Database Management Quantum Seb

1

QUANTUM SERIES

For
B.Tech Students of Third Year
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Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University,
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(Formerly Uttar Pradesh Technical University)

Database Management System
By
Anjana Gautam
TM
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Ghaziabad New Delhi
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Database Management System (CS/IT : Sem-5)

1st Edition : 2010-11
2nd Edition : 2011-12
3rd Edition : 2012-13
4th Edition : 2013-14
10th Edition : 2020-21 (Thoroughly Revised Edition)
Price: Rs. 80/- only
Printed Version : e-Book.

3
CONTENTS
KCS–501 : DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
UNIT-1 : INTRODUCTION (1–1 A to 1–33 A)

Overview, Database System vs File System, Database System
Concept and Architecture, Data Model Schema and Instances,
Data Independence and Database Language and Interfaces, Data
Definitions Language, DML, Overall Database Structure. Data
Modeling Using the Entity Relationship Model: ER Model Concepts,
Notation for ER Diagram, Mapping Constraints, Keys, Concepts
of Super Key, Candidate Key, Primary Key, Generalization,
Aggregation, Reduction of an ER Diagrams to Tables, Extended
ER Model, Relationship of Higher Degree.
UNIT-2 : RELATIONAL DATA MODEL (2–1 A to 2–43 A)
Relational Data Model Concepts, Integrity Constraints, Entity Integrity,
Referential Integrity, Keys Constraints, Domain Constraints, Relational
Algebra, Relational Calculus, Tuple and Domain Calculus. Introduction
on SQL: Characteristics of SQL, Advantage of SQL. SQl Data Type and
Literals. Types of SQL Commands. SQL Operators and Their Procedure.
Tables, Views and Indexes. Queries and Sub Queries. Aggregate Functions.
Insert, Update and Delete Operations, Joins, Unions, Intersection, Minus,
Cursors, Triggers, Procedures in SQL/PL SQL.
UNIT-3 : DATA BASE DESIGN & NORMALIZATION (3–1 A to 3–19 A)
Functional dependencies, normal forms, first, second, 8 third
norma l forms, BCNF, inc lusion dependenc e, loss l ess join
decompositi ons, normali zati on usi ng FD, MVD, and JD s,
alternative approaches to database design.
UNIT-4 : TRANSACTION PROCESSING CONCEPT (4–1 A to 4–34 A)
Transaction System, Testing of Serializability, Serializability of
Schedules, Conflict & View Serializable Schedule, Recoverability,
Recovery from Transaction Failures, Log Based Recovery,
Checkpoints, Deadlock Handling. Distributed Database:
Distributed Data Storage, Concurrency Control, Directory System.
UNIT-5 : CONCURRENCY CONTROL TECHNIQUES (5–1 A to 5–27 A)
Concurrency Control, Locking Techniques for Concurrency Control,
Time Stamping Protocols for Concurrency Control, Validation
Based Protocol, Multiple Granularity, Multi Version Schemes,
Recovery with Concurrent Transaction, Case Study of Oracle.
SHORT QUESTIONS (SQ-1 A to SQ-18 A)
SOLVED PAPERS (2015-16 TO 2019-20) (SP-1 A to SP-15 A)

B.TECH. (CSE & CS)
FIFTH SEMESTER (DETAILED SYLLABUS)
Database Management System (KCS501)
Course Outcome ( CO) Bloom’s Knowledge Level (KL)
At the end of course , the student will be able to:
CO 1 Apply knowledge of database for real life applications. K3
CO 2 Apply query processing techniques to automate the real time problems of databases. K 3, K 4
CO 3 Identify and solve the redundancy problem in database tables using normalization. K 2, K 3
Understand the concepts of transactions, their processing so they will familiar with broad range K 2, K 4
CO 4
of database management issues including data integrity, security and recovery.
CO 5 Design, develop and implement a small database project using database tools. K 3, K 6
DETAILED SYLLABUS 3-1-0
Unit Topic Proposed
Lecture
Introduction: Overview, Database System vs File System, Database System Concept and
Architecture, Data Model Schema and Instances, Data Independence and Database Language and
Interfaces, Data Definitions Language, DML, Overall Database Structure. Data Modeling Using the
I 08
Entity Relationship Model: ER Model Concepts, Notation for ER Diagram, Mapping Constraints,
Keys, Concepts of Super Key, Candidate Key, Primary Key, Generalization, Aggregation,
Reduction of an ER Diagrams to Tables, Extended ER Model, Relationship of Higher Degree.
Relational data Model and Language: Relational Data Model Concepts, Integrity Constraints,
Entity Integrity, Referential Integrity, Keys Constraints, Domain Constraints, Relational Algebra,
Relational Calculus, Tuple and Domain Calculus. Introduction on SQL: Characteristics of SQL,
II Advantage of SQL. SQl Data Type and Literals. Types of SQL Commands. SQL Operators and 08
Their Procedure. Tables, Views and Indexes. Queries and Sub Queries. Aggregate Functions.
Insert, Update and Delete Operations, Joins, Unions, Intersection, Minus, Cursors, Triggers,
Procedures in SQL/PL SQL
Data Base Design & Normalization: Functional dependencies, normal forms, first, second, 8 third
III normal forms, BCNF, inclusion dependence, loss less join decompositions, normalization using 08
FD, MVD, and JDs, alternative approaches to database design
Transaction Processing Concept: Transaction System, Testing of Serializability, Serializability of
Schedules, Conflict & View Serializable Schedule, Recoverability, Recovery from Transaction
IV 08
Failures, Log Based Recovery, Checkpoints, Deadlock Handling. Distributed Database: Distributed
Data Storage, Concurrency Control, Directory System.
Concurrency Control Techniques: Concurrency Control, Locking Techniques for Concurrency
V Control, Time Stamping Protocols for Concurrency Control, Validation Based Protocol, Multiple 08
Granularity, Multi Version Schemes, Recovery with Concurrent Transaction, Case Study of Oracle.
Text books:
1. Korth, Silbertz, Sudarshan,” Database Concepts”, McGraw Hill
2. Date C J, “An Introduction to Database Systems”, Addision Wesley
3. Elmasri, Navathe, “ Fundamentals of Database Systems”, Addision Wesley
4. O’Neil, Databases, Elsevier Pub.
5. RAMAKRISHNAN"Database Management Systems",McGraw Hill
6. Leon & Leon,”Database Management Systems”, Vikas Publishing House
7. Bipin C. Desai, “ An Introduction to Database Systems”, Gagotia Publications
8. Majumdar & Bhattacharya, “Database Management System”, TMH
Database Management System 1–1 A (CS/IT-Sem-5)
1 Introduction
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Overview, Database .................................... 1–2A to 1–8A
System vs File System,
Database System Concept
and Architecture
Part-2 : Data Model Schema and .......................... 1–9A to 1–16A

Instances, Data Independence
and Database Language and
Interfaces, Data Definition
Language, DML, Overall
Database Structure
Part-3 : Data Modeling using ............................... 1–16A to 1–22A

the Entity Relationship Model :
ER Model Concepts, Notation
for ER Diagram, Mapping Constraints
Part-4 : Keys, Concept of Super .......................... 1–22A to 1–27A

