Applied Organic Chemistry: (Part-B)

Applied Organic Chemistry (Part-B)

Chapter 4.
Classification, Functional Groups & Nomenclature

Classification of Organic compounds:

Organic compounds have been classified on the basis of carbon skeleton (structure) or
functional groups or the concept of homology.
Classification based on structure: All the known organic compounds have been divided
into two main types:
1. Acyclic or Open-chain compounds: These are the compounds in which the carbon atoms
are linked to each other forming chain of straight or branched compounds. These
compounds are also called as aliphatic compounds.
CH3
CH3CH2CH3 CH3CHCH3 H2C CH2 HC CH

Propane Isobutane Ethylene Acetylene
2-Methyl propane
O O
H3C C OH H3C C CH3 CH3CH2 OH CH3CH2 NH2

Acetone Ethanol Ethylamine
Acetic acid
2. Cyclic or Closed-chain compounds: These are the compounds in which the carbon atoms
are linked to each other or to the atoms of other elements forming closed cyclic rings
structures. The compounds with only one ring of atoms in the molecule are known as
monocyclic but those with more than one ring of atoms are termed as polycyclic. These are
further divided into two subgroups:
(a) Homocyclic or carbocyclic, (b) Heterocyclic.
(a) Homocyclic or Carbocyclic: These are the compounds having a ring or rings of carbon
atoms only in the molecule. These are again divided into two types:
(i) Alicyclic compounds (ii) Aromatic compounds.
(i) Alicyclic compounds: These are the compounds which contain rings. These compounds
resembles to aliphatic compounds than aromatic compounds. Some of the examples are given
below.
Prepared by: Dr. Shaik Ramjan Vali

Dept. Of Industrial Chemistry
AASTU-ETHIOPIA.[Type text] Page 1
(ii) Aromatic compounds: These compounds consist of at least one benzene ring. Generally,
these compounds have some fragrant odour and hence, named as aromatic. Some of the
examples are given below.
The above compounds are also known as benzenoid aromatic compounds as

their molecules consist of benzene rings or rings.
(b) Heterocyclic compounds: These are cyclic compounds having ring or rings built up of
more than one kind of atoms. The most common atoms other than carbon are O, N and S.

Classification of organic compounds
Open-chain, acyclic or aliphatic Closed-chain,or Cyclic

compounds compounds
Homocyclic Heterocyclic
compounds compounds
Alicyclic Aromatic
compounds compounds
Benzenoid aromatic Non-benzenoid aromatic

compounds compounds
Functional groups: Most of the organic compounds consist of two parts, each of which is
called a group. Both of these groups are responsible for the properties of the compounds. The
group R represents the carbon hydrogen framework (chain) which mainly affects the physical
properties while group X is known as functional group which is responsible for the chemical
properties of the compound.
R X
A functional group is an atom or group of atoms present in a molecule that give the
molecule its characteristic chemical properties. Double and triple bonds are also
considered as functional groups.
Examples for functional groups are hydroxyl groups ( ─OH), aldehyde group (─CHO), and
carboxylic acid group (─COOH).
Homologous series: A homologous series can be defined as a group of compounds in which
the various members have similar structural features and similar chemical properties and the
successive members differ in their molecular formula by CH2.
General characteristics of Homologous series:
 All compounds in the series are composed of same elements and contain the same
functional group.
 All compounds in the series can be represented by one general formula. For example
alkanes have general formula of CnH2n+2.
 The molecular mass of every two adjacent members differs by 14 (CH2).
 All compounds in the series have similar chemical properties because of the presence
of same functional group.
 Compounds in the series have different physical properties such as density, physical
nature, melting and boiling points etc., because they differ in molecular weight.
Some of the important homologous series are alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, alcohols,
alkylhalides, alcanoic acids, amines, etc.
Nomenclature of organic compounds: Nomenclature means the assignment of names to

organic compound. There are two mains systems of nomenclature of organic compounds.
I. Trivial system, II. IUPAC system.

I. Trivial system: Trivial names are called common names and generally based on the
source, from which they were obtained. Examples:

a) Acetic aicd derives its name from vinegar of which it is the chief constituent (Latin:
acetum = vinegar).
b) Formic acid was named as it was obtained from red ants. The Greek word for the red ants
is formicus.
c) Methane was named as marsh gas because it was produced in marshes, etc.,
II. IUPAC system. Organic chemistry deals with millions of compounds. In order to clearly
identify them, a systematic method of naming has been developed and is known as the
IUPAC ( International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) system of nomenclature.
A systematic name of organic compound generally derived by identifying the parent

hydrocarbon chain, and the functional group(s) attached to it followed by using prefixes and
suffixes.
Functional
group OH
CH3 CH CH2 CH CH CH2 CH3
CH3 Br
Parent chain
Branch Functional
group
In the IUPAC system of naming of hydrocarbons the name consists of three parts:
I. Word root II. Suffix III. Prefix
I. Word root: The number of carbon atoms present in the parent chain is given by the ‘word
root’. In chains containing up to four carbon atoms, word roots such as Meth, Eth, Prop, But,
etc., are used and for those containing more than four carbon atoms Greek numerals such as
Pent, Hex, Hept, Oct, etc., are used.
Number
of carbon C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12
atoms
Word root Meth Eth Prop But Pent Hex Hept Oct Non Dec Undec Dodec
II. Suffix: The word root is linked to the suffix. The nature of linkages (i.e.,
single, double or triple bond) is indicated by the suffix.
Class of compound Type of bond Suffix Name
Aliphatic saturated Single –ane Alkane
hydrocarbon
Aliphatic unsaturated Double –ene Alkene
hydrocarbon Triple –yne Alkyne

a. Aliphatic saturated hydrocarbons: Alkanes (Word root + suffix)
Structural formula IUPAC name
CH4 Methane
CH3CH3 Ethane
CH3 CH2 CH3 Propane
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3 Butane
CH3 CH2CH2 CH2 CH3 Pentane
i) Aliphatic unsaturated hydrocarbons: Alkenes (Word root + suffix)

CH2 = CH2 Ethene
CH2 = CH CH3 Propene
CH2 = CH CH2 CH3 Butene
CH2 = CH CH2 CH2 CH3 Pentene
ii) Alkynes (Word root + suffix)

CH CH Ethyne
CH3 – C CH Propyne
CH3 CH2– C CH Butyne
CH3 CH2 CH2 C  CH Pentyne
iii) If more than one double or triple bonds are present, then the prefixes such as
di (for two), tri (for 3), tetra (for 4), penta (for 5), etc., are added to the suffix,
e.g.,
H2C = CH CH = CH2
Butadiene
Prefix: Branches in a chain of carbon atoms are regarded as substituents or side

chains. These are represented as prefixes, i.e., placed before the word root in the
IUPAC name of the compound. e.g. alkyl groups. When the substituent is an
alkane containing one hydrogen less it is termed as alkyl. They are named by
replacing suffix 'ane' of alkane by 'yl'
Alkane Alkyl group
Molecular formula Name Molecular formula Name
CH4 Methane CH3 Methyl
CH3 CH3 Ethane CH2 CH3 Ethyl

CH3 CH2 CH3 Propane CH2 CH2 CH3 Propyl
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3 Butane CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 Butyl
CH3CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 Pentane CH2 CH2 CH2CH2CH3 Pentyl
There are a few common branched substituent which you should memorize. These are shown
below.
Nomenclature of alkanes: They are saturated hydrocarbons. They have only -bond
without any -bonds between carbon atoms. They are chemically inert and hence alkane are
also called paraffins. They have general formula CnH2n+2.
Common system: Hydrocarbons with less than four carbon atoms are always
straight chain compounds. Hydrocarbons with four or more carbon atoms can either
be straight chain compounds or branched chain. In the common system, all isomeric
alkanes will have the same parent name. The various isomers can be distinguished by
prefixes n–, iso–, neo–, etc.
Prefix ‘n’: Straight chain compounds (with no branching) will carry prefix ‘n’.e.g,
The prefix 'iso' : It is used for those alkanes in which one methyl group is attached to the
next-to-end (last but one) carbon atom of the main (continuous) chain. e.g.
Prefix 'neo': Prefix 'neo' is used for those alkanes in which two methyl groups are attached to
the next-to-end carbon atom of the continuous chain

IUPAC system
The following steps are followed for IUPAC nomenclature of alkanes.
1. Selection of longest continuous chain:

The longest continuous chain of carbon atoms in the molecule is selected. This is
regarded as the parent chain and it gives the name of the parent hydrocarbon.
The other carbon atoms not included in the parent chain (if any) are regarded as
the substituents.
2. Numbering the parent chain

The carbon atoms of the parent chain are numbered from end to end in such a way that the
substituents get the smallest possible number.
3. Naming the substituents

The substituents are alkane molecules with one less hydrogen atom. Hence, they are named
by replacing 'ane' in its name by 'yl'. The position of each substituent is written before the
name of the alkyl group, which is separated using hyphens. The substituent is written
before the parent name.

