Sprinkler System
 Advantages:
o More effective to sustain drought or floods.
 Disadvantages:
o Expensive.
o Skilled labour is needed.
o Conservation of water is needed.
Drought:
 It is a period of unusually dry weather within a geographic area where rainfall is
normally present.
 Droughts occur in all climatic zones.
 However, their characteristics differ significantly from one region to another.
 Light soils have a low water-holding capacity.
 In areas with light soil, the crops get adversely affected by drought conditions.
 Scientists have developed different crop varieties that have tolerance to drought
conditions.
Types of Irrigation:
 Different kinds of irrigation system are adopted to supply water to agricultural lands
depending on the kinds of water resources available.
 Water resources include wells, rivers, canals and tanks.
Types of wells

Dug well Tube well

Water is collected from water-bearing Tap water from deeper strata is lifted by
strata. pumps mainly for irrigation.
Canal:
 Complex and extensive irrigation system.
 Receives water from one or more reservoirs of from rivers.
 Main canal is divided into branch canals, which have distributaries to irrigate fields.
River Lift System:
 It is useful in areas wherein the canal flow is insufficient due to Inadequate reservoir
release.
 Water is directly dram from rivers for increasing the irrigation in areas close to rivers.
Tanks:
 Small storage reservoirs that interrupt and store the run-off of small catchment
areas.
 Catchment area is the area from which rainfall flows into a water body like river, lake,
pond etc.
Rain Water Harvesting:
 It is the gathering and trapping of rain water from the rooftop with the help of the
channels into the domestic water tanks.
 This method is very effective and less expensive.
Rainwater Harvesting:
 Water is a limited resource that needs to be conserved.
 In the forests and open areas, the rainwater seems into the ground recharging the
water table.
 Due to urbanisation and increasing population more area is being occupied by roads
and concrete buildings leaving less space for rain water to seep in.
 In rural areas, rainwater quickly flows into river.
 And dries up soon after the rain stops.
 If rainwater is allowed to stay it can help to recharge the water table.
 Rainwater harvesting provides an option for conserving the rainwater.
Rainwater Harvesting:
 Rainwater is a technique by which rainwater is collected and stored for later usage.
 Rainwater harvesting helps in increasing the capacity of water available.
 The catchments for the water harvesting system are the surfaces that directly
receive the rainfall and provide water to the system.
Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting:
 Rooftop rainwater harvesting is most common method of rainwater harvesting.
 Rainwater harvesting is mainly carried out through rooftop rainwater harvesting
method.
 There are many variation of rainwater harvesting method ranging from simple to
complex.
 The most basic form of rooftop harvesting involves collection of rainwater in simple
vessel kept on the roof edge.
 The more complex and most widely used method of rooftop harvesting involves
collection of rainwater using sloping of roof through Rain Gutter and network or
series of pipes or conduits.
 Gutter drains the water through special ground pipes called Conduits into Collection
vessels.
 The debris also comes along with the water.
 To remove debris from the water, a coarse filtering smash is present in the storage
tank.
 In case of domestic use, water is diverted from containers for settling of water into
the storage containers.
 Storage container used for rainwater harvesting can be kept above or below the
ground.
 Adequate provision should be taken for a proper closure of storage containers to
minimize contaminations from animals, human or other contaminants.
Collection of Rainwater through Drains:
 Another technique of rainwater harvesting is collection of rainwater flowing into
roadside drains.
 Rainwater flowing into roadside drains is allowed to go into deep pits.
 Water stored in the pits recharges the groundwater table.
 This technique is suitable for storing water for agricultural purpose.
Benefits of Rainwater Harvesting:
 There are a number of benefits for rainwater harvesting.
 Rainwater harvesting is an environment friendly process which increase the water
availability.
 Rainwater harvesting helps to keep a check on declining water table.
 Rainwater harvesting helps in prevention of soil erosion and flooding.
 Rainwater harvesting is one of the most promising alternatives for supplying fresh
water in order to face increasing water scarcity and escalating demand.
Advantages of Water Harvesting:
 Increases water availability.
 Enhances soil moisture.
 Raises groundwater table.
 Prevents soil erosion and floods.
 Environment-friendly.
Watershed Management:
 Involves building of small check-dams which lead to an increase in ground water
levels.
 Check-dams stop the rainwater from flowing away and also reduce soil revolution.
Cropping Patterns:
Types of cropping patterns