Key, Candidate Key,
Primary Key, Generalization,
Aggregation
Part-5 : Reduction of an ER Diagram ................ 1–27A to 1–32A

to Tables, Extended ER Model,
Relationship of Higher Degree
Introduction 1–2 A (CS/IT-Sem-5)
PART-1
Overview, Database System vs File System,
Database System Concept and Architecture.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.1. What is database management system (DBMS) ? What

are the tasks performed by users in DBMS ?
Answer
1. Database management system (DBMS) is a software which is use to
manage the database. For example, MySQL, Oracle, are commercial
database which is used in different applications.
2. DBMS provides an interface to perform various operations like database
creation, storing data, updating data, creating a table in the database
etc.
3. It provides protection and security to the database. In case of multiple
users, it also maintains data consistency.
DBMS allows users the following tasks :
1. Data definition : It is used for creation, modification, and removal of
database objects that defines the organization of data in the database.
2. Data updation : It is used for the insertion, modification, and deletion
of the actual data in the database.
3. Data retrieval : It is used to retrieve the data from the database
which can be used by applications for various purposes.
4. User administration : It is used for registering and monitoring users,
maintaining data integrity, enforcing data security, dealing with
concurrency control, monitoring performance and recovering
information corrupted by unexpected failure.
Que 1.2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of DBMS ?
Answer
Advantages of DBMS :
1. Database redundancy : It controls data redundancy because it stores
all the data in one single database file and that recorded data is placed
in the database.
2. Data sharing : In DBMS, the authorized users of an organization can

share the data among multiple users.
3. Easy maintenance : It can be easily maintainable due to the centralized
nature of the database system.
4. Reduce time : It reduces development time and maintenance need.
5. Backup : It provides backup and recovery subsystems which create
automatic backup of data from hardware and software failures and
restores the data if required.
6. Multiple user interface : It provides different types of user interfaces
like graphical user interface, application program interface.
Disadvantages of DBMS :
1. Cost of hardware and software : It requires high speed of data
processor and large memory size to run DBMS software.
2. Size : It occupies a large space of disks and large memory to run
efficiently.
3. Complexity : Database system creates additional complexity and
requirements.
4. Higher impact of failure : Failure is highly impacted the database
because in most of the organization, all the data stored in a single
database and if the database is damaged due to electric failure or
database corruption then the data may be lost forever.
Que 1.3. What do you understand by database users ? Describe

the different types of database users.
Answer
Database users are the one who use and take the benefits of database. The
different types of users depending on the need and way of accessing the
database are :
1. Application programmers :
a. They are the developers who interact with the database by means
of DML queries.
b. These DML queries are written in the application programs like C,
C++, JAVA, Pascal etc.
c. These queries are converted into object code to communicate with
the database.
2. Sophisticated users :
a. They are database developers, who write SQL queries to select/
insert/delete/update data.
b. They directly interact with the database by means of query language
like SQL.
c. These users can be scientists, engineers, analysts who thoroughly
study SQL and DBMS to apply the concepts in their requirement.
3. Specialized users :
a. These are also sophisticated users, but they write special database
application programs.
b. They are the developers who develop the complex programs
according to the requirement.
4. Standalone users :
a. These users will have standalone database for their personal use.
b. These kinds of database will have predefined database packages
which will have menus and graphical interfaces.
5. Native users :
a. These are the users who use the existing application to interact
with the database.
b. For example, online library system, ticket booking systems, ATMs
etc.
Que 1.4. Who are data administrators ? What are the functions
of database administrator ?
OR
Discuss the role of database administrator.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
Database administrators are the personnel’s who has control over data and
programs used for accessing the data.
Functions/role of database administrator (DBA) :
1. Schema definition :
a. Original database schema is defined by DBA.
b. This is accomplished by writing a set of definitions, which are
translated by the DDL compiler to a set of labels that are permanently
stored in the data dictionary.
2. Storage structure and access method definition :
a. The creation of appropriate storage structure and access method.
translated by the data storage and definition language compiler.
3. Schema and physical organization and modification :
a. Modification of the database schema or the description of the physical
storage organization.
b. These changes are accomplished by writing a set of definition to do
modification to the appropriate internal system tables.
4. Granting of authorization for data access : DBA grants different

types of authorization for data access to the various users of the database.
5. Integrity cons traint s pecification : DBA carry o ut data
administration in data dictionary such as defining constraints.
Que 1.5. What is data abstraction ? Explain different levels of

abstraction.
Answer
Data abstraction is the process of finding irrelevant details from user i.e.,
hiding the background details from the users.
Different levels of data abstraction :
View level
View 1 View 1 ............ View n
Logical level
Physical level
Fig. 1.5.1. The three levels of data abstraction.
1. Physical level :
i. Physical level is the lowest level of abstraction and describes how
the data are actually stored.
ii. The physical level describes the complex low-level data structures
in details.
2. Logical level :
i. Logical level is the next-higher level of abstraction and it describes
what data are stored in the database, and what relationship exists
among those data.
ii. The logical level thus describes the entire database in terms of a
small number of relatively simple structures.
3. View level :
i. View level is the highest level of abstraction; it describes only part
of the entire database.
ii. The view level of abstraction exists to simplify their interaction
with the system.
iii. The system may provide many views for the same database.
Que 1.6. Explain the differences between physical level,

conceptual level and view level of data abstraction.
Answer
S. No. Physical level Conceptual/ View level

Logical level
1. This is the lowest This is the middle level This is the highest
le ve l of data of data abstraction. level of data
abstraction. abstraction.
2. It describes how It describes what data It describes the user
data is actually is stored in database. interaction with
stored in database. database system.
3. It de scribe s the It de scribe s the It describes only those
complex low-level structure o f whole part of the database
data structures in database and hides in which the users are
detail. de tails of physical interested and hides
storage structure. rest of all information
from the users.
4. A user is not aware A user is not aware of A user is aware of the
of the complexity the co mple xity o f complexity of
of database. database. database.
Que 1.7. Explain the difference between database management

system (DBMS) and file system.
Answer
S. No. DBMS File System
1. In DBMS, the user is not In this system, the user has to

re quired to write the write the procedures for managing
procedures. the file.
2. DBMS gives an abstract view File system provides the detail of
of data that hides the details. the data repre sentation and
storage of data.
3. DBMS pro vide s a crash File system do not have a crash

re co ve ry mechanism, i.e., mechanism, i.e., if the system
DBMS protects the data from crashes while entering some data,
the system failure. then the content of the file will
lost.
4. DBMS provides a goo d It is very difficult to protect a file
protection mechanism. under the file system.
5. DBMS can efficiently store and File system cannot efficiently store
retrieve the data. and retrieve the data.
6. DBMS takes care of In the file system, concurrent
concurrent access of data using access has many problems like
some form of locking. redirecting the file while other
deleting some information or
updating some information.
Que 1.8. Discuss the architecture of DBMS. What are the types
of DBMS architecture ?
Answer
1. The DBMS design depends upon its architecture. The basic client/
server architecture is used to deal with a large number of PCs, web
servers, database servers and other components that are connected
with networks.
2. DBMS architecture depends upon how users are connected to the
database to get their request done.
Types of DBMS architecture :
i. 1-Tier architecture :
1. In this architecture, the database is directly available to the user.
2. Any changes done are directly done on the database itself. It does
not provide a handy tool for end users.
3. The 1-Tier architecture is used for development of the local
application, where programmers can directly communicate with
the database for the quick response.
ii. 2-Tier architecture :
1. The 2-Tier architecture is same as basic client-server.
2. In the two-tier architecture, applications on the client end can
directly communicate with the database at the server side. For
this interaction, API’s such as : ODBC, JDBC are used.
2. The user interfaces and application programs are run on the
client-side.
3. The server side is responsible to provide the functionalities like
query processing and transaction management.
4. To communicate with the DBMS, client-side application establishes
a connection with the server side.
Database system Server
Application
Client
User
Fig. 1.8.1. 2-Tier architecture.
iii. 3-Tier architecture :

1. The 3-Tier architecture contains another layer between the client
and server. In this architecture, client cannot directly communicate
with the server.
2. The application on the client-end interacts with an application
server which further communicates with the database system.
3. End user has no idea about the existence of the database beyond
the application server. The database also has no idea about any
other user beyond the application.
4. The 3-Tier architecture is used in case of large web application.
Database
Server
Application server
Application client
Client
User
Fig. 1.8.1. 3-Tier architecture.

