Training Centre Module 13- AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS

Category – B2 Sub Module 13.8(a) - Instrument Systems

MODULE 13
Sub Module 13.8(a)

INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.8(a) - Instrument Systems

CONTENTS THERMO-RESISTANCE METHOD --------------------------------- 19

THERMO-MAGNETIC SHUNT METHOD -------------------------- 19
TERMINOLOGY ----------------------------------------------------------- 1 SEALING OF INSTRUMENTS AGAINST ATMOSPHERIC
EFFECTS ------------------------------------------------------------------ 20
REQUIREMENTS, STANDARDS AND CLASSIFICATION ---- 3
INSTRUMENT DISPLAYS, PANELS AND LAYOUTS ---------- 21
REQUIREMENTS --------------------------------------------------------- 4
QUANTITATIVE DISPLAYS ------------------------------------------- 21
LOCATION, VISIBILITY AND GROUPING OF INSTRUMENTS
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4 CIRCULAR SCALE ------------------------------------------------------ 21
INSTRUMENT PANELS ------------------------------------------------- 4 HIGH-RANGE LONG-SCALE DISPLAYS -------------------------- 25
FLIGHT AND NAVIGATION INSTRUMENTS ---------------------- 4 ANGLE OF OBSERVATION------------------------------------------- 27
PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM ------------------------------------------------ 5 SCALE AND OPERATING RANGE --------------------------------- 27
GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS --------------------------------------- 5 STRAIGHT SCALE ------------------------------------------------------ 29
DUPLICATE INSTRUMENTS ------------------------------------------ 5 DIGITAL DISPLAY ------------------------------------------------------- 31
MAGNETIC COMPASS -------------------------------------------------- 5 DUAL-INDICATOR DISPLAYS --------------------------------------- 33
POWER PLANT INSTRUMENTS ------------------------------------- 6 COLORED DISPLAYS -------------------------------------------------- 33
STANDARDS --------------------------------------------------------------- 7 QUALITATIVE DISPLAYS --------------------------------------------- 36
LEVER MECHANISM----------------------------------------------------10 DIRECTOR DISPLAYS ------------------------------------------------- 36
GEARS ----------------------------------------------------------------------12 LIGHT-EMITTING DISPLAYS ----------------------------------------- 40
HAIRSPRINGS ------------------------------------------------------------14 LIQUID-CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD) --------------------------------- 40
TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION OF INSTRUMENT LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED) ------------------------------------- 42
MECHANISMS ------------------------------------------------------------16 INSTRUMENT PANELS AND LAYOUTS -------------------------- 44
BIMETAL-STRIP METHOD --------------------------------------------16 INSTRUMENT GROUPING ------------------------------------------- 46

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.8(a) - Instrument Systems

FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS -----------------------------------------------46 INDICATED/COMPUTED AIRSPEED INDICATOR ------------- 86

PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES AND SYSTEMS ---------50 ALTIMETERS (PNEUMATIC) ---------------------------------------- 88
AIR DATA INSTRUMENTS --------------------------------------------52 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE SETTING ----------------------------- 91
THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE ---------------------------------------53 ‘Q’ CODE FOR ALTIMETER SETTING----------------------------- 96
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE -----------------------------------------53 VERTICAL SPEED INDICATORS ----------------------------------- 98
ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE -----------------------------------53 INSTANTANEOUS VERTICAL SPEED INDICATORS (IVSI) 102
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE ------------------------------------------55 INSTRUMENT PNEUMATIC SYSTEM --------------------------- 104
PITOT STATIC SYSTEM -----------------------------------------------56 DIRECT-READING PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE
GAUGES ----------------------------------------------------------------- 108
PROBES --------------------------------------------------------------------60
TEMPERATURE INDICATING SYSTEM ------------------------ 118
HEATING CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS ----------------------------63
AIR TEMPERATURE INDICATORS------------------------------- 123
POSITION ERROR-------------------------------------------------------66
AIR DATA ALERTING AND WARNING SYSTEMS ----------- 129
STATIC VENTS -----------------------------------------------------------67
MACH WARNING SYSTEM ----------------------------------------- 129
LOCATION OF PROBES AND STATIC VENTS ------------------67
ALTITUDE REPORTING/ALERTING SYSTEM ---------------- 133
PIPELINES AND DRAINS ----------------------------------------------73
ANGLE OF ATTACK SENSING ----------------------------------- 136
AIR DATA INSTRUMENTS --------------------------------------------75
STALL WARNING SYSTEMS -------------------------------------- 137
AIRSPEED INDICATORS (PNEUMATIC) -------------------------75
STICK PUSHERS ------------------------------------------------------ 141
PITOT PRESSURE ------------------------------------------------------75
INDICATORS ----------------------------------------------------------- 141
AIRSPEED TERMINOLOGY-------------------------------------------77
AIR DATA COMPUTERS -------------------------------------------- 142
TYPICAL INDICATOR ---------------------------------------------------79
ANALOG ADC ---------------------------------------------------------- 144
SQUARE-LAW COMPENSATION -----------------------------------79
TRANSDUCERS ------------------------------------------------------- 146
MACHMETERS AND MACH/AIRSPEED INDICATORS -------82

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.8(a) - Instrument Systems

MODULE OPERATION ----------------------------------------------- 148 METHODS OPERATING GYROSCOPIC FLIGHT

INSTRUMENTS -------------------------------------------------------- 184
FAILURE WARNING--------------------------------------------------- 151
PNEUMATIC ------------------------------------------------------------ 184
INDICATORS ------------------------------------------------------------ 151
ELECTRIC --------------------------------------------------------------- 187
AIRSPEED INDICATORS -------------------------------------------- 152
ARTIFICIAL HORIZONS/GYRO HORIZON --------------------- 189
ALTIMETERS------------------------------------------------------------ 160
PNEUMATIC TYPE OF GYRO HORIZON ----------------------- 192
STATIC AIR TEMPERATURE INDICATION --------------------- 164
ELECTRIC GYRO HORIZON --------------------------------------- 192
GYROSCOPIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS------------------------- 170
STANDBY ATTITUDE INDICATORS ----------------------------- 194
GYROSCOPIC PRINCIPLES---------------------------------------- 170
ERECTION SYSTEMS FOR GYRO HORIZONS -------------- 195
DETERMINING THE DIRECTION OF PRECESSION -------- 172
PENDULOUS VANE UNIT ------------------------------------------- 195
CLASSIFICATION OF GYRO --------------------------------------- 175
BALL-TYPE ERECTION UNIT -------------------------------------- 198
REFERENCES ESTABLISHED BY GYROSCOPES ---------- 176
TORQUE MOTOR AND LEVELING SWITCH SYSTEM ----- 201
LIMITATIONS OF A FREE GYROSCOPE ----------------------- 178
FAST ERECTION SYSTEMS --------------------------------------- 205
GYRO WANDER ------------------------------------------------------- 178
ERECTION RATE ------------------------------------------------------ 205
APPARENT DRIFT ----------------------------------------------------- 178
ERRORS DUE TO ACCELERATION AND TURNING -------- 206
REAL DRIFT ------------------------------------------------------------- 179
ERECTION ERRORS ------------------------------------------------- 206
TRANSPORT WANDER ---------------------------------------------- 182
INCLINED SPIN AXIS------------------------------------------------- 209
CONTROL OF DRIFT AND TRANSPORT WANDER --------- 183
ERECTION CUT OUT ------------------------------------------------ 209
DISPLACEMENT GYROSCOPE LIMITATIONS ---------------- 183
PITCH ROLL (BANK) ERECTION --------------------------------- 211
GIMBAL LOCK ---------------------------------------------------------- 183
DIRECTIONAL GYROS ---------------------------------------------- 213
GIMBAL ERROR ------------------------------------------------------- 183
DIRECTION INDICATOR -------------------------------------------- 213

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.8(a) - Instrument Systems

CONTROL OF DRIFT ------------------------------------------------- 215

GIMBAL RING BALANCING ----------------------------------------- 215
ERECTION DEVICES ------------------------------------------------- 215
GIMBAL ERRORS------------------------------------------------------ 217
TURN AND BANK INDICATOR ------------------------------------- 219
RATE GYROSCOPE -------------------------------------------------- 220
BANK INDICATION ---------------------------------------------------- 221
SLIP INDICATORS ---------------------------------------------------- 224
TYPICAL INDICATOR ------------------------------------------------- 224
TURN COORDINATOR ----------------------------------------------- 226
COMPASS SYSTEM -------------------------------------------------- 227
DIRECT READING COMPASSES --------------------------------- 227
TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM --------------------------------------- 227
MAGNETIC VARIATION ---------------------------------------------- 229
MAGNETIC DIP --------------------------------------------------------- 230
EARTH’S TOTAL FORCE -------------------------------------------- 231

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TERMINOLOGY instrument A now has +1/2 percent error while instrument B

again shows+1 percent error.
As in other technical fields, instrument engineering has its own In such a case, instrument A would say to be having the higher
expressions. Some of these are in every-day use but they have accuracy, but instrument B the greater precision.
an exact meaning when referring to instruments.
SENSITIVITY
SUB-STANDARD The sensitivity of an instrument is the measure of the ratio
A standard is a measuring device kept under very exacting output to input, e.g. a pilot’s altimeter responds to change of
conditions in a National Physics Laboratory. It would not be 1000 feet by moving the pointer through one revolution of the
practical to check every instrument against this standard and so dial. The navigator’s altimeter pointer will only move through
a sub-standard is used. 1/10th of a revolution of the dial. Therefore the pilot’s altimeter is
A sub-standard is an instrument of very good quality which from said to be more sensitive than the navigator’s altimeter.
time to time is checked against the standard. Where possible a
sub-standard should be built into test panel but if a portable unit CALIBRATION (1)
is necessary it should be built into a strong box with adequate The calibration of an instrument is the method of expressing
shock mounting and rubber feet. It should only be used for physical units on the dial. This can best be understood by
checking the accuracy of other instruments. considering the following examples:
a. A pressure gauge may be calibrated in:
ACCURACY Pounds per square inch.
This implies truth: that is, an instrument is said to be accurate if Kilogram per square centimeter.
it agrees with a true measure. Inches of water.
Inches of mercury.
NOTE b. A moving coil meter may be calibrated in :
From time to time all instruments are compared with the Volts .
readings of a Master Instrument to check their degree of Amps.
accuracy. Degree Centigrade .
Degrees Fahrenheit.
PRECISION
This means exactness, i.e. the same reading every time. For
example, taking two instruments A and B and checking them
against a sub-standard may show an error of both in say +1
percent, which gives them both the same degree of accuracy. A
subsequent check against the sub-standard may show

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.8(a) - Instrument Systems

CALIBRATION (2) HYSTERESIS

To calibrate an instrument is to adjust the mechanism to obtain This error, sometimes called lag is caused by the small amount
the required accuracy. of friction in the instrument, it is taken from zero to maximum
ERROR: Instrument error is the difference between the and then back to zero again, readings being taken at the same
instrument reading and the true reading and is obtained by points both up and down. If the instrument is found to read
comparing the instrument reading against a sub-standard. The lower at these points on the way up than it does on the way
difference is either a positive or a negative error depending on down, hysteresis error exists.
whether it is greater or less than the reading of the sub-
standard, e.g. If an instrument reads 102 psi and the sub- BACK LASH ERROR
standard reads 100 psi the error is +2 psi. Error due to play or clearance between the teeth of meshed
gears. Split gear or hair springs are used to overcome this error.
CORRECTION
The correction of an instrument is the amount to be added
(Algebraically) to the reading to obtain the true value, e.g. if the
master instrument reads to 100 psi and the instrument under
test reads 102 psi, minus 2 psi must be added to the instrument
reading for true correction.
NOTE: It can be seen then that ERROR and CORRECTION are
equal in magnitude but opposite in sign.

TOLERANCE
This is the amount by which an instrument reading may be
permitted to differ from the true reading and still be accepted as
serviceable,
EXAMPLE: A pressure gauge may be given a tolerance of + or
– 0.5 psi for all readings. Another of giving a tolerance is on a
percentage of the reading. If a certain pressure gauge is given a
tolerance of +_ 1% this means that if the true pressure between
9.9 and 10.1 psi. Whereas with a true pressure of 60 psi applied
to the gauge, it will be allowed to read anything from 59.4 to
60.6 psi.

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REQUIREMENTS, STANDARDS AND It is not intended to go into all the requirements – these take up
volumes in themselves – but rather to extract those related
CLASSIFICATION essentially to instruments; by so doing a useful foundation can
be laid on which to study operating principles and how they are
The complexity of modern aircraft and all allied equipment, and applied in meeting the requirements.
the nature of the environmental conditions under which they
must operate, require conformity of design, development and
subsequent operate; require conformity of design, development
and subsequent operation with established requirements and
standards. This is, of course, in keeping with other branches of
mechanical and transport engineering, but in aviation
requirements and standards are unique and by far the most
stringent.

The formulation and control of airworthiness requirements as

they are called, and the recommended standards to which raw
materials, instruments and other equipment should be designed
and manufactured, are established in the countries of design
origin, manufacture and registration, by government
departments and/or other legally constituted bodies. The
international operation of civil aircraft necessitates international
recognition that aircraft do, in fact, comply with their respective
national airworthiness requirements. As a result, international
standards of airworthiness are also laid down by the
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). These
standards do not replace national regulations, but serve to
define the complete minimum international basis for the
recognition by countries of airworthiness certification.

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.8(a) - Instrument Systems

REQUIREMENTS

LOCATION, VISIBILITY AND GROUPING OF INSTRUMENTS INSTRUMENT PANELS

1. All instruments shall be located so that they can be read The vibration characteristics of instrument panels shall be such
easily by the appropriate member of the flying crew. as not to impair seriously the accuracy of the instruments or to
damage them. The minimum acceptable vibration insulation
2. When illumination of instruments is provided there shall characteristics are established by standard formulated by the
be sufficient illumination to make them easily readable appropriate national organization.
and discernible by night. Instrument lights shall be
installed in such a manner that the pilot’s eyes are CLASSIFICATION
shielded from their direct rats and that no objectionable
reflections are visible to him. FLIGHT AND NAVIGATION INSTRUMENTS

3. Flight, navigation and power-plant instruments for use 1. Altimeter adjustable for changes in barometric pressure
by a pilot shall be plainly visible to him from his station
with the minimum practicable deviation from his normal 2. Airspeed indicator
position and line of vision when he is looking out and
forward along the flight path of the aircraft. 3. Vertical speed indicator

4. All flight instruments shall be grouped on the instrument 4. Gyroscopic bank-and –pitch attitude indicator
panel and, as for as practicable, symmetrically disposed
about the vertical plane of the pilot’s forward vision. 5. Gyroscopic rate-of-turn indicator (with bank indicator)

5. All the required power-plant instruments shall be 6. Gyroscopic direction indicator

conveniently grouped on instrument panels and in such
a manner that they may be readily seen by the 7. Magnetic compass
appropriate crew member.
8. Outside air temperature indicator
6. In multi-engine aircraft, identical power-plant
instruments for the several engines shall be located so 9. Clock
as to prevent any misleading impression as to the
engines to which they relate.

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PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS

Instruments 1, 2 and 3 above form part of an aircraft’s pitot- Gyroscopic instruments may be of the vacuum-operated or
static system, which must also conform to certain requirements. electrically operated type, but in all cases the instruments shall
These are summarized as follows: be provided with two independent sources of power, a means of
selecting either power source, and a means of indicating that
1 The system shall be air-tight, except for the vents to the power supply is working satisfactorily.
atmosphere, and shall be arranged so that the accuracy
of the instruments cannot be seriously affected by the The installation and power supply system shall be such that
aircraft’s speed, attitude, or configuration: by moisture, failure of one instrument, or of the supply from one source, or a
or other foreign matter. fault in any part of the supply system, will not interfere with the
proper supply of power from the other source.
2 The system shall be provided with a heated pitot-
pressure probe to prevent malfunctioning due to icing. DUPLICATE INSTRUMENTS

3 Sufficient moisture traps shall be installed to ensure In aircraft involving two-pilot operation it is necessary for each
positive drainage throughout the whole of the system. pilot to have his own pitot-static and gyroscopic instruments.
Therefore two independent operating systems must be provided
4 In aircraft in which an alternate or emergency system is and must be so arranged that no fault which might impair the
to be installed, the system must be as reliable as the operation of one is likely to impair the operation of both.
primary one and any selector valve must be clearly
marked to indicate which system is in use. MAGNETIC COMPASS

5 Pipelines shall be of such an internal diameter that The magnetic compass shall be installed so that its accuracy
pressure lag and possibility of moisture blockage is kept will not be excessively affected by the aircraft vibration or
to an acceptable minimum. magnetic fields of a permanent or transient nature.

6 Where static vents are used, to obviate yawing errors

they shall be situated on opposite sides of the aircraft
and connected together as one system. Where duplicate
systems are prescribed, a second similar system shall
be provided.

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POWER PLANT INSTRUMENTS during cruising level flight, when the quantity of fuel
remaining is equal to the unusable fuel, i.e. the amount
1. Tachometer to measure the rotational speed of a of fuel remaining when, under the most adverse
crankshaft or a compressor as appropriate to the type of conditions, the first evidence of malfunctioning of an
power plant. engine occurs.

2. Cylinder-head temperature indicator for an air-cooled 10. Fuel-flow indicator for turbojet and turbo propeller
engine to indicate the temperature of the hottest engines. For piston engines not equipped with an
cylinder. automatic mixture control a fuel flow meter or fuel/air
ratio indicator.
3. Carburetor –intake air temperature indicator.
11. Thrust indicator for a turbojet engine.
4. Oil temperature indicator to show the oil inlet and/or
outlet temperature. 12. Torque indicator for a turbo propeller engine.

5. For turbojet and turbo propeller engines a temperature

indicator to indicate whether the turbine or exhaust gas
temperature is maintained within its limitations.

6. Fuel-pressure indicator to indicate pressure at which fuel

is being supplied and a means for warning of low
pressure.

7. Oil-pressure indicator to indicate pressure at which oil is

being supplied to a lubricating system and a means for
warning of low pressure.

8. Manifold pressure gauge for supercharged engine.

9. Fuel-quantity indicator to indicate in gallons or

equivalent units the quantity of usable fuel in each tank
during flight. Indicators shall be calibrated to read zero

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STANDARDS colloquially termed ‘black boxes’. In the main, these factors

cover case dimensions, mounting racks, location of plugs and
In the design and manufacture of any product, it is the practice sockets, and a system of indexing fouling pins to ensure that
to comply with some form of specification the purpose of which only the correct equipment can be fitted in its appropriate rack
is to ensure conformity with the required production processes, position. The size of box is based on a standard width
and to set an overall standard for quality of the product and dimension called ‘one ATR’ (yet another abbreviation meaning
reliability when ultimately performing its intended function. Air Transport Rack) and variations in simple multiples of this
Specifications, or standards as they are commonly known, are provide a range of case widths. Two case lengths are provided
formulated at both national and international levels by for, and are termed long and short, and the height is standard.
Specialized organizations. For example, in the United Kingdom,
the British Standards Institution is the recognized body for the
preparation and promulgation of national standards and codes
of practice, and it represents the United Kingdom in the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in the
International Electro technical Commission (IEC) and in West
European organizations performing comparable functions.

Standards relate to all aspects of engineering and as a result

vast numbers are produced and issued in series form
corresponding to these aspects. As far as aircraft instruments
and associated equipment are concerned, British Standards
come within the Aerospace G100 and G200 series; they give
definitions, constructional requirements, dimensions, calibration
data, accuracy required under varying environmental conditions,
and methods of testing. Also in connection with instruments and
associated electronic equipment, frequent reference is made to
what are termed ARINC specifications. This is an acronym for
Aeronautical radio Incorporated, an organization in the United
States which operates under the aegis of the airline operators,
and in close collaboration with manufacturers.

One notable specification of the many which ARINC formulate is

that which sets out a standard set of form factors for the items

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ELEMENTS MECHANISMS

From the operating point of view, we may regard an instrument In the strictest sense, the term mechanism refers to all four
as being made up of the following four principal elements: elements as a composite unit and contained within the case of
an instrument. However, since the manner in which the
(i) The detecting element, which detects changes in functions of the elements are performed and integrated is
value of the physical quantity or condition presented governed by relevant Instrument operating principles and
to it; construction, this applies to only a very few instruments. In the
majority of applications to aircraft, a separation of some of the
(ii) The measuring element, which actually measures elements is necessary so that three, or maybe only two,
the value of the physical quantity or condition in elements form the mechanism, within the instrument case. The
terms of small translation or angular displacements; direct-reading pressure gauge shown at (a) in Fig 1 is a good
example of a composite unit of mechanical elements, while an
(iii) The coupling element, by which displacements are example of separated mechanical elements as applied to an
magnified and transmitted; and airspeed indicator is shown at (b) in Fig 1. In this example the
detecting element is separated from the three other elements,
(iv) The indicating element, which exhibits the value of which thus from the mechanism within the case.
the measured quantity transmitted by the coupling
element, by the relative positions of a pointer, or There are other examples which will become evident as we
index, and a scale. The relationship between the study subsequent chapters, but at this stage it will not be out of
four element is shown in Fig. place to consider the operation of a class of mechanisms based
on the principles of levers and rods. These are utilized as
coupling elements, which follow definite laws, and can introduce
any required input/output relationship. In aircraft instrument
applications, such lever and rod mechanisms are confined
principally to direct-reading pressure gauges and pitot-static
flight instruments.

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Figure 1 (a)

Figure 1 (b)

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LEVER MECHANISM The effect of lever angle on the input/output relationship is to

change the rate of magnification since the lever angle itself
Let us consider first of all the simple Bourdon tube pressure changes in response to displacement of the measuring element.
gauge shown at (a) in Fig 2. The Bourdon tube forms the This effect is evident from Fig 2 (b). If we assume that the line
detecting and measuring elements, a simple link; lever, AB represents the axis of the lever at its starting position, then
quadrant and pinion form the coupling element, while the the starting lever angle will be 0. Assume now that the
indicating element is made up of the pointer and scale. This measuring element is being displaced by equal increments of
mechanism is of the basic lever type, the lever being in this pressure applied to it. The link attachment point C will move to
case the complete coupling element. When pressure is applied C and will increase the lever angle in two stages; firstly when
to the tube it is displaced, such displacement resulting in input the link pivots about point B, and secondly when the link pulls
and output movements of the coupling and indicating elements, the lever arm of the coupling element upwards from the starting
respectively, in the directions shown. position taking B to point B1. Thus, the axis of the lever arm
has moved to A B and the lever angle has increased to a total
In connection with mechanisms of this type, two terms are used angle θ1. When the next increment of pressure is applied, point
both of which are related to the movement and calibration of the C reaches C2, point B reaches B2 and the axis AB moves to
indicating element; they are, lever length, which is the distance A2B2, so that not only has the lever angle been further
‘d’ between the point of operation of the measuring element and increased, but also the magnification, the distance from A1 to A2
the pivoting point of the lever, and lever angle, which is the being much greater than that from A to A1.
angle 0 between the lever and the link connecting it to the
measuring element. From the foregoing, it would appear that the two effects
counteract each other, and that erratic indications would result.
In order to understand what effects these have on the In all instruments employing lever mechanisms, however,
input/output relationship, let us again refer to Fig 2 (a). The provision is made for the adjustment of lever lengths and angles
movement of the indicating element is proportional to the lever so that the indicating element follows the required calibration
length; thus, if the lever is pivoted at its center, this movement law within the limits permissible.
will be equal to the input movement. Let us now assume that
the pivoting point is moved to a distance d1 from the point of
operation. The lever length is now reduced so that for the same
input movement as before the output movement of the
indicating element will be increased. From this it will be clear
that an increase of lever length to a distance d2 will produce a
decreased output movement for the same input movement.

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Figure 2 (b)

Figure 2 (a)

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GEARS

The coupling and indicating elements of many aircraft The method most commonly adopted in geared mechanisms is
instruments employ gears in one form or another, for the direct one involving the use of a coiled hairspring. The hairspring
conversion of straight-line or arc-like motion into full rotary usually forms part of an indicating element and is positioned so
motion, and for increasing or decreasing the motion. Figure 3 that one end is attached to the pointer shaft and the other to the
illustrates in schematic form how gears are applied to an mechanism frame. In operation, the spring due to tensioning
always has a tendency to unwind so that inherent play between
instrument utilizing a multi-pointer type of indicating element.
gear teeth is taken up and they are maintained in contact.
The sector gear and its meshing pinion provide for the initial
magnification of the measuring element’s displacement. The
Another method, and one which is adopted in certain instrument
gear is a small portion of a large geared wheel, and since it has
systems involving the transmission of data, is the anti-backlash
as many teeth in a few degrees of arc as the pinion has
gear. This consists of two identical gears freely mounted face to
completely around it, the sector need only turn a few degrees to
face on a common hub and interconnected with each other by
rotate the pinion through a complete revolution. The other gears
means of two spring so that, in effect, it is a split single gear
shown in Fig are designed to provide a definite magnification
wheel. Before the gear is meshed with its partner, one half is
ratio of movement between their respective pointers and the
rotated one or two teeth thus slightly stretching the springs.
pointer actuated by the sector gear and pinion.
After meshing, the springs always tend to return the two halves
of the gear to the static unloaded position; therefore the face of
In applying gears to instruments and control systems, a problem
all teeth are maintained in contact. The torque exerted by the
which has to be faced is that a gear can always turn a small
springs is always greater than the operating torques of the
amount before it will drive the one in mesh with it. This loss of
transmission system so that resilience necessary for gear action
motion, or backlash as it is termed, is unavoidable since the
is unaffected.
dimensioning of the gear teeth must allow for a set amount of
‘play’ to avoid jamming of the gears. Other methods must
therefore be found to minimize the unstable effects which
backlash can create.

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Figure 3: Gears

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HAIRSPRINGS

Hairsprings are precision-made devices which, in addition to the The materials from which hairsprings are made are generally
anti-backlash function already referred to, also serve as phosphor bronze and beryllium-copper, their manufacture
controlling devices against which deflecting forces are balanced calling for accurate control and grading of thickness, diameter
to establish required calibration laws (as in electrical moving-coil and torque loading to suit the operating characteristics of
instruments) and for the restoration of coupling and indicating particular classes of instrument.
elements to their original positions as and when the deflecting
forces are removed.

In the majority of cases, hairsprings are of the flat-coil type with

the inner end fixed to a collets, enabling it to be press-fitted to
its relevant shaft, the outer end being anchored to an adjacent
part of the mechanism frame work. A typical assembly is shown
in Fig 4 (a), from which it will be noted that the method of
anchoring permits a certain degree of spring torque adjustment
and initial setting of the indicating element.

In certain types of electrical measuring instruments, provision

must be made for external adjustment of the pointer to the zero
position of the scale. One method commonly adopted, and
which illustrates the principles in general is shown in Fig 4 (b).
The inner end of the spring is secured to the pointer shaft in the
normal way, but the outer end is secured to a circular plate
friction-loaded around the front pivot screw. A fork, which is an
integral part of the plate, engages with a pin eccentrically
mounted in a screw at the front of the instrument. When the
screw is rotated it deflects the plate thus rotating the spring,
shaft and pointer to a new position without altering the torque
loading of the spring.
Figure 4 (a)

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Figure 4 (b)

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TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION OF INSTRUMENT BIMETAL-STRIP METHOD

MECHANISMS
A bimetal strip, as the name implies, consists of two metals
In the construction of instrument mechanisms, various metals joined together at their interface to form a single strip. One of
and alloys are used, and unavoidably, changes in their physical the metal is invar, a form of steel with a 36% nickel content and
characteristics can occur with changes in the temperature of a negligible coefficient of linear expansion, while the other metal
their surroundings. For some applications deliberate advantage may be brass or steel, both of which have high linear expansion
can be taken of these changes as the basis of operation; for coefficients. Thus, when the strip is subjected to a decrease of
example, in certain electrical thermometers the changes in a temperature. The invar strip, one the other hand, on account of
metal’s electrical resistance forms the basis of temperature it having a negligible expansion coefficient, will always try to
measurement. However, this and other changes in maintain the same length and being firmly joined to the other
characteristics are not always desirable, and it therefore metal will cause the whole strip to bend.
becomes necessary to take steps to neutralize those, which, if
unchecked, would introduce indication errors due solely An application of the bimetal-strip principle to a typical rod-type
environmental temperature changes. mechanism is shown in Fig 5 (a). In this case, the vertical
ranging bar connected to rocking shaft is bimetallic and bears
The methods adopted for temperature compensation, as it is against the arm coupled to the sector gear of the indicating
called, are varied depending on the type of instrument to which element.
they are applied. The oldest method of compensation is the one
utilizing the bimetal-strip principle and is applied to such The principal effect, which temperature changes have on this
instruments as airspeed indicators, altimeters, vertical speed mechanism, is expansion and contraction of the capsule, thus
indicators, and exhaust-gas temperature indicators. tending to make the indicating element over read or under read.
For example, let us assume that the positions taken up by the
mechanism elements are those obtaining when measuring a
known quantity at the normal calibration temperature of 150 C,
and that the temperature is gradually increased. The effect of
the increase in temperature on the capsule material is to make it
more flexible so that it will expand further to carry the ranging
bar in the direction indicated by the solid arrows (Fig 5 (b)). As
the ranging bar is in contact with the sector gear arm the
indicating element has the tendency to over read.

