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-PHYSICS
Grade 11
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.

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� 13 Vnit One 1vteasurement and (pra,ctica( Wor�

. 4. The density of a rectangular l)tism is 9iA 'EJcnf ±. �AS �cnf.

Calculate the mass of the �tism it its b.e1ib.t 1s 1.1 cm±.�.�(}/(} an.�
base area is 16 .5 c1n ± a .3 S cllf
2

=====\Jnit 1: So\ut\on to irob\em� ===

1. 11. 700.94 m b. 23.3QU C. \1.i � \), 11
V 9.47
2. a. I= - = - ± \0.%+2.1)0/o = 4.\A.±.�.Wl/o
R 2.3
b. Fist change to �ercentage uncerta1nt�, 1\m i \�t)/()
c. 4.49 ± 1.1% t\. Lin cllf i 11%
=!= l2.5 =64k I m3
3.
p V (0.58)3 g

4. m = pv ' but v =Ah= (1.1)3 \\6.S) :\: \�.� + 1.\) ll/1)

0/o
v = 120 cm ± 3.G
m = (98.4) (120) ± (0.46 + 1) %
4
m=l.2xl0 g± 3.5%
Vnit Two .'Vectors
Important points to remember
• Because of the notation A.B scalar product is also known as
dot product and read as," A dot B ".
• The Result of scalar or dot product is scalar quantity.
• The scalar product obeys commutative and distributive laws.
That is,
• A.B _: B.A., since cos 0 = cos (-0)
• A.(B+C)=A.B+A.c
• A.B = AB cos 0 implies
• A (B cos 0)=A (projection of B along A ), or
• B (A_ cos 0)= B (projection of A along B)
• Two non-zero vectors are perpendicular if their dot product
gives zero. That is
A.B= 0, implies they are orthogonal.
======= Conceptual Examples

59. If A.B =A.C, can you conclude that B must equal C ? Explain
&rptcuudian: No. If we take, A= i + 3j + 2k, B = -2i + 9j + 5k
and C=Si+ lOj. It is true that, A.B =A.C but B :;t: C .
60. If A.B =0. Does it necessarily follow that A= 0 or B = O?
Explain
&rplanatioa: Not necessarily. A.B =0 if x� 0 or B = 0 or if A
and B are mutually perpendicular.
61. How can you verify that two non zero vectors are orthogonal?
-- -
&rplanatioa: Two vectors are orthogonal or perpendicular if their
-
dot product is zero. A.B =0 => A b.. B
62. If the dot product of two vectors is positive does this imply that
the vectors must have positive components?
&.xpf.anation: Not necessarily. Consider A= -2i - j - 3k and
B= -i - 3. We see A.B= 5, but the components
are all negative.
63. What is the direction associated with the result of a dot product?
&r,ptanatum: None. Dot product gives rise to scalar quantity.
\ 47 Vnit 'Two 1/ectors
8
·s B. -3i-4j + 3k
. D. 5i + 18j + 29k
1 J k
Solutian: Bx A= 5 -3 1
�i
8 1 -2
= ((-3)( -2)�(1)(1))i+ ((1)(8·)-(5)( -2))j+ ((5)(1)-(-3)(8))k
of = Si+ 18j + 29k ,,. · ·
Answer: D
)ct Application of Cross product
Cross product is applicable in the computation of Torque, Angular
momentum, 1nagnetic force, area of parallelogram, Area of triangle,
volume of parallel piped.
=======Illustrative Examples ========
96. Torque developed: what is the torque about the origin if a force
of F = (i + 2j + 3k)N acts at a position vector of
r = (2i + 3j - k)m. �
Solution: Torque, T = r x F = (1 li - 7j + k) N.m
97. Magnetic force: If a particle of charge 2C is moving at a velocity
of (i + 2j + 3k)m/s in a magnetic field of (4k)N/C. What is the
magnetic force acting on the particle?
Solution: F= qv x B= 2(8i- 4j) = (16i- 8j)N
98. Area of parallelogram: What is the area of the parallelogram
formed by vectors A= 3i + 4j and -------- ,.
,
i3 = i- 3k ,1
Sdu.tion: Area o�parallelogram ==/Ax BI
2
a=AxB=fc-i2) +(9) +(-4) =15.5
2 2
B
unit square _ _ ,- - - - - - -A
d: Let A = i - j, B =
99. Volume of paralle� pipe I
I II
I I
I I