PART-2
Data Model Schema and Instances, Data Independence and
Database Language and Interfaces, Data Definition
Language, DML, Overall Database Structure.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.9. What are data models ? Briefly explain different types of
data models.
Answer
Data models :
1. Data models define how the logical structure of the database is modeled.
2. Data models are a collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data
relationships, data semantics and consistency constraints.
3. Data models define how data is connected to each other and how they
are processed and stored inside the system.
Types of data models :
1. Entity relationship model :
a. The entity relationship (ER) model consists of a collection of basic
objects, called entities and of relationships among these entities.
b. Entities are represented by means of their properties, called
attributes.
Attribute Attribute Attribute Attribute
Entity Relationship Entity
Fig. 1.9.1. The ER model.
2. Relational model :
a. The relational model represents data and relationships among data
by a collection of tables, each of which has a number of columns
with unique names.
b. Relational data model is used for data storage and processing.
c. This model is simple and it has all the properties and capabilities
required to process data with storage efficiency.
3. Hierarchical model :
a. In hierarchical model data elements are linked as an inverted tree
structure (root at the top with branches formed below).
b. Below the single root data element are subordinate elements each
of which in turn has its own subordinate elements and so on, the
tree can grow to multiple levels.
c. Data element has parent child relationship as in a tree.
4. Network model :
a. This model is the extension of hierarchical data model.
b. In this model there exist a parent child relationship but a child data
element can have more than one parent element or no parent at
all.
5. Object-oriented model :
a. Object-oriented models were introduced to overcome the
shortcomings of conventional models like relational, hierarchical
and network model.
b. An object-oriented database is collection of objects whose behaviour,
state, and relationships are defined in accordance with object-
oriented concepts (such as objects, class, etc.).
Que 1.10. Describe data schema and instances.
Answer
1. The description of a database is called the database schema, which
specified during database design and is not expected to change
frequently.
2. Most of the data models have certain convention for displaying schema
as diagram which is called as schema diagram.
3. A schema diagram displays only some aspects of a schema, such as the
names of record types and data items, and some types of constraints.
For example : Schema diagram for studentinfo database
Student (Name, Student_number, Class, Branch)
Course (Course_name, Course_number, Department)
Instances :
1. The data in the database at a particular moment is called a database
state or snapshot. It is also called the current set of occurrences or
instances in the database.
2. In a database state, each schema construct has its own current set of
instances.
3. Many database states can be constructed to correspond to a particular
database schema. Every time we insert or delete a record or change the
value of a data item in a record, we change one state of the database into
another state.
Que 1.11. Describe data independence with its types.

OR
Explain data independence with its types.
Answer
Data independence : Data independence is defined as the capacity to change
the schema at one level of a database system without having to change the
schema at the next higher level.
Types of data independence :
1. Physical data independence :
a. Physical data independence is the ability to modify internal schema
without changing the conceptual schema.
b. Modification at the physical level is occasionally necessary in order
to improve performance.
c. It refers to the immunity of the conceptual schema to change in the
internal schema.
d. Examples of physical data independence are reorganizations of
files, adding a new access path or modifying indexes, etc.
2. Logical data independence :
a. Logical data independence is the ability to modify the conceptual
schema without having to change the external schemas or
b. It refers to the immunity of the external model to changes in the
conceptual model.
c. Examples of logical data independence are addition/removal of
entities.
Que 1.12. Describe the classification of database language. Which

type of language is SQL ?
OR
Discuss the following terms (i) DDL Command (ii) DML command.
Answer
Classification of database languages :
1. Data Definition Language (DDL) :
a. DDL is set of SQL commands used to create, modify and delete
database structures but not data.
b. They are used by the DBA to a limited extent, a database designer,
or application developer.
c. Create, drop, alter, truncate are commonly used DDL command.
2. Data Manipulation Language (DML) :
a. A DML is a language that enables users to access or manipulates
data as organized by the appropriate data model.
b. There are two types of DMLs :
i. Procedural DMLs : It requires a user to specify what data
are needed and how to get those data.
ii. Declarative DMLs (Non-procedural DMLs) : It requires
a user to specify what data are needed without specifying
how to get those data.
c. Insert, update, delete, query are commonly used DML commands.
3. Data Control Language (DCL) :
a. It is the component of SQL statement that control access to data
and to the database.
b. Commit, rollback command are used in DCL.
4. Data Query Language (DQL) :
a. It is the component of SQL statement that allows getting data
from the database and imposing ordering upon it.
b. It includes select statement.
5. View Definition Language (VDL) :
1. VDL is used to specify user views and their mapping to conceptual
schema.
2. It defines the subset of records available to classes of users.
3. It creates virtual tables and the view appears to users like conceptual
level.
4. It specifies user interfaces.
SQL is a DML language.
Que 1.13. Explain all database languages in detail with example.

Answer
Database languages : Refer Q. 1.12, Page 1–11A, Unit-1.
Examples :
DDL :
CREATE, ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE, COMMENT, GRANT, REVOKE
statement
DML :
INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE statement
DCL :
GRANT and REVOKE statement
DQL :
SELECT statement
VDL :
1. create view emp5 as
select * from employee
where dno = 5 ;
Creates view for dept 5 employees.
2. create view empdept as
select fname, lname, dno, dname
from employee, department
where dno=dnumber ;
Creates view using two tables.
Que 1.14. Explain DBMS interfaces. What are the various DBMS
interfaces ?
Answer
DBMS interfaces : A database management system (DBMS) interface is a
user interface which allows for the ability to input queries to a database
without using the query language itself.
Various DBMS interfaces are :
1. Menu-based interfaces for web clients or browsing :
a. These interfaces present the user with lists of options (called menus)
that lead the user through the formulation of a request.
b. Pull-down menus are a very popular technique in Web-based user
interfaces.
c. They are also often used in browsing interfaces, which allow a user
to look through the contents of a database in an exploratory and
unstructured manner.
2. Forms-based interfaces :
a. A forms-based interface displays a form to each user.
b. Users can fill out all of the form entries to insert new data, or they
can fill out only certain entries, in which the DBMS will retrieve
matching data for the remaining entries.
3. Graphical user interfaces (GUI) :
a. A GUI typically displays a schema to the user in diagrammatic
form.
b. The user then can specify a query by manipulating the diagram. In
many cases, GUIs utilize both menus and forms.
4. Natural language interfaces :
a. A natural language interface has its own schema, which is similar
to the database conceptual schema, as well as a dictionary of
important words.
b. The natural language interface refers to the words in its schema,
as well as to the set of standard words in its dictionary to interpret
the request.
c. If the interpretation is successful, the interface generates a high-
level query corresponding to the natural language request and
submits it to the DBMS for processing; otherwise, a dialogue is
started with the user to clarify the request.
5. Speech input and output :
a. The speech input is detected using a library of predefined words
and used to set up the parameters that are supplied to the queries.
b. For output, a similar conversion from text or numbers into speech
takes place.
6. Interfaces for the DBA :
a. Most database systems contain privileged commands that can be
used only by the DBA’s staff.
b. These include commands for creating accounts, setting system
parameters, granting account authorization, changing a schema,
and reorganizing the storage structures of a database.
Que 1.15. Briefly describe the overall structure of DBMS.
OR
Draw the overall structure of DBMS and explain its components in
brief. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
A database system is partitioned into modules that deal with each of the
responsibilities of the overall system. The functional components of a database
system can be broadly divided into two components :
Application Sophisticated Database

Naive Users
Programmers users Administrator
Use Write Use Use
Application Application Administrative

Query Tools
Interfaces Programs Tools
Compiler and DDL

DML Queries
Application Linker Interpreter
Program Object
Code
DML Compiler
and Organizer
Query Evaluation
Engine
Query processor
Buffer File Authorization and Transaction

manager manager integrity manager manager
Storage manager
Indices Data
Disk storage
Dictionary
Data Statistical data
Fig. 1.15.1. Overall database structure.

1. Storage Manager (SM) : A storage manager is a program module that
provides the interface between the low level data stored in the database
and the application programs and queries submitted to the system. The
SM components include :
a. Authorization and integrity manager : It tests for the
satisfaction of integrity constraints and checks the authority of
users to access data.
b. Transaction manager : It ensures that the database remains in
a consistent state despite of system failures and that concurrent
transaction executions proceed without conflicting.
c. File manager : It manages the allocation of space on disk storage
and the data structures are used to represent information stored
on disk.
d. Buffer manager : It is responsible for fetching data from disk
storage into main memory and deciding what data to cache in main
memory. The buffer manager is a critical part of the database
system, since it enables the database to handle data sizes that are
much larger than the size of main memory.
2. Query Processor (QP) : The Query Processor (Query Optimizer) is
responsible for taking every statement sent to SQL Server and figure
out how to get the requested data or perform the requested operation.
The QP components are :
a. DDL interpreter : It interprets DDL statements and records the
definition in data dictionary.
b. DML compiler : It translates DML statements in a query language
into an evaluation plan consisting of low-level instructions that the
query evaluation engine understands.
c. Query optimization : It picks the lowest cost evaluation plan
from among the alternatives.
d. Query evaluation engine : It executes low-level instructions
generated by the DML compiler.
PART-3
Data Modeling using the Entity Relationship Model : ER Model Concepts,
Notation for ER Diagram, Mapping Constraints.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.16. What is ER model ? What are the elements of ER model ?