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Figure 5 (b)

Figure 5 (a)

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However, the increase of temperature has a simultaneous effect

on the ranging bar which, being a bimetal and on account of the
position of the invar portion, will sag, or deflect in the direction
indicated by the dotted arrow, thus counteracting the capsule
expansion and keeping the indicating element at constant
reading. When the temperature is decreased the capsule
material “stiffens up’ and contracts so that the indicating
element tends to under read; as will be apparent from the
diagram, a constant reading would be maintained by the bimetal
ranging bar sagging or deflecting in the opposite direction.

In some instruments, for example exhaust-gas temperature

indicators, indication errors can be introduced due to the effects
of environmental temperature on the values of the electromotive
force produced by a thermocouple system.

Although such errors ultimately result from changes in an

electrical quantity, compensation can also be effected
mechanically and by the application of the bimetal-strip
principle. As, however, the operation of the method is closely
connected with the operating principles of thermo-electric
instruments, we shall study it in detail at the appropriate stage.

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THERMO-RESISTANCE METHOD THERMO-MAGNETIC SHUNT METHOD

For temperature measurements in aircraft, many of the As an alternative to the thermistor method of compensating for
instruments employed are of the electrical moving-coil type, and moving-coil resistance changes, some temperature measuring
as the coil material is usually either copper or aluminum, instruments utilize a device known as a thermo-magnetic shunt.
changes of indicator temperature can cause changes in This is a strip of nickel-iron alloy sensitive to temperature
electrical resistance of the material. We shall be studying the changes, which is clamped across the poles of the permanent
fundamental principles of moving-coil instruments in a later magnet so that it diverts some of the air gap magnetic flux
chapter, but at this point we may note that, as they depend for through itself.
their operation on electric current, which is governed by
resistance, the effects of temperature can result in indication As before, let us assume that the indicator temperature
errors which necessitate compensation. increases the moving-coil resistance will increase thus opposing
the current flowing though the coil, but, at the same time, the
One of the compensation methods adopted utilizes a thermo reluctance (‘magnetic resistance’) of the alloy strip will also
resistor or thermistor connected in the indicator circuit. A increase so that less flux is diverted from the air gap. Since
thermistor, which is composed of a mixture of metallic oxides, the deflecting torque exerted on a moving coil is proportional to
has very large temperature coefficient of resistance which is the product of current and flux, the increased air gap flux
usually negative; i.e. its resistance decreases with increases in counterbalances the reduction in current to maintain a constant
temperature. Assuming that the temperature of the indicator torque and indicated reading. Depending on the size of the
increases, the current flowing through the indicator will be permanent magnet, a number of thermo-magnetic strips may be
reduced because copper or aluminum will characteristically fitted to effect the required compensation.
increase in resistance; the indicator will therefore tend to under
read. The thermistor resistance will, on the other hand,
decrease, so that for the same temperature change the
resistance changes will balance out to maintain a constant
current and therefore a constant indication of the quantity being
measured.

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SEALING OF INSTRUMENTS AGAINST ATMOSPHERIC

EFFECTS

In pressurized aircraft, the internal atmospheric pressure

conditions are increased to a value greater than that prevailing
at the altitude at which the aircraft is flying. Consequently,
instruments using external atmospheric pressure a as datum,
for example altimeters, vertical speed indicators and airspeed
indicators, are liable to inaccuracies in their reading should air
at cabin pressure enter their cases. The cases are therefore
sealed to withstand external pressures higher than those
normally encountered under pressurized conditions. The
external pressure against which sealing is effective is normally
15 lbf/in2.

Direct-reading pressure measuring instruments of the Bourdon

tube, or capsule type, connected to a pressure source outside
the pressure cabin, are also liable to errors. Such errors are
corrected by using sealed cases and venting them to outside
atmospheric pressure.

Many of the instruments in current use depend for their

operation on sensitive electrical circuits and mechanisms which
must be protected against the adverse effects of atmospheric
temperature, pressure and humidity. This protection is afforded
by filling the cases with an inert gas such as nitrogen or helium,
and then hermetically sealing the cases.

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INSTRUMENT DISPLAYS, PANELS AND LAYOUTS QUANTITATIVE DISPLAYS

In flight, an aircraft and its operating crew form a ‘man-machine’ There are three principal methods by which information may be
system loop which, depending on the size and type of aircraft displayed:
may be fairly simple or very complex. The function of the crew
within the loop is that of controller, and the extent of the control (i) circular scale or more familiarly ’clock’ type of scale,
function is governed by the simplicity or otherwise of the (ii) straight scale, and
machine as an integrated whole. For example, in manually (iii) digital, or counter.
flying an aircraft, and manually initiating adjustments to
essential systems, the controller’s function is said to be a fully Let us now consider these three methods in detail.
active one. If, on the other hand, the flight of an aircraft and
adjustments to essential systems are automatic in operation, CIRCULAR SCALE
then the controller’s function becomes one of monitoring, with
the possibility of reverting to the active function in the event of This may be considered as the classical method of displaying
failure of systems. information in quantitative form and is illustrated in Fig 1.

Instruments, of course, play an extremely vital role in the control The scale base refers to the graduated line, which may be
loop, as they are the means of communicating data between actual or implied, running from end to end of scale and from
systems and controller. Therefore, in order that a controller may which the scale marks and line of travel of pointer are defined.
obtain a maximum of control quality, and also to minimize the
mental effort in interpreting data, it is necessary to pay the Scale marks, or graduation marks, are the marks, which
utmost regard to the content and form of the data display. constitute the scale of the instrument. For quantitative displays
the number and size of marks are chosen in order to obtain
The most common forms of data display are: quick and accurate interpretations of readings. In general,
scales are divided so that the marks represent units of 1,2 or 5,
a) quantitative, in which the variable quantity being or decimal multiples thereof, and those marks which are to be
measured is presented in terms of a numerical value numbered are longer than the remainder.
and by the relative position between a pointer or index
and a graduated scale, and

b) qualitative, in which information is presented in

symbolic or pictorial format.

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Figure 1

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Spacing of the marks is also governed by physical laws related Governing factors in the choice of scale length for a particular
to the quantity to be measured, but in general they result in range are the size of the instrument, the accuracy with which it
spacing that is either linear and non-linear. Typical examples needs to be read, and the conditions under which it is to be
are illustrated in Fig 2, from which it will also be noted that non- observed.
linear displays may be of the square-law or logarithmic-law type,
the physical laws in this instance being related to airspeed and
rate of altitude change respectively.

The sequence of numbering always increases in a clockwise

direction, thus conforming to what is termed the ‘visual
expectation’ of the observer. As in the case of marks,
numbering is always in steps of 1,2, or 5 or decimal multiples
thereof. The numbers may be marked on the dial either inside
or outside the scale base.

The distance between the centers of the marks indicating the

minimum and maximum values of the chosen range of
measurement, and measured along the scale base, is called the
scale length.

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Figure 2 (a) Linear

(b) Square law
(c) Logarithmic

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rotates against a circular scale and drives a second scale
HIGH-RANGE LONG-SCALE DISPLAYS instead of a pointer. This rotating scale, which records hundreds
of miles per hour as the pointer rotates through complete
For the measurement of some quantities - for example, turbine revolutions, is visible through an aperture in the main dial of the
engine speed, airspeed, and altitude - high measuring ranges indicator.
are involved with the result that very long scales are required.
This makes it difficult to display such quantities on single A third method of presentation, shown at Fig 3 (c), is one in
circular scales in standard-size cases, particularly in connection which three concentric pointers of different sizes register
with the number and spacing of the marks. If a large number of against a common scale. The application of this presentation
marks are required their spacing might be too close to permit has been confided mainly top altimeters, the large pointer
rapid reading, while, on the other hand, a reduction in the indicating hundreds, the intermediate pointer thousands and the
number of marks in order to ‘open up’ the spacing will also give small pointer tens of thousands of feet. This method of
rise to errors when interpreting values at points between scale presentation suffers several disadvantages the principal of
marks. which are that it takes too long to interpret a reading and gibes
rise to too frequent and too serious misreading.
Some of the displays developed as practical solutions to the
difficulties encountered are illustrated in Fig 3. The display Figure 3 (d) illustrates a comparatively recent presentation
shown at (a) is perhaps the simplest way of accommodating a method applied to airspeed measurement. It will be noted that
lengthy scale; by splitting it in to two concentric scales, the inner an outer and an inner scale are adopted and also what appears
one is made a continuation of the outer. A single pointer driven to be a single pointer. There are, however, two pointers which
through two revolutions can be used to register against both move together and register against the outer scale during their
scales, but as it can also lead to too frequent misreading, a first revolution. When this has been completed, the tip of the
presentation by two concentrically mounted pointer of different longer pointer of the two is covered by a small plate and its
sizes is much better. A practical example of this presentation is movement beyond this point of the scale is arrested. The
to be found in some types of engine speed indicator. In this shorter pointer continues its movement to register against the
instance a large pointer rotates against the outer scale to inner scale.
indicate hundreds of rev./min. and at the same time it rotates a
smaller pointer through appropriate ratio gearing, against an
inner scale to indicate thousands of rev./min.

The method shown at Fig 3(b) is employed in a certain type of

pneumatic airspeed indicator; in its basic concept it is similar to
the one just described. In this case, however, a single pointer

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Figure 3

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ANGLE OF OBSERVATION SCALE AND OPERATING RANGES

Another factor which has an important bearing on the choice of Instrument scale lengths and ranges is that they usually exceed
the correct scale length and case size is the angle at which an that actually required for the operating range of the system with
instrument is to be observed. It is important because, even which an instrument is associated thus leaving part of the scale
though it would be possible to utilize longer scales in the same unused. This may appear somewhat wasteful, but an example
relevant case sizes, the scale would be positioned so close to will show that it helps in improving the accuracy with which
the outer edge of the dial plate that it would be obscured when readings may be observed.
observed at an angle. For this reason, a standard is also laid
down that no part of an instrument should be obscured by the Let us consider a fluid system in which the operating pressure
instrument case when observed at angles up to 30 degree from range is say 0-30 lbf/in2. It would be no problem to design a
the normal. A method adopted by some manufacturers, which scale for the required pressure indicator which would be of a
conforms to this standard, is the fitting of instrument length equivalent to the system’s total operating range, also
mechanisms inside square cases. divided into a convenient number of parts as shown in Fig 5 (a).
However, under certain operating conditions of the system
When observing an instrument at an angle errors due to concerned, it may be essential to monitor pressures having
parallax are, of course, possible, the magnitude of such errors such values as 17 or 29 lbf/in2 and to do this accurately in the
being governed principally by the angle at which the relevant shortest possible time is not very easy, as a second look at the
part of its scale is observed, and also by the clearance distance diagram will show. If the scale is now redesigned so that its
between the pointer and dial plate. This problem like so many length and range exceed the system’s operating range and
others in the instrument field has gone challenged and the result also graduated in a manner noted earlier, then as shown at Fig.
is the ‘platform’ scale designed for certain types of circular 5 (b) the result makes it much easier it is to interpret and to
display instruments. As may be seen from Fig 4, the scale monitor specific operating values.
marks are set out on a circular platform which is secured to the
main dial plate so that it is raised to the same level as the tip of
the pointer.

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Figure 4

Figure 5
a b

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thermometer. As will be noted there is one display unit for each
STRAIGHT SCALE parameter, the scales being common to each engine in the
particular type of aircraft. When such displays are limited to only
In addition to the circular scale presentation, a quantitative one or two parameters then, by scanning across the ends of the
display may also be of the straight scale (vertical or horizontal) tapes, or columns, a much quicker and more accurate
type. For the same reason that the sequence of numbering is evaluation of changes in engine performance can be obtained
given in a clock-wise direction on a circular scale, so on a as compared to ‘clock’ type displays. This fact, and the fact that
straight scale the sequence is from bottom to top or from left to panel space can be reduced, are also clearly evident from
right. diagram.

Although such displays contribute to the saving of panel space

and improved observational accuracy, their application to the
more conventional types of mechanical and/or electro-
mechanical instruments has been limited to those utilizing
synchronous data transmission principles. It is pertinent to note
at this juncture that in respect of electronic CRT displays there
are no mechanical restraints, and so straight scale can,
therefore, be more widely applied.

An example of a straight scale presentation of an indicator

operating on the above mentioned principles is illustrated in
Fig.6 (a); it is used for indicating the position of an aircraft’s
landing flaps. The scales are graduated in degrees, and each
pointer is operated by a synchro. The synchros are supplied
with signals from transmitters actuated respectively by left and
right outboard flap sections.

Another variation of this type of display is shown at (b) of figure

6. It is known as the moving-tape or thermometer display and
was originally developed for the measurement of parameters
essential to the operation of engines of large transport aircraft.
Each display unit contains a servo-driven white tape in place of Figure 6 (a)
a pointer, which moves in a vertical plane and registers against
a scale in a similar manner to the mercury column of a

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Figure 6 (b)

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DIGITAL DISPLAY

A digital or veeder-counter type of display is one in which data

are presented in the form of letters or numbers-alpha-numeric
display, as it is technically termed. In aircraft instrument
practice, the latter presentation is the most common and a
counter is generally to be presentation is the most common and
a counter is generally to be found, operating in combination with
the circular type of display. Typical examples are shown in Fig
7. In the application to the altimeter there are two counters; one
presents a fixed pressure value which can be set mechanically
by the pilot as and when required, and is known as a static
counter display; the other is geared to the altimeter mechanism
and automatically presents changes in altitude, and is therefore
known as a dynamic counter display. It is of interest to note that
the presentation of altitude data by means of a scale and
counter is yet another method of solving the long-scale problem
already discussed. The counter of the TGT indicator is also a
dynamic display since it is driven by a servo transmission to the
main pointer.

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Figure 7

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DUAL-INDICATOR DISPLAYS COLORED DISPLAYS

Dual-indicator displays are designed principally as a means of The use of color in displays can add much to their value; not, of
conserving panel space; particularly where the measurement of course from the artistic standpoint, but as a means of indicating
the various quantities related to engines is concerned. They are specific operational ranges of the systems with which they are
normally of two basic forms: one in which two separate associated and to assist in making more rapid assessment of
indicators and scales are embodied in one case; and the other, conditions prevailing when scanning the instruments.
also having two indicators in one case, but with the pointers
registering against a common scale. Typical examples of Color may be applied to scales in the form of sectors and arcs
display combinations are illustrated in Fig 8. which embrace the number of scale marks. A typical example is
illustrated in Fig 9. It is usual to find that colored sectors are
applied to those parts of a range in which it is sufficient to know
that a certain condition has been reached rather than knowing
actual quantitative values. The colors chosen may be red,
yellow or green depending on the condition to be monitored. For
example, in an aircraft oxygen system it may be necessary for
the cylinders to be charged when the pressure has dropped to
below, say, 500 lbf/in2. The system pressure gauge would
therefore have a red sector on its dial embracing the marks from
0 to 500; thus, if the pointer should register within this sector,
this alone is sufficient indication that recharging is necessary
and that it is only of secondary importance to know what the
actual pressure is.

Figure 8
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Figure 9

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Arcs and radial lines are usually called range markings, their In addition to the foregoing applications, colors may also be
purpose being to define values at various points in the range of used to facilitate the identification of instruments with the
a scale which are related to specific operational ranges of an systems in which they are connected. For example, in one type
aircraft, its power plants and systems. The definitions of these of aircraft currently in service, triple hydraulic systems are
marks are as follows: employed, designated yellow system, green system and blue
system, and in order to identify the pressure indicators of each
RED radial line Maximum and minimum limits system the scales are set out on dials painted in the relevant
colors.
YELLOW arc Take-off and precautionary ranges

GREEN arc Normal operating range

RED arc Range in which operation is prohibited

When applied to fuel quantity indicators, a RED arc indicates

fuel which cannot be used safely in flight.

Airspeed indicator dials may also have an additional WHITE

arc. This serves to indicate the airspeed range over which the
aircraft landing flaps may be extended in the take-off, approach
and landing configurations of the aircraft.

Range markings may vary for different types of aircraft and are
therefore added by the aircraft manufacturer prior to installation
in their production aircraft.
Airspeed Indicator
It may often be found that markings are painted directly on the
cover glasses of instruments - method which is simpler since it
doesn’t require removal of instrument mechanism from its case.

However, the precaution is always taken of painting a white

index or register line half on the cover glass and half on the
bezel to ensure correct alignment of the glass and the markings
over the scale marks.

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QUALITATIVE DISPLAYS DIRECTOR DISPLAYS

These are of a special type in which the information is Director displays are those which are associated principally with
presented in a symbolic or pictorial form to show the condition attitude and navigational data, and presenting in manner which
of a system, whether the value of an output is increasing or indicates to a pilot what control movement must be made, either
decreasing, the movement of a component and so on. Two to correct any departure from a desired flight path, or to cause
typical examples are shown in Fig 10. the aircraft to perform a specific manoeuvre. It is thus apparent
that in the development of this type of display there must be a
The synchroscope at (a) is used in conjunction with a rev./min. close relationship between the direction of control movement
indicating system of an aircraft having a multiple arrangement of and the instrument pointer or symbolic-type indicating element;
propeller-type engines, and its pointers, which symbolize the other words, movements should be in the ‘natural’ sense in
propellers, only rotate to show the differences of speed between order that the ‘directives’ or ‘commands’ of the display may be
engine. obeyed.

The display, shown at (b), is a good example of one indicating Although flight director displays are of comparatively recent
movement of components; in this case, flight control surfaces, origin as specialized integrated instrument systems of present
landing flaps, and air spoilers. The instrument contains day aircraft, in concept they are not new. The gyro horizon
seventeen separate electrical mechanisms, which on being which has been in use for many years utilized in basic form a
actuated by transmitters, position symbolic indicating elements director display of an aircraft’s pitch and bank attitude. In this
so as to appear at various angle behind apertures in main dial. instrument there are three elements making up the display: a
pointer register against a bank-angle scale, an element
symbolizing the aircraft, and an element symbolizing the natural
horizon. Both the bank pointer and natural horizon symbol are
stabilized by a gyroscope. As the instrument is designed for the
display of attitude angles, and as a one of the symbolic
elements can move with respect to the other then it has two
reference axes, that of the case which is fixed with respect to
the aircraft, and that of the moving element.

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(a)

Figure 10

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Assuming that the aircraft’s pitch attitude changes to bring the When the aircraft is on the approach to land and is, say, below
nose up, then the horizon display will be shown as in Fig 11 the Glide slope beam, the glide slope pointer of the instrument
(a), thus directing the pilot to ‘get the nose down’. Similarly, if will be deflected upwards as shown in Fig 11 (c). Thus, the pilot
the bank attitude should change whereby the left wing goes is directed to ‘fly the aircraft up’ in order to intercept the beam.
down, then the horizon display would be as shown at (b), Similarly, if the, Aircraft is to the right of the localizer beam the
directing the pilot to ‘bank the aircraft to the right.’ In both cases, localizer pointer will be deflected to the left thus directing the
the demands would be satisfied by the pilot moving his controls pilot to ‘fly the aircraft left’. As the pilot responds to the
in the natural sense. instrument’s directives the pointers move back to their center
positions indicating that the aircraft is in the correct approach
Another example of director display is that utilized in as position for landing. (Fig 11 (d)).
indicator used in conjunction with the Instrument Landing
System (ILS) this is a radio navigation system which aids a pilot It will be apparent from the diagram that as the aircraft is
in maintaining the correct position of his aircraft during the maneuvered in response to demands, the pointer movements
approach to land on an airport runway. Two radio signal beams are contrary to the ‘natural’ sense requirements; for example, in
are transmitted from the ground; one beam is in the vertical responding to the demand ‘fly left’ the localizer pointer will move
plane and at an angle to the runway to establish the correct to the right. However, in turning to the left the bank attitude of
approach or glide slope angle; while the other, known as the the aircraft will change into the direction of the direction of the
localizer, is in the horizontal plane; both are lined up with the turn, and as this will be indicated directly by the gyro horizon
runway center-line. display, the response to the ILS demands can be readily cross-
checked.
A receiver on board the aircraft receives the signals and
transmits them to two meters contained within the indicator; one
meter controls a glide slope pointer, and the other a localizer
pointer. In the majority of current types of aircraft, the ILS
directive display is always presented on two indicators
comprising what is termed either an Integrated Instrument
System or a Flight Director System. A typical presentation of
one of these indicators (referred to as an attitude indicator) is
also shown in Fig. As will be noted, it combines a gyro horizon
directive display, and there by eliminates the need for a pilot
having to monitor the indications of two separate instruments.

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Figure 11

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LIGHT-EMITTING DISPLAYS axes parallel. The complete assembly thus constitutes a special
form of capacitor. When low-voltage current is applied to the
In the continuing development of aircraft displays, the trend has segments, the molecular order of the liquid-crystal material is
been to exploit the techniques applied to those instruments disturbed and this changes its optical appearance from
which are taken so much for granted these days; namely, the transparent to reflective. The magnitude of the optical
pocket calculator and the digital watch. The displays adopted in change(called contrast ratio) is basically a measure of the
both these instruments are of the ‘light-emitting’ type the basis light reflected from the background area; a typical ratio is 15:1.
of which, in its turn, has its origin in the well-known cathode-ray The current applied to the segments is of the alternating type to
display. avoid undesirable electrolytic effects. Energizing of the
segments is accomplished by the simultaneous application of a
There are several ways in which numerical data can be symmetrical out-of-phase signal to the front and back electrodes
displayed by means of light-emission, but the ones which are of of a segment, and thereby producing a net voltage difference.
interest in this context are the liquid-crystal display and the light- When two in-phase signals are applied the display segments
emitting diode display. spontaneously relax to the de-energized state.

An LCD maybe of either the dynamic-scattering type or the

LIQUID-CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD) field-effect type, and these, in turn, may produce either a Tran
missive or a reflective read-out. The dynamic-scattering display
The basic structure of an LCD (see Fig 12) consists of two glass operates on the principle of forward light scattering, which is
plates, coated on their inner surfaces with a thin transparent caused by turbulence of the ions of the liquid-crystal material
conductor such as indium oxide. The conductor on the front when current is applied to the segment electrodes. For a Tran
plate is etched into a standard display format of seven bars or missive read-out, a back-light source is provided, the light being
segments each segment forming an electrode. Each bar is directed down by alight-control film similar in its action to a
electrically separated and is selected by a logic/driver circuit Venetian blind. In the area defined by the energized segment,
which causes the bars to illuminate in patterns forming the digit the light is then scattered up toward the observer to produce a
to be displayed (diagram(b)). A mirror image of the digits with its light digit or character on a dark background.
associated electrical contact is also etched into the oxide layer
of the back glass plate, but this is not segmented since it A field-effect LCD incorporates additional plates called polarizes
constitutes a common return for all segments. on the front and back glass plates of the assembly. It also
contains a specially prepared inside glass surface which causes
The space between the plates is filled with a liquid-crystal the liquid-crystal molecules to orient themselves in a 90 degree
material (from the Greek word nemator meaning ‘thread’) by ‘twist’ configuration between the glass plates. This molecular
virtue of its thread-like molecules being oriented with their long configuration causes the plane of polarization (polarized after

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passing through the front polarizer) to be reflected by 90 degree

as it passes through the LCD. Then, depending on the
orientation of the polarizer behind the back glass plate, the LCD
can be made either transmissive or opaque in the de-energized
state.

Depending on the application of an LCD, color effects can be

achieved by the proper placement of colors films on the front
surface of the display, between the back surface and artificial
light source, or by coloring the reflective surfaces.

Figure 12

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LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED) In 2nd method, several small chips (10-15 mm square) are
covered with a metalized plastic reflector having seven bar-
An LED is essentially a transistor and so, unlike an LCD, it is shaped reflector cavities designed so that an LED is at center of
classified as a solid-state display; the construction is shown in each cavity.
Fig. 13. The heart of the display is a slice or chip of gallium In addition to the foregoing digital readouts, LED’s can also be
arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) molded into a transparent plastic adopted for circular scale or vertical scale displays, thereby
covering which not only serves to protect the chip, but also as a eliminating the use of conventional pointers or moving tapes. In
diffuser lens. The diode leads are soldered to a printed circuit this case, large numbers of individual diodes (900 would be
board to form the numerical display required, e.g. the digit typical) are arranged in groups to form illuminated bars. An
segment already referred to. When current flows through the example of a vertical scale employing this technique for the
chip it produces light which is directly transmitted in proportion measurement of temperature is shown in Fig 14. Signals from
to the current flow. To provide different colors, the proportion of the appropriate sensing elements (thermocouples in the
Gap and GaAs is varied during manufacture of the chip, and example shown) are first converted into digital form and read
into a digital computer using microprocessors. The computer
also the technique of ‘doping’ with other elements e.g. oxygen
then applies the appropriate scale factors, establishes the
or nitrogen is applied. required illumination pattern, and then produces an output
signal to the display such that a small column of illuminated
In the normal 7-bar or segment display format, it is usual to bars moves up or down the scale and registers against the
employ one LED per segment, but the number depends on the scale. The light intensity of the LED column is graded, the
overall size of the digits required for display and its appearance. highest intensity being provided at the ‘reading edge’ of the
Two methods may be adopted for increasing the size and for column.
improving the appearance of a single LED per segment display
In one a core shaped reflecting cavity known as a ‘light-pipe’ is
placed over each LED with its small end down. The whole
assembly is cast inside a housing using glass-filled epoxy which
fills the light-pipe cavities. When each LED is illuminated, the
light is reflected off the glass particles within the epoxy and off
the cavity sidewalls, and through surface area which can be up
to twenty times that of the LED at the bottom of the cavity.

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Figure 13 Figure 14

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INSTRUMENT PANELS AND LAYOUTS

All instruments essential to the operation of an aircraft are

accommodated on special panels the number and distribution of
which vary in accordance with the number of instruments, the
size or aircraft and cockpit layout. A main instrument panels
positioned in front of pilots is a feature common to all types of
aircraft, since it is mandatory for the primary flight instruments to
be installed with the pilots’ normal line of vision (see Fig. 15)
Typical positions of other panels are; overhead, at the side, and
on a control pedestal located centrally between the pilots.

Panels are invariably of light alloy of sufficient strength and

rigidity to accommodate the required number of instruments,
and are attached to the appropriate parts of the cockpit
structure. The attachment methods adopted vary, but all should
conform to the requirement that a panel or an individual
instrument should be easily installed and removed.

All panels are normally mounted in the vertical position,

although in some current aircraft types the practice of sloping
main instrument panels forward at about 15 degree from the
vertical is adopted to minimize parallax errors.

Instrument and all other control panels which for many years
were painted black, are now invariably finished in matt grey, a
color which apart from its ‘softer’ effects provides a far better
contrasting background for the instrument dials and thus
contributes to easier identification.

