Original article

Textile Research Journal

2020, Vol. 90(23–24) 2639–2647

Three-dimensional simulation of warp ! The Author(s) 2020

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knitted structures based on geometric DOI: 10.1177/0040517520924005
journals.sagepub.com/home/trj
unit cell of loop yarns

Yong Ji1 , Gaoming Jiang1, Mengting Tang1, Ningtao Mao2 and

He Wang2

Abstract
Warp knitted fabrics are typically three-dimensional (3D) structures, and their design is strongly dependent on the
structural simulation. Most of existing simulation methods are only capable of two-dimensional (2D) modeling, which
lacks perceptual realism and cannot show design defects, making it hard for manufacturers to produce the required
fabrics. The few existing methods capable of 3D structural simulation are computationally demanding and therefore can
only run on powerful computers, which makes it hard to utilize online platforms (e.g. clouds, mobile devices, etc.) for
simulation and design communication. To fill the gap, a novel, lightweight and agile geometric representation of warp
knitting loops is proposed to establish a new framework of 3D simulation of complex warp knitted structures. Further,
the new representation has great simplicity, flexibility and versatility and is used to build high-level models in representing
the 3D structures of warp knitted fabrics with complex topologies. Simulations of a variety of warp knitted fabrics are
presented to demonstrate the capacity and generalizability of this newly proposed methodology. It has also been used in
virtual design of warp knitted fabrics in wireless mobile devices for digital manufacture and provides a functional refer-
ence model based on this simplified unit cell of warp knitted loops to simulate more realistic 3D warp knitted fabrics.

Keywords
warp knitted fabric, 3D simulation, geometric modeling, 3D loop model

Warp knitted fabrics are composed of multiple layers of crucial and desirable for fast virtual design and digital
loops cross-linked together forming into three-dimen- manufacture of functional products in the warp knit-
sional (3D) structures. Their simulations for virtual ting industry.
fabric design and manufacture of functional applica- For a successful 3D simulation of warp knitted
tions such as knitted garments and home textiles1 structures, the methods for modeling detailed structures
have been the focus of the knitting industry.2 Various of a warp knitting loop are the key and can be divided
studies have attempted to use conjugate surface theory into two categories: empirical modeling and geometric
and two-dimensional (2D) numerical methods to ana- modeling. Empirical models of a loop are constructed
lyze warp knitted structures. Most of the existing com- by both loop parameters and its mechanical model with
puter-aided design (CAD) software can simulate warp empirically identified parameter values. In an empirical
knitted fabrics in 2D with fairly good results, but they
lack detailed representations of 3D cross-linked struc-
tures1 and therefore have difficulties in describing the 1
Engineering Research Center for Knitting Technology, Ministry of
complicated overlapping of yarns in the 3D structure of Education, Jiangnan University, China
2
a loop sleeve. In addition, virtual design in mobile University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
devices has been used in both flat and circular weft
Corresponding authors:
knitting industries, but has not yet been used in warp Gaoming Jiang and Yong Ji, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Avenue, Wuxi,
knitting.3 3D simulation of warp knitted fabrics in a Jiangsu 214122, China.
mobile device is a natural next step, and is therefore Emails: [email protected]; [email protected]
2640 Textile Research Journal 90(23–24)