OR
What are the notations of ER diagram ?
Answer
An entity relationship model (ER model) is a way of representing the entities
and the relationships between the entities in order to create a database.
Elements/notation of ER model/diagram :
1. Entity :
a. An entity is a real world object that can be easily identifiable.
b. An entity can be abstract.
c. An entity is an object that exists and is distinguishable from other
objects.
2. Entity set :
a. Entity set is a collection of similar type of entities.
b. An entity set may contain entities with attribute sharing similar
values.
3. Attribute :
a. An attribute gives the characteristics of the entity.
b. It is also called as data element, data field, a field, a data item, or an
elementary item.
4. Relationship :
a. A relationship is the association between entities or entity
occurrence.
b. Relationship is represented by diamond with straight lines
connecting the entities.
Que 1.17.
3.17. What do you understand by attributes and domain ?
Explain various types of attributes used in conceptual data model.
Answer
Attributes :
1. Attributes are properties which are used to represent the entities.
2. All attributes have values. For example, a student entity may have
name, class, and age as attributes.
3. There exists a domain or range of values that can be assigned to attributes.
4. For example, a student’s name cannot be a numeric value. It has to be
alphabetic. A student’s age cannot be negative, etc.
Domain :
1. A domain is an attribute constraint which determines the type of data
values that are permitted for that attribute.
2. Attribute domains can be very large, or very short.
Types of attributes used in conceptual data model :
1. Simple attribute : Simple attributes are atomic values, which cannot
be divided further. For example, a student’s phone number is an atomic
value of 10 digits.
2. Composite attribute : Composite attributes are made of more than
one simple attribute. For example, a student's complete name may have
first_name and last_name.
3. Derived attribute : Derived attributes are the attributes that do not
exist in the physical database, but their values are derived from other
attributes present in the database. For example, average_salary in a
department should not be saved directly in the database, instead it can
be derived.
4. Single-value attribute : Single-value attributes contain single value.
For example, Social_Security_Number.
5. Multi-value attribute : Multi-value attributes may contain more than
one values. For example, a person can have more than one phone
number, email_address, etc.
Que 1.18. What is purpose of the ER diagram ? Construct an ER

diagram for a University system which should include information
about students, departments, professors, courses, which students
are enrolled in which course, which professors are teaching which
courses, student grades, which course a department offers.
Answer
Purpose of the ER diagram :
1. ER diagram is used to represent the overall logical structure of the
database.
2. ER diagrams emphasis on the schema of the database and not on the
instances because the schema of the database is changed rarely.
3. It is useful to communicate the logical structure of database to end
users.
4. It serves as a documentation tool.
5. It helps the database designer in understanding the information to be
contained in the database.
ER diagram :
Professor Course Student

teaching Student
name grade
enrolled in
Course
Professors Department University Course duration
type
Course Course
name department
Fig. 1.18.1. ER diagram for University system.

Order ID No. of items Product ID Expiry date
Order
Answer
Que 1.20.
Que 1.19.
location Product name
Order Demand Product

Price Price
Availability
Payee name
Initiates Work Available
Payment mode
Database Management System
Product Amount paid

name Employee
Promotion Employee Address Payment
ID
Invoice
Product ID
Salary
Promo code Promo name Employee name Products purchased
Fig.1.19.1.
Confirmation
Number of Product ID
items
Store No.
database, assuming your own data requirements.
Tracking No. Delivery Shipping Store

Purchase No.
Shipping type
Date of Store name Store address

delivery
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 7.5
A university registrar’s office maintains data about

the following entities (a) courses, including number, title, credits,
syllabus and prerequisites; (b) course offerings, including course
Draw an ER diagram for a small marketing company
1–19 A (CS/IT-Sem-5)
number, year, semester section number, instructor(s), timings and
classroom; (c) students, including student-id, name and program;
and (d) instructors, including identification number, name
department and title. Further the enrollment of students in courses
and grades awarded to students in each course they are enrolled
for must be appropriately modeled. Construct an ER diagram for
the registrar’s office. Document all assumption that you make
about the mapping constraints. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
In this ER diagram, the main entity sets are student, course, course offering
and instructor. The entity set course offering is a weak entity set dependent
on course. The assumptions made are :
a. A class meets only at one particular place and time. This ER diagram
cannot model a class meeting at different places at different times.
b. There is no guarantee that the database does not have two classes
meeting at the same place and time.
s_id name time secno room i_id name
enrolls course
student offerings teaches instructor
year semester deptt title

program grade
is
offered
syllabus courseno
prerequisite
requires course title
maincourse
credits
Fig. 1.20.1. ER diagram for University.
Que 1.21. Describe mapping constraints with its types.

OR
Describe mapping constraints with its types.
Answer
1. Mapping constraints act as a rule followed by contents of database.
2. Data in the database must follow the constraints.
Types of mapping constraints are :
1. Mapping cardinalities :
a. Mapping cardinalities (or cardinality ratios) specifies the number of
entities of which another entity can be associated via a relationship
set.
b. Mapping cardinalities are used in describing binary relationship
sets, although they contribute to the description of relationship
sets that involve more than two entity sets.
c. For binary relationship set R between entity sets A and B, the
mapping cardinality must be one of the following :
i. One to one : An entity in A is associated with at most one
entity in B and an entity in B is associated with at most one
entity in A.
A B
a1 b1
a2 b2
a3 b3
a4 b4
Fig. 1.21.1.
ii. One to many : An entity in A is associated with any number

of entities in B. An entity in B, however, can be associated with
at most one entity in A.
A B
b1
a1 b2
a2 b3
a3 b4
b5
Fig. 1.21.2.
iii. Many to one : An entity in A is associated with at most one

entity in B, and an entity in B, however, can be associated with
any number of entities in A.
A B
a1
a2 b1
a3 b2
a4 b3
a5
Fig. 1.21.3.
iv. Many to many : An entity in A is associated with any number
of entities in B, and an entity in B is associated with any number
of entities in A.
A B
a1 b1
a2 b2
a3 b3
a4 b4
Fig. 1.21.4.
2. Participation constraints : It tells the participation of entity sets.