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Figure 15

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INSTRUMENT GROUPING of certain of the instrument sand their relative positions within
the group resulted in the adoption of the ‘basic T’ arrangement
FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS as the current standard. As will be noted from Fig 1 b, there are
now four ‘key’ indicators; airspeed, pitch and roll attitude, an
Basically there are six flight instruments whose indications are altitude indicator forming the horizontal bar of the ‘T’, and a
so coordinated as to create a ‘picture’ of an aircraft’s flight horizontal situation (direction) indicator forming the vertical bar.
condition and required control movements; they are the As far as the positions flanking the latter indicator are
airspeed indicator, altimeter, gyro horizon, direction indicator, concerned, they are taken up by other less specifically essential
vertical speed indicator and turn-and-bank indicator. It is, flight instruments which, in the example shown, are the vertical
therefore, most important for these instruments to be properly speed indicator and a radio magnetic indicator (RMI). In some
grouped to maintain co-ordination and to assist a pilot in cases, a turn and bank indicator, or an indicator known as turn
observing them with the minimum of effort. coordinator, may take the place shown occupied by the RMI. In
many instances involving the use of flight director system
The first real attempt at establishing a standard method of indicators and/or electronic flight instrument system display
grouping was the ‘blind flying panel’ or ‘basic six’ layout shown units, a turn-and-bank indicator is no longer used.
in Fig 1 a. The gyro horizon occupies the top center position,
and since it provides positive and direct indications of attitude, In the case of electronic flight instrument systems, the two CRT
and attitude changes in the pitching and rolling planes; it is display units (EADI and EHSI) are also used in conjunction with
utilized as the master instrument. As control of airspeed and four conventional-type indicators to form the basic ‘T’, as shown
altitude are directly related to attitude, the airspeed indicator, in Fig. 2 (a). In displays of more recent origin, and now in use in
altimeter and vertical speed indicator flank the gyro horizon and such aircraft as the Boeing 747-400, the CRT screens are much
support the interpretation of pitch attitude. Changes in direction larger in size, thus making it possible for the EADI to display
are initiated by banking an aircraft, and the degree of heading airspeed, altitude and vertical speed data instead of
change is obtained from the direction indicator; this instrument conventional indicators. The presentation, which also
therefore supports the interpretation of roll attitude and is corresponds to the basic ‘T’, arrangement is illustrated in fig 2
positioned directly below the gyro horizon. The turn-and-bank (b).
indicator serves as secondary reference instrument for heading
changes, so it too supports the interpretation of roll attitude.

With the development and introduction of new types of aircraft,

and of more comprehensive display presentations afforded by
the indicators of flight director systems, a review of the functions

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Figure 1 (b)
Figure 1 (a)

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Figure 2 (a)

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Figure 2 (b)

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PRESSURE MEASURING DEVICES AND

SYSTEMS
PRESSURE SENSING ELEMENTS

Air data instruments are basically pressure measuring devices.

These instruments sense air pressure and after processing, the
required parameters are displayed on a calibrated dial. These
instruments have special pressure sensing elements. They are

1. Bourdon tube 2. Bellow 3.Diaphragm

4. Capsule

1. BOURDON TUBE

It is a bent tube of elliptical cross‐section. One end is anchored

BOURDON TUBE BOURDON INSTRUMENT
and is “open” and other end is free to move. Bourden tube is
made of special alloy of Beryllium‐copper, phosphor‐ bronze, or
steel. They are used in high pressure areas but have less
sensitivity. It is normally used to measure hydraulic system
pressure. When pressure is applied to Bourden tube then it tries
to straighten and the movement is magnified by the help of gear
mechanism and then applied to the indicating element to
display.

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2. BELLOW 3. DIAPHRAGM

The bellows are made from special brass material and acts like A thin flexible corrugated disk is fastened to a block and
a spring. When pressure is applied to it then it varies its length. pressure is applied to the lower surface of disk. They are made
The bellows can be used to measure absolute pressure, gauge of beryllium-copper or phosphor-bronze material. When
pressure and differential pressure. They have less range but pressure is applied to the diaphragm, it expands and its
more sensitive than Bourdon tube. expansion is directly proportional to the applied pressure.

BELLOW

DIAPHRAGM

4. CAPSULE

When two diaphragms are mounted back to back then it

becomes a capsule. When pressure is allowed to enter into the
capsule then it expands. It contracts when this pressure
decreases. The advantage of the capsule is that its sensitivity is

twice of a diaphragm. When capsule is evacuated and sealed

BELLOWS ASSEMBLY then it is called “ANEROID CAPSULE”.

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AIR DATA INSTRUMENTS

An air data (or manometric) system of an aircraft is one in which

the total pressure created by the forward motion of an aircraft,
and the static pressure of the atmosphere surrounding it, are
sensed and measured in terms of speed, altitude and rate of
altitude change (vertical speed).The measurement and
indication of these three parameters may be done by
connecting the appropriate sensors, either directly to
mechanical-type instruments, or to a remotely-located air data
computer which then transmits the data in electrical signal
format to electro-mechanical or servo-type instruments.

Since the primary source of air for these measurements is the

earth’s atmosphere itself, then it is necessary to have some
understanding of its characteristics before going into the
CAPSULE
operating principles of the measuring instruments and systems
involved.

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THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

The earth’s atmosphere is the surrounding envelope of air, The atmosphere is held in contact with the earth’s surface by
which is a mixture of a number of gases, the chief of which are the force of gravity, which produces a pressure within the
nitrogen and oxygen. By convention, this gaseous envelope is atmosphere. Gravitational effects decrease with increasing
divided into several concentric layers extending from the earth’s distances from the earth’s center, and this being so,
surface, each with its own distinctive features; these are shown atmospheric pressure decreases steadily with increases of
in Fig. 1. height above the earth’s surface.

The lowest layer, and the one in which conventional types of The units in which atmospheric pressure is expressed are;
aircraft are flown, is termed the troposphere, and extends to a pounds per square inch (psi), inches of mercury (in Hg) and
boundary height termed the tropopause. millibars (mb). The steady fall in atmospheric pressure has a
dominating effect on the density of the air, which changes in
Above the tropopause, the next layer, termed the stratosphere, direct proportion to changes of pressure.
also extends to boundary height called the stratopause.
ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE
At greater heights the remaining atmosphere is divided into
further layers which are termed the chemosphere, ozonosphere, Another important factor affecting the atmosphere is its
ionosphere and exosphere. temperature. The air in contact with the earth is heated by
conduction and radiation, and as a result its density decreases
Throughout all these layers the atmosphere undergoes a as the air starts rising. In doing so, the pressure drop allows the
gradual transition from its characteristic at sea-level to those at air to expand, and this in turn causes a fall in temperature from
the fringes of the exosphere where it merges with the a known sea-level value. It falls steadily with increasing height
completely airless outer space. up to the tropopause, and the rate at which it falls is termed the
lapse rate (from the Latin lapsus, meaning slip). In the
stratosphere the temperature at first remains constant at some
reduced value, then increases again to a maximum.

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Figure 1

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STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
The assumptions are;
In order to obtain indications of airspeed, altitude and vertical
speed, it is of course necessary to know the relationship 1. the atmospheric pressure at mean sea-level is equal to
between the pressure, temperature and density variables, and 14.7 psi, 1013.25 mb, or 29.921 in Hg;
altitude. If such indications are to be presented with absolute
accuracy, direct measurements of the three variables would 2. the temperature at mean sea-level is 150 (590F);
have to be taken at all altitudes and fed into the appropriate
instruments as correction factors. Such measurements, while 3. the air temperature decreases by 1.980C (3.5560F) for
not impossible, would, however, demand some rather every 1000 ft increase in altitude (the lapse rate already
complicated sensor mechanisms. It has therefore always been referred to) from 150C at mean sea-level to – 56.50C (-
the practice to base all measurements and calculations on what 69.70F) at 36090 ft. Above this altitude the temperate is
is termed a standard atmosphere, or one in which the values of assumed to remain constant at – 56.50C.
pressure, temperature and density at different altitude are
assumed to be constant. These assumptions have in turn been It is from the above mean sea-level values that all other
based on established meteorological and physical observations, corresponding values have been calculated and presented in
theories and measurements, and so the standard atmosphere what is termed the international standard atmosphere (ISA).
is accepted internationally. As far as airspeed indicators, Altitudes and values are given in Figure 1.
altimeters and vertical speed indicators are concerned, the
inclusion of the assumed values of the relevant variables in the
calibration laws permits the use of sensing elements that
respond solely to pressure changes.

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PITOT STATIC SYSTEM

In its basic form the system consists of a pilot-static probe, the
three primary air data instruments (airspeed indicator, altimeter
and vertical speed indicator) and pipelines and drains
interconnected as shown diagrammatically in Fig. 2. Sensing of
the total, or pitot, pressure (Pt) and of the static pressure (Ps) is
effected by the probe, which is suitably located in the airstream
and transmits these pressures to the sensing elements within
the indicators.

The pressure transmission produces small displacements of the

sensing elements in such a manner that displacement
corresponding to (a) airspeed are proportional to the difference
between Pt and Ps, (b) altitude are directly proportional to Ps and
a ‘case’ pressure Pc produced by a calibrated metering unit. The
displacements are, in turn transmitted to an indicating element
via an appropriate magnifying system.

The complexity of an air data system depends primarily upon

the type and size of aircraft, the number of locations at which
primary air data are to be displayed, the types of instrument
installed, and the number of other systems requiring air data
inputs. The point about complexity may be particularly noted
from Figs 3 and 4, which show in schematic form the systems
used in two types of public transport aircraft currently in service.

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Figure 2

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Figure 3

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Figure 4

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PROBES The assembly incorporates two sets of static holes (S1 and S2)
connected to individual pipes terminating at the mounting
Probes may be either of the combined pilot-static tube type, or flange; the use of both sets is shown in more detail in Fig. 4.
of the single pitot tube type, the latter being used in air data Pitot pressure is transmitted via an appropriate connecting
systems that utilize remotely-located static vents or ports. A union and pipe terminating at the mounting flange.
probe of the combined tube is shown in basic form in Fig. 5.
The tubes are mounted concentrically, the pitot tube being An example of a ‘Pitot tube only” type of probe is shown in Fig.
7, and from this it will be noted that its mounting arrangements
inside the static tube which also forms the casing of the probe.
Static pressure is admitted through small ports around the are similar to those adopted for the combined type. A typical
application of the probe is shown in more detail in Fig. 3.
casing. The pressures are transmitted from their respective
tubes by means of metal pipes which may extend to the rear of
the probe, or at right angles to it, depending on whether the
probe is to be mounted at the leading edge of an aircraft’s wing,
under a wing, or at the side of a fuselage. Locations of probes
will be covered in more detail under the heading of ‘Position
error’.

A chamber is normally formed between the static holes and the

pipe connection to smooth out any turbulent air flowing into the
holes, which might occur when the probe is yawed, before
transmitting it to the instruments.

Protection against icing is provided by a heating element fitted

around the pitot tube, or, as in some designs, around the inner
circumference of the probe casing, and in such a position that
the maximum heating effect is obtained at points where ice
build-up is most likely to occur. The temperature/characteristics
of some elements are such that the current consumption is
automatically regulated according to the temperature conditions
to which the probe is exposed.

Figure 6 illustrates a type of combined tube probe; it is

supported on a faired casing, which is secured to the side of an
aircraft’s fuselage by means of a mounting flange.
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Figure 5

Figure 6

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Figure 7

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HEATING CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS

via the primary winding of a transformer. The dc power to the
The heating elements of some probes require a 28 V dc supply amber indicator lights passes to ground via a normally closed
for operation, while others are designed to operate from a 115 V solid-state switch, so they will initially remain illuminated.
ac supply, their application to any one type of aircraft being
governed principally by the primary power supply system When current is supplied to the heater element, a current is also
adopted. induced in the secondary winding of the transformer and is
supplied to a bridge rectifier. The rectified output is, in turn,
In any heating circuit it is of course necessary to have a control supplied to the solid-state switch. When the heating current has
switch, and it is also usual to provide some form of indication of reached a sufficient level, the increased rectified output causes
whether or not the circuit is functioning correctly. Two typical dc the solid-state switch to interrupt the indicator light circuit; a
powered circuit arrangements are shown in Fig. 8. ‘light out’ thus indicates that ‘probe heat is on’. Functioning of
the indicator lights can be checked by a press-to-test switch
In the arrangement shown at (a) the control switch, when in the within the body of the light unit.
‘ON’ position, allows current to flow to the heater vial the coil of
a relay which will be energized when there is continuity between
the switch and the grounded side of the heater. If a failure of the
heater or a break in another section of its circuit occurs, the
relay will de-energize and its contacts will then complete the
circuit from the second pole of the switch to illuminate the red
light, which gives warning of the failed circuit condition. The
broken lines shown an alternative arrangement of the light
circuit where by illumination of an amber light indicates that the
heater circuit is in operation.

In the arrangement shown at (b) an ammeter is connected in

series with the heater element so that not only is circuit
continuity indicated, but also the amount of current being
consumed by the element.

An example of an ac-powered heater circuit is shown in Fig. 9;

dc power is also used for indicator light circuit operation. With
both power supplies available, and the system control switch in
the ‘ON’ position, single-phase ac is supplied to heater element
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(a) (b)
Figure 8

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Figure 9

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POSITION ERROR

The accurate measurement of airspeed and altitude by means A long, small-diameter probe is an ideal one from an
of a combined tube type of probe presents two main difficulties: aerodynamic point of view, but it can present certain practical
one, to design a probe which will not cause any disturbance to difficulties; for example, its ‘stiffness’ may not be sufficient to
the airflow over it, and the other, to find a suitable location on an prevent vibration at high speed, and it could also be difficult to
aircraft where the airflow over it will not be affected by attitude accommodate the heating elements necessary for anti-icing.
changes of the aircraft. The effects of such disturbances are Thus, in establishing the ultimate relative dimensions of a
greatest on the static pressure sensing section of an air data probe, a certain amount of compromise must be accepted.
system, giving rise to what is termed a position or pressure error
(PE).This error may be more precisely defined as ‘the amount When a probe is at some angle of attack to the airflow, it causes
by which the local static pressure at a given point in the flow air to flow into the static holes which creates a pressure above
field differs from the free-stream static pressure’. As a result of that of the prevailing static pressure, and a corresponding error
PE, and airspeed indicator and an altimeter can develop errors in static pressure measurement. The pressures developed at
in their indications. The indications of a vertical speed indicator varying angles of attack depend on such factors as the axial
remain unaffected by PE. location of the static holes along the probe casing, their
positions around the circumference, and on their size.
As far as airflow over probe is concerned, we may consider it,
and the aircraft to which it is fitted, as being alike because some
of the factors determining airflow are: shape, size, speed and
angle of attack. The shape and size of a probe are dictated by
the speed at which it is moved through the air; a large-diameter
casing, for example, can present too great a frontal area which
at very high speeds can initiate the build-up of a shock wave
which will break down the airflow over the probe. This shock
wave can have an appreciable effect on the static pressure,
extending as it does for a distance equal to a given number of
diameters from the nose of a probe. One way of overcoming
this is to decrease the casing diameter and to increase the
distance of the static holes from the nose of the probe.
Furthermore, a number of holes may be provided along the
length of the casing of a probe spaced in such a way that some
will always be in the region of undisturbed airflow.

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STATIC VENTS LOCATION OF PROBES AND STATIC VENTS

From the foregoing, it would appear that, if all these problems The choice of probe locations is largely dependent on the type
are created by pressure effects at the static holes of a probe, of aircraft, speed range and aerodynamic characteristics, and
they might as well be separated from it and positioned as a result there is no common standard for all aircraft. Typical
elsewhere on an aircraft. This is, in fact, a solution put into locations are: ahead of a wing tip, under a wing, ahead of a
practice on many types of aircraft by using a single tube type of vertical stabilizer tip, at the side of a fuselage nose section, and
probe (see Fig. 7) in conjunction with a static vent located in the ahead of a fuselage nose section.
side of the fuselage. A typical static vent is shown in Fig. 10.
Independent static vents, when fitted, are always located one on
each side of a fuselage and interconnected so as to balance out
dynamic pressure effects resulting from any yawing or sideslip
motion of an aircraft.

The actual PE due to a chosen location is determined for the

appropriate aircraft type during the initial flight-handling trials of
a prototype, and is finally presented in tabular or graphical
format, thus enabling corrections to be directly applied to the
readings of the relevant air data instruments, and as appropriate
to various operating configurations. In most cases, corrections
are performed automatically and in a variety of ways. One
method is to employ aerodynamically compensated probes, i.e.
probes which are so contoured as to create a local pressure
field which is equal and opposite to that of the aircraft, so that
the resultant PE is close to zero. Other methods more
commonly adopted utilize correction devices either within
separate transducers, or within central air data computers.

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Figure 10

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ALTERNATE PRESSURE SOURCES

If failure of the primary pitot and static pressure sources should

occur, e.g. complete icing-up of a probe due to a heating
element failure, then of course errors will be introduced in
instruments indications and in other systems dependent on
such pressures. As a safeguard against failure, therefore, a
standby system may be installed in aircraft employing combined
tube type probes whereby static atmospheric pressure and /or
pitot pressure from alternate sources can be selected and
connected into the primary system.

The required pressure is selected by means of selector valves

connected between the appropriate pressure sources and the
air data instruments, and located within easy reach of the flight
crew. Figure 11 illustrates diagrammatically the method adopted
in a system utilizing an alternate static pressure source only.
The valves are shown in the normal operating position, i.e. the
probes supply pitot and static pressures to the instruments on
their respective sides of the aircraft.

In the event of failure of static pressure from one or other probe,

the instruments can be connected dot the alternate source by
manually changing over the position of relevant selector valve.

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Figure 11

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The layout shown in Fig. 12 is one in which an alternate source

of both pitot and static pressures can be selected. Furthermore,
it is an example of a system, which utilizes the static holes of
combined tube type of probe as the alternate static pressure
source.

The valves are shown in their normal position, i.e. the probes
supply pitot pressure to the instruments on their respective
sides of an aircraft; and the static pressure is supplied from
static vents. In the event of failure of pitot pressure from one or
other probe, the position of the relevant selector valve must be
manually changed over to connect the air data instruments to
the opposite probe. The alternate static source is selected by
means of a valve similar to that employed in the pitot pressure
system, and, as will be seen from Fig. 12, it is a
straightforward change-over function.

The probes employed in the system just described are of the

type illustrated in Fig. 6, reference to which shows that two sets
of static holes (front and rear) are connected to separated pipes
at the mounting base. In addition to being connected to their
respective selector valves, the probes are also coupled to each
other by a cross connection of the static holes and pipes; thus,
the front set of holes are connected to the rear set on opposite
probes. This balances out any pressure differences, which
might be caused by the location of the static holes along the
fore and aft axis of the probes.

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Figure 12

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PIPELINES AND DRAINS

Pitot and static pressures are transmitted through seamless and

corrosion-resistant metal (light alloy and/ or tungstun) pipelines,
and, where connections to components mounted on anti-
vibration mounting are required, flexible pipelines are used. The
diameter of pipelines is related to the distance from the
pressure sources to the instruments in order to eliminate
pressure drop and time lag factors.

In order for an air data system to operate effectively under all

flight conditions, provision must also be made for the elimination
of water that may enter the system as a result of condensation,
rain, snow, etc., thus reducing the probability of ‘slugs’ of water
blocking the lines. Such provision takes the form of drain holes
in probes, drain traps and valves in the system’s pipelines.
Drain holes provided in probes are of such a diameter that they
do not introduce errors in instrument indications.

The method of draining the pipelines varies between aircraft

types, and some examples are shown in Fig. 13. Drain traps are
designed to have a capacity sufficient to allow for the
accumulation of the maximum amount of water that could enter
a system between servicing periods. Valves are of the self-
closing type so that they cannot be left in the open position
after drainage of accumulated water.

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Figure 13

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AIR DATA INSTRUMENTS AIRSPEED INDICATORS (PNEUMATIC)

The three primary air data instruments may be either of the These indicators measure speed in terms of the difference
pure ‘pneumatic’ type, or the servo-operated type. Pneumatic- between the pitot and static pressures detected by either a
type instruments are those, which are connected to probes combined pitot-static probe, or a pitot probe and static vent, as
and/or static vents, and therefore respond to the pressures appropriate.
transmitted directly to them. They are commonly used in the
more basic air data system installed in many types of small PITOT PRESSURE
aircraft, while in the more complex systems adopted in large
public transport aircraft, they are used only in a standby role. It is the total pressure created due to the forward motion of the
aircraft. It is the sum of static and dynamic pressure.
Servo-operated instruments are, on the other hand, of the
indirect type in that they respond to electrical signals generated Let us consider a pitot probe placed in a fluid with its open end
by pressure transducers within central air data computers facing upstream as shown in Fig. 14. When the fluid flows at a
(CADCs) to which probes and static vents are connected. The certain velocity V over the probe it will be brought to rest at the
fundamental principles of these instruments will be described in nose; this point is known as the stagnation point. If the fluid is
a later chapter. an ideal one, i.e. is not viscous, then the total energy is equal to
the sum of the potential energy, the kinetic energy and pressure
energy remains constant. In connection with this probe,
however, the potential energy is neglected, thus leaving the
sum of the remaining two terms as the constant.

In coming to rest at the stagnation point, kinetic energy of the

fluid is converted into pressure energy. This means that work
must be done by the mass of fluid and this raises an equal
volume of fluid above the level of the fluid stream. The work
done in raising the fluid is equal to the product of its mass, the
height through which it is raised, and acceleration due to
gravity. It is also equal to the product of the ratio of the mass
(m) to density (ρ) and pressure (p); thus,

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The quantity ½ ρV2 is additional to the static pressure in the

region of the fluid flow, and is usually referred to as the dynamic
pressure, denoted by the letter Q.

The factor ½ assume that the fluid is an ideal one and so does
not take into account the fact that the shape of a body subject to
fluid flow may not bring the fluid to rest at the stagnation point.
This coefficient is, however, determined by experiment and for
pitot pressure probes it has been found that its value
corresponds almost exactly to the theoretical one.

The ½ ρV2 law, as it is usually called in connection with

airspeed measurement, does not allow for the effects of
compressibility of air as speed increases. In order therefore to
minimize ‘compressibility errors’ in indication, the calibration law
is modified as follows:
Figure 14
P= ½ ρV2 (1 + ¼ (V2/a02))

Work done =m P Where,

ρ
P = pressure difference (mmH2O)
The kinetic energy of a mass m before being brought to rest is
equal to ½mV2, where V is the speed, and since this is ρ = density of air at sea-level
converted into pressure energy,
V = speed of aircraft (mph or knots)
m P = ½mV2
ρ a0 = speed of sound at sea-level (mph)

Therefore

P =½ ρV2

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AIRSPEED TERMINOLOGY TRUE AIRSPEED (TAS)

INDICATED AIRSPEED (IAS) This is EAS compensated for changes in air temperature and
density at various flight levels. This is also done automatically in
The readings of an airspeed indicator corrected only for air data computer systems.
instrument error, i.e. the difference between the true value and
the indicated value. Errors and appropriate corrections to be The foregoing airspeeds are summarized pictorially in Fig. 15.
applied are determined by comparison against calibration
equipment having high standards of accuracy. LIMITING SPEEDS

COMPUTED AIRSPEED Vmo Maximum operating sped in knots.

Basically, this is IAS with corrections for position error (PE) Mmo Maximum operating speed in terms of Mach
applied. The term “computed” applies specifically to air data number.
computer systems in which PE corrections are automatically
applied to an airspeed sensing module via an electrical
correction network.

CALIBRATED AIRSPEED (CAS)

This is also associated with air data computer systems and is

the computed airspeed compensated for the non-linear, or
square-law, response of the airspeed sensing module.

EQUIVALENT AIRSPEED (EAS)

This is the airspeed calculated from the measured pressure

difference P when using the constant sea-level value of density
ρ. In air data computer systems, CAS is automatically
compensated for compressibility of air at a pitot probe to obtain
EAS at varying speeds and altitudes.

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Figure 15

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TYPICAL INDICATOR furthermore, the scale length for a wide speed range would be
too great to accommodate conveniently in the standard dial
The mechanism of a typical pneumatic-type airspeed indicator sizes.
is illustrated in Fig. 16. The pressure-sensing element is a metal
capsule, the interior of which is connected to the pitot pressure Therefore, to obtain the desired linearity a method of controlling
connector via a short length of capillary tube which damps out either the capsule characteristic, or the dimensioning of the
pressure surges. Static pressure is exerted on the exterior of coupling element conveying capsule deflections to the pointer,
the capsule and is fed into the instrument case via the second is necessary. Of the two methods the latter is the more practical
connector. Except for this connector the case is sealed. because means of adjustment can be incorporated to overcome
the effects of capsule ‘drift’ plus other mechanical irregularities
Displacements of the capsule in accordance with what is called as determined during calibration.
the ‘square-law’ are transmitted via a magnifying lever system,
gearing, and a square-law compensating device to the pointer, The principle of a commonly used version of the foregoing
which moves over a linear scale calibrated in Knots. method is one in which the length of a lever is altered as
Temperature compensation is achieved by a bimetallic strip progressive deflections of the capsule take place, causing the
arranged to vary the magnification of the lever system in mechanism, and pointer movement, to be increased for small
opposition to the effects of temperature on system and capsule deflections and decreased for large deflections. In other words,
sensitivity. it is a principle of variable magnification.

SQUARE-LAW COMPENSATION Another type of square-law compensating device is shown in

Fig. 18. It consists of a special ranging or ‘tuning’ spring which
Since airspeed indicators measure a differential pressure which bears against the capsule and applies a controlled retarding
varies with the square of the airspeed, it follows that, if the force to capsule expansion. The retarding force is governed by
deflections of the capsules responded linearly to the pressure, sets of ranging screws which are pre-adjusted to contact the
the response characteristic in relation to speed would be similar spring at appropriate points as it is lifted by the expanding
to that shown in Fig. 17 (a). If also the capsule were coupled to capsule. As speed and differential pressure increase, the spring
the pointer mechanism so that its deflections were directly rate increases and its effective length is shortened; the thus
magnified, the instrument scale would be of the type indicated linearity is obtained directly at the capsule and eliminates the
at (b). need for a variable magnifying lever system. In some types of
servo-operated indicators, a specially profiled cam provides
Then non-linearity of such a scale makes it difficult to read square- law compensation.
accurately, particularly at the low end of the speed range;

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Figure 17

Figure 16

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(b)

Figure 17

Figure 18

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MACHMETERS AND MACH/AIRSPEED

Let us assume that the aircraft is flying under standard sea-level
INDICATORS conditions at a speed V of 500 mph. The speed of sound at sea-
level is approximately 760 mph, therefore the Mach number is
In order for aircraft to operate at speeds approaching and 500/760 = 0.65. Now, the speed measured by the airspeed
exceeding that of sound, their aerodynamic profiles and mechanism is, as we have already seen, equal to the pressure
structural design must be such that they minimize, or ideally difference Pt-Ps, and so the sliding rocking shaft and levers A,
overcome, the limiting effect that high-velocity airflow and its B, C and D will be set to angular positions determined by this
associated forces could otherwise have on in-flight behavior of difference. The speed of sound cannot be measured by the
aircraft. Since the speed of sound depends on atmospheric instrument, but since it is governed by static pressure
pressure and density, it will vary with altitude, and this suggests conditions, the altimeter mechanism can do the next best thing
that for an aircraft to operate within speed limits commensurate and that is to measure Ps and feed this into the indicating
with structural safety, a different speed would have to be system, thereby setting a datum position for the point of contact
maintained for each altitude. This obviously is not a practical between the levers C and D. Thus a Mach meter indicates the
solution, and so it is therefore necessary to have a means Mach number V/a in terms of the pressure ratio (Pt – Ps)/Ps, and
whereby the ratio of an aircraft’s speed, V, and the speed of for the speed and altitude conditions assumed the pointer will
sound, a, can be computed from pressure measurement and indicate 0.65.
indicated in a conventional manner. This ratio, V/a, is termed
the Mach number (M), and the instrument which measure it is What happens at altitudes above sea-level? As already pointed
termed the Mach meter. out, the speed of sound decrease with altitudes, and if an
aircraft is flown at the same speed at all altitudes, it gets closer
A Mach meter is a compound air data instrument which, as may to and can exceed the speed of sound. For example, the speed
be seen from Fig 19, accepts two variables and uses them to of sound at 10000 ft decreases to approximately 650 mph, and
compute the required ratio. The first variable is airspeed and if an aircraft is flown at 500 mph at this altitude, the Mach
therefore a mechanism based on that of a conventional number will be 500/650 = 0.75, a 10 percent increase over its
airspeed indicator is adopted to measure this in terms of the sea-level value. It is for this reason that critical Mach numbers
pressure difference Pt-Ps, where Pt is the total or pitot pressure, (Mcrit) are established for the various types of high-speed
and Ps is the static pressure. The second variable is altitude, aircraft, and being constant with respect to altitude it is
and this is also measured in the conventional manner, i.e. by convenient to express any speed limitations in terms of such
means of an aneroid capsule sensitive to Ps. Deflections of the numbers.
capsules of both mechanisms are transmitted to the indicator
pointer by rocking shafts and levers, the dividing function of the
altitude unit being accomplished by an intermediate sliding
rocking shaft.
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Figure 19

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We may now consider how the altitude mechanism of the Mach The mechanism consist of two measuring elements which drive
meter functions in order to achieve this, by taking the case of an their own indicating elements, i.e. a pointer and a fixed scale to
aircraft having an Mcrit of say 0.65. at sea level and as based on indicate airspeed, and a rotating dial and scale calibrated to
our earlier observation, the measured airspeed would be 500 indicate Mach number. A second pointer, known as the velocity
mph to maintain Mcrit = 0.65. Now, if the aircraft is to climb to maximum operating (Vmo) pointer, is also provided for the
and level off at a flight altitude of 10,000 ft, during the climb the purpose of indicating the maximum safe speed of an aircraft
decrease of Ps causes a change in the pressure ratio. It affects over its operating altitude range; in other words, it is an indicator
of critical Mach number. The pointer is striped red and white
the pressure difference Pt-Ps in the same manner as a
and can be pre-adjusted to the desired limiting speed value, by
conventional indicator is affected, i.e. the measured airspeed is
pulling out and rotating the setting knob in the bottom right-hand
decreased. The airspeed mechanism therefore tends to make corner of the indicator bezel. The adjustment is made on the
the pointer indicate a lower Mach number. However the altitude ground against charted information appropriate to operational
mechanism simultaneously responds to the decrease in Ps, its requirements of the particular type of aircraft. The purpose of
capsule expanding and causing the sliding rocking shaft to carry the setting knob in the bottom left-hand corner of the bezel is to
lever C towards the pivot point of lever D. enable the pilot to position a command ‘bug’ with respect to the
airspeed scale, thereby setting an airspeed value which may be
The magnification ratio between the two levers is therefore used as a datum for an auto throttle control system, or as a
altered as the altitude mechanism divides Pt-Ps by Ps, lever D fast/slow speed indicator. Two external index pointers around
being forced down so as to make the pointer maintain a the bezel may be manually set to any desired reference speed,
constant Mach number of 0.65. e.g. the take-off speeds V1 and VR.