2i + 3j - k and C = -i + 2k. Find the volmne I ______ l :

I
I

of the parallelepiped.
I _ I
C}f
R' I

ScJfldioa: Volum e: A.( B x C) -

A C
Bx C = 6i - 3j - 3k
v == A.(B x C) = (i- j).(6i - 3j - 3k) = 9 units cube

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t71 Vnit <Four (J)ynamics

\ T

m1 g sine ll1i2kg
I
'
/I

,·
a) m 1 g sin 8 - T = m 1 a, and
T -m2g = m 2a
(4)(10) sin30°-(
_ m 1 gsin0-m 2 g = _____ 2)(10)
=> a - ------=- __:___:____:_= Om/s 2
m 1+m 2 2+4
b) T- m2g = m1a => T = m 2g = ( 2)(10) = 20N
!· 17. A 100 kg box is pulled up a frictionless inclined plane of 8 = 3 0° .
What should be the force F to move the box up at constant speed?
Sofutwa:
{f:s8

mgsme
v= constant, a= 0, F cos 8 - mg sin 8 = 0
mg sin 0 (100)(10)
Or ' F= = sin 300= 5 77N
°
cos0 cos30
18. Two blocks m and M with masses 2 kg and 6 kg respectively are
in contact on a smooth horizontal surface. If a horizontal force of
1ON pushes them, what is;
a) The acceleration of the
system.
b) The force that block m
exerts on block M.
Sohdum: ·
F = 10 2
a) F = ma = (m + M)a =>a= -- --= l. 25m/s
m+M 2 +6
b) FBD
F--&�
1 - ma 10-(2)(1.
F -p = (m)(a)=>F
1
· F = 25 ) = 7.5 N
. ·. � .

. . .-
177 Vnit Pour (J)ynamics

======= Conceptual Examples :======== ==

28. A car 1noves with its tires rolling. Is the friction between the tires
and the road static or kinetic? Explain
&xpfunalio.li: It is static. If you say why? It is because the tire can
be thought of as a series of feet arranged in a cir�le each of
which is m01nentarily in static contact with the boround. '
To summarize, if a
car skids, the
friction acting on it
is kinetic, if its
" wheels are rolling,
the friction is static.
....... OK!
29 When you walk on the road, the friction force pulls you back. Is
.......
this true or false? Explain
:1
..... &x pfanatian: It is false. Because, when you walk� your feet push
the ground backward and friction pushes you forward. This is the
in{
actual case happening.
30. Walking on horizontal slippery ice can be much more tiring than
walking on ordinary road. Why?
t
&xpfanatian: In slippery road, we can't walk freely. Backward
motion is there.
31. A woman in an elevator lets go off her briefcase but it does not
fall to the floor. How is the elevator moving?
&r.pfanatian: The elevator must be accelerating down ward with
a a
an acceleration such that > g .'
32. When you go up hill, it becomes harder to move your body
forward. However, when you go downhill, it becomes easier to
go forward. Why? Explain
I
&.rpfanatian: When you go up a hill, part of your weight (mg sin
0) pulls you down, and it become harder to move yourself. But,
in the downhill movement part of your weight is in the direction
I of motion and hence pushes forward.
======= Ill u strative Examp les ======
33. A car of mass 1500 kg is stopped from an initial speed of 100
km/h in a distance of 50m. If all four wheels contribute equally to
the braking, what is the breaking force at each wheel?
V nit <Fi
. �::.l=================� �:,:��·o�u�r(J)�y�1�za:::m�ic::s=