There are two types of participations :
i. Partial participation
ii. Total participation
PART-4
Keys, Concept of Super Key, Candidate Key,
Primary Key, Generalization, Aggregation.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.22. Discuss the candidate key, primary key, super key,
composite key and alternate key.
OR
Explain the primary key, super key, foreign key and candidate key
with example. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
OR
Define key. Explain various types of keys.
Answer
1. Key is a attribute or set of attributes that is used to identify data in
entity sets.
2. Key is defined for unique identification of rows in table.
Consider the following example of an Employee table :
Employee (EmployeeID, FullName, SSN, DeptID)
Various types of keys are :
1. Primary key :
a. Primary key uniquely identifies each record in a table and must
never, be the same for records. Here in Employee table we can
choose either EmployeeID or SSN columns as a primary key.
b. Primary key is a candidate key that is used for unique identification
of entities within the table.
c. Primary key cannot be null.
d. Any table has a unique primary key.
2. Super key :
a. A super key for an entity is a set of one or more attribute whose
combined value uniquely identifies the entity in the entity set.
b. For example : Here in employee table (EmployeeID, FullName) or
(EmployeeID, FullName, DeptID) is a super key.
3. Candidate key :
a. A candidate key is a column, or set of column, in the table that can
uniquely identify any database record without referring to any
other data.
b. Candidate key are individual columns in a table that qualifies for
uniqueness of all the rows. Here in Employee table EmployeeID
and SSN are candidate keys.
c. Minimal super keys are called candidate keys.
4. Composite key :
a. A composite key is a combination of two or more columns in a
table that can be used to uniquely identify each row in the table.
b. It is used when we cannot identify a record using single attributes.
c. A primary key that is made by the combination of more than one
attribute is known as a composite key.
5. Alternate key :
a. The alternate key of any table are those candidate keys which are
not currently selected as the primary key.
b. Exactly one of those candidate keys is chosen as the primary key
and the remainders, if any are then called alternate keys.
c. An alternate key is a function of all candidate keys minus the
primary key.
d. Here in Employee table if EmployeeID is primary key then SSN
would be the alternate key.
6. Foreign key :
a. Foreign key represents the relationship between tables and
ensures the referential integrity rule.
b. A foreign key is derived from the primary key of the same or some
other table.
c. Foreign key is the combination of one or more columns in a table
(parent table) at references a primary key in another table (child
table).
d. A foreign key value can be left null.
For example : Consider another table :
Project (ProjectName, TimeDuration, EmployeeID)
a. Here, the ‘EmployeeID’ in the ‘Project’ table points to the
‘EmployeeID’ in ‘Employee’ table
b. The ‘EmployeeID’ in the ‘Employee’ table is the primary key.
c. The ‘EmployeeID’ in the ‘Project’ table is a foreign key.
Que 1.23. What do you mean by a key to the relation ? Explain the
differences between super key, candidate key and primary key.
Answer
Key : Refer Q. 1.22, Page 1–22A, Unit-1.
Difference between super key, candidate key and primary key :
S. No. Super key Candidate key Primary key
1. Super ke y is an Candidate key is a Primary key is a

attribute (or set of minimal set of super minimal set of
attributes) that is key. attributes that
used to uniquely uniquely identifies
identifies all rows in a relation.
attributes in a
relation.
2. All super keys All candidate keys are Primary key is a

cannot be super keys but not subset of candidate
candidate keys. primary key. key and super key.
3. It can be null. It can be null. It cannot be null.
4. A relation can have Number of candidate Number of primary
any number of keys is less than keys is less than
super keys. super keys. candidate keys.
5. For example, in For example, in For example, in
Fig. 1.23.1, super Fig. 1.23.1, candidate Fig. 1.23.1, primary
key are : key are : key is : (Registration)
(Registration), (Registration,
(Vehicle_id), Vehicle_id)
( Re gist ration,
Vehicle_id),
(Registration,
Vehicle_id, Make)
etc.
Registration Vehicle_id
Year CAR Model
Colour Make
Fig. 1.23.1. An entity CAR for defining keys.

Que 1.24. Explain generalization, specialization and aggregation.

OR
Compare generalization, specialization and aggregation with
suitable examples. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
Generalization :
a. Generalization is a process in which two lower level entities combine
to form higher level entity.
b. It is bottom-up approach.
c. Generalization is used to emphasize the similarities among lower level
entity sets and to hide the differences.
For example :
Generalization
Account
IS
A
Saving Current
Fig. 1.24.1.
Specialization :
a. Specialization is a process of breaking higher level entity into lower
level entity.
b. It is top-down approach.
c. It is opposite to generalization.
For example :
Specialization
Person
IS
A
Employee Customer
Fig. 1.24.2.
Aggregation :
a. Aggregation is an abstraction through which relationships are treated
as higher level entities.
For example :
1. The relationship works_on (relating the entity sets employee, branch
and job) act as a higher-level entity set.
2. We can then create a binary relationship ‘Manages’, between works on
and manager to represent who manages what tasks.
Job
Employee Works_on Branch
Manages
Manager
Fig. 1.24.3. ER diagram with aggregation.
Comparison :
S. No. Generalization Specialization Aggregation
1. In generalization, In specialization, an Aggregation is an

the common entity of higher-level abstraction through
attributes of two or entity is broken down which relationships
more lower-level into two or more are treated as higher
entities combines entities of lower level. level entities.
to form a ne w
higher-level entity.
2. Generalization is a Specialization is a top- It allows us to
bottom-up down approach. indicate that a
approach. relationship set
participates in
another relationship
set.
3. It helps in reducing It increases the size It also increases the

the schema size. of schema. size of schema.
4. It is applied to group It can be applied to a It is applied to group
of entities. single entity. of relationships.
PART-5
Reduction of an ER Diagram to Tables, Extended ER Model,
Relationship of Higher Degree.
Questions-Answers

Que 1.25. Explain the reduction of ER schema to tables.

OR
How to reduce an ER model into table ?
Answer
1. In ER model, database are represented using the different notations or
diagrams, and these notations can be reduced to a collection of tables.
2. In the database, every entity set or relationship set can be represented
in tabular form.
Consider following ER diagram :
Subject_Name
Course_Name
Lecturer_ID
Subject_ID
Course_ID
Course
Subject
M
1
Has
Course_ID
N
N
1
Pin
k es
Attends
Teaches
State
Ta
Course_ID
M
M
1
City
Address
Lecturer
Teaches
Student
Lecturer_Name
M
1
Street
Door_No
Lecturer_ID
Student_Name
Student_ID
DoB
Age
Hobby
Basic rules for converting the ER diagrams into tables are :

1. Convert all the entities in the diagram to tables :
a. All the entities represented in the rectangular box in the ER diagram
become independent tables in the database.
b. In the ER diagram, Student, Course, Lecturer and Subjects forms
individual tables.
2. All single-valued attribute becomes a column for the table :
a. All the attributes, whose value at any instance of time is unique,
are considered as columns of that table.
b. In the Student entity, Student_Name and Student_ID form the
column of Student table. Similarly, Course_Name and Course_ID
form the column of Course table and so on.
3. A key attribute of the entity is the primary key :
a. All the attributes represented in the oval shape and underlined in
the ER diagram are considered as key attribute which act as a
primary key of table.
b. In the given ER diagram, Student_ID , Course_ID, Subject_ID, and
Lecture_ID are the key attribute of the Student, Course, Subjects
and Lecturer entity.
4. The multivalued attribute is represented by a separate table :
a. In the student table, a hobby is a multivalued attribute.
b. So it is not possible to represent multiple values in a single column
of Student table. Hence we create a table Stud_Hobby with column
name Student_ID and Hobby. Using both the column, we create a
composite key.
5. Composite attributes are merged into same table as different
columns :
a. In the given ER diagram, student address is a composite attribute.
It contains City, Pin, Door_No, Street, and State.
b. In the Student table, these attributes can merge as an individual
column.
6. Derived attributes are not considered in the table :
a. In the Student table, Age is the derived attribute.
b. It can be calculated at any point of time by calculating the difference
between current date and Date of Birth (DoB).
Table structure for given ER diagram is :
Student Lecturer Subject

Student_ID Lecturer_ID Subject_ID
Student_Name
Lecturer_Name Subject_Name
DoB
Course_ID Lecturer_ID
Door_No
Street
City
Course
State
Course_ID
Pin
Course_Name
Course_ID
Stud_Hobbey
Student_ID
Hobby
Que 1.26. Discuss extended ER (EER) model.
Answer
1. The ER model that is supported with the additional semantic concepts
is called the extended entity relationship model or EER model.
2. The EER model includes all the concepts of the original ER model
together with the following additional concepts :
a. Specialization : Refer Q. 1.24, Page 1–26A, Unit-1.
b. Generalization : Refer Q. 1.24, Page 1–26A, Unit-1.
c. Aggregation : Refer Q. 1.24, Page 1–26A, Unit-1.
3. The super class/subclass entity types (or super type /subtype entities)
is one of the most important modelling constructs that is included in
the EER model.
4. This feature enables us to model a general entity and then subdivide it
into several specialized entity types (subclasses or subtypes).
5. EER diagrams are used to capture business rules such as constraints
in the super type/subtype relations. Thus, a super class is an entity
type that includes distinct subclasses that require to be represented in
a data model.
6. A subclass is an entity type that has a distinct role and is also a member
of a super class.
Shared attributes
Superclass
Subclass Subclass
Unique attributes Unique attributes
Fig. 1.26.1. Basic notation of the superclass/subclass relationship.
Que 1.27. What is Unified Modeling Language ? Explain different