The critical Mach number for a particular type of aircraft is In operation, the airspeed measuring and indicating elements
indicated by a pre-adjusted lubber mark located over the dial of respond to the difference between pitot and static pressures in
the Mach meter. the conventional manner, and changes in static pressure with
changes in altitude cause the Mach number scale to rotate
MACH/AIRSPEED INDICATOR (anti-clockwise with increasing altitude) relative to the Vmo
pointer. When the limiting speed is reached, and the
This indicator is one, which combines the functions of both a corresponding Mach number graduation coincides with the Vmo
conventional airspeed indicator and a Mach meter, and pointer setting, mechanical contact is made between the scale
presents the requisite information in the manner shown in and pointer actuating assemblies so that continued rotation of
Figure 20. the scale will also cause the pointer to rotate in unison.

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Figure 20

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The pointer rotates against the tension of a hairspring which INDICATED/COMPUTED AIRSPEED INDICATOR
returns the pointer to its originally selected position when the
Mach speed decreases to below the limiting speed. It will be An example of this type of indicator is shown in Fig. 21. It is very
noted from Fig. 20 that at the high end of the speed range, the similar in construction and presentation to the Mach/airspeed
airspeed pointer can also register against the Mach scale, indicator in that it employs pitot and static pressure-sensing
thereby giving a readout of speed in equivalent units. The elements, which position the appropriate pointers. It has,
necessary computation is effected by calibrating the scales to however, the additional feature of indicating the airspeed
logarithmic functions of pitot and static pressures. computed by a central air data computer. The indicating
element for this purpose is a servomotor-driven digital counter,
In addition to their basic indicating function, Mach/airspeed the motor being supplied with signals from a synchronous
indicators can also be designed to actuate switch units coupled transmission system. In the event of failure of such signals a
to visual or audio devices which give warning when such yellow warning flag obscures the counter drums. A check on the
speeds as Mach limiting, or landing gear extension are reached. operation of the failure monitoring and flag circuits can be made
In aircraft having an auto throttle system, certain types of by moving the calibrated airspeed (CAS) switch from its
Mach/airspeed indicator are designed to provide a speed error normally ‘ON’ position to ‘OFF’.
output which is proportional to the difference between the
reading indicated by the airspeed pointer and the setting of the As in the case of certain types of Mach/airspeed indicators,
command ‘bug’. This is accomplished by means of a CT/CX provision is made for setting in a command airspeed signal and
synchro combination which senses the positions of the airspeed for transmitting it to an auto throttle system, which will adjust the
pointer and the command bug, and produces an output error engine power to attain a commanded speed. In the example
signal which, after amplification, is then supplied to the auto illustrated, the command set knob mechanically adjusts a
throttle system. synchrotel which also senses indicated airspeed. Thus, the
synchrotel establishes the airspeed error signal output required
by the autothrottle computer. A readout of the command speed
is given on a digital counter which is also mechanically set by
command speed knob.

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Figure 21

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ALTIMETERS (PNEUMATIC) The pressure-sensing element of the altimeter is compensated

for changes in temperature of the air supplied to it by a bi-metal
These instruments operate on the aneroid barometer principle; compensator device connected in the magnification lever
in other words they respond to changes in atmospheric system. The temperature coefficient of the instrument is chiefly
pressure, and in accordance with appropriate calibration laws due to the change of elasticity of the capsule material with
they indicate these changes in terms of equivalent altitude change of temperature; this, in turn, varies the degree of
values. deflection of the capsules in relation to the pressure acting
external to them. For example, if at sea-level the temperature
The dial presentation and mechanical features of a typical should decrease, the elasticity of the capsules would increase;
pneumatic type of altimeter are shown in Fig. 22. The pressure in other words, and from the definition of elasticity, the capsules
sensing element consists of twin capsules, which transmit their have a greater tendency ‘to return to their original size’ and so
deflections in response to pressure changes, to a single pointer would expand and cause the altimeter to over-read. At higher
and altitude drum via sector gears and pinions. The direction of altitudes the same effects on elasticity will take place, but since
the solid arrows shown in the diagram corresponds to the the pressures acting on the capsules will also have decreased,
movements obtained under increasing altitude conditions. The then, by comparison, the expansion of the capsules becomes
complete mechanism is contained within a casing, which, with progressively greater. The bi-metal compensator is
the exception of the static pressure connection, forms a sealed simultaneously affected by the decrease in ambient
unit. temperature, but by virtue of its characteristics it exerts forces
In order to derive a linear altitude scale from the non-linear through the lever system to oppose the error-producing
pressure/altitude relationship it is necessary to incorporate deflection of the capsules.
some form of conversion within the altimeter mechanism. This
conversion is represented by the graphical example shown in
Fig. 23. Typically, linearity is obtained by a suitable choice of
material for the capsules and their corresponding deflections
(curve 2) and also choice of deflection characteristics of the
variable magnification and lever system for transmitting the
relevant defections to the pointer (curve 3).The resultant of both
curves produces the linear scale as at curve 4. To cater for
variations between deflection characteristics of individual
capsules, and so allow for calibration, adjustments are always
provided whereby the lever and gear system magnification may
be matched to suit the capsule characteristics.

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Figure 22

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Figure 23

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BAROMETRIC PRESSURE SETTING

As pointed out earlier in this chapter, the basis for the Since the ISA also assumes certain temperature values at all
calibration of air data instruments is the ISA and its assumed altitudes, then consequently non-standard values can also
values. As far as altimeters are concerned, they will, under ISA cause errors in altimeter readings. Variations in temperature
conditions, indicate what is termed pressure altitude. In practice, cause differences of air density and therefore differences in
however, atmospheric pressure and temperature are continually weight and pressure of the air. This may be seen from the three
changing, and so under these ‘non-standard’ conditions columns shown in Fig. 24. At point A the altimeter measures the
altimeters would be in error and would then display what is pressure of the column AC. At point H, which is, say, at an
termed indicated altitude. altitude of 5000 ft above A, the pressure on the altimeter is less
by that of the part AB below it. If the temperature of the air in
We may consider these errors by taking the case of a simple part AB increases, the column of air will expand to A1B1, and so
altimeter situated at various levels. In standard conditions, and the pressure on the altimeter at H will now be less by that of
at a sea-level airfield, an altimeter would respond to a pressure A1H. The pressure of A1B1 is, however, still the same as that of
of 1013.25 mb (29.92 in Hg) and indicate the pressure altitude AH. Thus the altimeter, in rising from A1 to 5000 ft, will register a
of zero feet. Similarly, at an airfield level of 1000 ft, it would smaller reduction of pressure than when it rose from point A to
respond to a standard pressure of 977.4 mb (28.89 in Hg) and 5000 ft. In other words, it will read less than 5000 ft. Similarly,
indicate a pressure altitude of 1000ft. Assuming that at the sea- when the temperature of the air between point A and H
level airfield the pressure falls to 1012.2 mb (29.89 in Hg), the decreases, the part AB of the column reduces to A2B2 and the
altimeter will indicate that the airfield is approximately 30 ft change of pressure on the altimeter in rising from A2 to 5000 ft
above sea-level; in other would, it will be in error by + 30 ft. will be not only the pressure of A2B2 (which equals AB) but also
Again, if the pressure increases to 1014.2 mb (29.95 in Hg), the the pressure of B2H. The altimeter will thus read a greater
altimeter in responding to the pressure change will indicate that pressure drop and will indicate an altitude greater than 5000 ft.
the airfield is approximately 30 ft below sea-level, an error of – The relationship between the various altitudes associated with
30 ft. flight operations is presented graphically in Fig. 25.

In a similar manner, errors would be introduced in the readings

of such an altimeter in flight and whenever the atmospheric
pressure at any particular altitude departed from the assumed
standard value. For example, when an aeroplane flying at 5000
ft enters a region in which the pressure has fallen from the
standard value of 842.98mb to, say, 837 mb, the altimeter will
indicate an altitude of approximately 5190 ft.

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Figure 24

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Figure 25

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It will be apparent from the foregoing that, although the simple If the setting is then changed to, say, 1003 mb as at (b), the
form of altimeter performs its basic function of measuring scale will be rotated clockwise, causing the altitude pointer to
changes in atmospheric pressure accurately enough, the rotate anti-clockwise and to indicate –270 ft. If now the altimeter
corresponding altitude indications are of little value unless they is raised through 270 ft as at (c) a pressure decrease of 10 mb
are corrected to standard pressure data. In order, therefore, to will be sensed by the capsule and its corresponding deflection
compensate for altitude errors due to atmospheric pressure will cause the altitude pointer to return to the zero graduation.
changes, altimeters are provided with a manually operated Thus, whatever pressure is set on the millibar scale, the
setting device, which allow prevailing round pressure values to altimeter will indicate zero when subjected to that pressure.
be preset. Similarly, any setting of the altitude pointer automatically adjusts
the millibar scale reading to indicate the pressure at which the
In the altimeter shown in Fig. 22, the adjustment device consists altitude indicated will be zero.
of two drum counters (one calibrated in inch Hg and the other in
mb) interconnected though gearing to a setting Knob. When the
knob is rotated then, as shown by the dotted arrows, both
counters can be set to indicate the prevailing barometric
pressure; i.e. the static pressure, in the equivalent units of
measurement. Likewise it will be noted that the setting knob is
also geared to the sensing element mechanism body, so that
this mechanism can also be rotated. The deflected position of
the capsules appropriate to whatever pressure is acting on them
at the time will not be disturbed by rotation of the mechanism.
However, in order to maintain the correct pressure/altitude
relationship, rotation of the setting knob will cause the altitude
pointer and drum to rotate and so indicate the altitude
corresponding to the pressures set on the counters. The
underlying principle of this may be understood by considering
the setting device to be a millibar scale having a simple geared
connection to the altitude pointer as shown in Fig. 26.

At (a) the altimeter is assumed to be subjected to standard

conditions; thus the millibar scale, in this case, when set to
1013.25 mb, position the pointer at the 0 ft graduation.

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Figure 26

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‘Q’ CODE FOR ALTIMETER SETTING There is also a third setting and this is referred to as the
Standard Altimeter Setting (SAS), in which the barometric
The setting of altimeters to the barometric pressures prevailing pressure counters are set to the ISA values of 1013.2 mb or
at various flight levels and airports is part of flight operating 29.92 in Hg. It is used for flight above a prescribed transition
techniques, and is essential for maintaining adequate altitude and has the advantage that with all aircraft using the
separation between aircraft, and also terrain clearance during same airspace and flying on the same altimeter setting, the
take-off and landing. In order to make the settings flight crew requisite limits of separation between aircraft can more readily
are dependent on observed in meteorological data, which are be maintained. The transition altitude within UK airspace is
requested and transmitted from air traffic control. The requests usually 3000 ft to 6000 ft, and from these data altitudes are
and transmission are adopted universally and form part of the quoted as flight levels: e.g. 4000 ft is FL 40 and 15000 ft is FL
ICAO ‘Q’ code of communication. 150.

There are two code letter groups commonly used in connection The following definitions, together with Fig. 27, show haw the
with altimeter setting procedures, and they are defined as terms ‘altitude’,’ elevation’ and ‘height” are used in relation to
follows: altimeter setting procedures.

QFE Setting the barometric pressure prevailing at an airport to Altitude is the vertical distance of a level, point or object
make the altimeter read zero on landing at, and taking off from, considered as a point above mean sea level. Thus, an altimeter
that airport. The zero reading is regardless of the airport’s indicates an altitude when a QNH is set.
elevation above sea-level.
Elevation is the vertical distance of a fixed point above or below
QNH Setting the barometric pressure to make the altimeter read mean sea-level. For altimeter setting the QFE datum used is the
airport elevation above sea-level on landing and take-off. The airport elevation which is the highest useable point on the
pressure set is a value reduced to mean sea-level in landing area. Where a runway is below the airport elevation, the
accordance with ISA. When used for landing and take-off, the QFE datum used is the elevation of the touchdown point,
setting is generally known as ‘airport QNH’. Any value is only referred at as touchdown elevation.
valid in the immediate vicinity of the airport concerned.
Height is the vertical distance of a level, point or object
Since an altimeter with a QNH setting reads altitude above sea considered as a point measured from a specified datum. Thus,
level, the setting is also useful in determining terrain clearance an altimeter indicates a height above airport elevation (the
when an aircraft is en route. For this purpose, the UK and specified datum) when a QFE is set.
surrounding seas are divided into fourteen Altimeter Setting
Regions, each transmitting an hourly ‘regional QNH’ forecast.

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Figure 27

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VERTICAL SPEED INDICATORS

the static pressure connection and is connected to the interior of
These indicators (also known as rate-of-climb indicators) are the capsule by a length of capillary tube. This tube serves the
the third of the primary group of air data instruments, and are same purpose as the one employed in a pneumatic type of
very sensitive differential pressure gauges, designed to indicate airspeed indicator, i.e. it prevents pressure surges reaching the
the rate of altitude change from variations in static pressure capsule. It is, however, of greater length due to the fact that the
alone. capsule is much more flexible and sensitive to pressure
changes. The other end of the metering unit is open to the
Since the rate at which the static pressure changes is involved interior of the case to apply static pressure to the exterior of the
in determining vertical speed, a time factor has to be introduced capsule. Let us now see how the instrument operates under the
as pressure function. This is accomplished by incorporating a three flight conditions shown in the diagram.
special air metering unit in the sensing system, its purpose
being to create a lag in static pressure across the system and In level flight, air at the prevailing static pressure is admitted to
so establish the required pressure differences. the interior of the capsule, and also to the instrument case via
the metering unit. Thus, there is no difference of pressure
A pneumatic type of indicator consists basically of three across the capsule and the pointer indicates zero.
principal components: a capsule-type sensing element, an
indicating element and a metering unit, all of which are housed At the instant of commencing a descent, there will still be no
in a sealed case connected to the static pressure source. The pressure difference, but as the aircraft is now descending into
dial presentation is such that zero is at the 9 O’clock position; conditions of higher static pressure then such pressure will be
thus the pointer is horizontal in the straight and level flight directly sensed inside the capsule. The pressure inside the
attitude, and can move from this position to indicate climb and case, however, will not build up at the same rate as the capsule
descent in the correct sense. Certain types of indicator employ pressure, because in having to pass through the metering unit
a linear scale, but in the majority of applications, indicators the airflow in to the case is restricted. Thus, a differential
having a scale calibrated to indicate the logarithm of the rate of pressure is created across the capsule, causing it to distend
pressure change are preferred. The reason for this is that a and so make the pointer indicate a descent.
logarithmic scale is more open near the zero graduation, and so
provides for better readability and for more accurate observation During a climb, an aircraft will of course pass through
of variations from level flight conditions. A typical example of conditions of decreasing static pressure, but as the metering
this presentation is shown in Fig. 28. unit will then restrict the airflow out of the case, a differential
pressure is created as a result of case pressure now being
An indicator mechanism is shown in schematic form in Fig. 29, greater than that inside the capsule, causing it to collapse and
from which it will be noted that the metering unit forms part of so make the pointer indicate a climb.

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Figure 28

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Figure 29

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Apart from the changes of static pressure with changes of magnifying lever and gearing system. The range or adjustment
altitude, air temperature, density and viscosity changes are around zero depends on the scale range of any one type of
other very important variables which must be taken into indicator, but ±200 and ± 400 ft/min are typical values.
account, particularly as the instrument depends on rates of
airflow. In addition, the volumetric capacities of cases and
capsules must also be considered in order to obtain the
constant differential pressures necessary for the indication of
specific rates of climb and descent. Metering units are designed
to compensate for the effects of the variables over the ranges
normally encountered, so from the theoretical point of view a
vertical speed indicator is a somewhat sophisticated instrument.

The construction of a typical indicator is shown in Fig. 30. It

consists of a cast aluminum-alloy body, which forms the support
for all the principal components with the exception of the
metering unit, which is secured to the rear of the instrument
case. Displacements of the capsule in response to differential
pressure changes are transmitted to the pointer via a balanced
link and rocking-shaft assembly, and a quadrate and pinion. The
flange of the metering unit connects with the static pressure
connection of the indicator case, and with the capsule via the
capillary tube.

In order to achieve the correct relationship between the 1. Rocking shaft assembly
capsule’s pressure/deflection characteristics and the pointer 2. Sector
3. Hand staff pinion Figure 30
position at all points of scale, forces are exerted on the capsule 4. Gearwheel
be two pre-adjusted calibration springs. The upper spring and 5. Eccentric shaft assembly
its adjusting screws control the rate of descent calibration, while 6. Capsule plate assembly
7. Calibration springs
the lower spring and screws control that of rate of climb 8. Capsule
9. Capillary tube
An adjustment device is provided at the front of the indicator for 10. Calibration springs
11. Static Connection
setting the pointer to zero, and when operated it moves the 12. Metering unit
capsule assembly up or down to position the pointer via the 13. Mechanism body
14. Hairspring 15.Link 16. Balance weight

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INSTANTANEOUS VERTICAL SPEED INDICATORS (IVSI)

These indicators consist of the same basic element as

conventional VSIs, but in addition they employ an
accelerometer unit which is designed to create a more rapid
differential pressure effect, specifically at the initiation of a climb
or decent. The basic principle is illustrated in Fig. 31.

The accelerometer comprises a small cylinder, or dashpot,

containing a piston held in balance by a spring and by its own
mass. The cylinder is connected in a capillary tube leading the
capsule, and is thus open directly to the static pressure source.
When a change in vertical speed is initiated, the piston is
immediately displaced under the influence of a vertical
acceleration force, and this creates an immediate pressure
change inside the capsule. For example, at initiation of a
descent, the piston moves up and thereby decreases the
volume of chamber ‘A’ to produce an immediate increase of
pressure inside the capsule. The capsule displacement in turn
produces instantaneous deflection of the indicator pointer over
the descent portion of the scale. At initiation of an ascent, the
converse of the foregoing responses would apply. The
accelerometer response decays in each case after a few
seconds, but by this time the change in actual static pressure
becomes effective, so that a pressure differential is produced by
the metering unit in the conventional manner. The propose of
the restrictor in the bypass line is to prevent any loss of
pressure change effects created by displacements at the
acceleration pump.

Figure 31

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NOTES :

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INSTRUMENT PNEUMATIC SYSTEM Fig. 2 illustrate the internal construction of a typical pump and
as you can see it made up of sleeve housing , a rotor and four
Vacuum System blades slotted into the rotor. The rotor axis is offset from the
sleeve axis and so it can rotate with a maximum of space on
A typical vacuum system is shown schematically in Fig. 1 and one side and a minimum space on the other.
as you will note it consists of an engine driven pump connected
through appropriate ‘plumbing’ to the gyroscopic flight
instruments. A vacuum gauge, a regulator valve and a central
air filter are also provided.

Figure 1

Pumps are usually of the ‘dry’ type by which is meant no

lubrication of rotating parts is required. This is achieved by
using vanes and rotors made from carbon so that they are self- Figure 2
lubricating. You may come across some aircraft using oil-
lubricated pumps in which case you will find that oil/air As the rotor turns the volume of space between adjacent blades
separators and engine oil return lines are also part of the gradually increase and then decrease. Air from the inlet
System. connection enters the expanding space through ports in the
sleeve and is carried round to be forced out through further

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ports to the outlet connection. The pressure at the inlet

connection is therefore lower and so provides the ‘vacuum for
driving the instrument rotors.
When operating, a pump creates a vacuum that is regulated by
the relief valve at between 3.5 and 4.5. In. Hg. Some types of
turn and bank indicator operate at a lower valve in the indicator
supply line.
Regulators, or relief valves as they are sometimes called, may
vary in certain physical features, but the example shown in Fig.
3 will give you a good idea of component parts and operation
generally. During system operation, the valve remains closed by
compression of the spring whose tension has been pre-adjusted
to obtain the required value of vacuum. It does this by balancing
against the air pressure acting on the outside of the valve.

Figure 3

If for some reason, this value should be exceeded, the outside

air pressure would then be the greater and would lift the valve
off its seating, allowing air to flow into the system until the
balanced condition is once again restored.
Each of the flight instruments has two connections, one is made
to the pump, and the other is made internally to the spinning jet
system and is open to the surrounding air via the central air

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filter. This filter prevents contamination of the rotor and gimbal

system bearings within the instruments. A filter is also provided
in the regulator valve to help prevent contamination of the
pump.
When the vacuum is applied to the instruments the surrounding
air enters and emerges through the spinning jets. The jets are
positioned close to a series of recesses (commonly called
‘buckets’) formed in the periphery of each instrument rotor, so
as the jets of air impinge on the buckets, the rotors are rotated
at high speed
In some types of turbine-powered aircraft that have
pneumatically operated instruments installed, the vacuum is
created by bleeding air from the engine compressor and
passing it through an ejector venture. This arrangement is
schematically shown in Fig. 4.

Figure 4

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PRESSURE SYSTEM

A pressure system is as far as principal components are

connected, not unlike a vacuum system, but on closer
inspection of its arrangement shown in Fig. 5, we find a change
round of connections.

Figure 5

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DIRECT-READING PRESSURE AND U-tube manometer

When the pressures P1 and P2 are equal, the height difference
TEMPERATURE GAUGES Δh - and therefore Δp - is zero.
With the same internal diameter, surface consistency and
Measure pressure by calculating the force exerted on the material, the capillary elevation has no effect.
surface. It does not depend on gas composition. Its measuring U-tubes are built for pressures of between 4000 and 10,000
range is from 10-4 Pa and up. Some Direct reading pressure PSI. The maximum pressure differences Δp depend on the
gauges are: length of the tubes and on the density of the liquid.
 U-tube manometer BOURDON TUBE
 Bourdon tube The open end of (Bourdon tube) coiled tube is fixed in place and
 Diaphragm and Bellows the other end is sealed and free to move. When a fluid that
needs to be measured is directed into the open end of the tube,
the unfixed portion of the coiled tube tends to straighten out.
U-TUBE MANOMETER
Liquid column manometers come in various configurations to
meet specific requirements. The basic types are described
below. The simplest liquid column manometer is the U-tube
manometer.

The Bourdon tube is one of the basic mechanisms for sensing pressure.

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.8(a) - Instrument Systems

The higher the pressure of the fluid, the more the tube
straightens. When the pressure is reduced, the tube recoils. A
pointer is attached to this moving end of the tube, usually
through a linkage of small shafts and gears. By calibrating this
motion of the straightening tube, a face or dial of the instrument
can be created. Thus, by observing the pointer movement along
the scale of the instrument face positioned behind it, pressure
increases and decreases are communicated to the pilot.
The Bourdon tube is the internal mechanism for many pressure
gauges used on aircraft. When high pressures need to be
measured, the tube is designed to be stiff. Gauges used to
indicate lower pressures use a more flexible tube that uncoils
and coils more readily. Most Bourdon tubes are made from
brass, bronze, or copper. Alloys of these metals can be made to
coil and uncoil the tube consistently numerous times.
Bourdon tube gauges are simple and reliable. Some of the
instruments that use a Bourdon tube mechanism include the
engine oil pressure gauge, hydraulic pressure gauge, oxygen
tank pressure gauge, and deice boot pressure gauge.
Since the pressure of the vapor produced by a heated liquid or
gas increases as temperature increases, Bourdon tube
mechanisms can also be used to measure temperature. This is
done by calibrating the pointer connecting linkage and
relabeling the face of the gauge with a temperature scale. Oil
temperature gauges often employ Bourdon tube mechanisms.

The Bourdon tube mechanism can be used to measure pressure or temperature

by recalibrating the pointer’s connecting linkage and scaling instrument face to
read in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit.

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Since the sensing and display of pressure or temperature

information using a Bourdon tube mechanism usually occurs in
single instrument housing, they are most often direct reading
gauges. But the Bourdon tube sensing device can also be used
remotely. Regardless, it is necessary to direct the fluid to be
measured into the Bourdon tube. For example, a common
direct-reading gauge measuring engine oil pressure and
indicating it to the pilot in the cockpit is mounted in the
instrument panel. A small length of tubing connects a
pressurized oil port on the engine, runs though the firewall, and
into the back of the gauge. This setup is especially functional on
light, single-engine aircraft in which the engine is mounted just
forward of the instrument panel in the forward end of the
fuselage. However, a remote sensing unit can be more practical
on twin-engine aircraft where the engines are a long distance
from the cockpit pressure display. Here, the Bourdon tube’s
motion is converted to an electrical signal and carried to the
cockpit display via a wire. This is lighter and more efficient,
eliminating the possibility of leaking fluids into the passenger
compartment of the aircraft.

DIAPHRAGM AND BELLOWS

The diaphragm is a hollow, thin-walled metal disk, usually

corrugated. When pressure is introduced through an opening on
one side of the disk, the entire disk expands. By placing linkage
A diaphragm used for measuring pressure. An evacuated sealed diaphragm is
in contact against the other side of the disk, the movement of called an aneroid.
the pressurized diaphragm can be transferred to a pointer that
registers the movement against the scale on the instrument Diaphragms can also be sealed. The diaphragm can be
face. evacuated before sealing, retaining absolutely nothing inside.
When this is done, the diaphragm is called an aneroid. Aneroid
are used in many fight instruments. A diaphragm can also be
filled with a gas to standard atmospheric pressure and then

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sealed. Each of these diaphragms has their uses, which are

described in the next section. The common factor in all is that
the expansion and contraction of the side wall of the diaphragm
is the movement that correlates to increasing and decreasing
pressure.
When a number of diaphragm chambers are connected
together, the device is called a bellows. This accordion like
assembly of diaphragms can be very useful when measuring
the difference in pressure between two gases, called differential
pressure. Just as with a single diaphragm, it is the movement of
the side walls of the bellows assembly that correlates with
changes in pressure and to which a pointer linkage and gearing
is attached to inform the pilot.

A bellows unit in a differential pressure gauge compares two different pressure

values. End movement of the bellows away from the side with the highest
pressure input occurs when the pressures in the bellows are not equal. The
indicator linkage is calibrated to display the difference.