4. Naming similar substituents
If two or more similar substituents are present then the prefix di (for 2), tri (for 3) tetra (for
4), etc., are used before the name of the substituents and the position of each substituent is
specified and separated by commas.
5. Naming different substituents

If two or more different substituents are present, they are named in the alphabetical order
along with their appropriate positions.
6. Naming different substituents at equivalent positions

If the compound contains two or more different substituents at equivalent positions from the
two ends of the parent chain, they are numbered in such a way that the least possible number
is given to the substituent that comes first in alphabetical order.
Examples for IUPAC nomenclature of alkanes
Nomenclature of alkenes: They are unsaturated hydrocarbons. There is double bond

between two carbon atoms. They have general formula CnH2n.

Common system: The common names are derived from the corresponding alkanes by
replacing 'ane' by 'ylene'. e.g.
CH3─CH3 CH2 ═ CH2 CH3─CH2─ CH3 CH2═ CH─ CH3

Ethane Ethylene Propane Propylene
IUPAC system:
The following steps are followed for IUPAC nomenclature of alkenes:
1. Selection of longest continuous chain:

The longest continuous chain of carbon atoms in the molecule containing double bond is
selected. This is regarded as the parent chain and it gives the name of the parentnt
hydrocarbon.
The ending 'ane' of the alkane corresponding to the longest chain is changed to 'ene'. Thee
other carbon atoms not included in the parent chain (if any) are regarded as the substituents.

The carbon atoms of the parent chain are numbered from end-to-end in such a way that the
double bond gets the smallest possible number (irrespective of the substituents).
3. Naming the substituents:
by replacing 'ane' in its name by 'yl'.
The position of each substituent is designated by the number of the carbon atom to which it is
attached. The position number is written before the name of the alkyl group, which is
separated using hyphens. The substituents are written before the parent name.

4. Naming similar substituents.
If two or more similar substituents are present, then the prefix di (for 2), tri (for 3), tetra (for
5. Naming different substituents.
along with their appropriate positions
6. Naming different substituents at equivalent positions:
two ends of the parent chain (from the double bond), they are numbered in such a way that
the least possible number is given to the substituent that comes first in alphabetical order.
Examples for IUPAC nomenclature of alkenes:
Nomenclature of alkynes:

They are unsaturated hydrocarbons. There is triple bond between two carbon atoms. They
have general formula CnH2n─2.The common names are derived from the corresponding
alkanes by replacing 'ane' by 'yne'. e.g.
Common system: The first member of the alkyne family is named as acetylene.
HC  CH
The other alkynes are named as substituted acetylenes (mono or disubstituted acetylene)
e.g.
CH3 – C  CH Methylacetylene
CH3 ─CH2 ─C  CH Ethylacetylene
CH3─C  C ─CH3 Dimethylacetylene
CH3 ─CH2─ C  C ─CH2 ─CH3 Diethylacetylene.
IUPAC system:
The following steps are followed for IUPAC nomenclature of alkynes:
1. Selection of longest continuous chain.
The longest continuous chain of carbon atoms in the molecule containing the triple bond is
selected. This is regarded as the parent chain and it gives the name of the parent hydrocarbon.
The ending 'ane' of the alkane corresponding to the longest chain is changed to 'yne'. The
other carbon atoms not included in the parent chain (if any) are regarded as the substituents.

triple bond gets the smallest possible number (irrespective of the substituents).
3. Naming the substituents.
by replacing 'ane' in its name by 'yl'. The position of each substituent is designated by the
number of the carbon atom to which it is attached. The position number is written before the
name of the alkyl group, which is separated using hyphens. The substituent is written
before the parent name.

4. Naming similar substituents.
If two or more similar substituents are present, then the prefix di (for 2), tri (for 3), tetra (for
5. Naming different substituents.
along with their appropriate positions.
6. Naming different substituents at equivalent positions.
two ends of the parent chain (and from the triple bond) they are numbered in such a way that
the least possible number is given to the substituent that comes first in alphabetical order.
Examples for IUPAC nomenclature of alkynes:
Nomenclature of aliphatic cyclic compounds

The following rules are followed to derive the IUPAC name for an aliphatic cyclic
compound:

1. The number of carbon atoms in the ring is counted. The corresponding alkane is
the parent alkane. The name of the cyclic saturated compound is obtained by
introducing the prefix 'cyclo' to the name of the parent alkane.
2. Presence of substituents or double/triple bonds is indicated according to IUPAC rules

for alkenes/alkynes.
I. Nomenclature of organic compounds containing functional group:
The following IUPAC rules are followed for the nomenclature of organic compounds
containing a functional group.
1. Identification of the functional group : The functional group in the molecule is first
identified
2. Selection of longest continuous chain.

The longest continuous chain of carbon atoms containing the functional group is selected.
This is regarded as the parent chain and it gives the name of the parent hydrocarbon.
The other carbon atoms not included in the parent chain (if any) are regarded as the
substituents.

3. Numbering the parent chain.
carbon atom bearing functional group gets the least possible number (irrespective of the
substituents).
 The functional group along with its position is indicated as a prefix or suffix of the
parent alkanes. The prefixes (or suffixes) used for the functional groups is given in the
table below:
Class of Structure of IUPAC suffix (s)

compounds functional or prefix (p) Examples
(functional group
group)
Alcohol – OH – ol(s) CH3CH2CH2CH2OH
1 – butanol
Ether -- CH3CH2OCH2CH3
Ethoxy ethane
Aldehyde –al (s) CH3CH2CHO
Propanal
Ketone – one (s)
Carboxylic acid –oic acid(s) CH3CH2CH2COOH

Butanoic acid
Acid anhydride – oic anhydride(s)
Amide – amide(s)

Acyl halide – oyl halide(s)
Halide –X Halo (p) or – yl CH3CH2CH2Cl

(X = F, Cl, Br, I) halide(s) 1-Chloropropane
Nitro – NO2 Nitro – (p) CH3CH2CH2NO2
1-nitropropane
Amine – NH2, – NH, Amino – (p) or – CH3CH2CH2NH2
amine (s) 1-aminopropane or
1-propanamine
 The rules for naming the substituents are same as that for alkanes.
 If functional groups such as – CHO, – COOH, – COOR, – CONH2 – CN etc., which
contain a carbon atom and have only one free valency, are present in the molecule, the
numbering of the parent chain starts from the carbon atom of the functional group.
 If a halogen atom is present in addition to the functional group in the molecule, the
halogen is treated as a substituent and is indicated by the prefix 'halo'.
e.g.
Examples for IUPAC nomenclature of organic compounds containing functional group.
II. Nomenclature for organic compounds containing functional group, multiple bonds
and substituents:
In case the organic compound contains a functional group multiple bond and substituent, the
naming is done with due preference in the following order:

Functional group >Double bond > Triple bond > Substituent
III. Nomenclature for organic compounds containing more than one functional group:
Similar rules as discussed in naming of compounds containing one functional group are
applied for naming compounds with two functional groups with slight modifications.
Rules
There are two main types of isomerism:
(I) Structural isomerism (II) Stereoisomerism

(I) Structural isomerism: Compounds having same molecular formula but different
structural formulae. The isomers differ only in the arrangement of atoms or groups within the
molecules, without any reference to space are called structural isomers and phenomenon is
known as structural isomerism. It is further classified into different types:
Isomerism
Structural Stereoisomerism
Isomerism
Geometrical Optical
Isomerism Isomerism
Chain Positional Functional Metamerism Tautomerism