Intercroppin
Mixed cropping Crop rotation
g
Mixed Cropping:
 It is a practice of growing two or more crops simultaneously without a fixed row
pattern on the same field.
 E.g., wheat + gram/mustard, maize + pyrethrum etc.
Advantages of Mixed Cropping:
 Less risk of crop failure.
 Increase in overall productivity.
 Different varieties of crops can be obtained in a single season which helps to meet
varying nutritional requirements.
Intercropping:
 It is a practice of growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same field in a
definite pattern.
 E.g., soyabean + maize + cowpea, wheat + soyabean, etc.
Advantages of Inter Cropping:
 Ensure maximum utilisation of nutrients.
 Prevents pests and diseases from spreading to all the plants belonging to the same
crop in a field.
 Reduces the soil runoff.
Crop Rotation:
 It is a practice of growing different crops on the same piece of land in a pre-planned
succession.
 It is method of the replenishement of agricultural land which prevents the depletion of
a particular nutrient from the soil.
 In this method, cereal crops (like wheat) are rotated with leguminous crops (like pea)
to maintain the nutrient quantity in the soil.
Advantages of Crop Rotation:
 Improves or maintains soil fertility.
 Soil erosion effectively controlled.
 Reduces use of chemical fertilisers.
Example:
T
Ca
l iflo
u

u rn ip
e r
w

rli c
a
G
s
a
e
P

Crop Protection Management:

Crop Protection Management
Includes protection of crops from

Weeds Insect pest Diseases

Weeds:
 Unwanted plants in cultivated field such as:
o Parthenium (Gajar ghas)
o Xanthium (Gokhroo)
o Cyperinus (Motha)
o Amaranthus (Chaulai)
o Argemone (Pila datura)
o Chenopodium(Bathura)
o Oxalis
o Black Nigthtshade (Gurkamai)
o Wild Pea
o Convolvules
o Alfa-Alfa
o Other grasses
 Weeds compete with crop plants for food, space and light.
 They take up nutrients of weeds from the cultivated fields during crop growth is
essential for a good harvest.
 Weeds are controlled by:
o Mechanical methods: Pulling weeds out by using tools like:
 Khurpal
 Trowel
 Hoe
 Rake
o Chemical methods: Spraying weedicides like:
 Dalapan
 Metachlor
 Siniazine
 2, 4 – D (32, 4 – Dichloro phenoxy acetic acid)
 MCPA (2 - Methy – 4 - Chloro – 1 - Phenoxy – 1 - Acetic Acid)
 Butachlor
Insect Pests:
 They attack the crop plants by:
o Cutting stem, root and leaves.
o Sucking cell sap from various parts of the plant.
o Boring into stem and fruits.
 Methods for controlling pests:
o Use of pesticides
o Use of pest-resistant varieties
o Summer ploughing.
Diseases:
 Caused by pathogens like:
o Bacteria (e.g., soft rot)
o Fungi (e.g., rice blast)
o Virus (e.g., tobacco mosaic disease)
 Disease transmission takes place through:
o Soil
o Water
o Air
Storage of Grains:
 It is important to store grains for future use.
 It is the main asset which must be protected because in the process of storage, its
quality and value deteriorates.
 Storage loss of agricultural product is very high.
 Factors responsible for such losses are:
o Biotic factors (insects, fungi, mites, bacteria, rats etc.)
o Abiotic factors (moisture, temperature, etc.)
 These factors cause:
o Degradation in the quality of the product.
o Poor germination.
o Discolouration of product.
o Poor marketability.
Preventive Measures to minimise storage:
 Clean the product prior to its storage.
 Dry up the harvested crop.
 Fumigate the harvested crop in order to kill the pests.
Insights:
 Haji kalimullah khan is a “Mango man”. His rare technique of growing more than 300
varieties of mangoes of different shapes, sizes and colour on one tree has helped
him get a Padma Shri recently.
 Rainwater harvesting is quite common in Europe, approximately 100,000 systems
were installed during 2005-2006.
 The first genetically engineered tomatoes (Flavr Savr), created by Calgene, were
licensed for human consumption in 1994.
 The Bt brinjal created by inserting a cry gene from Bacillus thuringiensis into brinjal
genome, was developed by Mahyco, Indian seed company.
Animal Husbandry
Introduction:
 Animal husbandry is the agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock.
 Animal-based farming includes:
o Cattle farming
o Goat farming
o Poultry farming
o Bee farming
o Fish farming
 Livestock production needs to be improved because:
o As the population and living standard increases, the demand for milk, eggs
and meat also increases.
o Growing awareness of the need for humane treatment of livestock has
brought in new limitations in livestock farming.
Cattle Farming:
 Cattle farming is raising and breeding cattle for the production of milk or meat.
 Indian cattle belongs to two different species namely:
o Bos indicus i.e., cow
o Bos bubalis i.e., buffalo
 Milch animals: Milk producing female animals are called milch animals, e.g., cows,
goat etc.
 Draught animals: Domestic animals that are used as farm labour. They are strong
and sturdy. Hence, they are used for ploughing land and irrigation.
Lactation period:
 It is the period of milk production after the birth of a calf.
 Milk production can be increased by increasing the lactation period.