Diaphragms, aneroid, and bellows pressure sensing devices are

often located inside the single instrument housing that contains
the pointer and instrument dial read by the pilot on the
instrument panel. Thus, many instruments that make use of
these sensitive and reliable mechanisms are direct reading
gauges. But, many remote sensing instrument systems also
make use of the diaphragm and bellows. In this case, the
sensing device containing the pressure sensitive diaphragm or
bellows is located remotely on the engine or airframe. It is part
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notable. Solid-state pressure-sensing systems are remote
of a transducer that converts the pressure into an electrical sensing systems. The sensors are mounted on the aircraft at
signal. The transducer, or transmitter, sends the signal to the convenient and effective locations.
gauge in the cockpit, or to a computer, for processing and
subsequent display of the sensed condition. Examples of TEMPERATURE GAUGES
instruments that use a diaphragm or bellows in a direct reading
or remote sensing gauge are the altimeter, vertical speed The temperature of numerous items must be known for an
indicator, cabin differential pressure gauge (in pressurized aircraft to be operated properly. Engine oil, carburetor mixture,
aircraft), and manifold pressure gauge. inlet air, free air, engine cylinder heads, heater ducts, and
Solid-state micro technology pressure sensors are used in exhaust gas temperature of turbine engines are all items
modern aircraft to determine the critical pressures needed for requiring temperature monitoring. Many other temperatures
safe operation. Many of these have digital output ready for must also be known. Different types of thermometers are used
processing by electronic fight instrument computers and other to collect and present temperature information.
onboard computers. Some sensors send micro electric signals
that are converted to digital format for use by computers. As Non-Electric Temperature Indicators
with the analog sensors described above, the key to the
function of solid-state sensors is their consistent property The physical characteristics of most materials change when
changes as pressure changes. exposed to changes in temperature. The changes are
The solid-state sensors used in most aviation applications consistent, such as the expansion or contraction of solids,
exhibit varying electrical output or resistance changes when liquids, and gases. The coefficient of expansion of different
pressure changes occur. Crystalline piezoelectric, piezo- materials varies and it is unique to each material. Most
resistor, and semiconductor chip sensors are most common. In everyone is familiar with the liquid mercury thermometer. As the
the typical sensor, tiny wires are embedded in the crystal or temperature of the mercury increases, it expands up a narrow
pressure-sensitive semiconductor chip. When pressure defects passage that has a graduated scale upon it to read the
the crystal(s), a small amount of electricity is created or, in the temperature associated with that expansion. The mercury
case of a semiconductor chip and some crystals, the resistance thermometer has no application in aviation.
changes. Since the current and resistance changes vary directly
with the amount of defection, outputs can be calibrated and A bimetallic thermometer is very useful in aviation. The
used to display pressure values. temperature sensing element of a bimetallic thermometer is
Nearly all of the pressure information needed for engine, made of two dissimilar metals strips bonded together. Each
airframe, and fight instruments can be captured and/or metal expands and contracts at a different rate when
calculated through the use of solid-state pressure sensors in temperature changes. One end of the bimetallic strip is fixed,
combination with temperature sensors. But continued use of the other end is coiled. A pointer is attached to the coiled end
aneroid devices for comparisons involving absolute pressure is which is set in the instrument housing.
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When the bimetallic strip is heated, the two metals expand.

Since their expansion rates differ and they are attached to each
other, the effect is that the coiled end tries to uncoil as the one
metal expands faster than the other. This moves the pointer
across the dial face of the instrument. When the temperature
drops, the metals contract at different rates, which tends to
tighten the coil and move the pointer in the opposite direction.

Direct reading bimetallic temperature gauges are often used in

light aircraft to measure free air temperature or outside air
temperature (OAT). In this application, a collecting probe
protrudes through the windshield of the aircraft to be exposed to
the atmospheric air. The coiled end of the bimetallic strip in the
instrument head is just inside the windshield where it can be
read by the pilot. [Figures 1]

A bourdon tube is also used as a direct reading non-electric

temperature gauge in simple, light aircraft. By calibrating the
dial face of a bourdon tube gauge with a temperature scale, it
can indicate temperature. The basis for operation is the
consistent expansion of the vapor produced by a volatile liquid
in an enclosed area. This vapor pressure changes directly with
temperature. By filling a sensing bulb with such a volatile liquid
and connecting it to a bourdon tube, the tube causes an
indication of the rising and falling vapor pressure due to
temperature change. Calibration of the dial face in degrees
Fahrenheit or Celsius, rather than psi, provides a temperature
reading. In this type of gauge, the sensing bulb is placed in the
area needing to have temperature measured. A long capillary
tube connects the bulb to the bourdon tube in the instrument Figures 1: A bimetallic temperature gauge works because of the dissimilar
housing. The narrow diameter of the capillary tube ensures that coefficients of expansion of two metals bonded together. When bent into a coil,
the volatile liquid is lightweight and stays primarily in the sensor cooling or heating causes the dissimilar metal coil to tighten, or unwind, moving
the pointer across the temperature scale on the instrument dial face.
bulb. Oil temperature is sometimes measured this way.

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Electrical Temperature Measuring Indication A typical electrical resistance thermometer looks like any other
temperature gauge. Indicators are available in dual form for use
The use of electricity in measuring temperature is very common in multiengine aircraft. Most indicators are self-compensating for
in aviation. The following measuring and indication systems can changes in cockpit temperature. The heat-sensitive resistor is
be found on many types of aircraft. Certain temperature ranges manufactured so that it has a definite resistance for each
are more suitably measured by one or another type of system. temperature value within its working range. The temperature-
sensitive resistor element is a length or winding made of a
Electrical Resistance Thermometer nickel/manganese wire or other suitable alloy in an insulating
material. The resistor is protected by a closed-end metal tube
The principle parts of the electrical resistance thermometer are attached to a threaded plug with a hexagonal head. [Figure 2]
the indicating instrument, the temperature-sensitive element (or The two ends of the winding are brazed, or welded, to an
bulb), and the connecting wires and plug connectors. Electrical electrical receptacle designed to receive the prongs of the
resistance thermometers are used widely in many types of connector plug.
aircraft to measure carburetor air, oil, free air temperatures, and
more. They are used to measure low and medium temperatures
in the –70 °C to 150 °C range.

For most metals, electrical resistance changes as the

temperature of the metal changes. This is the principle upon
which a resistance thermometer operates. Typically, the
electrical resistance of a metal increases as the temperature
rises. Various alloys have a high temperature-resistance
coefficient, meaning their resistance varies significantly with
temperature. This can make them suitable for use in
temperature sensing devices. The metal resistor is subjected to
the fluid or area in which temperature needs to be measured. It
is connected by wires to a resistance measuring device inside
the cockpit indicator. The instrument dial is calibrated in Figure 2. An electric resistance thermometer sensing bulb.
degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius as desired rather than in ohms.
As the temperature to be measured changes, the resistance of
the metal changes and the resistance measuring indicator
shows to what extent.

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The indicator contains a resistance-measuring instrument. When the temperature causes the resistance of the bulb to
Sometimes it uses a modified form of the Wheatstone- bridge equal that of the other resistances, no potential difference exists
circuit. The Wheatstone-bridge meter operates on the principle between points X and Y in the circuit. Therefore, no current
of balancing one unknown resistor against other known flows in the galvanometer leg of the circuit. If the temperature of
resistances. A simplified form of a Wheatstone- bridge circuit is the bulb changes, its resistance also changes, and the bridge
shown in Figure 3. Three equal values of resistance [Figure 3 becomes unbalanced, causing current to flow through the
A, B, and C] are connected into a diamond shaped bridge galvanometer in one direction or the other. The galvanometer
circuit. A resistor with an unknown value [Figure 3 D] is also part pointer is actually the temperature gauge pointer. As it moves
of the circuit. The unknown resistance represents the resistance against the dial face calibrated in degrees, it indicates
of the temperature bulb of the electrical resistance thermometer temperature. Many indicators are provided with a zero
system. A galvanometer is attached across the circuit at points adjustment screw on the face of the instrument. This adjusts the
X and Y. zeroing spring tension of the pointer when the bridge is at the
balance point (the position at which the bridge circuit is
balanced and no current flows through the meter).

Figure 3. The internal structure of an electric resistance thermometer indicator

features a bridge circuit, galvanometer, and variable resistor, which is outside the
indicator in the form of the temperature sensor.

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Ratiometer Electrical Resistance Thermometers

Another way of indicating temperature when employing an

electric resistance thermometer is by using a ratiometer. The
Wheatstone-bridge indicator is subject to errors from line
voltage fluctuation. The ratiometer is more stable and can
deliver higher accuracy. As its name suggests, the ratiometer
electrical resistance thermometer measures a ratio of current
flows.
The resistance bulb sensing portion of the ratiometer electric
resistance thermometer is essentially the same as described
above. The circuit contains a variable resistance and a fixed
resistance to provide the indication. It contains two branches for
current flow. Each has a coil mounted on either side of the
pointer assembly that is mounted within the magnetic field of a
large permanent magnet. Varying current flow through the coils
causes different magnetic fields to form, which react with the
larger magnetic field of the permanent magnet. This interaction
rotates the pointer against the dial face that is calibrated in
degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius, giving a temperature indication.
[Figure 4]
Figure 4. A ratiometer temperature measuring indicator has two coils. As the
sensor bulb resistance varies with temperature, different amounts of current flow
through the coils. This produces varying magnetic fields. These fields interact
with the magnetic field of a large permanent magnet, resulting in an indication of
temperature.

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The magnetic pole ends of the permanent magnet are closer at Ratiometer temperature measuring systems are used to
the top than they are at the bottom. This causes the magnetic measure engine oil, outside air, carburetor air, and other
field lines of flux between the poles to be more concentrated at temperatures in many types of aircraft. They are especially in
the top. As the two coils produce their magnetic fields, the demand to measure temperature conditions where accuracy is
stronger field interacts and pivots downward into the weaker, important, or large variations of supply voltages are
less concentrated part of the permanent magnet field, while the encountered.
weaker coil magnetic field shifts upward toward the more
concentrated flux field of the large magnet. This provides a
balancing effect that changes but stays in balance as the coil
field strengths vary with temperature and the resultant current
flowing through the coils.
For example, if the resistance of the temperature bulb is equal
to the value of the fixed resistance (R), equal values of current
flow through the coils. The torques, caused by the magnetic
field each coil creates, are the same and cancel any movement
in the larger magnetic field. The indicator pointer will be in the
vertical position. If the bulb temperature increases, its
resistance also increases. This causes the current flow through
coil A circuit branch to increase. This creates a stronger
magnetic field at coil A than at coil B. Consequently, the torque
on coil A increases, and it is pulled downward into the weaker
part of the large magnetic field. At the same time, less current
flows through the sensor bulb resistor and coil B, causing coil B
to form a weaker magnetic field that is pulled upward into the
stronger flux area of the permanent magnet’s magnetic field.
The pointer stops rotating when the fields reach a new balance
point that is directly related to the resistance in the sensing bulb.
The opposite of this action would take place if the temperature
of the heat-sensitive bulb should decrease.

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TEMPERATURE INDICATING SYSTEM of heat. If the corresponding SAT value is to be determined and
indicated, it is necessary to calculate the value of ram rise and
Air temperature is another of the basic parameters used to then subtract it from that of TAT.
establish data vital to the performance monitoring of aircraft and
engines, e.g. true airspeed measurement, temperature control, Various types of sensor may be adopted for the sensing of air
thrust settings, fuel/air ratio settings, etc. of turbine engines, and temperature. The simplest type, and one which is used in some
it is therefore necessary to provide a means of in-flight type of small low-speed aircraft for the indication of SAT, is a
measurement. direct reading indicator which operates on the principle of
expansion and contraction of a bi-metallic element when
The temperature which would overall be the most ideal is that of subjected to temperature changes. The element is arranged in
air under pure static conditions at the flight levels compatible the form of a helix anchored at one end of a metal sheath or
with the operating range of any particular type of aircraft probe; the opposite, or free end of the helix, is attached to the
concerned. The measurement of static air temperature (SAT) by spindle of a pointer. As the helix expands or contracts, it winds
direct means is, however, not possible for all types of aircraft for or unwinds causing the pointer to rotate over the scale of a dial
the reason that measurements can be affected by the adiabatic fixed to the probe. The thermometer is secured thought a fixing
compression of air resulting from increases in airspeed. At hole in the side window of a cockpit, or in the wrap-around
speeds below 0.2 Mach, the air temperature is very close to portion of a windscreen, so that the probe protrudes into the
static conditions, but a higher speeds, and as a result of airstreams. An example of this thermometer and its installation
changes in boundary layer behavior and the effects of friction, in one type of helicopter is shown in Fig 1.
the temperature is raised to a value appreciably higher than
SAT, this increase is referred to as ram rise. The measurement of TAT requires a more sophisticated
measuring technique, and because the proportion of ram rise
For use in aircraft capable of high Mach speeds, and for due to adiabatic compression is dependent on the ability of a
efficient control and management of the overall performance of sensor to sense and recover this rise, then a TAT sensor must
their engines, it is customary to sense and measure the itself be of a more sophisticated design. In this context, the
maximum temperature rise possible. This parameter is referred sensitivity of a sensor is normally expressed as a percentage
to as total air temperature (TAT) and is derived when the air is termed the recovery factor. Thus, a sensor having a factor of
brought to rest (or nearly so) without further addition or removal 0.80 would measure SAT plus 80 per cent of the ram rise.

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Figure 1

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TAT sensors are of the probe type, and one example is shown A second type of TAT probe is shown in Fig. 3. The principal
in Fig. 2. The probe is in the form of a small strut and air intake differences between it and the one just described relate to the
made of nickel-plated beryllium copper which provides good air intake configuration and the manner in which airflow is
thermal conductivity and strength. It is secured at a pre- directed through it and the probe casing. The purpose of the
determined location in the front fuselage section of an aircraft engine bleed air injector fitting and tube is to create a negative
(typically at the side, or upper surface of the nose) and outside differential pressure within the casing so that outside air is
on any boundary layer which may exist. In flight, the air flows drawn though it at such a rate that the heating elements have a
through the probe in the manner indicated; separation of any negligible effect on the temperature/resistance characteristics of
the sensing element.
water particles from the air is effected by the airflow being
caused to turn through a right angle before passing round the
In some cases, an auxiliary sensing element is provided in a
sensing element. The bleed holes in the intake casing permit
probe. The purpose of this element is to transmit a signal to
boundary layer air to be drawn off under the influence of the
other systems requiring air temperature information. An
higher pressure that is created within the intake and casing of
example of this would be the airspeed measuring circuit of an
the probe.
ADC for the computing of true airspeed.
A pure platinum wire resistance-type sensing element is used
and is hermetically sealed within two concentric platinum tubes.
The element is wound on the inner tube, and since they are
both of the same metal, a close match of thermal expansion and
minimizing of thermal strain is ensured. The probe has an
almost negligible time lag, and a high recovery factor of
approximately 1.00. An axial wire heating element, supplied with
115 V ac at 400 Hz, is mounted integral with the probe to
prevent the formation of ice, and is of the self-compensating
type in that as the temperature rises so does the element
resistance rise, thereby reducing the heater current. The heater
dissipates a nominal 260 W under in-flight icing conditions, and
can have an effect of indicated air temperature readings. The
errors involved, however, are small; some typical values
obtained experimentally being 0.90 C at 0.1 Mach decreasing to
0.150 C at Mach 1.0.

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Figure 2

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Figure 3

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AIR TEMPERATURE INDICATORS

As in the case of other instruments, TAT indicators can, as a

result of the instrumentation arrangements adopted for each
particular type of aircraft, vary in the manner in which they
display the relevant data. Some of the variations are illustrated
in Fig. 4.

The circuit of a probe and a basic conventional pointer and

scale type of indicator is shown in Fig. 5. The system is supplied
with 115V ac which is then stepped down and rectified by a
power supply module within the indicator. The probe element
forms one part of a resistance bridge circuit, and as the
element’s resistance changes with temperature, the bridge is
unbalanced, causing current to flow through the moving coil of
the indicator.

Figure 6 illustrates the circuit arrangement of a servo-operated

indicator employing a mechanical drum-type digital counter
display. The generation of the appropriate temperature signals
is also accomplished by means of a dc bridge circuit, but in this
case unbalanced conditions are monitored by a solid state
chopper circuit which produces an error signal to drive an ac
servomotor via an operational amplifier. The motor then drives
the counter drums, and at the same time positions the wiper
contact of a potentiometer to start rebalancing of the circuit, until
at some constant temperature condition the circuit is ‘nulled’.

In order to indicate whether temperatures are either positive or

negative, the rebalancing/feedback system also activates a
‘sign changer’ and an indicator drum, and a switch which
reverses the polarity of the bridge circuit when the temperature
indication pass thorough zero.
Figure 4

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Figure 5

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Figure 6

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Detection of failure of the 26 V ac power to the indicator, and

sensing of an excessive null voltage in rebalancing/feedback
system, is provided by a failure monitor circuit module. This
controls an ‘OFF’ flag which under normal conditions is held out
of view by an energized solenoid.

The internal arrangement of an LCD type of indicator is

schematically shown in Fig. 7. The temperature data signals are
transmitted from a digital type of ADC via a data bus and
receiver to a microcomputer. The power supply to the computer
is connected via supply, low voltage and failure monitor
modules. In addition to TAT, the indicator can also display SAT
and TAS, each of which can be selected in sequence by a
push-button function select switch. When power is first applied,
the indicator displays TAT, as in Fig. 8; to select SAT the switch
is pushed in, and then pushed in again to display TAS. A test
input facility is provided, and when activated it causes the
display to alternate between all seven segments (of each of the
three digits), ‘ON’ for two seconds, and blank for one second.

As noted earlier, indications of SAT can be derived by

subtracting the ram rise from the measured values of TAT.
Since this is normally done by also supplying TAT signals to the
speed-measuring module of an ADC.

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Figure 7

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Figure 8

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AIR DATA ALERTING AND WARNING SYSTEMS MACH WARNING SYSTEM

In connection with the in-flight operation of aircraft, it is This system provides an aural warning when an aircraft’s speed
necessary to impose limitations in respect of certain operating reaches the maximum operating value in terms of Mach
parameters compatible with the airworthiness standards to number, i.e. Mmo(a typical value is 0.84M). The warning is in
which each type of aircraft is certificated. It is also necessary addition to any limiting speed reference pointers or ‘bugs’ that
for systems to be provided which will, both visually and aurally, are provided in Mach/airspeed indicators.
alert and warn a flight crew whenever the imposed operational
limitations are being exceeded. The system consists of a switch unit which, as can be seen from
Fig. 1, comprises airspeed and altitude sensing units connected
The number of parameters to be monitored in this way varies in to an aircraft’s pitot probe and static vent system in a manner
relation to the type of aircraft and the number of systems similar to that of a Mach meter. It will also be noted that in lieu
required for its operation overall. As far as air data measuring of a pointer actuating system, the sensing units actuate contacts
systems are concerned, the principal parameters are airspeed of a switch, which is connected to a 28 V dc power source.
and altitude, so let us now consider the operating principles of
associated alerting and warning systems typical of those used At speeds below the limiting value, the switch contacts remain
in some of the larger types of public transport aircraft. closed and the dc passing through them energizes a control
relay. The contacts of this relay interrupt the ground connection
to an aural warning device generally referred to as a ‘clacker’
because of the sound it emits when in operation. When the
limiting Mach speed at any given altitude is reached, the
airspeed sensing unit causes the switch contacts to open,
thereby de-energizing the control relay so that its contacts now
complete a connection from the ‘clacker’ to ground. Since the
‘clacker’ is directly supplied with dc, then it will be activated to
provide the appropriate warning, which is emitted at a specific
frequency (typically 7 Hz).

A toggle switch that is spring-loaded to ‘OFF’ is provided for the

purpose of functional checking the system. When placed in the
‘TEST’ position, it allows dc to flow to the ground side of the
switch unit control relay, thereby providing a bias sufficient to
de-energize the relay and so cause the ‘clacker’ to be activated.

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Figure 1

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In some aircraft systems, Mach/airspeed indicators with ‘built-in’ The operation of switch 2 applies dc to the relay coil such that it
warning switch units may be used and so arranged that they is shorted out against the standing supply from the closed
operate two independent ‘clackers’. In the example shown in airspeed switch; the relay is therefore de-energized to provide a
Fig. 2, the indicator in the captain’s group of flight instruments is ground connection for ‘aural warning 2’ clacker unit.
servo-operated by signals from an ADC. The other indicator,
which is in the first officer’s group of flight instruments, is also of The indicators themselves provide visual indications of over
the servo-operated type, but contains a switch unit that is speed and these are discernible when the airspeed pointers
connected directly to the pitot probe and static vent system. The become positioned coincident with pre-set maximum limit
‘clacker’ units associated with the indicators are respectively pointers.
designated as ‘aural warning I’ and ‘aural warning 2’.

The captain’s indicator contains an over speed circuit module

that is supplied by the ADC with prevailing speed data and also
the limiting Vmo and Mmo values appropriate to the type of
aircraft. The circuit module is, in turn, connected to a solid-state
switch (S1) that is powered ‘open’ at speeds below Vmo and Mmo.
If, however, these speeds are reached, then S1 is relaxed to
provide a ground connection for the dc supply to ‘aural warning
1’ clacker unit which thus gives the necessary warning.

The contacts of the switch unit in the first officer’s indicator are
connected to a relay, and since these contacts remain closed
at speeds below maximum values. The relay is de-energized,
when the maximum speed is reached, the relay coil circuit is
interrupted and its contacts then change over to provide a
ground connection for the dc supply which activates ‘aural
warning 2’ clacker unit.

Test switches are provided for checking the operation of each

clacker by simulation of over speed conditions. When switch 1
is operated dc is applied to the over speed circuit module in the
captain’s indicator, and causes the switch S1 to relax.

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Figure 2

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ALTITUDE REPORTING/ALERTING SYSTEM signal is reduced, and the logic circuit so processes the input
signals that, at a pre-set outer limit H1 (typically 900 ft) above or
This system is designed to alert a flight crew, by aural and below preselected altitude, one signal activates the aural
visual means, of an aircraft’s approach to, or deviation from, a alerting device which remains on for two seconds; the
pre-selected altitude. The components of a typical system are annunciator light is also illuminated. The light remains on until
shown in Fig.1 (a). at a further pre-set inner limit H2 (typically 300 ft) above or
below preselected altitude, the second signal causes the
An aircraft’s pressure altitude is provided as a signal input to the annunciator light to be extinguished. As an aircraft approaches
alert controller unit from an altimeter via a coarse/fine synchro the preselected altitude, the synchro system approaches the
system. The selected altitude is set by means of a knob on the ‘null’ position, and no further alerting takes place. If an aircraft
controller, and is indicated by a digital counter which is geared should subsequently depart from the preselected altitude, the
to the rotors of control and resolve synchros, so that they controller logic circuit changes the alerting sequence such that
produce a corresponding signal. The signal is compared with the indications correspond to those given during the approach
the pressure altitude signal, and the resulting difference is through outer limit H1, i.e. aural alert on for two seconds, and
supplied to level detection circuits within the controller. At annunciator light illuminated.
predetermined values of rotor voltages of both synchros, two
signals are produced and supplied as inputs to a logic circuit
and timing network which controls the aural and visual alerting
devices.

The sequence of alerting is shown at (b) of Fig 1. As an aircraft

descends or climbs to the preselected altitude the difference

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Figure 1 (a)

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Figure 1 (b)

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ANGLE OF ATTACK SENSING

is running out of airspace beneath itself, these inherent
warnings could come too late! It is, therefore, necessary to
The angle of attack (AoA), or alpha (α) angle, is the angle
provide a means whereby ‘α’ can be sensed directly, and at
between the chord line of the wing of an aircraft and the some value just below that at which a stalled condition can
direction of the relative airflow, and is a major factor in occur it can provide an early warning of its onset.
determining the magnitude of lift generated by a wing. Lift
increases as ‘α’ increases up to some critical value at which it
begins to decrease due to separation of the slow-moving air
(the boundary layer) from the upper surface of the wing, which,
in turn, results in separation and turbulence of the main airflow.
The wing, therefore, assumes a stalled condition, and since it
occurs at a particular angle rather than a particular speed, the
critical AoA is also referred to as the stalling angle. The angle
relates to the design of airfoil section adopted for the wings of
any one particular type of aircraft, and so, of course, its value
varies accordingly; typically It is between 12o and 18o.

The manner in which an aircraft responds as it approaches and

reaches a stalled condition depends on many other factors,
such as wing configuration, i.e. high, low, swept-back, and also
on whether the horizontal stabilizer is in the ‘T’-tail configuration.
Other factors relate to the prevailing speed of an aircraft, which
rarely depends on engine power settings, flap angles, bank
angles and rates of change of pitch. The appropriate responses
are pre-determined for each type of aircraft in order to derive
specifically relevant procedures for recovering from what is,
after all, an undesirable situation.

An aircraft will, in its own characteristic manner, provide warning

of a stalled condition, e.g. by buffeting, gentle or severe pitch-
down attitude change, and/or ‘wing drop’, and although
recoverable, in a situation such as an approach when an aircraft

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STALL WARNING SYSTEMS Stick-shaking is accomplished by a motor which is secured to a

control column and drives a weighted ring that is deliberately
The simplest form of system, and one which is adopted in unbalanced to set up vibrations of the column, to simulate the
several types of small aircraft, consists of a hinged-vane-type natural buffeting associated with a stalled condition.
sensor mounted in the leading edge of a wing so that the vane
protrudes into the airstreams. In normal level flight conditions, Sensor signals, and signal for the testing of a system, are
the airstreams maintains the vane in a parallel position. If the processed through a circuit module unit located on a flight deck
aircraft’s attitude changes such that ‘α’ increases, then, by panel. Control switches for normal operation and for testing are
definition, the airflow will meet the leading edge at an increasing also provided in this unit. Sensing relays and shock strut micro
angle, and so cause the vane to be deflected. When ‘α’ switches on the nose landing gear are included in the circuit of a
system to permit operational change-over from ground to air.
reaches that at which the warning unit has been preset, the
vane activates a switch to complete a circuit to an aural warning
unit in the cockpit.

In larger types of aircraft, stall warning systems are designed to

perform a more active function, in that they are either of the
‘stick shaker’ or ‘stick push or nudger’ type; for some aircraft
configurations they are used in combination.

Figure 1 illustrates the type of sensor normally used for these

systems. It consists of a precision counter-balanced
aerodynamic vane which positions the rotor of a synchro. The
vane is protected against ice formation by an internal heater
element. The complete unit is accurately aligned by means of
index pins at the side of the front fuselage section of an aircraft.
Since the pitch attitude of an aircraft is also changed by the
extension of its flaps, the sensor synchro is also interconnected
with a synchro within the transmitter of the flap position
indicating system, in order to modify the ‘α’ signal output as a
function of flap position.

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Figure 1

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motor if there is circuit continuity. Since the switch isolates the
The circuit of a typical system is shown in basic form in Fig 2. sensor circuit from the amplifier, the reference voltage to the
When the aircraft is on the ground and electrical power is on, demodulator triggers the switch SS1 to operate the stick-shaker
the contacts of the landing gear micro switches complete a dc motor. The control switch also has a 'HEATER OFF' position
circuit to a sensing relay K1 which, on being energized, supplies which isolates the vane heater circuit from its power supply,
an ac voltage (in this case 11.8V) to the circuit module amplifier. thus enabling the vane to be manipulated manually without
The output is then supplied to a demodulator whose circuit is inflicting burns.
designed to ‘bias off’ the ac voltage form the contacts of K1, so In most cases, two systems are installed in an aircraft, so that a
that the solid state switch SS1 remains open to isolate the stick sensor is located on each side of the front fuselage section, and
shaker motor from its dc supply. The vane heater element a stick-shaker motor on each pilot's control column.
circuit is also isolated from its ac supply by the opening of the In certain types of aircraft the sensor signals are transmitted to
second set of contacts of K1. The sensor synchro is supplied an air data computer, which then supplies an output,
directly from the ac power source. corresponding to actual α angle, to a comparator circuit within
an electronic module of the stall warning system. The
During take-off, and when the nose gear ‘lifts off’, the micro comparator is also supplied with signals from a central
switches operate to de-energize relay K1, and with the system processor unit (also within the module) which processes a
control switch at ‘NORMAL’, the system is fully activated. The program to determine maximum α angles based on the
only signal now supplied to the amplifier and demodulator is relationship between flap position and three positions of the
the modified ‘α’ signal. leading edge slats. The positions are: retracted, partially
extended and fully extended, and so signals corresponding to
In normal flight, the signal produced and supplied as input to the three different computed angles are processed for comparison
amplifier is less than a nominal value of 20mV, and in phase with an actual α angle signal. If the latter is higher than a
with the ac voltage supplied as a reference to the demodulator. computed maximum, the circuit to the stick-shaker motor is
If the aircraft’s attitude should approach that of stalled condition, completed.
the ‘α’ signal will exceed 20 mV and become out of-phase.
The demodulator then produces a resultant voltage which
triggers the switch SS1 to connect a 28 V dc supply direct to the
stick-shaker motor, which then starts vibrating the control
column.