Ag FN
�A
,F. = = F
,,>,,,,;,�,;;;;;
f- mg = O; µsFN = mg; µsma = mg; a=g/µs
If the block is not to fall, the friction force (f), must balance the
weight (w) of the block.Thus, f=mg= w.
42. How large must F be to give the 0.7 kg block an acceleration of 3
2
m!s . Take µ s =0.15 in all surfaces.
Sofulian:

i3
T�
f ---0.2kg
f.,_____ l

0.1 �F @
0.7kg r--.p

For block 1 T- f1 = m1a =>T - µm 1 g = m 1 a ... (*)

For block 2 F- f1 - f2-T =m2a
=> F - µm 1 g- µm2 g -T =m2 a . . . (**) adding the two equation;
we have F- 2µm1 g - µm2 g= (m 1 + m2) a
F = ( m1 + m2) a + 2µm1g + µm2 g = (0. 9)( 3) + 2(0.15)(0.2)(10) +
(0.15)(0.9)(10) = 4.65N
43. Two blocks have equal masses, and the coefficient of friction is
0.3, what is the acceleration of the blocks.
Soluti.on:

��
fl� ���.·
�,
v� �
. J"
�f/
�

F or block A, mg sin 8 1 -T- µ mg cos 1 8 1 =ma . ........· .... · (*)

For block B,T- mg sin 8 2- µmg cos 8 2 =ma ................ (**)
Add the two equations,
mg sin 8 1 - µmg cos 8 - mg sin 8 - µ mg cos 82 = 2 ma
1 2
a= g (sin 8 1 - µcos 8 - sin 8 2 - µ cos 82)/ 2 =-0.7 m/s2
1
.. 1
�
,:1�84�=============== . '
Vnit P
"==:: ou r(j)
. ..
So1ufum:
�

.r--= FBD I

-
I l
I
F I
X

�
u f'4---..J.--,-' l
I
mg

,_ �
-
F _ f = 1na, F = 150x + 400x = 150 (0.1) + 400 (0.1{; �
2

F- µk 1ng = ma 19
F-µk �g _ 19-12.5
a=----- . mls2
= 13
5
49.

Soiutien:
F - f - mg sin 8 = 25000 - 10000 - 8000 sin 15° = -5.3N
NO, it cannot
50. A force of 400N pushes a 25 kg box on a floor. Starting from
rest, the box attains 2 mis in 4 sec.
Determine the coefficient of friction. F

Soiutien:
F cos 8 -µ (mg + F sin 8) - ma,
!iv
a= = 0.5m/s2 and, µ = 0. 7
L1t
51. If the given masses ha
ve an
acceleration of 2 m/s2 . Find the
tension
in the cord and the appli
ed force.
Soluiian:
For m,, T - 1n 1 sin
37° - µ 1 m 1 g cos
37° = m1a ==> T = 42N
and, for tn2, F - T - in g
2 sin 3 70 - µ2m2 g cos 3 7 == rn2
0 a
==>F=I14N
200
ting on the raindrop.
Wl1e1·e F 1s t elocit"
. ·l1e .c:t1orce ac
. t11 e V
'u lS
-; of the. extra 1nass. .
inc r eas e 1n mas s o f th e ra m drop
is therate of .
Illustrative Examples
5
as a tota l m ass of 1 x _ I 0 k�
96· A rocket h
( -
austs all its fuel m 4 min·, bu . ass of 1
10 4 kg · The rocket exh . rning Ihe�
ith an exh a� st velocity of 4 . 5 x 3
10 111/s .':
at a steadyrate w
engm� develop at lift off? ·
a) What thrust does the
b) What is the initial acceler 4 of the roc ket?
ation
s
Sofutian: .ti.m = Mr-Mt 1 x 10 - 1 x 10 =-9 x 10+.ik
g
.L1ID -9 X 10
-= = -3.75 x 10 2 kg/sec 1i'
.L1t
2
2.4 X 10 .'i