loop model proposed by Goktepe et al.4 for basic two- empirically link the process parameters to the 3D
bar structures, the micrographs of these fabrics fabri- coordinate data points in the geometric model of
cated on a Raschel machine were measured to obtain warp knitted loops. The model derived from interpolat-
the 3D configurations of the yarns inside the fabrics. ing fitting curves is used to describe the 3D geometry
A general loop model was established to simulate the of warp knitted loops. Li et al.11 established a para-
3D two-bar warp knitted structures based on the ana- metric unit model of uniaxial reinforced warp knitted
lysis of real warp knitted loop data. A finite element composites to analyze fiber deformations caused by
method (FEM) for the analysis of the mechanical prop- knitting yarns, for structural design and manufacture.
erties of 3D warp knitted fabrics was proposed by At present, 3D simulation of warp knitted fabrics is
Kallivretaki et al.;5 the warp knitted fabric microstruc- mostly on fabrics using only a few guide bars, while
tures were modeled and an iterative method was used to there are a few studies on 3D simulation of complex
optimize the geometric representation of the micro- warp knitted fabrics such as multiple guide bar yarn
structures. Then, a 3D model of warp knitted spacer and lace.12
fabric structures using non-uniform rational b-spline Although the geometric models discussed above can
curves and surfaces was proposed by Zhang et al.6 be used to describe the 3D space structure of yarn
A rule-based system to compute the offsets of certain loops, they only focused on a single warp knitted struc-
stitches is employed to simulate the stitches realistically ture and did not incorporate production practices.
according to the inclined fabric stitching. They used the Most of the existing models are based on the assump-
migration rule of stitching to simulate the realistic tions that a yarn is composed of straight segments,
stitching, and the offset calculation formulae for any which is inconsistent with the actual yarn shape; the
given point in the 3D stitch model were then derived. other studies have assumed that a model of a knitted
An FEM model of a 3D loop element and a sheet yarn loop consists of a loop backbone and extension
model of a metal warp knitted fabric using the loop lines. The number of rows that the extension line
units were proposed by Xu et al.7 to predict the fabric’s crossed will cause a difference depending on the type
mechanical properties. The numerical results of the of loops. This will lead to a more complex point selec-
uniaxial tension analysis of the fabric were verified by tion scheme for the extension lines and non-smoothness
experiments on metallic fabrics. These empirical models of extension line connections. In addition, the existing
can clearly describe the loop morphology of warp methods are too computationally demanding to run on
knitted fabrics, but neither are they suitable for most mobile devices and cause significant difficulties in data
warp knitted fabrics due to the limitations of the meas- sharing, for example online.
urement ranges, nor can they be used for warp knitted In this paper, a novel 3D unit loop model incorpor-
fabrics with complex structures. ating TubeGeometry and Three.js in spline curves in
A geometric model is a series of geometric shapes the FEM is proposed for geometrically modeling of
and relationships of yarns in a 3D warp knitted 3D warp knitted structures. The 3D geometric model
fabric. It is used to calculate the geometric relations of the loop yarn is rendered using WebGL. The pro-
between the parameters of the yarn loops. In a dynamic posed model for knit loops and simulation methods
explicit finite element model established by Duhovic intends to enable data sharing through online platforms
et al.8 for simulating the geometric shape and the resi- easily. Furthermore, it is anticipated that this new unit
dual stress of a 3D warp knitted fabric in the produc- model will provide a basis for further research, poten-
tion process, each filament is represented by a series of tially together with other geometric representations, for
connected rigid beam elements that undergo complex instance spline surfaces, to simulate more realistic
contact interactions with yarns, and the numerical geometry of the yarn loops such as inclined stitches in
simulation results are compared with experimental a real warp knit structure.
data to verify the model validity. A 3D loop structure
model of warp knitted yarns by using non-uniform Modeling of 3D yarn loops in a warp
rational b-splines was established by Renkens et al.9
to simulate the basic geometric shapes of warp knitted
knitted structure
structures. An approach was then proposed to trans- Modeling of warp knitted fabric includes defining the
form the basic structures into 3D states of slack fabrics type of yarn loops, the loop configuration, the loop
in the presence of deformations. A parametric 3D loop path and the deformation of yarn loops.
model of warp knitted structures is proposed by Zhang According to the rule of overlapping and underlap-
et al.10 to predict the loop geometry under the change ping of loops in a warp knitted fabric, many types of
of fabric processing parameters. Based on the process loops can be formed such as open loop, closed loop,
matrix of the warp knitted structure and the internal weft insertion and warp repetition.13 Before 3D model-
stress analysis, an algorithm was developed to ing, it is necessary to determine the type of the loop
Ji et al. 2641