Isomerism Isomerism Isomerism
1. Chain or nuclear Isomerism: It is due to difference in the nature of carbon chain(

straight or branched) which forms the nucleus of the molecule. It also known as nuclear or
skeletal isomerism. Simplest example is butane (C4H10). It exist two forms. Pentane (C5H12)
exists in three isomers.
CH3
CH3CH2CH2CH3 CH3 C H CH3

n-Butane Isobutane or
2-methylpropane
CH3
CH3
CH3 C CH3
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 CH3 CH CH2 CH3
CH3
n-Pentane Isopentane Neopentane
or 2-methylbutane or 2,2-dimethyl propane
2. Positional Isomerism: It is due to difference in the position occupied by the particular

atom or group (substituents) in the same carbon chain or due to different positions of double
or triple bonds in alkenes and alkynes.
Cl Cl Cl
Cl
Cl
1,2-Dichlorobenzene 1,3-Dichlorobenzene 1,4-dichlorobenzene
Cl

C4H8 CH3CH CHCH3 CH3CH2CH CH2
But-2-ene But-1-ene
C4H6 CH3C CCH3 CH3CH2C CH
But-2-yne But-1-yne
Cl
C3H7Cl CH3CH2CH2Cl CH3CHCH3
1-Chloropropane 2-Chloropropane
OH
C3H8O CH3CH2CH2OH CH3CHCH3

Propan-2-ol
Propan-1-ol Isopropyl alcohol
3. Functional Isomerism: Compounds having same molecular formula but different

functional groups in their molecules shows functional isomerism and are called functional
isomers. Examples;
Ethyl alcohol (CH3CH2OH) Dimethyl ether (CH3─O─CH3)
Acetic acid CH3COOH Methyl formate HCOOCH3
Propanal CH3CH2CHO Propanone CH3COCH3
But-1-yne CH3CH2CCH Buta-1,3-diene CH2═CH─CH═CH2
Methyl cyanide CH3CN Methyl isocyanide CH3NC.
4. Metamerism: It is the isomerism in the same homologous series. It is due to the presence
of different alkyl groups attached to the same polyvalent functional group or atom (i.e.,
─O─, ─S─, ─NH─ and ─CO─). These isomers have different structural formulae due to
different alkyl groups on either side of the functional group are called metamers and
phenomenon is called metamerism.
Examples:
CH3CH2─O─CH2CH3 CH3─O─CH2CH2CH3
Diethyl ether Methyl propyl ether
O O
CH3CH2 C CH2CH3 CH3CH2CH2 C CH3
3-pentanone 2-pentanone
H H
CH3CH2CH2 N CH2CH2CH3 CH3CH2CH2CH2 N CH2CH3
Dipropylamine Butylethyl amine

5. Tautomerism: It is the one type of isomerism in which a single compound exists in two
readily interconvertible different structures leading to dynamic equilibrium is known as
tautomerism and the different forms are called tautomers. It is caused by the movement (1,2
or mainly 1,3-migration) of hydrogen atom (H ion) between two polyvalent atoms within the
same molecule. If the hydrogen atom move between two polyvalent atoms, the system is
dyad and if the hydrogen atom moves first to third atom the system is triad.
O OH
CH3CH2 C NH2 CH3CH2 C N H
Ketoform Enolform
O OH
CH3 C H CH2 C H
Acetaldehyde Vinyl alcohol

Keto form, > 99% Enol form <1%
O OH
CH3 CH2 C CH3

CH3 C
Acetone Prop-1-en-2-ol
Keto form, > 99% Enol form <1%
O OH
Cyclohexanone Cyclohex-1-en-1-ol
(Ketoform, 99%) (Enolform,1%
O O OH O
CH3 C CH2 C CH3 CH3 C CH C CH3
Acetylacetone Keto form, 76%

Keto form, 24%
6. Ring-Chain Isomerism: This type of isomerism is due to different modes of linking of

carbon atoms, i.e., the isomers possess either open chain or closed chain structures.

C3H6 CH3 CH CH2
Propene Cyclopropane
C3H4 CH3 CH CH2

Propyne Cyclopropene
C4H8 CH3CH2 CH CH2

But-1-ene Cyclobutane Methylcyclopropane
C6H12 Hexene
Cyclohexane Methylcyclopentane
Stereoisomerism
Stereoisomerism is a phenomenon in which compounds having and same molecular and
structural formula but different relative arrangement of atoms or groups in space
(configuration) are called stereoisomers and the phenomenon is known as stereoisomerism.
Stereoisomers have the same connectivity, but different arrangements of atoms in space. It
is classified into:
(I) Geometrical isomerism

(II) Optical isomerism
(I) Geometrical (or cis-trans) isomerism: Compounds having the same molecular and
structural formula but different relative arrangement of atoms or groups (or differ in
configuration) around the double bond (i.e., C C , C N , N N ).
 Geometrical isomerism is possible only when each of the double bonded carbon
atoms is attached with two different atoms or groups. (abC═Cab).
 Geometrical isomerism is not possible where all the four groups attached to double
bonded carbons are different (abC═Cde).
 Similar atoms or groups on the same side of the double bonded carbon are called ‘cis’
isomers and similar atoms or groups on the opposite side of the double bonded carbon
are called’trans’ isomers.
 Geometrical isomerism is also exhibited by compounds containing C N ,bond (as in

aldoxime), ─N═N─ bond (as in azo compounds), cyclic compounds and dienes.

Cl Cl Cl H
C C C C
H H H Cl
cis- 1,2-Dichloroethene trans- 1,2-Dichloroethene
COOH H
C C C C
H H H COOH
Cinnamic acid Cinnamic acid
(cis) (trans)
HOOC COOH HOOC H
C C C C
H H H COOH
Maleic acid Fumaric acid
(cis) MP = 403K (trans) MP = 575K
Physical properties of cis-trans isomers:

 Melting Point: M,P. of trans-isomer is more than that of cis-isomer.
 Boiling point: B.P. of cis- isomer is more than that of trans-isomer.
 Solubility: The solubility, viscosity and refractive index of cis-isomer is more than
that of trans-isomer.
 Dipole moment: In general, cis-isomer has higher dipole moment than trans-isomer.
 Stability: In general, trans-isomer is more stable but less reactive than cis-isomer.
 Cis-trans isomers are configuration isomers and called diastereomers as they are not
mirror image of each other.

Cl Cl Cl H
C C C C
H H H Cl
cis- 1,2-Dichloroethene cis- 1,2-Dichloroethene
B.P.= 333K B.P.= 320.5K
D D
H3C CH3 H3 C H
C C C C
H H H CH3
cis- But-2-ene trans-But-2-ene.
B.P.= 279 K B.P.= 274 K
D D
HOOC COOH HOOC H
C C C C
H H H COOH
Maleic acid Fumaric acid
(cis) MP = 403K (trans) MP = 575K
E and Z system of nomenclature: ‘cis’ and ‘trans’ designations cannot be used for highly
substituted alkenes if four different atoms or groups are attached to the carbon atoms of a
double bond i.e., abC═Cde type.
B D
C C
A E
In such cases. E and Z system of nomenclature is used. This system is based on a priority
system developed by Cahn, Ingold and Prelog.
In this system, the two atoms or groups attached to each of the doubly bonded carbon
are put in order of priority on the basis of sequence rule.
(i) The symbol ‘E’ is assigned to an isomer in which the atoms or groups of higher priority
are on the opposite side. E (from the German entgegen) means "opposed" in the sense of
"opposite".
(ii) The symbol ‘Z’ is assigned to an isomer in which the atoms or groups of higher priority
are on the same side. Z (from the German zusammen) means "together" .