11m
a) F = u- = (4.5 10)(3.75 10 ) = 1.69 x 106N
3 2
x x
11t
F-mg :_ 1.69xI 06
b) F - mg = ma => a = --- 5 -10 = 6.9m/s
2
m lxlO
97. An open truck of mass 24000 kg is moving along a friction 1� �-�
track with 4 mis. If it is raining hard, what is the speed ofttt
truck after it collected 3 000 kg of rain water?
Solution,: m 1 u 1 = (m 1 +m2) v=>(24000)(4) =(27000)v=>v = 3.5mi
98. A rocket is designed to produce 15,500N of thrust a liftoff. If!lx
speed of the ejected full is 250 0 mis, what is the rate at which�
fuel must be burned? =
)l.
m thrust = 15, 000 =
Sohdian: Li = 6_2m/s
Lit u 2,500
4.8. Dynamics of Circular Motion
A. Horizontal Circle
Whe� a body is moving in a horizont
al circle, its speed
remai�s constant, but the
direction of motion is
changing and hence, its
velocity changes resulting in an
acceler ation call ed . .
.
pomts toward s the
centripetal acceler ation smc e 1t·
center of the circle.
T he centri. petal acce ·
mo t.ion can be Ob · 1eratton of a body 1n a circu ar . cKill
tamed by conside ring the· position I d ve1oc1ty ve
· an
as shown.
Vnit Pive: War� (£nergy anclPower
235 --============����=�
�
2
s = ut + _!_ at 2 = (I0)( 4) +(2)( 4) = 56m
2 - )
W = Fs = (10) (56) = 5601
�

b)
th
Sn
(
= u+a t n --
l)
2

s:h =10+2(4-�)=17m
W = Fs = (10) (17) = 1701
12. A 2000 kg elevator rises from rest in the· basement to the fourth
floor a distance of 251n. As it passes the fo�rth floor, its speed is
3 m/s. If the friction is 500N, what is the work done by the lifting
engme.
1
Sofutum: WF + Wr = PE+ kE =>W F = mgh + -mv + fh
2

2
2
WF = (2000)(10)(25)+�(2000)(3) + (500)(25) = 521.5 kJ
I,'
'·
2
13. An object was thrown vertically ·up and comes to the thrower's
hand in 6 sec. If the object was allowed to slide on a horizontal
floor whose coefficient of frictions is 0.2. What is the ma,ximum
distance the object can slide?
1 2 · 1 ·
Soiutum: h = ut--gt => O = u (6) --(IO)t 2 � u = 30 mis and
2 2
W = LikE =>µmgs = ..!_ mu =>S = 225m
I'
:)' 2

2
5.2 Work Done by Constant and Variable Forces
Constant force: It a force having constant magnitude and direction
in the given time interval. Example, Gravitational force
G»The w ork done by a constant force is
equal to the area under the force -
displacement graph
@.=:Area== FSj

;-.,.:··. . , ..
. . ..�·..
Vnit Si>( <Iwtation .nA
motzon
·
gl
, �n. Ts the angle for which the arc length on a circle 0f rad.ms
r
J{a ia 1 ·t o the ra di us of the circle.
is equa .. .
m this � efi n1t1 on 1t follow� that, for a� angle of one radia
Fr o n, the
th is eq u al to the radiu s, s = r. Simil arl y,
arc leng an angle of two
(f

pond s to an arc length of two radii, s = 2r and so

radian s corres .
o n . Thus, the. ang. 1e 8. 1n rad'1ans for an arbitrary arc length s on a
circle of radius r 1s given by
I
;I
. Arc length s
e(1n rad'1ans) = ---- = _
Radius r
the angle in ra.dia�s is the ratio of two lengths. In
:: Accordingly,
alculations, therefore, the radian 1s treated as a number without units
<
�nd has no effect on other units that it multiplies or divides.
�1

'·
'

Moreover, the conversion among radian, revolution and degree is

possible as follows.
• 1 rev = 360 °
• 1 rev = 2rr rad
'
•;.

l
J • 2rr rad= 360 °

�f� Therefore, the 1;1umber of degrees in one radian is,

1 360 °
1 rad=--= 57.3 °
I 21t
..· Note, Radians, as well as degrees and revolutions are
•'•