according to the rule of yarn lapping and padding. For (denoted ‘‘GB’’), which carries the yarn in the knitting
example, there are two types of closed loop, right closed machine to specific needles to form the loop, to repre-
loop and left closed loop, in which the lapping direction sent the loop lapping configurations. For example, the
of the front and back of the needle is opposite. A right loop lapping structure of a warp knitted fabric made
closed loop is formed when the overlap goes to the from a knitting machine having two guide bars (i.e.
right and the underlap goes to the left as shown in GB1 for the front guide bar and GB2 for the back
Figure 1(a); a left closed loop is formed when the over- guide bar) can be expressed as laying-in digital (GB1:
lap goes to the left and the underlap goes to the right as 1-0/1-2// and GB2: 2-3/1-0//), as shown in Figure 2.
shown in Figure 1(b). Therefore, the geometric shape of We can also use a 3D matrix R of laying-in digital in
closed loops varies with the direction of the overlapping each needle to define yarn loops formed in a warp
and underlapping. knitted structure. The yarns with the right end are num-
The loop configuration in a warp knitted fabric bered as the starting points, so that the first row is
can be described by using the needle numbers circled on the first needle and the second row is circled
(e.g. number 0, 1, 2, 3 in Figure 2) in a guide bar on the second needle.14 A loop is described by using the
needle number where the loop formed. The needle
number in each row is represented by the larger of
the two digits in the row. From this, we use a 3D
matrix R of the needle numbers to indicate yarn loop
configurations in a warp knitted structure

2 3 2 3
r1,h,1 rI,h,1 r1,h,k rI,h,k
6 7 6 7
R¼4 ri,j,1 54 ri,j,k 5
r1,1,1 rI;1;1 r1,1,k rI;1;k
2 3
r1,h,w rI,h,w
6 7
4 ri,j,w 5
r1,1,w rI;1;w

Figure 1. Types of closed loop. (a) Right closed loop. (b) Left where w is the total number of needles which repre-
closed loop. sents the width of the loop structure, ri,j,k is the loop’s
needle number in the needle of ith guide bar, jth row,
kth wale.
For example, the loop structure in the parameter
format GB1: 1-1/1-2// can be described by using the
matrix R having the component values R1,1,0 ¼ 1,
R1,1,1 ¼ 1; R1,2,0 ¼ 1, R1,2,1 ¼ 2. Likewise for GB2:
1-1/2-2//, the component values of the matrix R are
R1,1,0 ¼ 1, R1,1,1 ¼ 1; R1,2,0 ¼ 2, R1,2,1 ¼ 2.
The drawing of a yarn can be represented using a 3D
thin and long tube in computer graphic simulation
models. The starting and ending points of such yarn
loops here refer to the starting and ending points of
the trajectory when drawing the loop yarn diagram.
After R is obtained, the direction of the extension line
can then be determined.
The loop path is represented by a 3D spline
curve passing through the center of the yarn. To cap-
ture the volume, the spline curve is inflated into a 3D
tube uniformly. Further, to simplify the representa-
tion for computation and rendering later, we assume
Figure 2. Two loop configurations in a warp knitted fabric a piece-wise linear property of the yarn and use a
made from a knitting machine having two guide bars (or needle series of straight tube segments for approximation.
bars). TubeGeometry in Three.js is used to form a 3D spline
GB1: 1-0/1-2//; GB2: 2-3/1-0//. curve. The number of yarn segments needed for the
2642 Textile Research Journal 90(23–24)