types of UML.
Answer
1. Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a standardized modeling language
enabling developers to specify, visualize, construct and document artifacts
of a software system.
2. UML makes these artifacts scalable, secure and robust in execution.
3. UML is an important aspect involved in object-oriented software
development.
4. It uses graphic notation to create visual models of software systems.
Types of UML :
1. Activity diagram :
a. It is generally used to describe the flow of different activities and
actions.
b. These can be both sequential and in parallel.
c. They describe the objects used, consumed or produced by an activity
and the relationship between the different activities.
2. Use case diagram :
a. Case diagrams are used to analyze the system’s high-level
requirements.
b. These requirements are expressed through different use cases.
3. Interaction overview diagram :
a. The interaction overview diagram is an activity diagram made of
different interaction diagrams.
4. Timing diagram :
a. Timing UML diagrams are used to represent the relations of objects
when the center of attention rests on time.
b. Each individual participant is represented through a lifeline, which
is essentially a line forming steps since the individual participant
transits from one stage to another.
c. The main components of a timing UML diagram are :
i. Lifeline ii. State timeline
iii. Duration constraint iv. Time constraint
v. Destruction occurrence
5. Sequence UML diagram :
a. Sequence diagrams describe the sequence of messages and
interactions that happen between actors and objects.
b. Actors or objects can be active only when needed or when another
object wants to communicate with them.
c. All communication is represented in a chronological manner.
6. Class diagram :
a. Class diagrams contain classes, alongside with their attributes (also
referred to as data fields) and their behaviours (also referred to as
member functions).
b. More specifically, each class has three fields : the class name at the
top, the class attributes right below the name, the class operations/
behaviours at the bottom.
c. The relation between different classes (represented by a connecting
line), makes up a class diagram.
VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.
Q. 1. What is database management system ?

Ans. Refer Q. 1.1.
Q. 2. Explain the advantages of database management system

over the simple file processing system.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.2.
Q. 3. What is data abstraction ? Describe different levels of data

abstraction.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.5.
Q. 4. Describe the overall structure of DBMS.

Ans. Refer Q. 1.15.
Q. 5. Explain all database languages in detail with example.

Ans. Refer Q. 1.13.
Q. 6. Describe the different types of database user.

Ans. Refer Q. 1.3.
Q. 7. Describe the various types of attributes used in conceptual

data model.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.17.
Q. 8. What is key ? Explain various types of key.

Ans. Refer Q. 1.22.
Q. 9. Explain extended ER model.

Ans. Refer Q. 1.26.

2
UNIT
Relational Data Model
and Language
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Relational Data Model ................................ 2–2A to 2–6A
Concept, Integrity Constraints,
Entity Integrity, Referential
Integrity, Keys Constraints,
Domain Constraints
Part-2 : Relational Algebra ..................................... 2–6A to 2–10A
Part-3 : Relational Calculus, Tuple ..................... 2–10A to 2–12A

and Domain Calculus
Part-4 : Introduction on SQL : ............................. 2–12A to 2–13A

Characteristics of SQL,
Advantage of SQL
Part-5 : SQL Data Type and Literals, ................. 2–13A to 2–22A

Types of SQL Commands,
SQL Operators and
their Procedure
Part-6 : Tables, Views and Indexes, .................... 2–22A to 2–25A

Queries and Sub Queries
Part-7 : Aggregate Functions, Insert, ................ 2–25A to 2–29A
Update and Delete Operations
Part-8 : Joins, Unions, ........................................... 2–29A to 2–33A
Intersections, Minus
Part-9 : Cursors, Triggers, .................................... 2–33A to 2–42A
Procedures in SQL/PL SQL
Relational Data Model & Language 2–2 A (CS/IT-Sem-5)
PART-1
Relational Data Model Concept, Integrity Constraints,
Entity Integrity, Referential Integrity, Keys
Constraints, Domain Constraints.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.1. What is relational model ? Explain with example.
Answer
1. A relational model is a collection of conceptual tools for describing data,
data relationships, data semantics and consistency constraints.
2. It is the primary data model for commercial data processing applications.
3. The relational model uses collection of tables to represent both data and
the relationships among those data.
4. Each table has multiple columns and each column has a unique name.
For example :
1. The tables represent a simple relational database.
2. The Table 2.1.1 shows details of bank customers, Table 2.1.2 shows
accounts and Table 2.1.3 shows which accounts belong to which customer.
Table 2.1.1 : Customer table
cust_id c_name c_city
C_101 Ajay Delhi
C_102 Amit Mumbai
C_103 Alok Kolkata
C_104 Akash Chennai
Table 2.1.2 : Account table
acc_no. balance
A-1 1000
A-2 2000
A-3 3000
A-4 4000
Table 2.1.3 : Depositor table

cust_id acc_no.
C_101 A-1
C_102 A-2
C_103 A-3
C_104 A-4
3. The Table 2.1.1, i.e., customer table, shows the customer identified by
cust_id C_101 is named Ajay and lives in Delhi.
4. The Table 2.1.2, i.e., accounts, shows that account A-1 has a balance of
` 1000.
5. The Table 2.1.3, i.e., depositor table, shows that account number (acc_no)
A-1 belongs to the cust whose cust_id is C_101 and account number
(acc_no) A-2 belongs to the cust whose cust_id is C_102 and likewise.
Que 2.2. Explain constraints and its types.
Answer
1. A constraint is a rule that is used for optimization purposes.
2. Constraints enforce limits to the data or type of data that can be inserted/
updated/deleted from a table.
3. The whole purpose of constraints is to maintain the data integrity during
an update/delete/insert into a table.
Types of constraints :
1. NOT NULL :
i. NOT NULL constraint makes sure that a column does not hold
NULL value.
ii. When we do not provide value for a particular column while inserting
a record into a table, it takes NULL value by default.
iii. By specifying NULL constraint, we make sure that a particular
column cannot have NULL values.
2. UNIQUE :
i. UNIQUE constraint enforces a column or set of columns to have
unique values.
ii. If a column has a unique constraint, it means that particular column
cannot have duplicate values in a table.
3. DEFAULT :
i. The DEFAULT constraint provides a default value to a column when
there is no value provided while inserting a record into a table.
4. CHECK :
i. This constraint is used for specifying range of values for a particular
column of a table.
ii. When this constraint is being set on a column, it ensures that the
specified column must have the value falling in the specified range.
5. Key constraints :
i. Primary key :
a. Primary key uniquely identifies each record in a table.
b. It must have unique values and cannot contain null.
ii. Foreign key :
a. Foreign keys are the columns of a table that points to the
primary key of another table.
b. They act as a cross-reference between tables.
6. Domain constraints :
i. Each table has certain set of columns and each column allows a
same type of data, based on its data type.
ii. The column does not accept values of any other data type.
Que 2.3. Explain integrity constraints.
Answer
1. Integrity constraints provide a way of ensuring that changes made to
the database by authorized users do not result in a loss of data
consistency.
2. A form of integrity constraint with ER models is :
a. key declarations : certain attributes form a candidate key for the
entity set.
b. form of a relationship : mapping cardinalities 1-1, 1-many and
many-many.
3. An integrity constraint can be any arbitrary predicate applied to the
database.
4. Integrity constraints are used to ensure accuracy and consistency of
data in a relational database.
Que 2.4. Explain the following constraints :

i. Entity integrity constraint
ii. Referential integrity constraint
iii. Domain constraint
Answer
i. Entity integrity constraint :
a. This rule states that no attribute of primary key will contain a null
value.
b. If a relation has a null value in the primary key attribute, then

uniqueness property of the primary key cannot be maintained.
Example : In the Table 2.4.1 SID is primary key and primary key cannot be
null.
Table 2.4.1
SID Name Class (semester) Age