,1 er
dimensionless.
Remember also that, angular displacement is a vector quantity its
direction may be clockwise or counterclockwise. And, standard
? convention · calls a clockwise displacement negative and a
·, coun terclo ckwise
displacement positive .
.,
ii) Angular Velocity
�ngular velocity (w, omega): Is the time rate of change of angular
displ ac ement.
gu-
An...:::_. pla
dis-=--
lar- -ce- nt
me-
That is, Ang1uar veloc. i. ty= _
. time taken

f·
I_
1 ' .
Vnit S� (J?J>tation :Motion
28 �
� The direction _of the angular acceleration is in the same
•
direction as the angular velocity when the rotation speeds
up and,
• The �irection of the angular .acceleration is in opposite
direction to the angular velocity when the rotation slows
down.
E uations of �otational �inematics
The q
of mot10n for uniformly accelerated angular motion are
Equa tions . . fior umfo
of motion
those equat10ns . �ly accelerated linear
analog ous to _
tion except the replacement of lmear variables with angular
replace the init�al velocity u with w0 , the finial
:iiables. Therefore, w�
\
' velocity v with w, the displacement s with 0 and the acceleration a with

1s a result, the equations of motion of constant linear acceleration and

' the corresponding equations of motion for constant angular acceleration •
are given below. '·

Linear Equation Angular Equation

(a constant)
= (a = constant)
v u + at
=

s= (--
v+u t
)

s = ut +.!..ae e = (0 t + .!.. a.t 2

2 ° 2
I· v2 = u2 + 2as co2 = co� + 2a.0
Angular Variables and Tangential Variables
When a body moves an arc length s on a circle of radius r
in a time t
• The tangential displacement, s and the
angul displ ement, 0 are related by
l =rer
• The tangential speed, v and the an�lar speed, w· are
above
related as follows if we divide both sides of the
equation by t
e s e
r (t) ·t and
s= =
t =v
1 ;
�=rwl

"'-"··
·I
. J
Vnit Seven <Equifi6rium

�3�40�==�::::;;;;;;,;;;;;:;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
�;;;� �
· u.
'//\
iJ/:
,1/1
*

t : ; :
nit 7 ;..·��·;

�
I I //
............�.......�;,;;

E
........................................

J /0
........
_...,................
==*

quilibrium
,.
ces all the time but we are not always conscious l
We use an d fee1 F.c:ior e which push a d pull and get th'mgs movingeoy ( ,,, ,::;
r':}
s
aware �f the m. or;e
n

w thmg s dow a easy to spot, but forces which . hol d thin. gs still an� ';' ,1
slo n

obvious but ver� imp?rtan! m everyday l�'.,i \ ,ju

�eep th·1.n0os balance d are less of structures 1n engmeermg.
hfe an d in the design and analysis 1 1.:.,,
; ,:
yscraper to the humblest shed, must ·Y
Any bm·ia·mg, frotn a 111ultistory sk
,•\

.
s·1m1·1 ar concerns anse with a
b e des1· 00 d so that it wo 't topple over.
ne
n
.
suspension bri dge, lad der leaning agai st a wa11 , or a crane hoisting a ,.
f�
n

bucket full of concrete.

Therefore in many problems an d real life situations, there are times ··.:
when a b�dy remains at rest or move with constant velocity.
Equilibrium: Is a condition in which the state of motion of a body
·doesn't change.
rr Important points to remember
• A body is said to be in equilibrium when the net force and the net
torque acting on its are zero.
• A body in equilibrium may be �st (@ma
y move with c9�t
velocity
• Static equilibrium: Is a type
of equilibrium that occurs when a �
body is��t and there is no net force or net torque acting on it
• Dynamic equilibrium "
: ls a type of equilibrium that occurs when
a body is m��11?� a��.gt��dy.velocity
and there is no net force or
net torque acting on it.
Conditions of Equilibrium
For a bod to be in e uilibrium,
two conditions must be satisfied
1. First condition or trMisJa
tional equilibriuni states that '·The \,
net force must be zero."
1
ll}=Oc=> 2)x ==0,2)Y =O, L,
F, =0\
72 ztSe· v
v·
/4
j3�4:,2 == == ====== ==�:,:: en . ,,
= ====
'Eq11i[i·5 . . . /'
Abou t pivo� point, IT== Fd- Fd ==:: �� ·/
_ 0
Give an exan1ple 111 which. the net force actin . . '·
4. · g on a i
zero and yet the net torque 1s non zero. F n Object.1' f1 {
s:-nfmialian: I F = F - F =· 0 //"v'
.