Cattle Breed Improvement:

Jersey Red Sindhi
Foreign Breed Indigenous Breed

Long lactation periods Resistance to diseases

Cross breeding

Calf
(Long lactation periods & Resistance to disease)
Maintenance of Cattle Farm:
 Proper cleaning and shelter facilities.
 Well-ventilated roofed sheds, to protect cattle from rain, heat and cold.
 Regular brushing to remove dirt.
 Should be provided with feeding through ‘nand’.
 Clean drinking water.
 Should be well protected from predators.
 Arrangement for proper disposal of excreta and urine.
 Shelter should be far away from residential areas and waste disposing sites.
Animal feed:

Animal feed

Roughage
Rich in fibre

Grains and Seeds

Concentrates
Rich in Oil Cakes
proteins and
other nutrients
 Cattle also need balanced diet, containing all the nutrients in proportionate amounts.
 Beside these nutritious food materials, certain additive food supplements promote
the health and milk output of dairy animals.
Cattle Diseases:
A disease is an abnormal condition which affects the body of an organism.
Types of Parasite:
Parasites Problems
External (e.g., Fungus) Lives on the skin and mainly cause skin diseases
Worms: Affect stomach and intestine
Internal (e.g., worms and flukes)
Flukes: Damage the liver
 Infectious diseases are primarily caused by bacteria and viruses.
 Vaccines are administered to farm animals to fight against major viral and bacterial
diseases.
 A vaccine is a biological preparation which enhances immunity for a particular
disease.
Poultry Farming:
 Aim: To raise domestic fowl:
o Egg production
o Chicken meat
 Better poultry breeds are developed and farming is done to produce:
o Layers to obtain eggs
o Broilers to obtain meat
 In order to develop new varieties, cross breeding programmes are carried out
between: Indian breeds (e.g., Aseel) and foreign breeds e.g., Leghorn.
Desirable Traits in Commercial Variety:
 Number and quality of chicks
 Dwarf broiler parent for chick production
 Tolerance to high temperature
 Low maintenance requirement
Egg and Broiler Production:
 Broiler chickens are given vitamin-rich food for their proper growth.
 Care must be taken to:
o Avoid mortality
o Maintain feathering and carcass quality
 Broiler chickens are sent to the market to obtain meat from them.
 Broilers and layers have different requirements in terms of:
o Housing
o Nutrition
Nutrition:
 Broilers are given diet rich in protein with adequate fat.
 Both broilers and layers are given feed with high amounts of Vitamin A and Vitamin
K.
Management of Poultry Farm:
 Maintenance of temperature and hygienic conditions.
 Prevention and control of diseases and pests.
 Proper cleaning and sanitation.
 Poultry suffers from different kinds of diseases that are caused by:
o Viruses
o Bacteria
o Fungi
o Parasites
o Nutritional deficiency
Diseases Prevention:
 Vaccination helps to prevent the first occurrence of various infectious diseases.
 Vaccine reduces the risk of infection.
Fish Farming:
Fish Production:
 Fish is a cheap and vital source of animal protein.
 In marine and freshwater ecosystems, fish production can be done by two methods:
o Capturing
o Culturing
 Fish production includes the rearing of finned or true fish and shellfish (e.g., prawns
and molluscs).
Marine Fisheries:
 Marine fish are trapped by using different kinds of fishing nets.
 The yield is increased by locating large schools of fish by using:
o Satellites
o Echo sounders
Popular marine fish varieties:
 Pomphret
 Tuna
 Sardiness
 Bombay duck
 Mackerel
Mariculture:
 It is the cultivation of marine organisms in their natural habitats for commercial
purposes (such as food).
 Marine fish which have a high economic value and are farmed in seawater are:
o Finned fish – Mullets, Koral (Bhetki), and Pearl spots.
o Shellfish – Prawns, Mussels, Oysters and Seaweed.
Marine Fisheries:
 Koral (Bhetki)
 Mullets
 Pearl Spots
 Penaeus monodon
 Macrobrachium rosenbergii
Inland Fisheries:
 Fish production from inland water resources is mainly through aquaculture.
 Fish production in rice crops is one of the oldest practices.
 Freshwater resources include canals, ponds, rivers, brackish water, etc.
 Brackish water is seawater and freshwater mixed together such as estuaries and
lagoons.
 A combination of five or six fish species is used in a single fish pond.
 All the species having different food habits are selected, so that they do not compete
for food among themselves.
 The advantages of using the composite fish culture system are:
o No competition for food.
o Utilisation of food available in all the parts of the pond.
o Increases the fish yield.
Fish Species Involved in Composite Fish Culture:
Exotic Major Carp Mode of Nutrition Feeding Habit
Catla Omnivorous (Zooplankton) Surface feeder
Mrigal Detritivorous Bottom feeder
Rohu Omnivorous Column feeder
Silver carp Phytoplankton feeder Surface feeder
Grass carp Herbivorous Surface, column and marginal areas
Common carp Detritivorous / Omnivorous Bottom feeder