whole loop path is automatically computed based on Table 1. Loop types and their three-dimensional models
an area criterion, so that a loop path is represented included in this modeling
by a chain of identical tube segments (in terms of
Three-dimensional
their lengths and radii). Generally, the longer the path Type of yarn loops model
is, the more the tube segments are needed. As the
number of tube segments increases, a better approxi- Right closed loop
mation to the original yarn is obtained. In addition, the
closed attribute determines the end-to-end connections
of the tubular segments. Therefore, the model simplifies Left closed loop
the steps to build a spline curve in TubeGeometry
which provides multiple attribute parameters to draw
a smooth loop consisting of a number of tubular seg- Left open-ended loop
ments having adjustable sizes.15 We combine the ver-
tices of all the yarn loops in the horizontal direction of
Right open-ended loop
a segment of the guide bar into a group, on the basis of
the characteristics of the warp knitted fabrics, to make
the path of a guide bar in a smooth curve. Right opening chain
Given the loop type, loop configuration and loop
path, a model of the 3D geometric loop structure is
constructed to obtain the 3D structures of warp Left opening chain
knitted fabrics. The geometric model of the loop pro-
posed also has a unique feature: it does not include
any extension line. Instead, it solely uses the backbone Right laying-in
of the yarn loops, the ending point of the lower exten-
sion line and the starting point of the upper extension Left laying-in
line. The backbone of each yarn loop is identical with-
out distortion. The pick point of each loop consists of
the starting and ending points of the extension line in
the row of the loop trunk, and it automatically con-
nects the middle extension line to realize any connec-
tion of the loop.16 After judging the type of loop Table 2. Component values of the matrix R corresponding to
the extension lines of a few different types of open loops shown
according to the rule of lapping, the geometric
in Table 1
shape of each loop can be simulated by 3D modeling.
Our succinct and modulated representation can be Direction of
used to conveniently describe some basic loop types the loop Condition Loop type
which are universal in many fabrics, shown in Tables
Right open Ri,j,0 Ri,j1,1 and or
1 and 2. The simplicity of the representation enables Ri,j,1 Ri,jþ1,0
us to describe complex warp knitted structures easily
else
and effectively.
In Table 2 the loop opens to the right if R is the Left open Ri,j,0 Ri,j1,1 and or
small digit in the current row; the loop opens to the Ri,j,1 Ri,jþ1,0
left if R is the large digit in the current row; else repre-
else
sents a situation where the former condition is not satis-
fied. In this way, the extension line of the open coil is
classified.
system for complex warp knitted fabrics, the structure
of a warp knitting loop yarn with multiplex geometric
Modeling the 3D structure of a warp shapes is represented by using a simplified unit cell geo-
knitted structure metric model as shown in Figure 3.
A simplified geometric unit cell model of a warp In Figure 3, C is the total width of the loop, P is the
center point of the width of the loop, D is the height of
knitting loop
the loop segment where the loop is not overlapped by
The performance of 3D simulation of a warp knitted previous loops, the upper part of the yarn (the part
fabric depends on the quality of the loop structure above the total width of the loop) is a circular arc
model. In order to establish a concise simulation and e is the height of the circular arc, f is the distance
Ji et al. 2643

Figure 4. Planar area coordinates.

Figure 3. Simplified geometric unit cell model of a loop.

between the bottom ending point and the center line,

and we implement the loop model based on both the
loop structure characteristics and the multipoint
motion pattern.17

Positioning a loop yarn in the coordinate system

of a warp knitted structure
After defining the geometric shape of each loop in a
warp knitted structure, the next step is to determine
the position of a loop yarn in the coordinate system
of a 3D warp knitted structure. The position of a
loop is represented by the position of the center point
of the loop width (P in Figure 3); then the points on the
loop are locally represented in a local Cartesian coord-
inate system with the origin at P(Px, Py, Pz). Given a
square 3D warp knitted structure without deformation
(Figure 4), we establish a global 3D Cartesian coordin-
ate system with the origin O at the midpoint of the
square, with the z axis pointing into the screen.
In Figure 4, A is the width of the knitted fabric struc-
ture in terms of integral multiples of the number of
loops, B is the length of the knitted fabric structure in
terms of integral multiples of the number of loops, and
the increment of the horizontal and vertical coordinate
of the loop position point gives the width and height of
the loop (e.g. C and D) respectively; the symbol b rep-
resents the z axis in the inward direction. In this coord-
inate system, the center point, P(Px, Py, Pz), of the width
of a loop, whose position is determined by Ri,j,k, can be Figure 5. Data point of underlap.
2644 Textile Research Journal 90(23–24)