'-"-VP +_;
d-.4....:; I II

About �ivot point, It= -Fd- Fd == - 2Fct � 2

Fd /'.;,,
clockwise t·1,}
5. Can an object be in equilibrium if the only torqu eac .
produces c Iockwis · e rotat·ion.?
&xpfanatum: No! this is n?t possible.
ting on ;
1
1 >�
.1-,1
,:/

6. A ball thrown upward comes to rest when it reaches th .

e highest :;�·�,/)
point. Is the ball in equilibrium at this point? f
&xpfanatum: No! the ball's velocity at the lightest poi t . .
is '.. f;/
however the ball is still accelerating do\: zero,
gravitational acceleration g •= 9.8 mJs2. Hentan d ai !lf:J
. e, I h eie
1s a net downwar d 1orce
.c-. actmg on the ball.
([ �
=========Illustrative Examples ,}I •!
=====
7. Forthe situation shown,findT 1 ,T2 andT _ 3_. ,_.,; ,..,,
\
rf:
'I
Solulian: v FBD I" (
I','
!l i
T3 =W= 1 OOJ>f · ��-· .
"""""'.L..,q_

Y. y;,�'('
.........
.,.,..., ..........
r.....i,;,,,,,;

r
�I [
�,
LFy = 0,T 1 sin 45 =T3
=>T1 = 141.4N.
�
I Fx = 0,T 1 cos 45 7T2_ ;\;
,' /

r-------, ��� (•f

=>T2 1 OON
= lOON /j' )�
8. The tension in cord A is 30N. Find the tension in cord 8 and·IM·
. r-·

weight of the suspended block.

Solutum: I/I/////////////II///I EBP
50° 60
L �'\ = 0,TA cos 50°
. T��
A A ' 6<1 X
B
=TB cos 60 ° w .
=>Ts = 39 N
IFY = 0,TA sin 50 +T8 sin 60 = W
=>W= 56N
If\',.\
Vnit Seven 'Equifi
6rium
\: 343 ht of the block suspende d is 40N. Find t ns
\ If the we ig e ions T 1 and
tl·
' 9. 'f2 •
i
,\ \
-"ti';��'"-(/ FBD
Saf,diOJt: :y

1: ,F "'o , T I cos 60 = T 2 sin 70

° °

�Ti== 1.9T 2
�F "'o, T i sin 60 + (-T2 cos 70) 40N
r:--+---.
�

I
f,.. y

40::::>T 1 === 5 9 N, T2 = 31 N
I
===
uniform sphere of 1nass _0.85 kg and radius 4.2cm is held in
10. A
�H. lace by a mass less rope attached �o a frictionless wall at d = 8
�m above the center of the sphere. Find
a) The tension of the rope and
b) The force of the wall on the sphere
4.2
so.fulian: tan e == - ' 0 = 28°
8
LF = 0, T cos 28 = 8.5 �T = 9.6N
y
I.Fx = 0, F =· T sin 28 =>F = 4.5N
8.SN
a) T = 9.6N and
b) F=4.5N
i.J I\. Assume that m = 6 kg, 0 = 43° and µk = 0.3. What force Fis
needed along the plane to move the block at constant speed?
• I a) Up the plane
m\
,_ b) Down the plane
Solution,: FBD
a) IF = O
y

FN =mg cos 0
:::>FN == 43.88N
fk == µkFN = (0.3)(43.88) = 13.16N
IFX =0
F - fk -mg sin0 = 0
F == fk + mg sin0 = 54 .1 N
b. IFx =0=>F+ingsin0=Fk :::>F=27.8N
Vnit 8 Properties of03u[�:M.
ater

ts to remember
JJllp Ol·tant poin
r • Bulk 1nodulus O'f a bodY, .m � ther tenns is the measure of
the ability of a body to resist changes in volume when
exposed to increasing pressure from all sides.
• A ininus sign is introduced in the equation, because an
('

increase of pressure always causes a decrease in volume .