Surface Surface, column and Bottom Column

feeder marginal areas feeder feeder
Silver Carp Mrigal
Grass Carp Rohu
Catla Common Carp
 A major setback in fish farming is the lack of availability of good quality seeds.
 Many species, which are involved in the composite fish culture, breed only during the
monsoon season.
 To ensure the supply of pure fish seeds in a desired quantity, different ways have
been worked out to breed these fish in ponds using hormonal stimulation.
Bee-Keeping:
 Apiculture is the maintenance of a honey bee colony for the production of honey.
 Beekeeping has become an agricultural enterprise because honey is very important
in our day-to-day life.
 The bee keeping process is quite popular because it requires low investment.
 Beehive is the source of wax.
 Varieties of bees used for commercial honey production, are:
o Apis cerana indica (Indian bee)
o Apis dorsata (Rock bee)
o Apis florae (Little bee)
Apis mellifera:
 It is an Italian bee variety.
 It was introduced in India in order to increase the yield of honey.
 Italian bees are considered important for commercial honey production because
they:
o Breed quickly
o Stay in the beehive for a long period of time
o Are without sting
 The taste and quality of honey depends upon the type of flower from which the bee
collects its nectar and pollen.
 Beehive is arranged in an Apiary.
 Honey Extractor is use to obtain honey from Beehive.
Nutritional Values of Animal Products:
Percent (%) Nutrients
Animal Products
Fat Protein Sugar Minerals Water Vitamins
B1, B2, B12,
Milk (Cow) 3.60 4.00 4.50 0.70 87.20
D, E
Egg 12.00 13.00 0.00 1.00 74.00 B2, D
Meat 3.60 21.10 0.00 1.10 74.20 B2, B12
B3 (Niacin),
Fish 2.50 19.00 0.00 1.30 77.20
D, A
Insights:
 Honey contains flavonoids and antioxidants.
 Polyunsaturated fatty acids found in fish have been found to protect brain cells from
any kind of damage. Eating fish can also lower the risk of high blood pressure.
 90% of the world’s milk supply is obtained from dairy cows.
 Cows eat about 40 pounds of food each day and drink 30 gallons of water.