1 2 1 1
C C C C
2 1 2 2
E-isomer Z-isomer
F Br 2 2
C C C C
Cl I 1 1
Z-isomer Z-isomer
F I 2 1
C C C C
Cl Br 1 2
E-isomer E-isomer
Sequence rules:
1. Higher priority is assigned to the atoms of higher atomic number. For example, the order
of priority in the following atoms
I (A.No = 53) > Br (A.No = 35) > Cl (A.No= 17) > F (A.No =9) > H (A.No=1)
2. If isotopes of same atomic element are attached, the isotope with higher mass number is
given higher order of priority. For example, tritium(3T1) is given higher priority than
deuterium (2D1). Deuterium is given higher priority than hydrogen (1H1).
Tritium(3T1) > Deuterium (2D1) > Hydrogen(1H1)
3. In the group the order of priority is also decided on the basis of atomic number of the first
atoms of the group. For example, in the following set,
─Cl, ─OH, ─COOH, ─NHCH3, ─SO3H,
The order of priority is :

Cl, > SO3H, > OH, > NHCH3, > COOH,
(A.No.17) (A.No.16) (A.No.8) (A.No.7) (A.No.6)

4. When the order of priority of the groups cannot be settled on the first atom, the second
atom or subsequent atoms in the groups are considered. For example, in the set ─CH2─CH3,
─CH3, ─COOH, the order cannot be decided on the basis of first atom as it is same in all the
groups. However, in ─CH2─CH3, the second atom is carbon, in ─CH3, the second atom is
hydrogen while in ─COOH, the second carbon is oxygen. Hence, the order of priority is:
COOH > CH2 CH3, > CH3,
(A.No.8) (A.No.6) (A.No.1)

CH2 Cl, > CH2 OH, > CH2 NH2, > CH3,
5. A doubly or triply bonded atom is considered equivalent to two or three such atoms. For
example:
N
C O is equal to C O , C N is equal to C N
O N
Examples:

4-Bromo-3-methylhept-3-ene
Calculation of geometrical isomers in polyenes:
(a) When the ends of polyene are different:
Number of geometrical isomers = 2n (n = number of double bonds)
Example 1: H3C CH CH CH CH Br (where n = 2 ) 22 = 4
(b) When the ends of polyene are same:
(i) When n is even number, then the number of geometrical isomers = 2(n-1) + 2 (n/2-1).
Example 1: X CH CH CH CH CH CH CH CH X (where n = 4; even)
4
1
4 1 2
Number of G.isomers = 2 + 2 = 23 + 21 = 10
(ii) When n is an odd number, then the number of geometrical isomers:
n 1
2
Number of geometrical isomers = 2 (n 1)+ 2
Example 1: CH3 CH CH CH CH CH CH CH3 (where n = 3; odd)

3 1
3 1 2
Number of G.isomers = 2 + 2 = 22 + 21 = 6
Optical Isomerism: Compounds having similar physical and chemical properties but
differing only in the rotation of plane polarized light are called optical isomers and this
phenomenon is known as optical isomerism.
(i) The optical isomer which rotates the plane polarised light to the right (clockwise) is
known as dextrorotatory isomer (Latin: dexter = right) or d-form or indicated by +ve.

(ii) The optical isomer which rotates the plane polarised light to the left (anticlockwise) is
known as laevorotatory isomer (Latin: laevo = left) or l-form or indicated by ve.
(iii) The optical power of the above two isomers are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign.
An equimolar mixture of the two forms, therefore, will be optically inactive. This equimolar
form is termed as racemic mixture or dl-form or (  ).
mixture of d-form and l-form
Examples:
acid: In lactic acid CH3CHOHCOOH,, second carbon is chiral.
Optical Isomers of lactic acid
There are two optically active isomers of Lactic acid: d-lactic acid and l-lactic acid. In
addition to these optically active varieties there is an optically inactive form which results
when dextro and laevo (levo) varieties are present in equal quantities. It is called racemic
mixture or () lactic acid.
The racemic mixture is 50:50 mixture of d and l -isomersisomers and hence have zero optical
rotation as the rotation due to one enantiomer cancels the rotation due to the other. That
is racemic mixture is optically inactive due to external compensation.
Dextro rotatory lactic acid may be obtained from meat extract and is known aas sarcolactic
acid. During muscular activity glycogen present in muscles break down to sarcolactic acid.
During rest sarcolactic acid is converted back to glycoge
glycogen.
Leavo rotatory lactic acid may be obtained by the fermentation of sucrose by Bacillus Acidi
laevolactiti. Ordinary lactic acid in sour milk or manufactured by fermentation or by synthetic
method is racemic mixture.
Example 2: Glyceraldehyde:
Example 3: Amino acids:

Optical Isomers of Tartaric acid: Tartaric acid has two asymmetric carbon atoms each
lined to the same four different groups. It exists as three stereoisomers (two enantiomers and
a meso compound). Crystals of potassium hydrogen (R,R)-tartrate are often to be found in
the bottom of wine bottles.
(i) Dextro-tartaric acid (d-form): This rotates the plane polarised light to the right. Both the
asymmetric carbon atoms reinforce each other and cause the rotation of plane polarised light
in the same direction, i.e., towards right. It has no plane of symmetry. It occurs in nature and
is obtained from tamarind and grapes.
(ii) Laevo-tartaric acid (l-form): This rotates the plane polarised light to the left. Both the
asymmetric carbon atoms rotate the plane polarised light in the same direction, i.e., towards
left. It also has no plane of symmetry. It is obtained by resolving racemic tartaric acid. Both
d-form and l-forms are enantiomers.
(iii) Meso-tartaric acid: It possesses a plane of symmetry and is optically inactive form.
One of the asymmetric carbon atom turns the plane polarised light to the right and other to
the left and to the same extent. The rotation due to upper half is compensated by the lower
half, i.e., internally compensated. It does not occur in nature and cannot be resolved into d-
and l-forms. It is obtained by synthetic methods.

(iii) Racemic tartaric acid (): It is an equimolecular mixture of d- and l-forms. The
rotation of the d-form is compensated externally by l-form and hence, it is optically inactive
due to external compensation. It can be resolved into d- and l-forms. It is obtained by
synthetic methods.
Optical Activity: Ordinary light consists of rays or varying wavelengths vibrating in all
possible directions perpendicular to the direction of propagation. When a monochromatic
(single coloured) light is passed through a nicol prism (made of calcite, CaCO3), the
vibrations are adjusted in a single plane only. The light whose vibrations occur only in one
plane is termed as plane polarized or simply polarised. The devise that brings polarisation
in light is called a polariser.
Chiral molecules have ability to rotate the plane polarized light either to the right (clockwise)
or to the left (anticlockwise). These chiral molecules are termed as optically active substances
and the property is called optical activity. The optical activity of compound is measured by
instrument is called polarimer.
The extent or angle of rotation depends on a number of factors:

i. Nature of the substance,
ii. Wavelength of the light used (λ),
iii. Concentration of the solution (C) in g cm-1,
iv. Nature of the solvent used,
v. Pathlength ( distance travelled by light trough the optically active solution),
vi. Temperature at which the measurements are made.
Specific rotation: It is defined as the rotation produced by a solution of length of 10
centimetre (one decimetre) and unit concentration (1g/mL) for the given wavelength of the
light at the given temperature.
0C  obs
Specific rotation,  =
 lxC
Where, αobs is the rotation observed.
Enantiomers: Compounds which are mirror images of each other and are not
superimposable are termed as enantiomers (Greek enantio =opposite; meros = parts:) and
phenomenon is described as enantiomerism.
(i) A pair of enantiomers have identical physical and chemical properties but differ from each
other in the rotation of plane polarized light.

(ii) In order to exhibit optical activity, an object or molecule must be chiral.
(iii) Chirality or molecular dissymmetry is a necessary condition for the existence of
enantiomers.
Chirality: It is a geometric property of some molecules and ions. An object or molecule
having no plane of symmetry is called dissymmetric or chiral. An object is chiral if its
mirror image is nonsuperimposable on its original object. “Handedness”: Right-hand
glove does not fit the left hand.
A symmetric object or molecule is referred to as Achiral. A molecule that has a plane of
symmetry is achiral. Mirror images that can be superposed are achiral (not chiral).
A carbon atom which is bonded to four different atoms or groups in the molecule is called
Chiral carbon or asymmetric carbon atom (chiral centre).
COOH
H C* OH
Chiral
CH3 centre
d-Lactic acid

A chiral molecule/ion is non-superposable on its mirror image. The presence of
an asymmetric carbon center is one of the main structural features that induce chirality in
organic and inorganic molecules.
The mirror images of a chiral molecule or ion are called enantiomers or optical isomers.
ndividual enantiomers are often designated as either right-handed or left-handed. The concept
is of great practical importance because most biomolecules and pharmaceuticals are chiral.
Diastereomers:
• Molecules with two or more chiral carbons.