A confidence check on system operation may be carried out by

placing the circuit module control switch in the 'TEST' position.
This energizes a relay which switches the sensor signal to the
motor of an indicator, the dial of which will be rotated by the

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Figure 2

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STICK-PUSHERS INDICATORS

In some types of aircraft, particularly those with rear-mounted There is no standard requirement for angle of attack indicators
engines and a 'T' -tail configuration, it is possible for what is to be installed in aircraft, with the result that the adoption of any
termed a 'deep' or 'super' stall situation to develop. When such one available type is left as an option on the part of an aircraft
aircraft first get into a stalled condition then, as in all cases, the manufacturer and/or operator. When selected for installation,
air flowing from the wings is of a turbulent nature, and if the α however, they must not be used as the only means of providing
angle is such that the engines are subjected to this airflow, loss stall warning, but as a supplement to an appropriate type of
of power will occur as a result of surging and possible 'flame- stick-shake and stick-push system.
out'. If, then, the stall develops still further, the horizontal Indicators are connected to the alpha sensors of a stall warning
stabilizer will also be subjected to the turbulent airflow with a system, and display the relevant data in a variety of ways,
resultant loss of pitch control. The aircraft then sinks rapidly in depending on their design. In some cases a conventional
the deep stalled attitude, from which recovery is difficult, if not pointer and scale type of display is used, while in aircraft having
impossible. This was a lesson that was learned, with tragic electronic flight instrument display systems, the data can be
results, during the flight testing of two of the earliest types of programmed into computers such that it is displayed against a
commercial aircraft configured as mentioned, namely, the BAC vertical scale, usually located adjacent to that indicating vertical
1-11and HS 'Trident'. speed, on the attitude director indicator. Another type of
indicator currently in use has a pointer which is referenced
In order to prevent the development of a deep stall situation, against horizontal yellow, green and red bands; a dividing line
warning systems are installed which, in addition to stick- between the yellow and green bands signifies the angle at
shaking, utilize the α sensor signals to cause a forward push on which the stick-shaker operates.
the control columns and downward deflection of the elevators.
The manner in which this is accomplished varies; in some
aircraft, the signals are transmitted to a linear actuator which is
mechanically connected to the feel and centering unit of the
elevator control system. In aircraft having computerized flight
control systems, α sensor signals are transmitted to the elevator
control channel of the flight control computer. Whenever stick-
push is activated, the elevator control channels of automatic
flight control systems are automatically disengaged via an
interlock system.

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AIR DATA COMPUTERS The latter type is now more widely used, but as analog
computers are still adopted in some types of aircraft we can, at
The term ‘Air Data’, as we learned, relates to the sensing and this stage, and by way of introduction to ADC operating
transmission of pitot and static pressures to indicators which, on principles overall, consider a typical analog arrangement.
the basis of physical laws, are specifically designed to measure
such pressures in terms of airspeed, altitude and rate of altitude
change. In addition to these three indicators, however, there are
many other systems whose operation depends on an air data
input. The utilization of such systems in an aircraft does, in turn,
depend on its size and operational category.

Although it would not be impossible to connect these systems to

pressure probes and/or vents by pipelines, then, as may be
imagined, the amount of ‘plumbing’ required would have to be
considerably increased. Apart from causing additional weight
problems, there could be others associated with maintenance.
In order therefore to minimize these problems the principle is
adopted whereby the pressures are transmitted to a centralized
air data computer (ADC) unit, which then converts the data into
electrical signals and transmits these though cables or data
busses to the dependent indicators and systems. Another
advantage of an ADC is that circuits may be integrated with
their principal data modules in such a way that correction for
pressure error (PE), barometric pressure changes, and
compressibility effects can be automatically applied; in addition,
provision can also be made for the calculation of true airspeed
(TAS) from air temperature data inputs. The modulator
arrangement of an ADC, it associated indicators, and details of
systems that utilize air data input are shown in Fig 1.

An ADC may either be of the analogue type, or of the type

which processes and transmits data in digital signal format.

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Figure 1

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ANALOG ADC

The arrangement of the basic modules of this type of computer

and their interfacing is shown in Fig 2. Each module constitutes
what is termed a servomechanism, and is comprised of certain
mechanical elements, and synchros which perform the various
functions already described. The output signals from each
module are transmitted to their relevant indicators which, as we
shall see later in this chapter, are of the servo-operated type.

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Figure 2

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TRANSDUCERS When a pressure change occurs, the capsule responds

accordingly and the force it produces displaces the ‘I’ bar so
The pipelines from an aircraft’s pitot pressure probe and static that one air gap increases and the other decreases. The
vent system are connected via a manifold in the computer resulting changes in the magnetic fields cause out-of-balance
mounting to pressure transducers in the computed airspeed and signals to be induced in the secondary coils. After amplification,
altitude modules. The transducers are of the electro-mechanical the signals are applied to the control phase of the servomotor,
type, the constructional features of which vary dependent on which then drives the cam follower, and torsion bar, to produce
those adopted by any one manufacturer. One example we may opposing torsional effects which start balancing the force
consider is known as a force balance transducer which, as can exerted by the capsule, to ‘back-off’ the signals induced in the
be seen from the schematic diagram in Fig 3, consists of a secondary coils. When a constant pressure condition is
capsule-type pressure sensor that actuates an ‘E’ and ‘I’ bar attained, equilibrium between capsule force and torsion is
pick-off element. established, and no further amplified signals are supplied to the
servomotor.
The ‘E’ bar has an ac-powered primary input winding on its
center limb, and a secondary output winding on each of its outer In some types of ADC, the pressure transducers take the form
limbs; these windings are connected to an amplifier. The ‘I’ bar of a solid-state circuit device, which utilizes what is termed the
is mechanically connected to the capsule, the displacements of piezoelectric effect, i.e. the generation of electrical signals by
which pivot the bar such that the gaps between its ends and certain crystalline materials when subjected to pressure. The
the outer limbs of the ‘E’ bar are increased or decreased. The ‘I’ device consists of quartz disks with metallic pattern deposited
bar is also interconnected with a servomotor via a torsion bar, on them, and arranged in a thin stack such that they serve as a
gear train and a cam follower; the servomotor also forms part of flexible diaphragm. Thus, when subjected to pressure changes,
the synchro system appropriate to the computed airspeed and the resultant flexing sets up an electrical polarization in the
altitude modules. disks so that electrical charges are produced. The polarity of the
charges depends on the direction of flexing, in other words, on
In the static condition, i.e. a capsule is not subjected to a whether the pressure applied is increasing or decreasing. All
pressure change; the gaps between the ends of the ‘I’ bar and output signals are supplied to the appropriate type of
outer limbs of the ‘E’ bar are equal. When ac is applied to the transmission link adopted for the airspeed and altitude modules.
primary winding then magnetic fields will be produced which, in
the static conditions, will be equal and opposite; thus, no signals Let us now refer once again to figure 2 in order to see how
will be induced in the secondary coils. pressure transducer output signals are processed and
transmitted by the various modules for the purpose of operating
their associated indicators.

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Figure 3

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MODULE OPERATION Since the rate of change involves a time factor, the
measurement of V/S is accomplished by supplying the rate
In the case of the computed airspeed module, the servomotor, signals produced by the servomotor-driven tachogenerator to an
in response to the amplified output signals from the transducer, integrating amplifier. This is a device that performs the
drives the rotor of a CX synchro whose stator is connected to a mathematical operation of integration so that its output is
CT synchro within the indicator. substantially the integral with respect to time of the input to the
device. After integration, the signals are amplified and supplied
The servomotor also drives, via differential gearing, the rotor of to a servo-operated VSI and/or to V/S mode select modules
an RS that forms part of a static source error correction (SSEC) which form part of the pitch channels of automatic flight control
network which, as shown in Fig 4, originates in the Mach and flight director systems.
module of the computer. The circuit of this network is pre-
adjusted so that the signal input to the RS is a correction factor An indication of speed in terms of Mach number can, as we
signal corresponding to the position error (PE) of the aircraft in learned, be derived by measuring it is terms of the pressure
which the ADC is installed. The output signals from the RS are ratio (Pt-Ps)/Ps. In the case of basic pneumatically-operated
supplied to the pressure transducer circuit so that its output, indicators this, as we also learned, necessitates that altitude
which is a measure of the pressure difference Pt-Ps, is in turn and speed measuring elements be used in combination with a
also corrected. Thus, the servomotor and CX synchro rotor mechanism that will perform the required dividing function.
position are controlled to produce an output compensated for Fundamentally, this arrangement also applies to the Mach
PE as a function of Mach number. module of an ADC, but in adopting synchronous transmission
and servomechanism methods of accurately measuring the
In operation, the servomotor also drives a tachogenerator three parameters involved, it is incumbent to use an equally
which supplies rate feedback signals to the control amplifier to accurate method of performing the dividing function. In the
reduce the input error voltage signals, and thereby prevent the example of ADC shown in Fig 4, the dividing is done by means
motor from ‘overshooting’ its controlled positions. of a differential sychro in combination with a torque synchro
system.
The altitude module is comprised of a servomechanism
arrangement, whose only difference from the one just described The differential synchro (TDX) is part of the computed airspeed
is that it operates in response to signals which are a measure of module servomechanism, the TX synchro is in that of the
the pressure Ps. In addition to supplying signals to a servo- altitude module, while the TR synchro is part of the Mach
operated altimeter, the module also determines rates of altitude module servomechanism.
change, i.e. vertical speed (V/S), and produces the
corresponding signals.

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Figure 4

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When the altitude and computed airspeed modules are in

operation, the TX synchro rotor will be driven to some angular This network serves as a function generator in that it produces
position within its stator corresponding to the pressure sensed TAS output signals that correspond to the values of a specified
by the altitude module transducer. The signals induced in the function of independent variable inputs, in this case TAT and
stator will be of a related value, and these are transmitted to the Mach speed. The output signals are supplied to drive and
TDX. In response to the signals produced by the transducer of control amplifiers for the operation of a servomechanism
the computed airspeed module, the TDX rotor will also be at consisting of a motor and CX synchro, the output from which is
some corresponding angular position within its stator. Since the supplied to an independent TAS indicator. The servomotor also
angular positions of the TX and TDX rotors are different, then, drives a ‘follow-up’ device which provides a signal to the drive
by virtue of the connection arrangements between the two amplifier for the purpose of balancing out incoming TAS signals.
synchros, the output signals from the TDX are the difference
between those produced by its rotor and the TX synchro, and in
terms of the required pressure ratio.

The signals are transmitted to the control amplifier in the Mach

module via the TR synchro. The servomechanism arrangement
of this module is the same as that of the computed airspeed and
altitude modules. The CX synchro transmits signals in terms of
Mach number to a digital counter which may be individually
mounted on a panel or combined with a Mach/airspeed
indicator. The ‘nulling out’ of signals under constant speed and
altitude conditions is obtained by driving the TR synchro rotor
from the servomotor.

For the measurement of true airspeed (TAS) it is necessary to

utilize signals that are a measure of total air temperature (TAT).
These signals are generated by externally mounted sensing
probes and, in addition to tan independent indicator, they are
also transmitted to the TAS module of the ADC via a potentio-
metric network in the Mach module as shown in Fig 4 in the
previous page.

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FAILURE WARNING INDICATORS

Each module of the ADC incorporates a warning logic circuit The indicators that are used in conjunction with an ADC of the
network which activates a warning flag in the associated analog type just described also contain servomechanisms, and
indicators in the event of loss of the respective data signals. when connected to the computer they each form a complete
Annunciator lights corresponding to each module are provided servo loop with the respective modules of the computer. These
on the end panel of the computer, and are also illuminated in indicators may, in some applications, be of the combined
the event of failures. Once a warning circuit has been triggered pneumatic and servo type, as for example the airspeed indicator
it remains latched. shown below, or they may be entirely servo-operated.

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AIRSPEED INDICATORS

In the case of the indicator referred to above, its indicated (IAS) computed airspeed switch (see also figure 2 on page 88) to its
and maximum operating speed pointers are operated by ‘off’ position, thereby isolating the excitation circuit of the CT
pressure-sensing capsules within the indicator, while a synchro.
servomechanism is used for driving a digital counter for the
display of computed airspeed. The servomechanism, which is This indicator is also used in conjunction with an autothrottle
illustrated in Fig. 5, operates in response to the signals supplied system, the purpose of which is to adjust the power settings of
to its CT synchro by the relevant module of the ADC. engines in order to acquire, and then maintain, a commanded
airspeed. The system is also integrated with an aircraft’s
A failure monitor circuit is also incorporated in the indicator and automatic flight control system (AFCS). Airspeed commands
comes into operation in the event of loss of power, or data may be selected either from the AFCS mode select panel, or by
signal input from the ADC, and also if excessive ‘nulling’ occurs a command set knob in the airspeed indicator.
in the digital counter servo loop. The circuit controls a solenoid-
operated flag such that it obscures the digital counter display. A
check on flag operation can be carried out by moving a

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Figure 5

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The command airspeed circuit arrangement within the indicator Rotation of the set knob now provides for manual positioning of
is shown in Fig. 6, and from this it will be noted that it consists the reference marker and synchrotel stator and, therefore,
of a CT synchro system, and a synchrotel mechanically manual control of the output signals to the autothrottle system
connected with the command speed set knob, a reference computer. The command speed digital counter is also rotated,
marker and a command speed indicator. but its display is obscured by a yellow ‘MAN’ flag, the solenoid
control circuit of which is also isolated when the set knob is
Under normal operating conditions of the autothrottle system pushed in. In the event that a command airspeed exceeding a
and the AFCS, command airspeeds are set on a digital counter certain value (in this example 250 knots) is set, a black flag is
display on the AFCS mode select panel. This setting also triggered to obscure the counter display.
positions a CX synchro rotor so that it can transmit equivalent
signals to the indicator servomechanism for the purpose of MASI
positioning the speed reference marker and command speed Figure 7 illustrates a display presentation of a Mach speed
indicator. In order that it may do so, however, the clutch in the indicator that is used in conjunction with the indicated/computed
drive must, of course, be disengaged by pulling out the airspeed indicator just described. The digital counter is servo-
command set knob; at the same time, a switch in the CT operated by a CT synchro supplied with input signals from the
synchro excitation circuit is held in the closed position. Mach module of the ADC.

The servomotor is also mechanically coupled to the synchrotel The display presentation of a pure servo-operated indicator
transmitter, which differs from that described earlier in that its (referred to as a Mach/airspeed indicator) is shown in Fig. 8; it
stator can also be rotated. The rotor is mechanically positioned may be used in conjunction with an ADC of either the analog or
within the stator by the indicated airspeed pointer mechanism. digital type. Computed airspeed is displayed in knots by a
The relative positions of the two therefore produce an error distinctly shaped pointer and by a digital counter. The indication
signal output representing the difference between indicated of speed in terms of Mach number is shown by a digital counter
airspeed and commanded airspeed at any one instant. This display. A striped pointer, which is also servo-driven, provides
output is then supplied to the autothrottle system computer an indication of Vmo and Mmo.
which then causes the power output of the engines to be
automatically adjusted to attain the commanded speed. The speed reference knob and marker perform the same
function as that of the indicated/computed airspeed indicator
If it is required to set a command airspeed on the indicator itself, described earlier. The other markers are ‘memory bugs’ that are
the set knob must be pushed in to engage the servomechanism pre-set to indicate certain operating speeds appropriate to the
drive clutch. This action also opens the switch in the excitation type of aircraft, e.g. take off speeds, flap extension speed.
circuit of the CT synchro, thereby isolating it from the
servomotor.

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Figure 6

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Figure 7

Figure 8

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Five warning and indicating flags are provided as follows: The airspeed servomotor also drives a synchro transmission
loop, the purpose of which is to transmit computed airspeed to
1. airspeed flag to indicate a failure in the airspeed circuit an autothrottle system.
within the indicator or ADC;
The airspeed pointer and counter drive mechanism also
2. Mach flag to indicate failure in the Mach circuits; incorporates a specially calibrated cam and follower to provide
square-law compensation. As the cam rotates it varies the
3. Vmo flag to indicate failure in the Vmo and Mmo circuits; magnification rate of the pointer movement so as to maintain
linearity as speed increases.
4. ‘INOP’ flag that comes into view to indicate that the
speed reference marker is inoperative; and The maximum airspeed pointer is driven by a servomotor which
receives its signals from a Vmo and over speed processor circuit
5. ‘M’ flag that operates in conjunction with the ‘INOP’ flag module via an amplifier. The pointer is always driven to, and
to indicate manual setting of the speed reference ‘nulled’ out at, a scale reading higher than that of the airspeed
marker. pointer, by signals from a synchro whose rotor is also driven
by the servomotor. If airspeed is increased to the maximum
The internal circuit arrangement of the indicator is shown in Fig value, the airspeed pointer will be driven to coincide with the
9. Power requirement are 26 V ac for synchro operation, and maximum airspeed pointer position, and the higher airspeed
this is distributed within the indicator via a power supply module. signal will be detected by the Vmo and over-speed processor.
The module also supplies 28 V dc for the operation of This produces an output signal that triggers a solid-state over
servomotors, amplifiers, flag monitor circuits, etc. speed switch, causing it to activate a Mach/airspeed aural
warning system.
Signals corresponding to computed airspeed are supplied from
the relevant module in the ADC to a CT synchro, the error In order to drive the Mach number counter of the indicator,
signal output from which is amplified to drive the servomotor synchro output signals corresponding to computed airspeed and
connected to the airspeed pointer and digital counter. At the altitude are supplied from the respective modules of the ADC.
same time, it drives the synchro rotor to ‘null out’ the error As can be seen from Fig 9., the signals are supplied to a
signal. The servomotor also drives, through 2:1 gearing, a synchro multiplexer, and then after conversion from synchro to
potentiometer which supplies a dc signal to an ‘anti-ambiguity’ digital they are fed to the Vmo and overspeed processor; after
circuit connected to the servo amplifier. The purpose of the amplification they drive the Mach counter via its servomotor.
circuit is to ensure that the airspeed pointer is not driven to a The motor also drives a synchro whose output is fed back to
position 1800 out with respect to ‘null’. the multiplexer to ‘null’ the signals corresponding to Mach
number, when constant speed values are obtained.

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Figure 9: MASI circuit

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The setting of command airspeeds and associated signals for transmission to the autothrottle system in the same manner as
auto throttle system operation is done in a similar manner to that resulting from automatic operation.
that described earlier. For automatic operation, i.e. settings
made on an AFCS mode select panel, or, in some cases, on a A logic circuit is provided in the speed reference system, its
display unit of a Performance Data Computer (PDC) system, purpose being to monitor the system (while the speed reference
the speed reference knob of the indicator remains in its normal knob is pushed in) for loss of power, nulling of the
pushed-in position. In this position a clutch is disengaged, and a synchro/servo system, and validity of the input signals from an
switch in the servomotor circuit is closed to provide a path to AFCS made select panel or PDC display unit. If an invalid
ground as shown in figure in the previous page. When the reference display should occur, the ‘INOP’ flag appears as
commanded airspeed is set a command signal is supplied via shown in Fig in the previous page. This flag also appears when
an amplifier to the speed reference marker servomotor so that it the reference knob is pulled out for manual operation (the
monitor circuit is disabled in this case) together with the
now rotates the marker to the commanded speed. The
‘MANUAL’ flag.
servomotor also drives the rotor of synchro (indicated ‘A’) which
then becomes desynchronized with respect to a second synchro The remaining flags, i.e. Vmo, ‘MACH’ and ‘A/S’, appear under
(indicated ‘A’) which then becomes desynchronized with the conditions referred to earlier.
respect to a second synchro (indicated ‘B’). Thus, an error
voltage signal corresponding to the difference between The indication of true airspeed (TAS) is provided by a digital
computed and commanded airspeeds is transmitted to the counter type of indicator. The servomotor of which is supplied
autothrottle system. As the airspeed changes in response to the with signals from the TAS module of the ADC. A failure monitor
commanded engine power change, the airspeed pointer and circuit is incorporated in the indicator for the operation of a
counter are driven so as to indicate the speed change. At the yellow ‘OFF’ flag.
same time, the rotor of synchro ‘B’ is rotated in order to reduce
the error signal voltage produced by synchro ‘A’. When the null
position is reached, no further output is supplied to the
autothrottle system and the airspeed pointer and counter are
then at the commanded airspeed. A dc potentiometer is also
driven by the servomotor to provide position feedback.

For manual operation, the speed reference knob is pulled out

to engage a gear type of clutch, and as can be seen from Fig 9
in the previous page, the switch in the marker drive motor circuit
now rotates the marker; through a 2:1 ratio gear it also rotates
the rotor of synchro ‘A’ to establish an error signal for

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ALTIMETERS
The barometric pressure setting knob also positions the stator
The display presentation of on example of pneumatic/servo- of a second CT synchro provided for the purpose of supplying
operated altimeter, and the basic arrangement of its equivalent pressure altitude signals to the altitude selection
mechanism, are shown in Fig 10. The pneumatic section facility and pitch control computer of an AFCS.
consists of two capsules which in responding to changes in
static pressure admitted to the indicator case drive the pointer
and digital counter in a manner similar to that of a conventional
pneumatic altimeter. The pointer and counter are also driven by
signals supplied to a CT synchro from the altitude module of the
ADC, and since these signals are of higher resolution and
accuracy, pointer and counter operation is predominantly
controlled through the servo drive. The pneumatic section,
therefore, performs a standby role so that it can provide altitude
indications in the event of failures in the synchronous
transmission loop. A control knob, located at the front of the
instrument, is provided for use in such cases, and when moved
from the ‘CADC’ position to ‘STBY’, it isolates the CT synchro
signal circuit and also electrically activates a red ‘STBY’ flag.
The flag is also automatically operated by a failure monitor
circuit similar to that incorporated in Mach/airspeed indicators.

As in the case of pure pneumatically-operated altimeters,

indicated altitudes are corrected to standard pressure data by
means of a barometric pressure setting knob and counter
mechanism. In addition, however, the mechanism also positions
the CT synchro stator with respect to its rotor, thereby modifying
the input signal from the ADC altitude module. The resulting
error signal voltage induced in the rotor therefore drives the
servomotor and, via the differential gearing, the altitude pointer
and counter are driven to the required pressure altitude value.
The servomotor also drives the CT synchro stator for ‘nulling
out’ the error voltage signal.

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Figure 10: PNEUMATIC/SERVO OPERATED ALTIMETER

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The internal arrangement and display presentation of a servo shown in diagram is to compensate automatically for the non-
operated altimeter is shown in Fig 11. Although used principally linear relationship between barometric pressure and altitude, so
with ADCs of the digital type, it may in some cases be that for any setting of the pressure counters, the corresponding
interfaced with some analog types of ADC. altitude will be indicated. The pressure setting knob also
changes the rotor position of a third resolver, the purpose of
Altitude signals designated as coarse and fine are transmitted which is to supply pressure-corrected signals to such systems
from the ADC altitude module to the stator windings of as AFCS and altitude alerting.
corresponding resolver synchros. The rotors are mechanically
interconnected by a 1:27 ratio gear train, and their sine windings The second knob in the bottom right hand corner of the
are connected to a solid-state switch referred to as a speed altimeter permits the setting of a reference marker to align with
switch. The purpose of the switch is to control the servomotor an altitude indication corresponding to a specific operating
operation so that fine altitude signals are supplied to its amplifier condition. The purpose of the servo driven ‘NEG’ flag is to
at altitudes below 1000 ft, while at altitudes above this value, obscure the digital counter display at altitudes below sea level.
coarse altitude signals are supplied. The servomotor drives the
altitude pointer and counter through a clutch and gear train,
and directly drives a tacho generator which provides rate
feedback signals to the amplifier. The reduction and ‘nulling out’
of altitude error signals is effected by driving the rotors of the
resolvers through a differential gear.

The cosine windings of the resolvers are connected to a logic

circuit that monitors the presence of the following: 1. coarse and
fine servo ‘nulls’ (sine windings); 2. coarse and fine excitation
(cosine windings); 3. indicator power supplies; and 4. valid
altitude data. If either of these is unreliable, a solenoid-operated
‘OFF’ warning flag is activated to obscure the digital counter
display of altitude.

Barometric pressure setting is done in manner similar to that of

the altimeter described earlier, except that the setting knob
rotates the stators of two resolver synchros for establishing the
error voltage signals necessary to obtain the required pressure
altitude indications. The purpose of the ‘non-linear’ mechanism

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Figure 11

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STATIC AIR TEMPERATURE INDICATION inputs, which is then amplified to drive the servomotor and
counters. The motor also repositions the re-balancing
The most basic method of obtaining an indication of SAT is to potentiometer to ‘null out’ the error signal. In the event of loss of
use charts of pre-calculated values of ram rise related to dc or ac power, or an excessive ‘null’ voltage in the re-
sensing probe recovery factors and Mach number and then balance/feedback system, an ‘OFF’ flag is triggered by a failure
subtract the values from the reading of the TAT indicator. Such monitor circuit to obscure the counter display.
conversion charts are provided by manufacturers and normally
from part of an aircraft’s operations or flight manual. It is,
however, more advantageous to provide an automatic method
of conversion so that corrections, in the form of electrical
signals, can be applied to the TAT signal output to derive SAT,
and then utilize the corrected signals to operate a separate
indicator.

In the case of the analog ADC described earlier, the conversion

and correction is effected by a circuit network whose electrical
characteristics are matched to those of the TAT sensing probe.
As shown in figure 2 the network is incorporated within the
Mach module of the computer to accept TAT probe output
signals, as well as a drive input from the servo loop in order to
vary in order to vary the SAT signals as a function of Mach
number.

The circuit arrangement of one example of SAT indicator is

shown in Fig 12. It utilizes a drum type of counter, the left-hand
and right-hand section of which display temperatures in the plus
and minus parts, respectively, of range. The center drum
displays the sign of the temperature being indicated; the drums
not in use are automatically masked. The computed SAT is
supplied as a dc analog voltage to a chopper circuit, and is
compared with a voltage supplied as a reference via a re-
balanced potentiometer. The chopper circuit produces a 400 Hz
ac error signal representative of the difference between the two

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Figure 12

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DIGITAL AIR DATA COMPUTER (DADC)

The modular arrangement and data signal flow of a typical

computer are shown in schematic form in Fig 13. It processes
the same basic parameters as the one already described, but
with the major difference that all the signals corresponding to
the variables measured are converted and transmitted in digital
format. The pitot and static pressure sensors are of the
piezoelectric crystal type and their frequency-modulated signals
are supplied to the altitude, computed airspeed, and Mach
calculation circuit modules via a frequency-to-digital converter.
The analog inputs from the synchros of angle of attack (alpha)
sensors, and altimeter barometric pressure setting controls, are
converted by means of synchro-to-digital converters. Outputs
from all modules of the computer are supplied to an ARINC 429
transmitter connected to four data busses from which all
interfacing systems requiring air data are then supplied. The
purpose of the discrete coder module is to monitor signals
relating to the status and integrity of particular circuits, e.g. the
heater circuits of TAT probes, pitot probes, and angle of attack
sensors, and to initiate appropriate warnings. In order for the
computer automatically to take into account the pressure error
of the air data system of a particular type of aircraft, and also its
stall characteristics, it is ‘matched’ by programming the SSEC
and angle of attack modules with the relevant data.

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Figure 13

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SERVO TYPE ALTIMETER

The indicators associated with a digitals ADC are of the pure

servo operated type, and as an example of their operation
generally, we may consider the altimeter circuit shown in Fig 14.
Data may be supplied from either of two ADCs as selected by
the triggering of a solid-state switch; the right ADC is shown.
Under changing altitude conditions the corresponding signals
pass to a microprocessor, and from this unit they are
transmitted to D/A converter which then provides the drive
signals for operating the servomotor, and the altitude pointer
and counter mechanisms. At the same time the motor drives
two CX synchros which supply coarse and fine analog inputs to
an input multiplexer. The output signals from this unit are then
compared with those from the D/A converter, and the difference
between them (as a result of altitude change) is fed back into
the microprocessor via an A/D converter. The signals will ‘null
out’ when a constant altitude condition has been attained.

The setting of Barometric pressures is done in the usual

manner, i.e. by means of a set knob and digital counters, and,
as will be noted, the stators of two resolver synchros are also
repositioned. These produce sine-and cosine-related signals
which are fed back to the corresponding synchro-to-digital
converter in the computer (see Figure 13 in previous page). The
change in the converter output signal is supplied to the
altimeter, via the relevant data bus, so that its servomotor will
drive the pointer and counter mechanism to indicate the attitude
change corresponding to the barometric pressure setting. If
input signal failure or a negative altitude condition should occur,
the microprocessor activates decoder and flag driver circuits
which then cause the appropriate flag to appear across the
altitude counter display.

