CHAPTER 3.

ANALOG MODULATION

Transmitter Video Carrier

Output Audio Carrier

(f - fcv) MHz
-1.75 -0.75 0 4.0 4.5 4.75
2β interval
Receiver 1
Shaping
Filter
(f - fcv) MHz
-0.75 0 0.75 4.0 4.75
Broadcast TV transmitter spectrum and receiver shaping filter

3.1.5 Frequency Translation and Mixing

Used to translate baseband or bandpass signals to some new
center frequency

m(t)cos1t
e(t) BPF
at
f2 f
f
f1 f2

Local oscillator of the form

Frequency translation system

Assuming the input signal is DSB of bandwidth 2W the mixer

(multiplier) output is
local osc (LO)
‚ …„ ƒ
e.t / D m.t / cos.!1t / 2 cos.!1 ˙ !2/t
D m.t / cos.!2t / C m.t / cosŒ.2!1 ˙ !2/t 

3-38 ECE 5625 Communication Systems I

3.1. LINEAR MODULATION

The bandpass filter bandwidth needs to be at least 2W Hz wide

Note that if an input of the form k.t / cosŒ.!1 ˙2!2/t  is present

it will be converted to !2 also, i.e.,

e.t / D k.t / cos.!2t / C k.t / cosŒ.2!1 ˙ 3!2/t ;

and the bandpass filter output is k.t / cos.!2t /

The frequencies !1 ˙ 2!2 are the image frequencies of !1 with

respect to !LO D !1 ˙ !2

Example 3.7: AM Broadcast Superheterodyne Receiver

Tunable IF Filt/ Env Audio

RF-Amp Amp Det Amp
fIF
Automatic gain
Local control For AM BT = 2W
Osc.
Joint tuning

AM Broadcast Specs: fc = 540 to 1600 kHz on 10 kHz spacings

carrier stability
Modulated audio flat 100 Hz to 5 kHz
Typical fIF = 455 kHz

AM Superheterodyne receiver

We have two choices for the local oscillator, high-side or low-

side tuning

ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 3-39

CHAPTER 3. ANALOG MODULATION

– Low-side: 540 455 fLO 1600 455 or 85 fLO

1145, all frequencies in kHz
– High-side: 540 C 455 fLO 1600 C 455 or 995
fLO 2055, all frequencies in kHz

The high-side option is advantageous since the tunable oscil-

lator or frequency synthesizer has the smallest frequency ratio
fLO,max=fLO,min D 2055=995 D 2:15

Suppose the desired station is at 560 kHz, then with high-side

tuning we have fLO D 560 C 455 D 1015 kHz

The image frequency is at fimage D fc C 2fIF D 560 C 2

455 D 1470 kHz (note this is another AM radio station center
frequency

Desired Potential Image

BRF
Input
f (kHz)
455 560 1470
fLO fIF fIF

f (kHz)
BIF 1015 1470
Mixer IF BPF (560+455)
Output
f (kHz)
Image 1015-560 1575
Out of This is removed (560+1015)
mixer with RF BPF
f (kHz)
455 2485
0 1470-1015
(1470+1015)

Receiver frequency plan including images

3-40 ECE 5625 Communication Systems I

3.1. LINEAR MODULATION

Example 3.8: A Double-Conversion Receiver

fc = 162.475 MHz
(WX #4) 10.7 MHz & 455 kHz &
335.65 MHz 21.855 MHz
Tunable 10.7 MHz 455 kHz FM
RF-Amp IF BPF IF BPF Demod

1st 2nd
LO LO
fLO1 = 173.175 MHz fLO2 = 11.155 MHz

Double-conversion superheterodyne receiver

Consider a frequency modulation (FM) receiver that uses double-

conversion to receive a signal con carrier frequency 162.475
MHz (weather channel #4)

– Frequency modulation will be discussed in the next sec-

tion

The dual-conversion allows good image rejection by using a

10.7 MHz first IF and then can provide good selectivity by
using a second IF at 455 kHz; why?

– The ratio of bandwidth to center frequency can only be so

small in a low loss RF filter
– The second IF filter can thus have a much narrower band-
width by virtue of the center frequency being much lower

A higher first IF center frequency moves the image signal fur-

ther away from the desired signal

ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 3-41

CHAPTER 3. ANALOG MODULATION

– For high-side tuning we have fimage D fc C 2fIF D fc C

21:4 MHz

Double-conversion receivers are more complex to implement

Mixers

The multiplier that is used to implement frequency translation

is often referred to as a mixer

In the world of RF circuit design the term mixer is more ap-

propriate, as an ideal multiplier is rarely available

Instead active and passive circuits that approximate signal mul-

tiplication are utilized

The notion of mixing comes about from passing the sum of two
signals through a nonlinearity, e.g.,

y.t / D Œa1x1.t / C a2x2.t /2 C other terms

D a12x12.t / C 2a1a2x1.t /x2.t / C a22x22.t /

In this mixing application we are most interested in the center

term

ydesired.t / D 2a1a2 x1.t / x2.t /

Clearly this mixer produces unwanted terms (first and third),

and in general many other terms, since the nonlinearity will
have more than just a square-law input/output characteristic

3-42 ECE 5625 Communication Systems I

3.1. LINEAR MODULATION

A diode or active device can be used to form mixing products

as described above, consider the dual-gate MEtal Semiconduc-
tor FET (MESFET) mixer shown below

Nonlinear Device

VRF

VIN zL VOUT

VLO

Mixer concept

+5V

R2
10Ω
C3
47pF C4
0.01uF
L1 L3
5 turns, 28 AWG L4
.050 I.D. 270nH IF
C1 270nH
0.5pF G1 C8
LO D Q1 C7
G2 NE25139 42pF 82pF
RF S
C2
0.5pF
R1 C5 C8
L2 0.01uF
5 turns, 28 AWG 47pF
.050 I.D. 270Ω

Dual-Gate MESFET Active Mixer

The double-balanced mixer (DBM), which can be constructed

using a diode ring, provides better isolation between the RF,
LO, and IF ports

When properly balanced the DBM also allows even harmonics

to be suppressed in the mixing operation

ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 3-43

CHAPTER 3. ANALOG MODULATION

A basic transformer coupled DBM, employing a diode ring, is

shown below, followed by an active version

The DBM is suitable for use as a phase detector in phase-

locked loop applications
mixer
LO source LO RF RF source
input D2 D1
input

RG vp(t) vi (t) RG
D3 D4

IF vo(t)
out

IF load
RL

Passive Double-Balanced Mixer (DBM)

C9 T1
3 6
L1 R3 IF OUT
5V
2 4:1 (200:50)
TRANSFORMER
C8
C11 1 4
L2 R4

C10
GND

GND

GND
IF+

IF-
20
19

18
17

16

C1
RF MAX9982 LO2
RFIN 1 15 LO2
TAP GND C7
2 14
C3 C2 GND GND
3 13
RFBIAS GND
4 12
R1 GND LO1
5 11 LO1
C6
10
6

9
GND

GND
LOSEL
VCC

VCC

5V 5V

C4 C5

LO SELECT

825 MHz to 915 MHz SiGe High-Linearity Active DBM

3-44 ECE 5625 Communication Systems I

3.1. LINEAR MODULATION

Example 3.9: Single Diode Mixer

ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 3-45