I,,
\'

After all, the bulk 1nodulus is a positive quan tity.

i
\,
•.i
·,

tangent to the surface of , ,

Cons·1der a force F acting
a
are .A If a body .
wit h or1
.
. .
gina 1 l
x
engt h.
.
o f L �n F
, x,
, - ..
'\\ each side is displaced by distance relative to 1ts L ,' 1/
al p osition, then
\ origin �-- _ _ _ _ _ ,
Shear stress
Shear Modulus = Shear Strain . \
\
I ---:-
.---½ -F--.L
S =¾=---
AX

Strain Energy: Is the energy stored in a stretched or compressed

i'

body by a force F to an extension or compression x.

That is,
r---------
strain. energy = -1 Fx
2
:======== Conceptual Examples ========
•'
"•

,:'1
l. From the stress - strain graphs of two stress
,'
materials A and B, which one do have larger
young's modulus? Explain
F--D�--�i·--·. y = stress = s1ope o f 1.1near
;..
.
I
'-".c..yuuuuw.n
strain
position of the graph strain
Therefore, Young's 1nodulus of A is larger.
2. A materia greater
l having greater young's modulus also possesses·
bulk modulus. Tn1e or False? . ·
,.
t lxt>ianatio.n: True. Because, the. elastic· n1oduli are du� to
f intermolecular forces existing in the material.
II,,,,

�;.
�-�
Vnit 8 Priope
38 9 rtzes oif <Bu{F'\, o A
Jrtater
_ around water fl ow
. I

\ :
�

�·
.i' ,.t rur
bulent flow: Is a fluid flow where . there is �
ct· .n
flu to the layers
� rnl e id o -'' -
, ..... '
�--- ..
;

,. -..... , .... .,." -, ' '-�

\\
� .,,- ' '�,� , ' '
.,' -.... ' ' .... ., , -, '
__·-----
.....

-� - - -
' ..... ..
:-1
;

s; rbul�nt flo:';
�-'.\\'
In simple term �
Is that flow 1n which fluid particles move in .
I�

,·
• . . a zzg zag way
• do hav
. .
e a con tinuou s 1 y c h ang e m 1nagm. tude
1ng v locity both-=- ·
and
direct10n
• can be observed in
_ high speed flow in a conduit of large size
- nearly a�l fluid flo': proble�s in Engineering
In fluid mechanics, the basic equations are;
- continuity equation
- energy equation, and
- impulse - momentum equation
.- The basic fluid equations are derived by considering the fluid as
"ideal fluid". That is, the fluid is:
� non - viscous: there is no internal friction between fluid layers
� incompressible: the fluid density is constant
�·1m:i: � steady: the velocity, density and pressure at each point in the fluid do
nnrr: not change with time
-+ laminar: each element of the fluid has zero angular velocity.

e�rui Rate of flow (Discharge): Is the quantity of liquid flowing per

second through a section of pipe or a channel.
. volume
discharge = . = Area x ve l oci·ty
time
IQ = A�, Its unit is m3 /s

..,1{,-
rrt1.;