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Figure14

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GYROSCOPIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS The three degrees of freedom are obtained by mounting the
rotor in two concentrically pivoted rings, called inner and outer
In addition to the airspeed indicator, the altimeter and the rings. The whole assembly is known as the gimbal system of a
vertical speed indicator, a basic group of flight instruments also free or space gyroscope.
comprises instruments, which provide direct indication of an
aircraft’s attitude. There are three such instruments, namely a The gimbal system is mounted in a frame a shown in Figure 1,
gyro horizon (sometimes called an artificial horizon), a direction so that in its normal operation position, all the axes are mutually
indicator, and a turn-and-bank indicator. at right angles to one another and intersect at the centre of
gravity of the rotor.
The three additional instruments utilize a gyroscopic type of
The system will not exhibit gyroscopic properties unless the
sensing element, the properties of which need to be understood
rotor is spinning; for example, if a weight is suspended on the
before going into the construction and operating details of each
inner ring, it will merely displace the ring about its axis YY1
instrument.
because there is no resistance to the weight. When the rotor is
made to spin at high speed, however, the device then becomes
GYROSCOPIC PRINCIPLES a true gyroscope possessing two important fundamental
properties: gyroscopic inertia or rigidity and precession.
GYROSCOPE AND ITS PROPERTIES Both these properties depend on the principle of conservation of
angular momentum, which means that the angular momentum
As a mechanical device a gyroscope may be defined as a of a body about a given point remains constant unless some
system containing a heavy metal wheel or rotor, universally force is applied to change it. Angular momentum is the
mounted so that it has three degrees of freedom: product of the moment of inertia (I) and angular velocity (w) of a
body referred to a given Point – the centre of gravity in the case
 Spinning freedom, about an axis perpendicular through of a gyroscope.
its centre (axis of spin XX1);

 Tilting freedom, about a horizontal axis at right angles

to the spin axis (axis of tilt YY1);and

 Veering freedom, about a vertical axis perpendicular to

both the other axes (axis of veer ZZ1).

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If a weight is now suspended from the inner gimbal ring with the
rotor spinning it will be found that the ring will support the
weight, thus demonstrating the first fundamental property of
rigidity. It will also be found, however, that the complete gimbal
system will start rotating about the axis ZZ1, such rotation
demonstrating the second property of precession.

These rather intriguing properties can be exhibited by any

system in which a rotating mass is involved, and a simple
example of such a system is the bicycle. If we lift the front wheel
off the ground, spin it at high speed, and then turn the
handlebars, we will feel rigidity resisting us, and precession
trying twist the handlebars from our grasp. Other familiar
mechanical systems possessing gyroscopic properties are
aircraft propellers, and jet engine compressor and turbine
assemblies.

The two gyroscopic properties may be more closely defined

as follows:

RIGIDITY

The property, which resists any force tending to change the

plane of rotor rotation. It is dependent on three factors:

 Rigidity is directly proportional to the mass of the rotor,

 Rigidity is directly proportional to the speed of rotation,

and
 Rigidity is directly proportional to the distance at which
the mass acts from the centre, i.e. the radius of gyration.

Figure 1

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PRECESSION DETERMINING THE DIRECTION OF PRECESSION

The angular change in direction of the plane of rotation under The direction on which a gyroscope will precess under the
the influence of an applied force. The change in direction takes influence of an applied force may be determined by means of
place, not in line with the force, but always at a point 900 away vectors and by solving certain gyrodynamic problems, but for
in the direction of rotation. The rate of precession also depends illustration and practical demonstration purposes, there is an
on three factors: easy way of determining the direction in which precession will
take place, and also of finding out where a force must be
 Precession is directly proportional to the strength and applied for a required direction. It is done by representing all
direction of the applied force, forces as acting directly on the rotor itself.

 Precession is inversely proportional to the moment of At (a) in Fig. 2, the rotor is shown spinning in a clockwise
inertial of the rotor, and direction and with a force F applied upwards on the inner ring.
In transmitting this force to the rim of the rotor, as will be noted
 Precession is inversely proportional to the angular from (b), it will act in a horizontal direction. Let us assume for a
velocity of the rotor. moment that the rotor is broken into segments and concern
ourselves with two of them at opposite sides of the rim as
The greater the force, the greater is the rate of precession, shown at (c). Each segment has motion m in the direction of
while the greater the moment of inertia and the greater the rotor rotation, so that when force F is applied there is a
angular velocity the smaller is the rate of precession. tendency for each segment to move in the direction of the force.
This motion is resisted by rigidity, but the segments will turn
Precession of a rotor will continue, while the force is applied, about the axis ZZ1 so that their direction of motion is along the
until the plane of rotation becomes coincident with that of the resultant of motion m and force F. The other segments will be
force. At this point there will be no further resistance to the force affected in the same way; therefore, in being combined to form
and so precession will cease. the solid mass of a rotor it will precess at an angular velocity
proportional to the applied force (see diagrams (d) and (e)).
The axis about which a force is applied is termed the input axis,
and the one about which precession take place is termed the In the example illustrated in Fig. 3 (a), a force F is applied to the
output axis. outer ring; this is the same as transmitting the force to the rotor
rim at the point shown at (b). As in the previous case this results
in the direction of motion changing to the resultant of motion m
and force F. This time, however, the rotor precesses about the
axis YY1 as indicated at (d) and(e).

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(d)

Figure 2

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Figure 3

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CLASSIFICATION OF GYRO (1) Vertical Gyro (V.G.) ( used in artificial horizon )

(2) Directional Gyro (D.G.) ( used in heading indicator )
There are four main types of gyros.

1. Free or space gyro.

2. Tied gyro
3. Earth tied gyro.
4. Rate gyro

1. FREE OR SPACE GYRO

This is the gyro mounted in two gimbals so it has freedom in all

planes of rotation. No external force acts on such gyro and
when the gyro rotor is rotating at very high speed then it
maintains position in space due to rigidity. Such gyro is called
free or space gyro. It has no use in aircraft. Ideally all gyros are
space gyro.

2. TIED GYRO:
4. RATE GYRO:
This is the gyro mounted in two gimbals so it has freedom in all
planes of rotation but by applying external force it can be set to This type of gyro has only one gimbal hence it has freedom
any required direction. about only one axis. It is basically two axis, single degree of free
gyro. This gyro is used in Turn and Bank indicator to indicate
3. EARTH TIED GYRO: the rate of turn of the aircraft.

A gyro mounted in two gimbals to allow complete freedom in all

planes of rotation but controlled by forces to maintain the
direction of its spin axis relative to the earth. They are also
called displacement gyros. Earth tied gyros have important
applications in aircraft. They are further divided into two types.

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REFERENCES ESTABLISHED BY GYROSCOPES

For use in aircraft, gyroscopes must establish two essential

reference datums: one for the detection of pitch and roll attitude
changes, and the other for the detection of changes about the
vertical axis, i.e. a directional reference. These datums are
established by using vertical and horizontal spin-axis
gyroscopes respectively as shown in Figure 4. Both types utilize
their fundamental properties in the following manner: rigidity
provides a stabilized reference unaffected by movement of the
supporting body, and precession controls the effects of
apparent and real drift thus maintaining stabilized datums.

It will also be noted from Figure 4 that the pitch, roll, and
directional attitudes of an aircraft are determined by its
displacement with respect to each appropriate gyroscope. For
this reason, therefore, the gyroscopes are referred to as
displacement-type gyroscopes. Each one has three degrees
of freedom and, consequently, three mutual axes, but for the
purpose of attitude sensing, the spin axis is discounted since no
useful attitude reference is provided when displacements take
place about the spin axis alone. Thus, in the practical case, the
two types of gyroscope are further classified as two-axis
displacement gyroscopes.

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Figure 4

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LIMITATIONS OF A FREE GYROSCOPE Types of WANDER

In flight, the attitudes of an aircraft must be referenced with

respect to the earth’s surface, and this being so requires that a
free or space gyroscope, thus far considered, be corrected for
drift with respect to the earth’s rotation, called apparent drift,
and for wander as a result of carrying a gyroscope over the
earth’s surface, called transport wander.

GYRO WANDER

Any movement of the spin axis of gyro from the reference to

which it is set is called gyro wander

It is caused due to two reasons.

1. REAL OR RANDOM WANDER:

This wander is produced due to actual movement of spin axis of

the gyro. It is produced due to imperfection of gimbal system or APPARENT DRIFT
bearing friction. It is minimized by appropriate design and
construction technique. The earth rotates about its axis at the rate of 15o/hour, and in
association with gyro-dynamics, this is termed earth rate (ωe ).
2. APPARENT WANDER: When a free gyroscope is positioned at any point on the earth’s
surface, it will sense, depending on the latitude at which it is
This wander is due to apparent movement of spin axis. It is positioned, and on the orientation of its spin and input axes,
produced due to earth rotation & movement of gyro over the various components of ωe as an angular input. Thus, to an
surface of earth. observer on the earth having no sense of the earth’s rotation,
the gyroscope would appear to veer or drift. This may be seen
from Fig 5 (a) which illustrates a horizontal-axis gyroscope at a
latitude λ. At ‘A’, the input axis is aligned with the local N – S
component of ωe; therefore, to an observer at latitude λ the
gimbal system would appear to drift clockwise (opposite to
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earth’s rotation) in a horizontal plane relative to the frame, and REAL DRIFT
at a rate equal to 15o cos λ. When the input axis is aligned with
that of the earth ‘B’; drift would also be apparent, but at a rate Real drift results from imperfections in a gyroscope such as
equal to ωe i.e. 15o/hour. If the input axis is now aligned with the bearing friction and gimbal system unbalance. Such
local vertical component of ωe (‘C’ in the diagram) the apparent imperfections cause unwanted precession which can only be
drift would be equal to 15o sin λ. minimized by applying precision engineering techniques to the
design and construction.
In order to further illustrate drift, we may consider diagram (b) of
Fig 5., which is a plan view of a free horizontal-axis gyroscope
positioned at the North Pole with its input axis (ZZ1) aligned with
that of the earth. After three hours the earth will have rotated
through 45o, and the gyroscope will appear to have drifted
through the same amount but in the opposite direction. After six
hours the earth’s rotation and apparent drift will be 90o, and so
on through a complete 24-hours period.

If the same gyroscope were to be positioned so that its input

axis ZZ1 was aligned with the E – W component of ωe at any
point, its spin axis would then be vertical; in other words, it
becomes a vertical-axis gyroscope. Since the plane of rotation
is coincident with that of the earth, there will be no apparent
drift.

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Figure 5

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Figure 5

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TRANSPORT WANDER

Let us again consider a horizontal-axis gyroscope which is set

up initially at the North pole, with its input axis aligned with that
of the earth. In this position it will exhibit an apparent drift equal
to ωe. Assume now that it is carried to a lower latitude, and with
its input axis aligned with the local vertical component of ωe.
During the period of transport it will have appeared to an
observer on the earth that the spin axis has tilted in a vertical
plane, until at the new latitude it appears to be in the position
shown at (c) of Fig 5. This apparent tilt, or transport wander, ωe = earth’s angular velocity; λ= latitude; R = earth’s radius; V =
would also be observed if, during transport, the input axis were N-S component of transport velocity; U = E-W component of
aligned with either a local N-S component, or a local E-W transport velocity.
component of ωe.
If the input axis of a gyroscope were to be positioned such that
Transport wander will, of course, appear simultaneously with its spin axis was vertical, then during transport it would only
drift, and so for a complete rotation of the earth, the gyroscope exhibit transport wander.
as a whole would appear to make a conical movement. The
angular velocity or transport rate of this movement will be
decreased or increased depending on whether the E-W
component of an aircraft’s speed is towards east or west. The
N-S component of the speed will increase the maximum
divergence of the gyroscope axis from the vertical, the amount
of divergence depending on whether the aircraft’s speed has a
N or S component and also on whether the gyroscope is
situated in the northern or southern hemisphere.

The relationship between ωe, transport wander, and input axis

alignment are summarized in the table:

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CONTROL OF DRIFT AND TRANSPORT WANDER DISPLACEMENT GYROSCOPE LIMITATIONS

Before a free gyroscope can be of practical use, drift and Depending on orientation of its gimbal system, a displacement
transport wander must be controlled so that the plane of spin of gyroscope can be subject to certain operating limitations; one is
the rotor is maintained relative to the earth; in other words, it referred to as gimbal lock and the other as gimbal error.
requires conversion to what is termed an earth gyroscope.
GIMBAL LOCK
Drift, as already pointed out, relates only to horizontal-axis
gyroscopes, and it can be controlled either by This occurs when the gimbal orientation is such that the spin
axis becomes coincident with one or other of the axes of
1) calculating corrections using the earth rate formulae freedom which serve as attitude displacement references. Let
given in the preceding table and applying them as us consider, for example, the case of the spin axis of a vertical-
appropriate, e.g. to the readings of a direction indicator; axis gyroscope shown in figure 4 becoming coincident with the
ZZ1 axis. This means, in effect, that the gyroscope would ‘lose’
2) applying fixed torques which unbalance the gyroscope its spin axis, and since the plane of spin would be at 900 to the
and cause it to precess at a rate equal and opposite to ZZ1 axis but in the same plane as displacements in roll, then the
ωe ; stable roll attitude reference would also be lost. If, in this
‘locked’ condition of the gimbal system, the gyroscope as a
3) applying torques having a similar effect to that stated in whole were to be turned, then the forces acting on the gimbal
above point (2) but which can be varied according to the system would cause the system to precess or topple.
latitude in which the gyroscope is being used.
GIMBAL ERROR
The control of transport wander is normally achieved by using
gravity-sensing devices which automatically detect tilting of the This is an error, which is also related to gimbal system
gyroscope’s spin axis, and applying the appropriate corrective orientation, and it occurs whenever the gyroscope as a whole is
torques. displaced with its gimbal rings not mutually at right angles to
each other. The error is particularly relevant to horizontal-axis
The operation of some typical control methods will be described gyroscopes when used in direction indicating instruments.
later under the headings of the appropriate flight instruments.

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METHODS OF OPERATING GYROSCOPIC FLIGHT An example of a relief valve is shown in Fig. 7. During system
INSTRUMENTS operation the valve remains closed by compression of the
spring, the tension of which is pre-adjusted to obtain the
There are two principal methods of driving the rotors of required vacuum so that air pressure acting on the outside of
gyroscopic flight instruments: pneumatic and electric. the valve is balanced against spring tension. If for some reason
the adjusted value should be exceeded, the outside air pressure
PNEUMATIC would overcome spring tension, thus opening the valve to allow
outside air to flow into the system until the balanced condition
The pneumatic method is adopted in a number of small types of was once again restored.
aircraft, and may be either vacuum or pressure. A typical
vacuum system is shown schematically in Fig. 6; it consists of In some small types of tubing-engine aircraft that have
an engine driven pump that is connected through pipelines to pneumatically-operated instruments installed, the vacuum is
the appropriate flight instruments. A vacuum indicator, a relief created by bleeding air from the engine compressor and
valve, and a central air filter are also provided. In operation the passing it through an ejector/venturi (see Fig. 6.)
pump creates a vacuum that is regulated by the valve at a value
between 3.5 and 4.5 in Hg. Some types of turn-and-bank
indicator may operate at a lower value and this is obtained by
including an additional relief valve in the main supply line.

Each instrument case has two connections: one is made to the

pump and the other is made internally to a spinning jet system
that is open to the surrounding atmosphere via the central air
filter. When vacuum is applied, the pressure within the cases
of the instruments is reduced to allow surrounding air to enter
and emerge through the spinning jets. The jets are positioned
adjacent to a series of recesses (commonly called ‘buckets’)
formed in the periphery of each gyroscope rotor, so that as the
airstreams impinge on the ‘buckets’, the rotors are rotated at
high speed.

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Figure 6

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Figure 7

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A pressure-operated system is, as far as principal components

are concerned, not unlike a vacuum system but, as will be noted
by comparing Figure 6 and 8, a changeover of system inlet and
outlet connections is necessary.

ELECTRIC

In electrically-operated instruments, the gyroscopes are special

adaptations of ac or dc motors that are designed to be driven
from the appropriate power supply systems of an aircraft. In
current applications, ac motors are adopted in gyro horizons,
while dc motors are more common to turn-and-bank indicators.
Gyroscopes used for the purpose of direction indicating can
also be motor-driven, but they normally from part of a magnetic
heading reference system, or of the more widely adopted flight
director systems.

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Figure 8

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ARTIFICIAL HORIZONS/GYRO HORIZON The front end of the bar is therefore moved downwards through
a greater angle than that of the outer ring, and since the
movement is relative to the symbolic aircraft element, the
GYRO HORIZON PRINCIPLE
symbolic aircraft element, the bar will indicate a climb attitude.
A Gyro horizon indicates the pitch and roll attitude of an aircraft Change in the lateral attitude of an aircraft, i.e. rolling, displace
relative to its vertical axis, and so for this purpose it employs a the instrument case about the axis ZZ1, and the whole stabilized
displacement gyroscope whose spin axis is vertical. Indications gimbal system. Hence, lateral attitude changes are indicated by
of attitude are presented by the relative positions of two movement of the symbolic aircraft element relative to the
elements, one symbolizing the aircraft itself, the other in the horizon bar, and also by relative movement between the roll
form of a bar stabilized by the gyroscope and symbolizing the angle scale and pointer.
natural horizon. Supplementary indications of roll are presented
by the position of a stabilized pointer and a fixed roll angle Freedom of gimbal system movement about the roll and pitch
scale. Two methods of presentation are shown in Fig. 9. axes is 3600 and 850 respectively, the latter being restricted by
means of a ‘resilient stop’. The reason for this restriction is to
The gimbal system (see Fig. 10) is arranged so that the inner prevent gimbal lock.
ring forms the rotor casing and is pivoted parallel to an aircraft’s
lateral axis YY1; the outer ring is pivoted at the front and rear
ends of the instrument case, parallel to the longitudinal axis ZZ1.
The element symbolizing the aircraft may be either rigidly fixed
to the case, or it may be externally adjustable for setting a
particular pitch trim reference.

In operation the gimbal system is stabilized so that in level flight

the three axes are mutually at right angles. When there is a
change in an aircraft’s attitude, it goes into a climb, say, the
instrument case and outer ring will move about the axis YY1 of
the stabilized inner ring. The horizon bar is pivoted at the side
and to the rear of the outer ring and engages an actuating pin
fixed to the inner ring, thus forming a magnifying lever system.
The pin passes through a curved slot in the outer ring. In a
climb attitude the bar pivot carries the rear end of the bar
upwards so that it pivots about the stabilized actuating pin.

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Figure 9

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1: Symbolic Aircraft
2: Rotor
3: Outer ring
4: Inner ring
5: Balance weight
6: Pivot point
7: Actuating pin
8: Horizon bar
9: Roll pointer and scale

Figure 10

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PNEUMATIC TYPE OF GYRO HORIZON ELECTRIC GYRO HORIZON

A typical instrument of the vacuum-driven type is shown in Fig This instrument is made up of the same basic elements as a
11. The rotor is pivoted in ball bearings within the inner pneumatic type, with the exception that the gyroscope is an ac
ring/casing which is, in turn, pivoted in outer ring bearings. The squirrel-cage induction motor which operates from a 115V, 400
upper bearing of the rotor is spring-loaded to compensate for Hz, three-phase supply source.
the effects of differential expansion between the rotor shaft and
casing under varying temperature conditions. A background One of the essential requirements of any gyroscope is to have
plate which symbolizes the sky is fixed to the front end of the the mass of the rotor concentrated as near to the periphery as
outer ring and carries the roll pointer which registers against the possible, thus ensuring maximum inertia. This presents no
roll angle scale. difficulty where solid metal rotors are concerned, but when
adopting electric motors as gyroscopes some rearrangement of
A vacuum supply connection is provided at the rear of the their basic design is necessary in order to achieve the desired
instrument case, together with a filtered air inlet. The latter is effect. An induction motor normally has its rotor revolving inside
positioned over the outer ring rear-bearing support and pivot its stator, but to make one small enough to be accommodated
which are drilled to communicate with a channel in the outer within the confines of an instrument would mean too small a
ring. This channel terminates in diametrically-opposed spinning rotor mass and inertia. This is overcome by designing the rotor
jets within the rotor casing, the underside of which has a and its bearing so that it rotates on the outside of the stator;
number of outlet holes in it. thus, for the same required size of motor the rotor mass is
concentrated further from the center, thereby increasing the
When the vacuum system is in operation, the air pressure within radius of gyration and inertia.
the instrument case becomes lower than that of the surrounding
air, which is then able to pass through the filtered inlet and to The motor assembly is carried in a housing which forms the
the spinning jets. The air issuing from the jets impinges on the inner ring, this in turn being supported in the outer ring bearings.
rotor buckets, thus imparting even driving forces to spin the The horizon bar assembly is pivoted and actuated in a manner
rotor at approximately 15000 rev/min in an anti-clockwise similar to that already described. The ac power supply is fed to
direction as viewed from above. After spinning the rotor, the air the motor stator via slip rings, wire brushes and finger contact
passes through a pendulous vane unit attached to the assemblies, thereby allowing for all gimbal ring movements.
underside of the rotor casing, and is finally drawn off by the
vacuum source.

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1. Sky plate
2. Inner gimbal ring
3. Resilient stop
4. Balance nut
5. Temperature compensator
6. Rotor
7. Actuating pin
8. Outer gimbal ring
9. Actuator arm
10. Pendulous vane unit
11. Buffer stops
12. Bank pointer
13. Horizontal bar

Figure 11

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When power is applied, a rotating magnetic field is set up in the Each half is graduated in 100 increments, the upper one up to
stator; the field, in turn, inducing a current in the squirrel cage 800, and the lower up to 600. Roll or bank angles are indicated
rotor. The effect of this current is to produce magnetic fields in the conventional manner.
which interact with the stator’s rotating field causing the rotor to
turn at a speed of approximately 20000-23000 rev/min. A A pitch trim adjustment and a fast-erection facility are provided,
solenoid-operated ‘power off’ warning flag is also provided. both being controlled by a knob in the lower right-hand corner of
the indicator bezel. When the knob is rotated in its normally ‘in’.
STANDBY ATTITUDE INDICATORS Position, the aircraft symbol may be positioned through ± 50,
thereby establishing a variable pitch trim reference. Pulling the
Many aircraft currently in service employ flight director systems, knob out and holding it actuates a fast-erection circuit.
or more sophisticated electronic flight instrument systems, all of
which comprise indicators having the capability of displaying not
only attitude data, but also the data from other navigational
systems. In such cases, therefore, the role of a conventional
gyro horizon is relegated to that of secondary or standby, for
use as a reference in the event of any failure that might occur in
the attitude display sections of the aforementioned primary
systems.

An example of one type of gyro horizon designed for use as a

standby attitude indicator is shown in Fig 12. Its gyroscope is
powered by 115V, three-phase ac supplied by a static inverter
which, in turn, is powered by 28V dc from the battery busbar of
an aircraft. Power from such a source is always available,
thereby ensuring continuity of indicator operation. In place of the
more conventional stabilized horizon bar method of displaying Figure 12
attitude, a stabilized spherical element is adopted as the
reference. The upper half of the element is colored blue to
display climb attitudes, and is divided, by a horizon line, from
the lower half which is in black and displays descending
attitudes.

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ERECTION SYSTEMS FOR GYRO HORIZONS

These systems are designed for the purpose of erecting the If now the gyroscope is displaced, so that, for example, its top is
gyroscope to, and maintaining it in, its vertical spin-axis position tilted towards the front of the instrument as at (c), the pair of
during operation. The systems adopted depend on the particular vanes on the axis YY1 remain vertical, thus opening the port D
design of gyro horizon, but they are all of the gravity-sensing and closing the port B. The increased reaction of the air from D
type and in general fall into two main categories: mechanical results in a force being applied to the body in the direction of the
and electrical. arrow, about axis XX1. This force is equivalent to one applied on
the underside of the rotor and to the left, or at the top of the
PENDULOUS VANE UNIT rotor at a point F as shown at (d). Precession back to the
vertical position will therefore take place at point P, and the
This is a mechanical system adopted for the gyro horizon vanes will again bisect the ports to equalize the air reactions.
described earlier. It is fastened to the underside of the rotor
housing and as indicated in Fig 13 (a), it consists of four knife-
edged, pendulously-suspended vanes clamped in pairs on two
intersecting shafts and passing through the unit body. One
shaft is parallel to the axis YY1 and the other to the axis ZZ1. In
the sides of the body there are four elongated ports (A, B, C and
D), one under each vane.

After having spun the rotor, air is exhausted though the ports,
emerging as four streams and in the directions indicated. The
reaction of the air as it flows through the ports applies a force to
unit body. The vanes, under the influence of gravity, always
hang in the vertical position and it is this feature that is utilized
to govern the airflow from the ports and to control the reaction
forces applied to the gyroscope.

When the gyroscope is in its normal vertical position as at (b),

the knife edges of the vanes bisect each of the ports, making
all four openings equal. All four-air reactions are therefore equal
and the resultant forces about each axis are in balance.

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Figure 13

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Figure 13

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BALL-TYPE ERECTION UNIT to be exerted at the left hand side of the holder as indicated at
(c).
This mechanical system is applied to some designs of electric
gyro horizon; it utilizes the precessional forces resulting from This force may also be considered as acting directly on the left-
gravity on a number of steel balls displaced within a rotating hand bearing of the gyroscope housing and outer ring.
holder suspended from the gyroscope housing as shown in Fig Transferring this point of applied force to the rotor rim,
14. The balls are free to roll across a radius erecting disc and precession will then take place about axis YY1 to counteract the
into and out of a number of specially profiled hooks in a plate displacement.
fixed around the inner edge of the holder. The spacing of the
hooks is chosen so as to regulate the release of the balls when As the erector mechanism continues to rotate, the balls will be
the gyroscope tilts, and to shift their mass to the proper point on carried round to the high side of the holder, but one by one they
the erecting disc to apply the force required for precession. will roll into the hooks at the lower side. Thus, their mass is
Rotation of the holder takes place through reduction gearing once again concentrated at this side, allowing the force and
from the gyroscope’s rotor shaft; the speed of the holder is precession to be maintained as they are carried around the left-
approximately 25 Rev/min. hand side. This action continues with diminishing movement of
the balls as the gyroscope erects to its normal vertical position,
When the gyroscope is in its normal operating position, as at which the balls are at the centre of the disc and the force due
shown at (a), the balls change position as the holder rotates but to gravity is again concentrated at the centre of the mass.
their mass remains concentrated at the centre of the disc.
Under this condition, gravity exerts its greatest pull at the centre Displacement of the gyroscope in other directions about its
of the mass, and therefore all forces about the principal axes of lateral or longitudinal axes will result in similar actions to those
the gyroscope are in balance. described.

At (b) the gyroscope’s vertical axis is shown displaced about

pitch axis YY1 away from the front of the instrument. The
displacement of the ball holder causes the balls to roll towards
the hooks, which at that instant are on the low side; therefore
the force due to gravity is now shifted to this side. Since the
hooked plate is rotating (clockwise viewed from above),the balls
and the point at which the force is acting will be carried round to
the left-hand side of the holder. In this position the balls remain
remain hooked and mass remains concentrated to allow a force

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Figure 14

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Figure 14

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TORQUE MOTOR AND LEVELING SWITCH SYSTEM

The two outer electrodes are connected one to each section
This system is used in a number of electrically-operated gyro (designated ‘A’ and ‘B’) of their respective torque motor control
horizons and the remote vertical gyroscope units associated windings; thus, in the normal operating position of the gyro the
with flight director systems. It consists of two torque controls control winding circuit is open.
motors operated independently by liquid leveling switches,
which are mounted, one parallel to the lateral axis, and the When the gyro is displaced about one of its axes, the
other parallel to the longitudinal axis. The disposition of motors appropriate leveling switch will also be displaced so that the
and switches is illustrated diagrammatically in Fig.15 mercury bridges the gap between the centre electrode and one
or other outer electrode. This completes a circuit to either the ‘A’
The laterally-mounted switch detects roll displacement and is or ‘B’ section of the respective torque motor control winding,
connected to its torque motor so that a corrective force is depending on the direction of gyro displacement.
applied around the pitch axis. Pitch displacements are detected
by the longitudinally-mounted switch, which is connected to its In order for the torque motor to apply the necessary corrective
torque motor so that corrective forces are applied around the torque to the gimbals system, the magnetic field of the motor
roll axis. Each switch is in the form of a sealed glass tube stator must be made to rotate. As will be noted from Fig. 16, the
containing three electrodes and a small quantity of either voltage to the reference winding is applied via a capacitor, and
mercury or an electrolytic solution. so, as in any ac circuit containing capacitance, the phase of the
current is shifted so as to lead the voltage by 900.
Each torque motor consists of a stator and a squirrel-cage rotor.
The roll torque motor has its stator fixed to the outer ring of the The control winding circuit has no capacitance, and so the
gyroscope, and its rotor fixed to the inner ring. The stator of the voltage and current flowing through it are in phase; therefore,
pitch motor is fixed to the instrument frame, and its rotor fixed to and because the control and reference windings are both
the outer ring. supplied from the same power source, reference winding
current must also lead control winding current by 900. This out-
The electrical interconnection of the component that comprises of-phase arrangement (called phase quadrature) applies also to
each system is indicated in Fig. 16(a). In the case of mercury the magnetic field set up by each winding.
leveling switches, the mercury will lie at the centre of the tubes
and, being in contact with the centre electrode, will supply a
voltage to the reference windings of their respective torque
motors, only when the gyro is running and in its normal
operating position.