8001 st 19
Ankit 1
8002 Srishti 2
nd 18
8003 Somvir 4
th 22
Sourabh 6
th 19
ii. Referential integrity constraint :

a. This rule states that if a foreign key in Table 2.4.2 refers to the
primary key of Table 2.4.3, then every value of the foreign key in
Table 2.4.2 must be null or be available in Table 2.4.3.
Foreign Key
Table 2.4.2.
ENO NAME Age DNO
1 Ankit 19 10
2 Srishti 18 11
3 Somvir 22 14 Not Allowed, as DNO 14 is not
4 Sourabh 19 10 defined as a primary key of Table 2.4.3,
and in Table 2.4.2, DNO is a foreign
key defined
Relationship
Table 2.4.3.
DNO D.Location
10 Rohtak
11 Bhiwani
12 Hansi
Primary Key
iii. Domain constraints :

a. Domain constraints specify that what set of values an attribute can
take, value of each attribute X must be an atomic value from the
domain of X.
b. The data type associated with domains includes integer, character,
string, date, time, currency etc. An attribute value must be available
in the corresponding domain.
Example :
SID Name Class (semester) Age
8001 Ankit 1st 19
8002 Srishti 1st 18
8003 Somvir 4th 22
8004 Sourabh 6th A
A is not allowed here because Age is an integer attribute.
PART-2
Relational Algebra.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.5. What is relational algebra ? Discuss its basic operations.
Answer
1. The relational algebra is a procedural query language.
2. It consists of a set of operations that take one or two relations as input
and produces a new relation as a result.
3. The operations in the relational algebra are select, project, union, set
difference, cartesian product and rename.
Basic relational algebra operations are as follows :
1. Select operation :
a. The select operation selects tuples that satisfies a given predicate.
b. Select operation is denoted by sigma ().
c. The predicate appears as a subscript to .
d. The argument relation is in parenthesis after the .
2. Project operation :
a. The project operation is a unary operation that returns its
argument relation with certain attributes left out.
b. In project operation duplicate rows are eliminated.

c. Projection is denoted by pi ().
3. Set difference operation :
a. The set difference operation denoted by  allows us to find tuples
that are in one relation but are not in another.
b. The expression r  s produces a relation containing those tuples in
r but not in s.
4. Cartesian product operation :
a. The cartesian product operation, denoted by a cross (×), allows us
to combine information from any two relations. The cartesian
product of relations r1 and r2 is written as r1 × r2.
5. Rename operation :
a. The rename operator is denoted by rho ().
b. Given a relational algebra expression E,
x(E)
returns the result of expression E under the name x.
c. The rename operation can be used to rename a relation r to get
the same relation under a new name.
d. The rename operation can be used to obtain a new relation with
new names given to the original attributes of original relation as
xA1, xA2, ......, xAn(E)
Que 2.6. Consider the following relations :
Student (ssn, name, address, major)

Course (code, title)
Registered (ssn, code)
Use relational algebra to answer the following :
a. List the codes of courses in which at least one student is
registered (registered courses).
b. List the title of registered courses.
c. List the codes of courses for which no student is registered.
d. The titles of courses for which no student is registered.
e. Name of students and the titles of courses they registered to.
f. SSNs of students who are registered for both database systems
and analysis of algorithms.
g. SSNs of students who are registered for both database systems
and analysis of algorithms.
h. The name of students who are registered for both database
systems and analysis of algorithms.
i. List of courses in which all students are registered.
j. List of courses in which all ‘ECMP’ major students are registered.
Answer
a. code (Registered)
b. title (Course  Registered)
c. code (Course) – code (Registered)
d. name ((code (Course) – code (Registered))  Course)
e. name, title (Student  Registered  Course))
f&g. ssn (Student  Registered  (title = ‘Database Systems’ Course)) 
ssn (Student  Registered  (title = ‘Analysis of Algorithms’ Course))
h. A = ssn (Student  Registered  (title = ‘Database System’ Course))

ssn (Student  Registered  (title = ‘Analysis of Algorithms’ Course))
name (A  Student)
A = ( ) function
i. code, ssn (Registered) / ssn (Student)
j. code, ssn (Registered) / ssn (major = ‘ECMP’ Student)
Que 2.7. What are the additional operations in relational

algebra ?
Answer
The additional operations of relational algebra are :
1. Set intersection operation :
a. Set intersection is denoted by  , and returns a relation that contains
tuples that are in both of its argument relations. The set intersection
operation is written as :
r  s = r – (r – s)
2. Natural join operation :
a. The natural join is a binary operation that allows us to combine
certain selections and a cartesian product into one operation. It is
denoted by the join symbol .
b. The natural join operation forms a cartesian product of its two
arguments, performs a selection forcing equality on those attributes
that appear in both relation schemas and finally removes duplicate
attributes.
3. Division operation :
1. In division operation, division operator is denoted by the symbol E ().
2. The relation r ÷ s is a relation on schema R – S. A tuple t is in r ÷ s if and
only if both of two conditions hold :
a. t is in  R–S (r).
b. For every tuple ts in s, there is a tuple tr in r satisfying both of the
following :
i. tr[S] = ts[S]
ii. tr[R – S] = t
3. The division operation can be written in terms of fundamental operation
as follows :
r ÷ s =  R–S (r) –  R–S (( R–S (r) × s) –  R–S, S (r))
4. Assignment operation : The assignment operation, denoted by ,
works like assignment in a programming language.
Que 2.8. Give the following queries in the relational algebra

using the relational schema :
student(id, name)
enrolled(id, code)
subject(code, lecturer)
i. What are the names of students enrolled in cs3020 ?
ii. Which subjects is Hector taking ?
iii. Who teaches cs1500 ?
iv. Who teaches cs1500 or cs3020 ?
v. Who teaches at least two different subjects ?
vi. What are the names of students in cs1500 or cs307 ?
vii. What are the names of students in both cs 1500 and cs1200 ?
Answer
i. name(code = cs3020(student enrolledin))
ii. code(name = Hector(student enrolledin))
iii. lecturer(code = cs1500(subject))
iv. lecturer(code = cs1500  code = cs3020(subject))
v. For this query we have to relate subject to itself. To disambiguate the
relation, we will call the subject relation R and S.
lecturer(R.lecture = S.lecturer  R.code< >S.code(R S))
vi. name(code = cs1500(student enrolledin)) (name(code = cs307(student
enrolledin)))
vii. name ( co de = cs1500 (stude nt e nro lle din))  name ( co de =

cs1200(student enrolledin))
PART-3
Relational Calculus, Tuple and Domain Calculus.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.9. What is relational calculus ? Describe its important

characteristics. Explain tuple and domain calculus.
OR
What is tuple relational calculus and domain relational calculus ?
Answer
1. Relational calculus is a non-procedural query language.
2. Relational calculus is a query system where queries are expressed as
formulas consisting of a number of variables and an expression involving
these variables.
3. In a relational calculus, there is no description of how to evaluate a
query.
Important characteristics of relational calculus :
1. The relational calculus is used to measure the selective power of
relational languages.
2. Relational calculus is based on predicate calculus.
3. In relational calculus, user is not concerned with the procedure to
obtain the results.
4. In relational calculus, output is available without knowing the method
about its retrieval.
Tuple Relational Calculus (TRC) :
1. The TRC is a non-procedural query language.
2. It describes the desired information without giving a specific procedure
for obtaining that information.
3. A query in TRC is expressed as :