computed in the equation as follows relation to the coordinates of the center point of the
width of the current course loop, P(Px, Py, Pz), are
Px ¼ C ðA=2 k þ 1Þ C=2 ðRi,j,k 1Þ C known. Take the left closed loop as an example, the
Py ¼ D ð j B=2 1Þ e shape and the points of the extension line are shown
Pz ¼ 0 in Figure 5.
In Figure 5, P0 is the starting point of the next course
where k 2 ½1, A, j 2 ½1, B, Ri,j,k is the needle number underlap and P1 is the ending point of the last course
(or needle position) of the loop formed around the underlap. In order to form a closed loop and place the
needle in the ith guide bar, jth row, kth wale. Thus, extension line forward, the Z coordinates of the two
each loop can calculate the plot position based on the points are determined by the position of the guide
coordinates of central point P(Px, Py, Pz). bar. The specific coordinates of the two points are as
follows
Migration and connection of the loop yarns
P0 : x0 ¼ Px þ f þ d, y0 ¼ Py D þ 2e=3,
As shown in Figure 5, the structure of a warp knitted
fabric can be represented by a matrix of multiple loops z0 ¼ Pz þ d þ ðI iÞ d
connecting with their adjacent loops through both their
lower extension lines and upper extension lines. The P1 : x1 ¼ Px f þ d, y1 ¼ Py D þ 2e=3,
shape and direction of the loop extension lines
depend on the positions of the loop and their adjacent z1 ¼ Pz þ 2 d þ ðI iÞ d
loops. The connection of the loop with its upper and
lower loops can be realized as long as the coordinates where Px, Py, Pz are the coordinates of the center point
of the starting and ending points, P0(x0, y0, z0) and of the width of the loop P(Px, Py, Pz); d is the yarn
P1(x1, y1, z1), of the extension lines of the loops in diameter which is calculated from the yarn linear

Figure 6. Simulation of the surface construction of four warp knitted structures. (a) Locknit. (b) Chain laying-in. (c) Two-comb mesh.
(d) Square of three–guide bar.
Ji et al. 2645

density values, I is the total number of guide bars; D, e

Results and discussions
and f are as defined in Figure 3. From the above for- The 3D simulations of four types of fabrics produced
mula, we can see that for both z > 0 the separation of using our method are shown in Figure 6. They cover
the extension line and the loop trunk not only guar- several typical fabric types. These four fabrics include
antee the coverage relationship of the extension line single-stitch bed low-comb fabric and double-stitch bed
but also avoid the embedding phenomenon.18 The spacer fabric, which are mainly used to form various
other loops are drawn based on the translation of knitted fabrics by looping with weft lining. Figure 6(a)
P0 and P1. After the points of the extension lines shows a simulation of a double guide bar locknit fabric.
were selected, the simulation was carried out, assum- The laid-in organization is GB1: 1-0/1-1-2///, GB2: 2-3/
ing no deformation. In addition, different types of 1-0///; Figure 6(b) shows the simulation of chain laying-
loops can be automatically constructed similarly and in fabric. The laid-in organization is GB1: 1-0/0-1//,
this will simplify the 3D simulation of complex warp GB2: 0-0/2-2//; Figure 6(c) shows two-comb mesh fab-
knitted structures. rics but with no connection between adjacent loops.

Figure 7. Two-dimensional images of three-dimensional warp knitted samples corresponding to Figure 6.