• Stereoisomers that are not mirror images.
• Stereoisomers that have different compounds with different physical properties
FISCHER PROJECTION:
Emil Fischer (1891) provided an easy method to represent the three dimensional formulae of
organic molecules on paper. Thus, Fisher projection is a planar (two dimensional)
representation of the three dimensional structure. The important rules are:
(i) The carbon chain of the compound is arranged vertically with the most oxidised carbon at
the top.
(ii) The asymmetric carbon atom is in the paper plane and is represented at the interaction of
crossed lines.
Asymmetric
1 carbon atom
3 4 C
(iii) Vertical lines represent bonds going away from the observer, i.e., groups attached to the
vertical lines are present behind the plane of the paper.
(iv) Horizontal lines represent bonds coming towards the observer, i.e., groups attached to the
horizontal lines are present above the plane of the paper. Examples:
CH3 H3C
H C OH HO C H
CH2CH3 H3CH2C
Enantiomers of lactic acid Enantiomers of butan-2-ol
ABSOLUTE CONFIGURATION (R and S system of nomenclature):

R and S system of nomenclature is developed by Cahn, Ingold and Prelog. The important
features of the system are:
Step 1. Order of Priority: The four different groups attached to the chiral carbon atom are
assigned a priority order or 1,2,3 or 4 on the basis of sequence rules as mentioned in E and Z
nomenclature of alkenes. Atoms with higher atomic numbers receive higher priorities. 1 is
the highest priority group and 4 is the lowest, (i.e., 1> 2> 3> 4).

I > Br > Cl > S > F > O > N > 13C > 12C > 2H > 1H
Step 2: If two of atoms attached to the chiral central are same and their priority sequence is
unable to be decided on the basis of rule 1, in such cases the relative priorities can be decided
by comparing the second (or even third) atom of the respective group as mentioned in E and
Z nomenclature of alkenes..
CH33 CH2CH32
CH3CH22 C OH1 H4 C CH33
H4 Br1
Butan-2-ol 2-Bromobutane
Step 3 : This is an extension of rule II. If the second atom is attached by double bond or
triple bond, then double bonds are treated as they have two single bonds and triple bonds
have three single bonds respectively. In other words, each double bonded atom is duplicated
and triply bonded atom is triplicated. Thus,
N
C O becomes C O , C N becomes C N
O N
If the chiral carbon contains phenyl groups in addition to double bond and triple bonded
groups, then the priority order is as follows
C6H5─ > ─C≡CH > ─CH═CH2 > ─ CH(CH3)2

Example: Glyceraldehyde: The order of priority in glyceraldehydes is :
H O
C2
4
H C OH1
3
CH2OH
─OH =(1), ─CHO = (2), ─CH2OH = (3), ─H = (4).
Step 4: After deciding the priority of four atoms or groups attached to the chirality centre, the
molecule (formula) is now rotated so that the group of lowest priority (4) is directed away
from the eye (viewer). The arrangement of remaining three groups is viewed in decreasing
order of their priorities, i.e., from 1 to2 to 3. In looking so, if the eye travels in a clockwise
direction, the configuration is specified as R (Latin word rectus meaning right), while in case
eye travels in the anticlockwise direction, the configuration is specified as S ( Lation word
sinister meaning left). Examples: Lactic acid, Bromochloroiodomethane.
2
2
COOH 2
COOH 2
Br Br
C* C* C* C*
4
H 3
CH3
4
H OH1 4
H 3
Cl
4
H I1
1 3
OH 3
CH3 I Cl
R- (clockwise) S- (anticlockwise) R- (clockwise) S- (anticlockwise)
Lactic acid Bromochloroiodomethane
Priority order of important atoms or groups:
─I, ─Br, ─Cl, ─SO3H, ─SH, F, ─OR, ─OH, ─NO2, ─NR2, ─NHR, ─NH2, ─COOR,
─COOH, ─CONH2, ─COCH3, ─CHO, ─CH2OH, ─CN, ─CR3, C6H5─, ─C≡CH,
─CH═CH2, ─CH2R, ─CH3, ─D and ─H.
 When the molecule contains more than one chiral centre, the same procedure is
applied in each.
 A racemic mixture is designated as (R, S)

 The direction of rotation of plane polarised light has nothing to do with R-S notation.
An R – or S –compound may be either dextrorotatory or laevorotatory.
Assigning of R and S configuration from Fisher Projections containing one chiral

centre.
Step1: Assign priorities to the four atoms or groups attached to chiral centre.
Step2: Apply priority rules. The lowest priority H or group is placed vertically (upward or
downward ) in the Fischer projection and directed away from the viewer.
Step 3: Determine the direction of rotation while going from priority group 1 to 2 to 3 and
assign R or S configuration. This step is carried out in four different ways:
(i) When atom or group of lowest priority is at the bottom of vertical line: Move the eye
in order of decreasing priority to determine the configuration.
2 2
2
COOH 2
COOH CHO CHO
3 1
HO1 C 3
CH3 3
CH3 C OH1 HO1 C CH2OH HOH2C3 C OH
H4 H4 H4 H4
R-Lactic acid S-Lactic acid R-Glyceraldehyde S-Glyceraldehyde
(ii) When atom or group of lowest priority is at the top of vertical line: In this case rotate
the entire molecule through 180, so that the atoms or groups of lowest priority come at the
bottom. Now, move the eye in order of decreasing priority to determine the configuration.
2
H4 CHO
3
Rotate 180o 1
HO1 C CH2OH HOH2C3 C OH
2
CHO H4
S-Glyceraldehyde
(iii) When atom or group of lowest priority is at the left hand side on the horizontal line:
In this case without changing the position at the top of vertical line, change the positions of
other atoms or groups in anticlockwise direction till the group of lowest priority comes at the
bottom of vertical line. Now, note the movement of eye in order of decreasing priority to
determine the configuration.

2 2
CHO CHO
Without changing CHO

H4 C OH1 HO1 C 3
CH2OH
Change other positions
anticlockwise
3
CH2OH H4
R-Glyceraldehyde
(iv) When atom or group of lowest priority is at the right hand side on the horizontal
line: In this case without changing the position at the top of vertical line, change the positions
of other atoms or groups in clockwise direction till the group of lowest priority comes at the
bottom of vertical line. Now, note the movement of eye in order of decreasing priority to
determine the configuration.
2
2
CHO CHO
Without changing CHO 1

HO1 C H4 HOH2C3 C OH
Change other positions
clockwise
3
CH2OH H4
S-Glyceraldehyde
Calculation of number of stereoisomers: The number of optical isomers of a
compound depends on its structure and number of asymmetric carbon atoms
present in its molecule.
(i) When the molecule cannot divided into two equal halves, i.e., the molecule
has no symmetry (unsymmetrical) and n is the number of asymmetric carbon
atoms, then
The number of d- and l- (optical isomers) forms, a = 2n
The number of meso-forms, m = 0
Total number of optical (stereo) isomers = a + m = 2n
Example: Lactic acid contain one asymmetric carbon centre (n =1).
a = 21 = 2, m = 0, racemic mixture, r = 2/2 =1
total optical isomers = 2 + 0 =2.