;{'. D
l�,;- .
,·
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===V==,n�t���pt�rt�ie:sifo tCJ3�u[J��2r:Af�a t er
i 8 Prio e
�.-,==,===
=
::: :: � �
+( _4o_o_oo_o lO)(lO) + o.566
2
=>
1000 2
= P2 + (10)(6) + 2.2 42 6
1000 2
=> P 2 = 4316kN/ni
Water is flowing tlu·ough a pipe havin g diameters 600m
64 . � and
4oom1n at the botto1n and upper end respectivel y. The mte
.
ns1ty of
ressure at the botto1n en d t. s 350kN/m2 and the pr
P .
upper end ts. 1 OOkN/tn2 . Determ1ne the difference · essure at. th.e
m e 1evatton if
the rate of flow is 60 liters/sec
2
Sdufuui: A 1 = : 0. 6 = 0.283m 2
A 2 = rr4 0. 4 2 = 0.1257m 2
Q = 60e/s = � = 0.06m3 /s
1000
From continuity:
0.06
-------------
Q
Q = A1V1 = A2V2, V1 = -
A
=-
0.283
= 0.212m/s
1
0.06 _
V = !{_ _ 0.4771n/S
2 Ai - 0.1257 -
Applying Bernoulli's eqn
P1
-+g h 1+-=-+g
Vl Pi h 2+-
Vz2
p 2 p 2
g (h - h ) P1 - -
=- Pi vl --
+- vl = 350- 100 +(-0.0
2 1 31)
p p 2 2
h2 - h 1 = 251n
65. Water flows steadily through a horizontal pipe of varying cross
section. At section I the pressure is
1
l 30kpa and the speed is 0.6m/s. 2
_ ,� _ .
determine the pressure at section 2 .. . . � . �
/ ,
where the water speed is 91n/s. ·· .. / / / ,.. ·· ... · ,. · · ., ,, ,,. ,· · · ,, ,, ,, ·
v2 p
I
p vl
t
Solution: + gh1 + ..1:.. = -2. + ghz +-
_!.
P 2 2 p
but, h I = h2 = 0
�+�=�+�
p 2 p 2
130000 + � + -)
2 92
vl v l) P1 (
�P 2 =p (-+---
2 2
= lOOO 1000 z 2
p
P2 = 89.68kpa

l
- - -
Vnit 8 <Properties of<Bu
406 � -- -- --:-:- - -- -:-- - �
(R,

the transfer of heat through a mater�

\.�ater

1s :-
I

I =::::C on d � ules of the body \.Y h u due to,

I
lec
- -:.- of 1no
ns
=- ia o
w
c o
vih_11iifun and. Q QJ t a· ctual
c ti o 0- .-;

of n1o lecul es.

mot--:wn or flow rod and put the oth
;
l

1pl e 1 you 1101d

one end o f a metal · ere
I
F . an
ex. ·r nd ·
esn ' ' t ta ke long before you begin to feel w armth on you n
a fire ' do . r end ·
along t h e ro db y
01 1

J:'. l is trans
porte d
The heat you iee . . ducted thr
it
condu cti
be con ough a bar of 1
on.
wh ich heat will
The rate at . ength
l ar ea A , is g i ven b y
x and cross - sectiona
t,-

� = kA�:
J
�;:::_-_-_- x
--..:.:

0
Where Q = rate of heat flow
' t
k = constant, which depends of the material the bar ma de from
- = temperate grad.1ent
�e
�e = chane in tern eraturebetween ends of the bar, �O = 02 - 01
X

Convection: Is the transfer of heat that takes place due to the actual I
mo vement of molecules of the system.
;-­

For example, to heat a small room, you turn on an electric heater. As

the heater coils get red hot, the air in the vicinity wanns, it expands,
becoming less dense. Because of its low density, the wann air rises,
replaced by cold dense air from overhead. This sets up a circulating ""
flow of air that transport heat from the coil to the air throughout the
room. Heat exchange of this type is referred to as convection .
.- eat flowby convection is givenby
B

Where: A = co ntact area

�T = change in temperature
h = co nvection constant
In fo:ced convecti o n, a system by means �f ·
pump1?g a hot or cold fl is hea ted or coo led
uid from place to place. For instance, t�
countnes where the w eathe
r is very cold hot water is pumped from ho
� rce a� _P asses through the pip e line; tha are fixed for this purpose
m the b u1ld1ng. t
ou d