2646 Textile Research Journal 90(23–24)

If no extension line is connected between adjacent coils, simulation of warp knitted fabrics in WebGL. After illu-
a mesh will be formed. The laid-in organization is GB1: mination and rendering, the 3D simulation of the mesh
1-0/1-2/1-0/2-3/2-1/2-3//, GB2: 2-3/2-1/2-3/1-0/1-2/1- fabric is shown in Figure 8. It is zoomed in to the max-
0//; Figure 6(d) shows a simulation of a three–guide imum using orbitcontrols.js. TubeGeometry makes the
bar square fabric which contains loop types including complicated definition of extension lines in previous soft-
closed, open-ended and chain stitch. The laid-in organ- ware unnecessary and thus makes the model much sim-
ization is GB1: 1-0/2-3/1-0/2-3/1-0/2-3/1-0/2-3/1-0/1-2/2- plified in simulating different types of loops such as
1/1-2/2-1/1-2/2-1/1-2//; GB2: 1-0/1-2/2-1/1-2/2-1/1-2/2-1/ acrylic yarn and blended yarn.19 According to the loop
1-2/1-0/2-3/1-0/2-3/1-0/2-3/1-0/2-3//; GB3: 2-3/1-0/2-3/1- type, the number and positions of 3D data points
0/2-3/1-0/2-3/1-0/2-3/1-0/2-3/1-0/2-3/1-0/2-3/1-0//. describing the path of the loop are determined to estab-
Figure 6 is the simulation of four kinds of fab- lish the relation between the number of guide bars and
rics produced by our method, and Figure 7 shows the the yarn diameter.20 We have improved the point selec-
fabrics produced by the warp knitting machine accord- tion of the previous loop to optimize the data point selec-
ing to the simulation results of Figure 6. The compari- tion of the current one, including the point of the main
son results of production object and simulation show stem of loop, the ending point of the previous course
the validity and accuracy of our model. underlap, and the starting point of the current course
The proposed model can be rendered in OpenGL, underlap, to achieve arbitrary connections of the loop.
WebGL and other platforms. For example, The novel geometric model and approach intro-
TubeGeometry and Three.js can be used in 3D duced in this paper is capable of 3D simulation of
warp knitted fabrics with complex structures for the
virtual design of functional warp knitted products.
Moreover it has been successfully used as a commercial
software in mobile devices. The approach is applicable
to most knitted structures, and it makes 3D simulation
of knitted fabrics much simpler. However, it is noted
that the geometric unit of loop yarns proposed is a
model, and does not consider factors such as inclined
stitches, variations in yarn tensions, twists, mechanical
properties and unevenness. These limitations will be
addressed in future work.

Conclusions
We have proposed a new framework for fast and
lightweight 3D warp knitted fabric simulation. To
this end, a novel geometric unit model of a warp
knitted yarn loop is first proposed. Based on it, a
fabric model is established for the simulation of 3D
warp knitted fabrics with complex structures. The
description of different types of loops using spline
curves has been proposed to simulate various warp
knitted structures. The discretization for constructing
loop segments into a specific loop is optimized. We
have shown that the proposed method is capable of
simulating intricate warp knitted fabrics for its
design and manufacturing. Moreover, thanks to the
lightweight nature of the method, it has been imple-
mented, tested and successfully used in the real world
on an online platform where the data sharing, co-
design and pipelining are massively simplified. In the
future, we will look into integrating our method with
existing CAD software so that it can fit into existing
pipelines and boost the overall performance through
the whole life cycle of fabrics, from design to
Figure 8. Example of 3D simulation of mesh fabric. manufacturing.
Ji et al. 2647

Declaration of conflicting interests 8. Duhovic M and Bhattacharyya D. Simulating the

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with deformation mechanisms of knitted fabric composites.
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this Compos Part A-Appl Sci Manuf 2006; 37: 1897–1915.
article. 9. Renkens W and Kyosev Y. Geometry modelling of warp
knitted fabrics with 3D form. Text Res J 2011; 81:
437–443.
Funding 10. Zhang J and Jiang G. Parametric modeling of three-
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial sup- dimensional geometry of warp-knitted loop based on
port for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this variation of process parameters. J Text I 2018; 109:
article: The authors acknowledge the financial supports from 1193–1201.
the National Science Foundation of China (61772238), the 11. Li J, Yan Y, Tian Z, et al. Multiscale modeling and ten-
Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities sile behavior analysis of uniaxial reinforced warp-knitted
(JUSRP52013B), and Taishan Industry Leading Talents composites. Polym Compos 2019; 40: 2510–2522.
(tscy20180224). 12. Michalak A, Kuchar M and Mikolajczyk Z. Dynamic
analysis of a warp-knitting machine with pneumatic
ORCID iD drive for producing 3D knitted fabrics. Indian J Fibre
Text 2017; 42: 502–505.
Yong Ji https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5869-9905
13. Xu H-Y, Chen N-L, Jiang J-H, et al. Three-dimensional
simulation of metallic two-bar warp-knitted mesh based
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