(ii) When the molecule can be divided into equal halves, i.e., the molecule has symmetry
and the number (n) of asymmetric carbon atoms is even, then
The number of d- and l- (optical isomers) forms, a = 2(n1)

(n/2) 1
(n1) n/2) 1
Total number of optical (stereo) isomers =a+m = 2 + 2(
Example: Tartaric acid contain two asymmetric carbon centre (n =2)
n/ /
a = 2(n1) = 2(21) = 21=2; Meso forms m = 2( 2) 1 =2(2 2) 1= 20 = 1.
total optical isomers = 2 + 1 =3.
(iii) When the molecule can be divided into equal halves (symmetrical) and the number (n)
of asymmetric carbon atoms is odd, then
The number of d- and l- (optical isomers) forms, a = 2(n1)2(n1)/2

(n1)/2
(n1)
Total number of optical (stereo) isomers =a+m = 2
* * *
Example : CH2OH CHOH CHOH CHOH CH2OH ( n = 3 )
, a = 2(n1)2(n1)/2 = 22 21= 2. m = 2(n1)/2 = m = 2(31)/2 = 21=2

Total optical isomers = 2 + 2 = 4.
Chapter 6.
Polymer chemistry
What is a Polymer?
The word polymer is derived from the Greek word Poly meaning many and meros meaning
parts. Polymers are high molecular mass compounds formed by polymerization of large
number of simple repeating chemical units. The simple repeating low molecular mass
chemical units are called monomers (mono = one). A polymer may be defined as “a number
of repeating chemical units held together by covalent bonds.” The process of joining of a
large number of simple molecules (monomers) in a regular fashion to make high molecular
mass polymer through covalent bonds is termed as polymerization, Polymers are also called
macromolecules (macro = large), which have very high molecular masses.
What is a Plastic?: A polymer that can be molded when hot and regains its shape when
cooled. Smaller species formed by the process of polymerisation of a monomer are referred
to dimer, trimer, tetramer, pentamer .......... polymer, etc depending on the number of
monomer units.
Monomer A
Dimer Two monomer units A─A
Trimer Three monomer units A─A─A
Tetramer Four monomer units A─A─A─A
Pentamer Five monomer units A─A─A─A─A
Polymer Large no. of monomer (A)n
Example: High molecular mass (about 20,000) polyethylene can be obtained by heating
ethylene under pressure with oxygen. This compound is made up of many ethylene units
(monomers) and hence is called polyethylene.
473K, 1500 atm.
nH2C CH2 ......CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 ........or
(Oxygen)
H2C CH2
Ethene n
Polythene
Where n is called degree of polymerization.
Homopolymers and Co-Polymers: Polymers are divided into two categories depending
upon the nature of the repeating structural units.
(i) Homopolymers (ii) Co-polymers
A polymer which is made by polymerization of one type of monomer molecule is known as a

homopolymer. On the other hand, a polymer made from more than one type of monomer
molecule is referred to as a co-polymer. Few examples of common homopolymers and co-
polymers are given in the following tables:

Table-1 HOMOPOLYMERS
S. Name of the Monomer Uses
No. homopolymer
1. Polyethylene H2C = CH2 In the manufacture of pipes, toys,

Ethylene bags, wire insulators, squeeze.
bottles, etc.
2. Polypropylene H2C = CH─CH3 In the manufacture of toys, bags,

Propylene carpets, films, bottles, etc.
3 Polyvinyl chloride H2C = CH─Cl In the manufacture of sheets, water

(PVC) Vinyl chloride pipes, hoses, hand bags, plumbing
fitting, shower curtains, coats, etc.
4. Polystyrene H2C = CH─C6H5 In the manufacture of combs, toys

Styrene radio and television cabinets,
packaging material for shock
absorbance’
5. Polyacrylonitrile H2C = CH─CN In the manufacture of orlon (fibre),

(PAN) or Orlon Acrylonitrile. acrilon films and a substitute for
wool, for making cloth and
blankets.
6. Teflon F2C = CF2
(Polytetrafluoroethene) Tetrafluoro ethylene In the manufacture of insulators,
gaskets, non-stick cookwares, etc.
7. Buna rubber H2C = CH─ HC = CH2 In the manufacture of tyres, hoses,

Buta-1,3-diene etc.,
8. Polyvinyl acetate H2C = CHOOCCH3 In the manufacture of latex paint.

Vinyl acetate
Table-2. CO-POLYMERS
S. Name of the Co- Monomer Uses
No polymer
1. Synthetic rubber or H2C = CH─C6H5 In the manufacture of tyres,
Styrene butadiene rubber Styrene belting, hoses and rubber
(SBR) or (Buna-S) + soles.
H2C = CH─ HC = CH2
Buta-1,3-diene
2 Dacron or Terylene HO─H2C ─ CH2─OH

(Polyester) Ethylene glycol In the manufacture of fabrics
+ and magnetic recording tapes.

Dimethyl terephthalate
HO─H2C ─ CH2─OH
3. Glyptal (Polyester) Ethylene glycol In the manufacture of paints
+ and lacquers.
Phthalic acid
HOOC(CH2)4COOH
4. Nylon-6,6 Adipic acid In the manufacture of fabrics,
(Polyamide) + tyre cords, ropes, carpets, etc.,
H2N(CH2)6NH2
Hexamethylenediamine
HCHO + C6H5─OH
5. Bakelite (Formaldehyde Formaldehyde + Phenol In the manufacture of
resin) electrical goods, phonograph
records, insulators, fountain
pen barrels, combs, etc.
HCHO
6. Melamine-formaldehyde Formaldehyde In the manufacture of plastic
resin or Melmac + crockery.
Melamine
HO─H2C ─ CH2─OH
7. Polyurethane Ethylene glycol In the manufacture of fibres,
+ paints and heat insulators.,
OCN─HC = CH─NCO etc.,
Ethylene di-isocyanate
Classification of Polymers: Polymers may be calssified in a number of ways as described

below.
1. Classification based upon source or origin,

2. Classification based upon synthesis,
3. Classification based upon mechnism,
4. Classification based upon structure,
5. Classification based upon molecular forces.
1.Classification based upon source or origin: On the basis of their origin, polymers may be
classified into three groups:
(i) Natural polymers (iii) Synthetic polymers

(i) Natural polymers: These are substances of natural origin, i,e., these are found in nature
mainly in plants and animals. The well known polymers are proteins (polymers of
aminoacids), polysaccharides (polymers of monosaccharides) and rubber (polymer of
isoprene i,e., 2-methylbuta-1,3-diene). Silk, wool, starch, cellulose, enzymes, natural rubber,
nucleic acids (RNA and DNA) etc., are the examples of natural polymers.
(ii) Synthetic polymers: These are man made polymers, i,e.,polymers synthesized in
laboratory. A list of synthetic polymers are given in tables 1 & 2.
2.Classification based upon synthesis: On the basis of made of synthesis, polymers are
classified into four types:
(i) Addition polymerization (or Chain growth polymers)

(ii) Condensation polymers (or Step-growth polymers)
(iii) Co-Ordination polymerisation.
(iv) Ring-Opening polmerisation (ROP)
(i) Addition polymerization (or Chain growth polymers): These are polymers formed by
the addition of molecules of the monomers to form macromolecules without elimination of
anything. The addition polymers are formed by monomers which are unsaturated compounds,
e.g., ethene and its derivatives. The key feature of addition polymerization is that monomers
add to one another in such a way that the polymeric product contains all the atoms of the
starting monomers. Ethene, vinyl chloride and vinyl cyanide are some of the examples which
undergo addition polymerization.
nMonomer Polymers
nEthene polythene
H H H H H H H H
I C C C C C C C C
Initiator H H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
I C C C C C C C C
H H H H H H H H
Polyethene Monomer unit
Polymerization of vinlychloride gives polyvinylchloride (PVC)
H Cl Cl H Cl H Cl H
C C + C C + C C + C C
H H H H H H H H
Monomer repeating unit

Not monomer
H Cl Cl H Cl H Cl H
C C C C C C C C
H H H H H H H H
n
PVC
(i) Chain growth addition polymerization: It involves a series of reactions each of which
consumes a reactive particle and produces another similar one.The chain growth
polymerisation initiate either by free radicals or ions (cations or anions) to which
monomers get added by a chain reaction. Molecular weight increases by successively adding
monomers to a reactive polymer chain end. The polymers thus, formed are known as chain
growth polymers. It is an important reaction of alkenes and conjugated dienes. Polythene,
polypropylene, teflon (PTFE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene, are some examples of
chain growth addition polymers.
(a) Free radicle mechanism: Free radical polymerization is initiated by organic

peroxide or other reagents which decompose to give radicals. The reaction involve the
following steps:
(i) Chain initiation: Organic peroxides undergo homolytic fission in the presence of light or
heat to form free radicles. The important peroxide which generate free radicals are alkyl
peroxides, bezoyl peroxide and azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN).