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Figure 15

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(a)

Figure 16
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Thus, with current and a magnetic field flowing through the control winding connected to that electrode. A corresponding
appropriate half of the control winding resulting from a rotating field is therefore produced to set up a reactive torque
displacement of the gyro, a resultant field is produced which in the torque motor for precessing the gyro and leveling switch
rotates within the torque motor stator in either a clockwise or to the normal stabilized position and in the same manner as that
ant-clockwise direction. As the field rotates, it cuts the described earlier.
conductors of the rotor and induces a current in them; this in
turn produces a magnetic field that interacts with the stator field
and creates a tendency of the rotor to rotate with the stator field.
This tendency is opposed because of the rigidity of the gyro,
and consequently a reactive torque is set up in the torque motor
and is exerted on the associated gimbals ring to precess the
gyro and leveling switch to their normal operating position.

In the case of leveling systems utilizing electrolytic solution-type

switches, the supply of current to the control winding sections of
a torque motor is controlled in a different manner to that of
mercury leveling switch systems. The reason for this is, will be
noted from Fig. 16 (b), that the electrodes are always immersed
in the electrolytic solution, and the circuits to the control winding
of a torque motor are always closed. In the normal stabilized
vertical position of the gyro, the switch electrodes are in equal
amounts of electrolyte and so the currents flowing in each
section of a torque motor control winding are equally opposed.
Since the electromagnetic effects on the rotors are also equally
opposed then no torques will be applied to the gimbal system.

When a switch is displaced it causes a change in the amount of

surface area of electrolyte in contact with the electrodes and, in
turn, an imbalance in the electrical resistance of the control
winding circuit. This may be noted from diagram (c): at the `low
end' electrode there is a greater amount of electrolyte and, in
accordance with basic electrical principles, this means low
resistance and so more current will flow in that half of the

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FAST-ERECTION SYSTEMS ERECTION RATE

These systems are used in some types of electrically-operated This is the term used to define the time taken, in degrees per
gyro horizons for the purpose of bringing their gyros to the minute, for a vertical gyroscope to take up its normal operating
vertical position as quickly as possible from large angles of tilt, position under the control of its particular type of erection
particularly during starting. system. Ideally, the rate should be as fast as possible under all
conditions, but in practice such factors as speed, turning and
A control device is therefore provided which, in a typical system, acceleration of an aircraft, and the earth's rotation, all have their
activates a set of contacts to introduce a higher voltage and effect and must be taken into account. Thus, erection systems
current flow through the control phase windings of the erection are designed so that, for small angular displacements of a
torque control motors. The resulting higher torque applied gyroscope from the vertical, the erecting couple is proportional
thereby increases the precession rate. To prevent overheating to the displacement, while for larger displacements it is made
of the stator coils a time limit (typically 15 seconds) is imposed constant. It is also arranged that the couple gives equal
on system operation. Certain types of gyro horizon utilize a erection rates for any rotor axis displacement in any direction in
system whereby the gimbal system is mechanically caged when order to reduce the possibility of a slow cumulative error during
the operating knob is operated. maneuvering of an aircraft. Normal rates provided by some
typical erection systems are 80/min for pneumatic-type gyro
horizons and 3-5°/min for those that are electrically operated.

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ERRORS DUE TO ACCELERATION AND TURNING It should be apparent from the foregoing that, during periods of
deceleration; a gyro horizon will present a false indication of
Since gyro horizon erection devices are of the pendulous type, it descent.
is possible for them to be displaced by the forces acting during
the acceleration and turning of an aircraft, and unless provision When an aircraft turns, false indications about both the pitch
is made to counteract this, the gyroscope spin axis would be and roll axes can occur, due to what are termed `gimballing
precessed to a false vertical position, thereby presenting a false effects' brought about by forces acting on both sets of
attitude indication. For example, let us consider the effects of a pendulous vanes or both leveling switches, as appropriate.
rapid acceleration in the flight direction, firstly on the vane type There are, in fact, two errors due to turning: erection errors and
of erection device, and secondly on the leveling switch and pendulosity errors.
torque motor type.
ERECTION ERRORS
As shown in Fig. 17 (a), the acceleration force will deflect the
two athwart ships-mounted vanes to the rear, thus opening the As an aircraft enters a turn, the gyroscope's spin axis will initially
right-hand port. The greater reaction of the air flowing through remain in the vertical position and so an accurate indication of
this port applies a force to the underside of the rotor causing it the roll or bank angle will be presented. In this position;
to precess forward about the axis YY1,. The horizon bar is thus however, the longitudinally-mounted pendulous vanes, or the
displaced downwards, presenting a false climb indication. roll leveling switch, are acted upon by centrifugal force. This
force will be applied to the gyroscope in such a direction that it
In the case of leveling switches (Fig. 17 (b)), an acceleration will tend to precess towards the perpendicular along which the
force will deflect the liquid in the one related to pitch to the rear resultant of centrifugal and gravity forces are acting. Thus, the
of its tube. A circuit will thus be completed to the control winding gyroscope erects to a false vertical and introduces an error in
of the pitch torque motor, which will precess the gyroscope roll indication. Such errors may be compensated by-one of the
forward and will therefore also produce a false climb indication. following methods;

In both cases the precession is due to a natural response of the (i) inclination of the gyroscope's spin axis;
gyroscope, and the pendulous vanes and/or liquid always return
to their neutral positions, but for as long as the disturbing forces (ii) erection cut-out; and
remain, such positions apply only to a false vertical. When the
forces are removed the false climb indication will remain initially (iii) pitch-bank compensation.
and then gradually diminish under the influence of precession,
restoring the gyroscope to its normally true vertical position.

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Figure 17

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Figure 17

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INCLINED SPIN AXIS resistance of the electrolyte will produce an unbalanced

condition in the torque motor control winding circuit, and a
This method is based on the idea that, if the top of the axis can torque tending to precess the gyro; in this case, to a false
describe a circle about itself during a turn, then only a single vertical position. At the same time, however, the acceleration
constant error will result. In its application, the method is force displaces the electrolyte in cut-out switch 'A' to complete a
mechanical in form and varies with the type of gyro horizon, but circuit to a solid-state switch which then operates to open the
in all cases the result is to impart a constant tilt of the axis from ground connection of the control winding; torque motor
operation is thereby prevented. Switch `B' performs a similar
the vertical (typically 1.6° or 2.5°). In pneumatic types of gyro
function but under the influence of a deceleration force.
horizon, the athwartships-mounted pendulous vanes are
balanced so that the gyroscope is precessed to the tilted
Roll erection cut-out is accomplished by another identically
position; in certain electric gyro horizons, the pitch leveling
arranged pair of switches connected to the roll torque motor,
switch is fixed in a tilted position so that the gyroscope is
except of course that they are angled to differentiate between
precessed away from the true vertical in order to overcome
the centrifugal forces corresponding to left and right turns.
what it detects as a pitch error. The linkages between
gyroscope and horizon bar are so arranged that during level
flight the horizon bar will indicate this condition.

ERECTION CUT-OUT

An example of this method as applicable to electrically-operated

gyro horizons incorporates additional liquid-level switches
positioned in pairs on the pitch and roll axes. The switches are
connected to the torque motors in such a way that under the
influence of forces they isolate the control winding circuits from
the main erection switches. Operation of the system may be
understood from Fig 18, which shows the arrangement
applicable to pitch erection cut-out. The pairs of switches are
set at an angle to each other in order to differentiate between
acceleration and deceleration forces.

Assuming that an acceleration occurs, the electrolyte in the

pitch erection switch will be displaced in the opposite direction,
and as we have already learned, the change in electrical

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Figure 18

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.
PITCH-ROLL (BANK) ERECTION When acceleration is in excess of 0.18 g, the mercury in the roll
leveling switch is displaced to the end of the tube and so
This method is a combined one (incorporated in some gyro disconnects the normal supply to its torque motor, i.e. it acts as
horizons utilizing mercury-type leveling switches) in which the an erection cutout. The pitch switch, however, still responds to a
roll leveling switch is disconnected during a turn by the pitch- forward tilt and remains connected to its torque motor, and, as
leveling switch. It is intended to correct the varying pitch and roll will be noted from the diagram, it also connects a supply to the
errors and operates only when the rate of turn causes a lower of the two additional switches. Since the mercury in these
centrifugal acceleration exceeding 0.18 g, which is equivalent to switches is also displaced by the acceleration, a circuit is
a 10° tilt of the roll erection switch. As shown schematically in completed from the lower switch to the roll torque motor, which
Fig. 19, two additional switches, connected in a double-pole precesses the gyroscope axis to the right to reduce the roll
changeover arrangement, are provided and are interconnected error. At the same time, the pitch switch completes a circuit to
with the normal erection systems. its torque motor, which then precesses the gyroscope axis
rearward, so reducing the pitch error. Thus, during turns a
Let us consider first a turn to the left and one creating a constant control is applied about both the pitch and roll axes
centrifugal acceleration less than 0.18 g. In such a turn, the by the pitch leveling switch.
mercury in the roll leveling switch will be displaced to the right The changeover function of the additional switches depends on
and will bridge the gap between the supply and right-hand the direction of gyroscope tilt in pitch. This is indicated by the
electrodes, thus completing a circuit to the roll torque motor. broken arrows in Fig. 19; the gyroscope and the pitch leveling
This is the same as if the gyroscope axis had been tilted to the switch now being tilted rearward, the latter connects a supply to
right at the commencement of the turn; the roll torque motor will the upper additional switch so that the direction of the supply to
therefore precess the gyroscope back to a false vertical, and left the roll torque motor is changed, and the gyroscope is
of the true one. At the same time, the axis tilts forward due to precessed to the left. The change in direction of the supply to
gimballing effect, and the mercury in the pitch switch, being the roll torque motor is also dependent on the direction of turn,
unaffected by centrifugal acceleration, moves forward and as a study of Fig. 19 will show.
completes a circuit to the pitch torque motor, which precesses
the gyroscope rearwards. The two additional switches, which Since the forces produced depend on an aircraft's speed and
are also mounted about the roll axis, do not come into operation rate of turn, then all erection errors will vary accordingly, thus
since the mercury in them is not displaced sufficiently to contact making it difficult to compensate for them under all conditions. It
the right-hand electrodes. Thus, with acceleration less than 0.18 is usual, therefore, particularly for instruments employing the
g there is no compensation. inclined axis method of compensation, to base compensation on
standard values, e.g. a rate 1 turn of 1800/min at a speed of 200
mph.

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Figure 19

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DIRECTIONAL GYROS
DIRECTION INDICATOR The front of the case contains a cut-out through which the card
is visible, and also the lubber line reference.
This indicator was the first gyroscopic instrument to be
introduced as a heading indicator, and although for most aircraft When the vacuum system is in operation, the reduced pressure
currently in service it has been superseded by remote-indicating created within the case allows surrounding air to enter through
compass systems and flight director systems, there are still a filtered inlet and to pass through channels in the gimbal rings
applications of it in its pneumatically-operated form. The to emerge finally through jets. The air issuing from the jets
instrument employs a horizontal axis gyroscope and, being non- impinges on the rotor `buckets', causing the rotor to rotate at
magnetic, is used in conjunction with a magnetic compass; it speeds between 12 000 and 18 000 rev/min.
defines the short-term heading changes during turns, while the
magnetic compass provides a reliable long-term heading A caging and setting knob is provided at the front of the case to
reference as in sustained straight and level flight. In addition, of set the indicator on the same heading as that of the magnetic
course, the direction indicator overcomes the effects of compass. When this knob is pushed in, an arm is lifted thereby
magnetic dip, and of turning and acceleration error inherent in locking the inner ring at right angles to the outer ring, and at the
the magnetic compass. same time meshing gearing between the knob and the outer
ring. Thus, a heading can be set by rotating the knob and the
In its basic form, the outer ring of the gyroscope carries a whole gimbal system. The reason for caging the inner ring is to
circular card, graduated in degrees, and referenced against a prevent it from precessing when the outer ring is rotated, and to
lubber line fixed to the gyroscope frame. When the rotor is ensure that, on uncaging, their axes are mutually at right
spinning, the gimbal system and card are stabilized so that, by angles.
turning the frame, the number of degrees through which it is
turning may be read on the card.

The manner in which this simple principle is applied to practical

indicators varies between types, but we may consider the
vacuum driven version illustrated in Fig. 20 (a) and (b), which is
used in basic instrumentation of some types of small aircraft.

The rotor is enclosed in a case, or shroud, and supported in an

inner ring, which is mounted in an outer ring, the bearings of
which are located at the top and bottom of the indicator case.

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Figure 20

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CONTROL OF DRIFT the greater force is visualized as being applied to the rotor rim,
then it and the inner ring will be precessed until the forces are
Drift, as we have already learned, is fundamental characteristic again equal and opposite.
of a horizontal-axis type of gyroscope, and so for practical
direction indicating purposes, earth rate error, transport wander,
and real drift must be controlled. This is generally affected by
gimbal ring balancing and by erection devices.

GIMBAL RING BALANCING

The method of controlling earth rate error is deliberately to

unbalance the inner ring so that a constant force and
precession are applied to the gimbal system. The imbalance is
affected by a nut fastened to the inner ring, and adjusted during
initial calibration to apply sufficient outer ring precession to
cancel out the drift at the latitude in which it is calibrated. For all
practical purposes, this adjustment is quite effective up to 600 of
latitude on the earth’s surface.

ERECTION DEVICES

These form part of the rotor air-drive system and are so

arranged that they sense misalignment of the rotor axis in terms
of an unequal air reaction. In the indicator already described,
this is accomplished by exhausting air over a wedge-shaped
plate secured to the outer ring as shown in Fig. 20(c)

In the normal horizontal position of the rotor axis, the air flowing
from the outlet of the casing is equally divided, and the reaction
of the air applies equal and opposite forces to the faces of the
wedge. When rotor is tilted, the air outlet is no longer bisected
by the wedge; thus, the reaction forces are unbalanced, and if

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Figure 20

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GIMBAL ERRORS When an aircraft carries out a manoeuvre which combines

changes in roll and pitch attitudes, e.g. the banked descent
A definition of gimbal error has already been given. In the case shown at (d), the outer ring is made to rotate about its own axis,
of a direction indicator, errors are dependent upon: thus introducing a gimbal error causing the indicator to show a
change of heading.
(i) the angle of climb, descent, or roll:
If an aircraft is flying on an intercardinal heading, the rotor axis
(ii) the angle between the rotor axis and longitudinal will be some angle to the aircraft’s longitudinal axis, as at (e),
axis of an aircraft. and gimballing errors will occur during turns, rolling in straight
and level flight, pitch attitude changes or combinations of these.
Fig 21 illustrates the gimbal system geometry when an aircraft
is in particular attitudes. When the heading is such that the aircraft’s longitudinal axis is
aligned with that of the gyroscope rotor, rolling of the aircraft on
At (a) an aircraft is represented as flying straight and level on an a constant heading will not produce gimballing error because
easterly heading, and as the gimbal system geometry is such the gimbal system also rotates about the rotor axis. If, however,
that the rotor axis lies N-S, the three axes of the system are rolling is combined with a pitch attitude change, the effect is the
mutually at right angles, and the heading will be indicated same as the combined manoeuvre noted earlier (diagram (d)).
without error. The same would also be true if an aircraft were
flying on a westerly heading. Whenever the angular relationship between the gimbal rings is
disturbed during a manoeuvre, an indicator’s erection device will
If an aircraft rolls to the left or right on either an easterly or be attempting to re-erect the rotor into a new plane of rotation
westerly heading, or executes a left or right turn, the outer and will cause false erection, the magnitude of which depends
gimbal ring will be carried about the axis of the stabilized inner on how long the erecting force is allowed to operate, i.e. on the
ring (diagram (b)). In this condition the cardinal headings, or duration of the manoeuvre. The magnitude of the force itself will
changes of heading during turns, would also be indicated depend on the angle of the rotor to the device. Thus, on
without error. completion of a manoeuvre it is possible to have an error due to
false erection, and during a manoeuvre an error can be caused
At (c) an aircraft is assumed to be descending so that, in which is a combination of both gimballing effect and false
addition to the outer gimbal ring being tilted forward about the erection.
rotor axis, the inner ring also rotates, both rings maintaining the
same relationship to each other. Again, there is no gimbal error;
this would also apply in the case of a climbing attitude.

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Figure 21

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Category – B2 Sub Module 13.8(a) - Instrument Systems

TURN AND BANK INDICATOR

This indicator contains two independent mechanisms: a

gyroscopically-controlled pointer mechanism for the detection
and indication for the rate at which an aircraft turns. And a
mechanism for the detection and indication of bank and/or slip.
The dial presentation of a typical indicator is shown in Fig. 22
(a).

Figure 21

Figure 22 (a): Turn and Bank/Slip indicator

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RATE GYROSCOPE When the indicator is in its normal operating position the rotor
spin axis, due to the spring restraint, will always be horizontal
For the detection of rates of turn, a rate gyroscope is used and and the turn pointer will be at the zero datum mark. With the
is arranged in the manner shown at (b) in Fig. 22. It differs in rotor spinning, its rigidity will further ensure that the zero
two respects from the displacement gyroscopes thus far position is maintained.
described: it has only one gimbal ring, and it has a calibrated
spring connected between the gimbal ring and casing to restrain Let us assume that the indicator is turned to the left about a
movement about the longitudinal axis YY1. i.e.it is a single-axis vertical input axis. The rigidity of the rotor will resist the turning
gyroscope. movement, which it detects as an equivalent force being applied
to its rim at point F. The gimbal ring and rotor will therefore be
tilted about the longitudinal axis as a result of precession at
point P.

As the gimbal ring tilts, it stretches the calibrated spring until the
force it exerts prevents further deflection of the gimbal ring.
Since precession of a rate gyroscope is equal to its angular
momentum and the rate of turn, then the spring force is a
measure of the rate of turn. The actual movement of the gimbal
ring from the zero position can, therefore, be taken as the
required measure of turn rate.

In practice, the gimbal ring deflection is generally not more than

60, the reason for this being to reduce the error due to the rate
of turn component not being at right angles to the spin axis
during gimbal ring deflection.

The rate of turn pointer is actuated by the gimbal ring and a

magnifying system, which moves the pointer in the correct
sense over a scale calibrated in what are termed ‘standard
Figure 22 (b) rates’. Although they are not always marked on a scale, they
are classified by the numbers 1 to 4 and correspond to turn
rates of 1800, 3600, 5400 and 7200 per minute respectively. The
marks at either side of zero of the indicator scale shown in
Figure 22 correspond to a Rate 1 turn.
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A system for damping out oscillations of the gyroscope is also airspeed, then there is a balanced condition between the two
incorporated and is adjusted so that the turn pointer will respond forces and so the resultant force holds the ball at the center of
to fast rate of turn changes and a the same time respond to a the tube as shown. If the airspeed were to be increased during
definite turn rate instantly. the turn, then the bank angle and centrifugal force would also
be increased, but so long the bank angle is correct for the
It should be noted that a rate gyroscope requires no erecting appropriate conditions, the new resultant force will still hold the
device or correction for random precession, for the simple ball at the center of the tube.
reason that it is always centred by the control spring. For this
reason also, it is unnecessary for the rotor to rotate at high If the bank angle for a particular rate of turn is not correct, say
speed, a typical speed range being 4000-4500 rev/min. The under banked as in diagram (c), then the aircraft will tend to skid
most important factor in connection with speed is that it must be out of the turn. Centrifugal force will predominate under such
maintained constant, since precession of the rotor is directly conditions and will displace ball from its central position. When
proportional to its speed. the turn is overbanked, as at (d), the aircraft will tend to slip into
the turn and so the force due to gravity will now have the
BANK INDICATION predominant effect on the ball. It will thus be displaced from
center in the opposite direction to that of an under banked turn.
In addition to the primary indication of turn rate, it is also
necessary to have an indication that an aircraft is correctly
banked for the particular turn. A secondary indicating
mechanism is therefore provided which depends for its
operation on the effect of gravitational and centrifugal forces. A
method commonly used for bank indication is one utilizing a ball
in a curved liquid-filled glass tube as illustrated in Fig. 23.

In normal level flight (diagram (a)) the ball is held at the center
of the tube by the force of gravity. Let us assume now that the
aircraft turns to the left at a certain airspeed and bank angle as
at diagram (b).

The indicator case and the tube move with the aircraft, of
course, and because of the turn, centrifugal force in addition to
that of gravity acts upon the ball and tends to displace it
outwards from the center of the tube. However, when the turn
is executed at the correct bank angle and matched with
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Figure 23

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Figure 23

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SLIP INDICATORS moves in the cylinder, air passes through a small bleed hole,
the size of which can be adjusted to provide the required degree
TYPICAL INDICATOR of damping.

The mechanism of a typical pneumatic type of indicator is The slip indicator is of the ball and liquid-filled tube type, the
shown in Fig. 24. Air enters though a filtered inlet situated at operation of which has already been described.
the rear of the case and passes through a jet from which it is
directed onto the rotor buckets. The direction of spin is in the
direction of flight. Adjustment of gyroscope sensitivity is
provided by a screw attached to one end of the rate control
spring. A stop is provided to limit gimbal ring movement to an
angle, which causes slightly more than full-scale deflection (left
or right) of the rate of turn pointer.

A feature common to all indicators is damping of gimbal ring

movement to provide ‘dead beat’ indications. In this particular
type, the damping device is in the form of a piston, linked to the
gimbal ring, and moving in a cylinder or dashpot. As the piston

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Figure 24

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TURN COORDINATOR

This instrument is a development of the turn-and-bank indicator,

and is adopted in lieu of this in a number of small types of
aircraft. The primary difference, other than display presentation,
is in the setting of the precession or output axis of the rate
gyroscope. This is set at about 300 with respect to an aircraft’s
longitudinal axis, thus making the gyroscope sensitive to rolling
or banking as well as turning. Since a turn is initiated by
banking, then the gyroscope will precess, and thereby move the
aircraft symbol to indicate the direction of the bank, enabling a
pilot to anticipate the resulting turn. The turn is then controlled
to the required rate as indicated by the alignment of the symbol
with the graduations on the outer scale. In the example
illustrated in Fig. 25, the graduations correspond to a rate 2(2-
min) turn. Coordination of the turn is indicated by the ball-type
indicator remaining centered in normal way. In some indicators,
a pendulous type of indicator may be adopted for this purpose.

The gyroscope is a dc motor operating at approximately 6000.

rev/min; in some cases, a constant-frequency ac motor may be
used. The annotation ‘no pitch information’ on the indicator
scale is given to avoid confusion in pitch control, which might
result from the similarity of the presentation to that of a gyro
horizon. Damping of the gyroscope may be affected by using a
silicone fluid or, as in the indicator illustrated, by a graphite
plunger sliding in a glass tube.

Figure 25: Turn Coordinator

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COMPASS SYSTEM TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

DIRECT READING COMPASSES The surface of the earth is surrounded by weak magnetic field
which culminates in two internal magnetic poles situated near
Compasses of this type were the first of the many airborne flight the North and South true or geographic poles. That this is so is
and navigational aids ever to be introduced in aircraft, their obvious from the fact that a magnet freely suspended at various
primary function being to show the direction in which an aircraft parts of the earth’s surface will be found to settle in a definite
is heading with respect to the earth’s magnetic meridian. direction, which varies with locality. A plane passing through the
magnet and the center of the earth would trace out on the
As far as present-day aircrafts are concerned, the use of earth’s surface an imaginary line called the magnetic meridian
direct reading compasses as a primary directional reference as shown in Fig. 1.
source is confined to small types of aircraft whose design and
operating requirements are at a fairly basic level. In the more It would thus appear that the earth’s magnetic field is similar to
sophisticated types of aircraft, directional references are that which would be expected at the surface if a short but
derived from flight instrument systems and navigational aids strongly magnetized bar magnet were located at the center.
based on advanced technology, and although airworthiness This partly explains the fact that the magnetic poles are
requirements still necessitate the installation of direct-reading relatively large areas, due to the spreading out of the lines of
compasses, they are relegated to a secondary role. force, and it also gives a reason for the direction of the field
being horizontal in the vicinity of the equator. The origin of the
The operating principle of a direct-reading compass is based on earth’s field is still not precisely known, but, for purposes of
established fundamentals of magnetism, and on the reaction explanation, the supposition of a bar magnet at its center is
between the magnetic field of a suitably suspended magnetic useful in visualizing the general form of the magnetic field as it
element, and that of terrestrial magnetism. is known to be.

The field differs from that of an ordinary magnet in several

respects. Its points of maximum intensity, or strength, are not at
the magnetic poles (theoretically they should be) but occur at
four other positions, two near each pole, known as magnetic
foci. Moreover, the poles themselves are continually changing
their positions, and at any point of the earth’s surface the field is
not symmetrical and is subject the changes both periodic and
irregular.

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Figure 1

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 Diurnal or daily change.
MAGNETIC VARIATION
Information regarding variation and its changes are given on
As meridians and parallels are constructed with reference to the special charts. Lines are drawn on the charts, and those which
true or geographic North and south poles, so can magnetic join places having equal variation are called isogonal lines,
meridians be constructed with reference to the magnetic plies. If while those drawn through places where the variation is zero
a map were prepared to show both true and magnetic are called agonic lines.
meridians, it would be observed that these intersect each other
at angles varying from 0 degree to 180 degree at different parts
of the earth, diverging from each other sometimes in one
direction and sometimes in the other. The horizontal angle
contained between the true and the magnetic meridian at any
place is known as the magnetic variation or declination.

When the direction of the magnetic meridian inclines to the left

of the true meridian, the variation is said to the westerly, while
an inclination to the right produces easterly variation. It varies in
amount from 0o along those lines where the magnetic and true
meridians run together, to 180o in places between the true and
magnetic poles. At some places on the earth, where the ferrous
nature of the rock disturbs the main magnetic field, local
attraction exists and abnormal variation occurs which may
cause large changes in its value over very short distances.
While the variation differs all over the world, it does not maintain
a constant value in any one place, and the following changes,
themselves not constant, may be experienced:

 Secular change, which takes place over long periods

due to the changing positions of the magnetic plies
relative to the true poles:

 Annual change, which is a small seasonal fluctuation

superimposed on the secular change:

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MAGNETIC DIP

As stated earlier, a freely suspended magnet will settle in a

definite direction at any point on the earth’s surface and will lie
parallel to the magnetic meridian at that point. It will not,
however, lie parallel to the earth’s surface at all points for the
reason that the lines of force themselves are not horizontal, as
may be seen from Fig. 2. These lines emerge vertically from the
North magnetic pole, bend over and descend vertically into the
South magnetic pole; it is only at what is known as the magnetic
equator that they pass horizontally along the earth’s surface. If,
therefore, a suspended magnet is carried along a meridian from
north to south, it will be on end, red end down, at the start,
horizontal near the equator, and finish up again on end but with
the blue end down.

The angle the lines of force make with the earth’s surface at any
given place is called the angle of dip or magnetic inclination,
and varies from 0o at the magnetic equator to 90o at the
magnetic poles. The angle of dip at all places undergoes
changes similar to those described for variation and is also
shown on charts of the world. Places on these charts having the
Figure 2
same dip angle are joined by lined known as isoclinals, while
those at which the angle is zero are joined by a line known as
the aclinic line or magnetic equator, of which mention has
already been made.

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EARTH’S TOTAL FORCE

When a magnet freely suspended in the earth’s field comes to

rest, it does so under the influence of the total force of the field.
This total force is resolved into its horizontal and vertical
components, termed H and Z respectively. The relationship
between these components and dip is shown in Fig. 2.

As in the case of variation and dip, charts of the world are

published showing the values of the components for all places
on the earth’s surface, together with the mean annual change.
Lines of equal H and Z forces are referred to as iso-dynamic
lines.

The earth’s magnetic force may be stated either as a relative

value or an absolute value. If stated as a relative value, and in
the case of compasses this is the case, it is given relative to the
H force at Greenwich.

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