O O O
Heat
R C O O C R 2R C O 2R 2 CO2
Peroxide Unstable radical

In case Free radical
of benzoyl peroxide, the free radical formed is benzoyloxy radical and then phenyl free
radical.
O O O
Heat
C O O C 2 C O 2 2 CO2
Benzoyl peroxide Benzoyloxy radical Phenyl radical
Azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN) is another common reagent for the initiation of radical

reactions. AIBN decomposes at temperatures above 600C to form isobutyronitrile radicals,
which initiate radical polymerisation.
CN CN CN
CH3 C N N C CH3 2 CH3 C + N2
CH3 CH3 CH3

Free radical
AIBN
(ii) Chain propagation: Free radicals add to an alkene (ethene) molecule to form a new
alkyl radical.
R CH2 CH2 R CH2 CH2
The alkyl free radical formed attacks another alkene molecule and the process continues in
building a long chain.
R CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 R CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2
(iii) Chain termination: The chain reaction comes to stop when two radical chains combine
(coupling of two radical chains) or chain termination occurs by disproportionation.
(a) Coupling : Coupling of two polymer radical chains stops the reaction.
R(CH2 CH2 )n CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 (CH2 CH2 )n R
R (CH2 CH2 )n CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 (CH2 CH2 )n R
Examples of polymers prepared by radical polymerisation are:

(b) Cationic addition polymerizations mechanism: It is initiated by use of strong Lewis
acids such as H2SO4, HF, AlCl3, SnCl4, TiCl4 or BF3 in H2O. The mechanism of cationic
addition polymerization is best illustrated by the polymerization of isobutylene using BF3 as a
catalyst and water as a co-catalyst.
Cationic polymerizations are most common with monomers with electron-donating groups.
OR SR
Styrene Isobutylene Vinyl ethers Vinyl thioethers
Some common examples of alkenes (monomers) undergoing cationic polymerization are

ethylene, propylene, isobutylene, styrene, vinyl ethers and butadienes, etc.
(C)Anionic addition polymerisation: It is initiated by strong bases such as butyl lithium

CH3CH2CH2CH2Li, sodamide (NaNH2), Grignard reagents (RMgX). Monomers having
electron withdrawing groups such as cyano (─CN), esters (─COOR), nitro (─NO2) etc
increase the rate of anioinc addition polymesization. Because these groups decrease the
electron density across double bond and facilitate the attack of nucleophile.
(ii) Condensation polymers (or Step-growth polymers): Condensation polymers are

formed by the condensation of monomers with the elimination of simple molecules such as
water, alcohol, NH3, HCl, CO2, etc. Condensation polymers are generally formed by reaction
between polyfunctional monomers. Proteins, starch, cellulose etc., are the examples of natural
condensation polymers. Amongst the synthetic polymers, two main taypes of condensation

polymers are: polyesters and polyamides.These are also called step-growth polymers since
they are formed as a result of stepwise reaction.
Some important condensation or step-growth polymers are terelene (Ethylene glycol

+ Dimethyl terephthalate), Nylon-66 (Adipic acid + Hexa methylene diamine), Bakelite
(phenol + formaldehyde), Melamine-formaldehyde resin), Polyurethane (Ethylene glycol +
Ethylene di-isocyanate), alkyl resin (Ethylene glycol + Phthalic acid), silicones, etc.
Polyester: Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), is made from terephthalic acid and ethylene
glycol monomers:
Polyamide: Nylon-66: This polymer is formed by condensation of adipic acid with hexa
methylene diamine), It has 12 carbon atoms in it’s polymer structure, 6 from each of the two
monomers; Hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid . Hence it is referred to as Nylon 6,6.
(iii) Coordination Polymerization. Before the development of Ziegler – Natta catalyst

nearly all addition polymerisation reactions, are carried out by free radical polymerization.
The reactions are conducted at high temperature and pressure. As a result of this, highly
branched polymers with irregularly oriented bulky side groups without any stereochemistry
are produced. Such type of polymers are called atactic polymers. These polymers unable to
arrange each other in regular order because of irregularly oriented bulky groups (due to steric
reasons). Consequently, they have low crystallinity, amorphous in nature, low melting and
low tensile strength.
In contrast, polymerization by the use of Ziegler – Natta catalyst proceed under mild
conditions produces unbranched, highly compact (ordered) and stereoregular polymers called
isotactic polymers. The reaction proceed via Coordination polymerization..
Ziegler – Natta catalysts are a combination of organometallic which consist of a complex of

triethyl aluminium, (CH3CH2)3Al and transition metal chloride (TiCl4). The catalyst catalyses
polymerisation of alkenes at low temperature and pressure. The reaction proceed via
coordiation polymerization. The three types of polypropylene are shown below.

Example 1.. Polymerisation of propylene using Ziegler – Natta catalyst give high density
polypropylene (HDPE).
CH3 CH3
Ziegler-Natta Cat.
2n(CH3 CH CH2) CH CH2 CH CH2 n
1000C, 10 atm
Propene Polypropylene
Example 2. Isoprene was polymerized by Ziegler catalyst to a substance identical with natural
rubber.
Me Me
Ziegler-Natta Cat.
nCH2 C CH C 2
CH (CH2 C CH CH2) n
1000C, 10 atm
Isoprene cis-1,4-Polyisopren
ne
(Rubber)
(iv) Ring–Opening
Opening polymerization (ROP): A reaction in which a cyclic monomer can react
by opening its ring system and form a longer polymeric chain is called Ring Ring-opening
polymerization. The reaction is initiated by radicals or anionic or cationic method.
method
A ROP is another form of chain

chain-growth
growth polymerization in which the terminal end group of a
polymer chain acts as a reactive center. Typical cyclic monomers that can be polymerized via
ROP are di-functional
functional monomers that carry two different reactive groups lik
like one amine or
alcohol and one carboxylic acid that have undergone a cyclization reaction. Two examples
are caprolactam and caprolactone:

5, Classification of polymers based upon molecular forces: Polymers have been classified
into four types on the basiss of the magnitude of intermolecular forces present in them.
(i) Elastomers: A polymer with both viscous and elastic properties is known as
an elastomer. Elastomers have very weak intermolecular forces of attraction between the
polymer chains. The weak forces permit the polymer to be stretched out about 10 times their
normal length. Few chemical bonds are introduced between the randomly coiled polymer
chains which act as cross-links.
links. These cross
cross-links help
lp the polymer to come to its original
position after the force is released
released. Elastomers thus, posses elastic character. Vulcanized
rubber is a very important example of an elastomer and other examples are natural rubber,
Buna-SS or SBR (a copolymer of butad
butadiene 75% and styrene 25%).
(A) is an unstressed polymer; (B) is the same polymer under stress. When the stress is
removed, it will return to the A configuration. (The dots represent cross
cross-links)
ii) Fibres: These are the polymers which have quite strong intermolecular forces such as
hydrogen bonding. These polymers can be used for making fibre as their molecules are long
and thread like. Nylon-6,6
6,6 polymer, terylene or Dacron and polyacrylonitrile (orlon), etc., are
some important example of this ty
type.
(iii) Thermoplastics: These are the polymers in which the intermolecular forces of attraction
are neither very strong nor very weak and there are no cross
cross-links
links between the chains. These
can be easily moulded by heating i.e., a thermoplastic polymer iss one which soften on heating
and becomes hard on cooling. Because their bonds are weak, thermoplastic polymers readily
soften when heated,

eated, and can be mould them into a wide range of shapes. Thus, thermoplastic
polymers are highly recyclable
recyclable. Polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, PVC, and Teflon
are the example of this thermoplastics. In addition to this, some adhesives, including
acrylates, cyanoacrylates and epoxy are thermoplastic polymers

.
Difference between thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers

S. Thermoplastic polymers Thermosetting polymers
No
1. These soften heating and regain same These do not soften on heating but rather
shape on cooling become hard. In case prolonged heating is
done, these start burning.
2. These can be remoulded, recast and These cannot be remoulded, recast, reshaped
reshaped and recycled. and recycled
3. These are ductile and soluble in some These are more brittle and insoluble in
organic solvents. organic solvents.
4. These are formed by addition These are formed by condensation

polymerization. polymerization.
5. These have usually linear structures. These are branched or cross-linked polymers.
Examples: Polyethylene, PVC, Teflon, Examples: Bakelite, Urea-Formaldehyde,

6. Nylon, etc. Resin, Terylene, etc.
iv) Thermosetting polymers: These are polymers in which extensive cross-links are formed
between polymer chains on heating. A thermosetting polymer becomes hard on heating. Such
polymers are prepared in two steps. The first step is the formation of long chain molecules
which are capable of further reaction with each other. The second step is the application of
heat which causes a reaction to occur between the chains, thus, producing a complex cross-
linked polymer. Bakelite, vulcanised rubber are examples of thermosetting polymer
Phenol- formaldehyde resin (Bakelite): It is obtained by a step-growth polymerization of

phenol and formaldehyde in the presence of basic catalyst. The reaction involves the
formation of methylene bridges in ortho, para or both ortho and para positions. The initial
product is a linear polymer called Novolac which is used in paints

OH OH OH
O CH2OH
OH
H C H
Phenol Formaldehyde CH2OH

Intermediates
OH OH OH
CH2OH
Polymerization CH2
n
n
Novolac
Linear polymer
Novolac on heating with HCHO undergo cross-linkage to form a solid called Bakelite
Bakelite is used for making combs, fountain pens, phonograph records, electrical goods,etc.
Soft bakelites with low degree of polymerization are used as binding glue for lamination,
wooden plants and in varnishes and lacquers. Sulphonated bakelites are used as ion-exchange
resins.
Elastomers: Natural Rubber: It is a polymer which is capable of returning to its original

length, shape or size after being stretched or deformed. Rubber is common example of an
elastomer. The rubber obtained from natural sources is called natural rubber and polymers
prepared in the laboratory which are similar to natural rubber are known as synthetic rubbers.
Natural Rubber:
 It is a polymer which is obtained from rubber trees in the form of a milky sap known
as latex. The latex is coagulated with acetic acid or formic acid. The coagulated mass
is then squeezed.
 The raw natural rubber is a soft, gummy and sticky mass. It is insoluble in water,
dilute acids and alkalies but soluble in benzene, chloroform, ether, petrol and carbon
disulphide. It absorbs a large amount of water. It has low elasticity and low tensile
strength. It breaks when too much stretched.
 Natural rubber is a hydrocarbon polymer. It has the composition(C5H8)n. Destructive
distillation of natural rubber gives mainly Isoprene (2-methyl buta-1,3-diene).
Me
CH2 C CH CH2 =
Isoprene Isoprene
(2-methyl buta-1,3-diene).

Me Me
Polymerization
n CH2 C CH C H2 CH2 C CH C H2
Isoprene cis-1,4-Polyisoprene
(2-methyl buta-1,3-diene). n
(Rubber)
 Natural rubber is a linear 1,4-addition polymer of isoprene. On the average, it contains
5000 isoprene units. Natural rubber is cis 1,4-polyisopren and has only cis
configuration about the double bond as shown below:
Isoprene n
Cis-Polyisoprene Repeat unit
 There are weak vaan der Walls’ forces and therefore, it is elastic and non-crystalline.
Gutta-Percha (getah means gum and percha means tree) is naturally occurring
isomer of rubber in which all the double bonds are trans. So, Gutta-Percha is all
trans-polyisoprene. It is non-elastic and non-crystalline
Vulcanization of Rubber: Natural rubber is soft and sticky and therefore, in order to give
strength and elasticity natural rubber is vulcanized. Vulcanization is a process of treating
natural rubber with sulphur or hydrogen sulphide, or some compounds of sulphur (like SF6)
under heat as to modify its properties, i.e., to render it non-plastic and to give greater
elasticity and ductility. The sulphur reacts with the polymer molecules forming a cross-linked
network. This cross-linking gives mechanical strength to the rubber.
Synthetic Rubber: They are more flexible, tougher and durable than natural rubber.
Neoprene, Buna-S and Cis-polybuta-1,3-diene are some examples of synthetic rubber.

(a) Neoprene: It was the first synthetic rubber manufactured on large scale. It is also
called dieprene. Its monomer, chloroprene (2-chlorobuta-1,3-diene) is prepared from
acetylene.
Chloroprene undergoes free radical polymerization to form neoprene (polychloroprene). It

polymerizes very rapidly (700 times faster than isoprene) and the reaction occurs by
1,4addition of one chloroprene molecule to the other.
Many of the properties of neoprene are similar to natural rubber, but neoprene is more
resistant to action of oils, gasoline and other hydrocarbons. It is also resistant to sunlight,
oxygen, ozone, and heat. It is non-inflammable.
It is therefore, used for making automobile and refrigwrator parts, petrol and oil containers,
insulation of electrical wires and conveyor belts.
(b) Buna-S (SBR – Styrene butadiene rubber): Buna-S rubber is a co-polymer of three
moles of butadiene and one mole of styrene. In Buna-S, ‘Bu’ stands for butadiene, ‘na’ for
symbol of sodium (Na) which is polymerizing agent and ‘S’ stands for styrene. It is an
elastomer.
Buna-S is generally compounded with carbon black and vulcanized with sulphur. It is
extremely resistant to wear and rear and therefore, used in the manufacture of tyres and other
mechanical rubber goods.It is obtained as a result of free radical co-polymerization of its
monomers.
(c) Buna-N: It is obtained by co-polymerization of butadiene and acrylonitrile,

It is resistant to the reaction of petrol, lubricating oil and organic solvents. It is utilized in
making oil seals, tank lining etc.


Applied Organic Chemistry: (Part-B)

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Applied Organic Chemistry (Part-B)

Classification of Organic compounds:

CH3CH2CH3 CH3CHCH3 H2C CH2 HC CH

H3C C OH H3C C CH3 CH3CH2 OH CH3CH2 NH2

(a) Homocyclic or carbocyclic, (b) Heterocyclic.

(i) Alicyclic compounds (ii) Aromatic compounds.

Prepared by: Dr. Shaik Ramjan Vali

The above compounds are also known as benzenoid aromatic compounds as

Prepared by: Dr. Shaik Ramjan Vali

Open-chain, acyclic or aliphatic Closed-chain,or Cyclic

Benzenoid aromatic Non-benzenoid aromatic

General characteristics of Homologous series:

 The molecular mass of every two adjacent members differs by 14 (CH2).

Nomenclature of organic compounds: Nomenclature means the assignment of names to

I. Trivial system, II. IUPAC system.

Prepared by: Dr. Shaik Ramjan Vali

A systematic name of organic compound generally derived by identifying the parent

Prepared by: Dr. Shaik Ramjan Vali

i) Aliphatic unsaturated hydrocarbons: Alkenes (Word root + suffix)

ii) Alkynes (Word root + suffix)

Prefix: Branches in a chain of carbon atoms are regarded as substituents or side

Prepared by: Dr. Shaik Ramjan Vali

Prepared by: Dr. Shaik Ramjan Vali

1. Selection of longest continuous chain:

2. Numbering the parent chain

3. Naming the substituents

Prepared by: Dr. Shaik Ramjan Vali

5. Naming different substituents

6. Naming different substituents at equivalent positions

Examples for IUPAC nomenclature of alkanes

Nomenclature of alkenes: They are unsaturated hydrocarbons. There is double bond

Prepared by: Dr. Shaik Ramjan Vali

CH3─CH3 CH2 ═ CH2 CH3─CH2─ CH3 CH2═ CH─ CH3

1. Selection of longest continuous chain:

2. Numbering the parent chain

3. Naming the substituents:

Prepared by: Dr. Shaik Ramjan Vali

5. Naming different substituents.

6. Naming different substituents at equivalent positions:

Examples for IUPAC nomenclature of alkenes:

Prepared by: Dr. Shaik Ramjan Vali

1. Selection of longest continuous chain.

2. Numbering the parent chain

3. Naming the substituents.

Prepared by: Dr. Shaik Ramjan Vali

5. Naming different substituents.

6. Naming different substituents at equivalent positions.

Examples for IUPAC nomenclature of alkynes:

Nomenclature of aliphatic cyclic compounds

Prepared by: Dr. Shaik Ramjan Vali

2. Presence of substituents or double/triple bonds is indicated according to IUPAC rules

I. Nomenclature of organic compounds containing functional group:

2. Selection of longest continuous chain.

Prepared by: Dr. Shaik Ramjan Vali

Class of Structure of IUPAC suffix (s)

Carboxylic acid –oic acid(s) CH3CH2CH2COOH

Prepared by: Dr. Shaik Ramjan Vali

Halide –X Halo (p) or – yl CH3CH2CH2Cl

Examples for IUPAC nomenclature of organic compounds containing functional group.