{t | P(t)}
That is, it is the set of all tuples t such that predicate P is true for t. The
notation t[A] is used to denote the value of tuple t on attribute A and
t  r is used to denote that tuple t is in relation r.
4. A tuple variable is said to be a free variable unless it is quantified by
a  or  .
5. Formulae are built using the atoms and the following rules :
a. An atom is a formula.
b. If P1 is a formula, then so are ¬ P1 and (P1).
c. If P2 and P1 are formulae, then so are P1  P2 , P1  P2 and
P1  P2.
d. If P1(s) is a formula containing a free tuple variable s, and r is a
relation, then  s  r (P1(s)) and  s  r (P1(s)) are also formulae.
Domain Relational Calculus (DRC) :
1. DRC uses domain variables that take on values from an attributes
domain, rather than values for an entire tuple.
2. An expression in the DRC is of the form :
{<x1, x2, ……., xn> | P(x1, x2, ………, xn)}
where x1, x2, ………, xn represent domain variable. P represents a
formula compose of atoms.
3. An atom in DRC has one of the following forms :
a. <x1, x2, …….., xn>  r, where r is a relation on n attributes and x1,
x2, ……., xn are domain variables or domain constant.
b. x y, where x and y are domain variable and is a comparison
operator (< , , =, , >, ). The attributes x and y must have the
domain that can be compared.
c. x c, where x is a domain variable, is a comparison operator and
c is a constant in the domain of the attribute for which x is a
domain variable.
4. Following are the rules to build up the formula :
b. If P1 is a formula then so is P1.
c. If P1 and P2 are formula, then so are P1  P2 , P1  P2 and
P1 P2.
d. If P1(x) is a formula in x, where x is a domain variable, then
 x (P1(x)) and x  (P1(x)) are also formulae.
PART-4
Introduction on SQL : Characteristics of SQL, Advantage of SQL.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.10. Write short note on SQL. Explain various characteristics

of SQL.
Answer
1. SQL stands for Structured Query Language.
2. It is a non-procedural language that can be used for retrieval and
management of data stored in relational database.
3. It can be used for defining the structure of data, modifying data in the
database and specifying the security constraints.
4. The two major categories of SQL commands are :
a. Data Definition Language (DDL) : DDL provides commands
that can be used to create, modify and delete database objects.
b. Data Manipulation Language (DML) : DML provides commands
that can be used to access and manipulate the data, that is, to
retrieve, insert, delete and update data in a database.
Characteristics of SQL :
1. SQL usage is extremely flexible.
2. It uses a free form syntax that gives the user the ability to structure
SQL statements in a way best suited to them.
3. Each SQL request is parsed by the RDBMS before execution, to check
for proper syntax and to optimize the request.
4. Unlike certain programming languages, there is no need to start SQL
statements in a particular column or be finished in a single line. The
same SQL request can be written in a variety of ways.
Que 2.11. What are the advantages and disadvantages of SQL ?

Answer
Advantages of SQL :
1. Faster query processing : Large amount of data is retrieved quickly
and efficiently. Operations like insertion, deletion, manipulation of data
is done in almost no time.
2. No coding skills : For data retrieval, large number of lines of code is
not required. All basic keywords such as SELECT, INSERT INTO,
UPDATE, etc are used and also the syntactical rules are not complex in
SQL, which makes it a user-friendly language.
3. Standardised language : Due to documentation it provides a uniform
platform worldwide to all its users.
4. Portable : It can be used in programs in PCs, server, laptops independent
of any platform (Operating System, etc). Also, it can be embedded with
other applications as per need/requirement/use.
5. Interactive language : Easy to learn and understand, answers to
complex queries can be received in seconds.
Disadvantages of SQL :
1. Complex interface : SQL has a difficult interface that makes few
users uncomfortable while dealing with the database.
2. Cost : Some versions are costly and hence, programmers cannot access
it.
3. Partial control : Due to hidden business rules, complete control is not
given to the database.
PART-5
SQL Data Type and Literals, Types of SQL Commands,
SQL Operators and their Procedure.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.12. What are the different datatypes used in SQL ?
Answer
SQL supports following datatypes :
1. char (n) : A fixed length character string with user specified maximum
length n.
2. varchar (n) : A variable length character string with user specified
maximum length n.
3. int : An integer which is a finite subset of the integers that is machine
dependent.
4. small int : A small integer is machine independent subset of integer
domain type.
5. numeric (p, d) : A fixed point number with user defined precision. It
consists of p digits and d of the p digits are to the right of the decimal
point.
6. real or double precision : Floating point and double precision floating
point numbers with machine dependent precision.
7. float (n) : A floating point number with precision of at least n digits.
8. date : A calendar date containing a year (four digit), month (two digit)
and day (two digit) of the month.
9. time : The time of the day in hours, minutes and seconds.
Que 2.13. What are the types of literal used in SQL ?
Answer
The four kinds of literal values supported in SQL are :
1. Character string :
a. Character strings are written as a sequence of characters enclosed
in single quotes.
b. The single quote character is represented within a character string
by two single quotes. For example, ‘Computer Engg’, ‘Structured
Query Language’
2. Bit string :
a. A bit string is written either as a sequence of 0s and 1s enclosed in
single quotes and preceded by the letter ‘B’ or as a sequence of
hexadecimal digits enclosed in single quotes and preceded by the
letter ‘X’.
b. For example, B’ 1011011’, B’1’, B’0’, X’A 5’ , X’T’
3. Exact numeric :
a. These literals are written as a signed or unsigned decimal number
possibly with a decimal point.
b. For example, 9, 90, 90.00, 0.9, + 99.99, – 99.99.
4. Approximate numeric :
a. Approximate numeric literals are written as exact numeric literals
followed by the letter ‘E’, followed by a signed or unsigned integer.
b. For example, 5E5, 55.5E5, + 55E–5, + 55E–5, 055E, – 5.55E–9.
Que 2.14. What are the different types of SQL commands ?
Answer
Different types of SQL commands are :
1. Insert :
a. This command is used to insert tuples in a table.
b. This command adds a single tuple at a time in a table.
Syntax :
Insert into table_name (attribute1, ..., attributen) values (values_list);
2. Update :
a. This command is used to make changes in the values of attributes
of the table.
b. It use set and where clause.
Syntax :
Update table_name set attribute_name = new_value where condition;
3. Delete :
a. This command is used to remove tuples.
b. Tuples can be deleted from only one table at a time.
Syntax :
Delete from table_name where condition;
4. Select : This command is used to retrieve a subset of tuples from one
or more table.
Syntax :
Select attribute1, ..., attributen from table_name where condition;
5. Alter table :
a. This command is used to make changes in the structure of a table.
b. This command is used :
i. to add an attribute
ii. to drop an attribute
iii. to rename an attribute
iv. to add and drop a constraint
Syntax :
Alter table table_name add column_name datatype;
Alter table table_name drop column column_name;
Alter table table_name drop constraint constraint_name;
Que 2.15. Write a short note on SQL DDL commands.

Answer
a. SQL DDL is used to define relation of a system. The general syntax of
SQL sentence is :
VERB (parameter1, parameter2; ......, parametern)
b. The relations are created using CREATE verb.
1. CREATE TABLE : This command is used to create a new relation
and the corresponding syntax is :
CREATE TABLE relation_name
(field1 datatype (size), field2 datatype (size),..., fieldn datatype
(size));
2. CREATE TABLE ... AS SELECT ... : This type of create command
is used to create the structure of a new table from the structure of
existing table.
The generalized syntax of this form is :
CREATE TABLE relation_name1
(field1, field2, ...., fieldn)
AS SELECT field1, field2, ..., fieldn
FROM relation_name2;
c. Structure of relations are changed using ALTER verb.
1. ALTER TABLE ... ADD ... : This is used to add some extra columns
into an existing table. The generalized format is :
ALTER TABLE relation_name
ADD (new field1 datatype (size),
new field2 datatype (size), ......,
new fieldn datatype (size)) ;
2. ALTER TABLE .... MODIFY ... : This form is used to change the
width as well as data type of existing relations. The generalized
syntax is :
ALTER TABLE relation_name
MODIFY (field1 new data type (size),
field2 new data type (size),
----------------
fieldn new data type (size)) ;
Que 2.16. Draw an ER diagram of Hospital or Bank with showing

the specialization, Aggregation, Generalization. Also convert it in
to relational schemas and SQL DDL. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
Relational schemas :
branch (branch-name, branch-city, assets)
customer (customer-name, customer-street, customer-city, customer-id)
account (account-number, balance)
loan (loan-number, amount)
employee (employee-id, employee-name, telephone-number, start- date,
employment length, dependent-name)
payment (payment-number, payment-amount, payment-date)
saving-account (interest-rate)
checking-account (overdraft-amount)
branch-city
branch-name assets
branch
loan-branch
customer-name payment-date
customer-street payment-number payment-amount

customer-id loan-number
customer-city
amount
customer loan loan- payment

borrower
payment
access-date
account-number balance
cust-banker type
Aggregation
depositor account
manager
Generalization
Specialization
employee works-for ISA

worker
employee-id employee-name savings-account checking-account
dependent-name telephone-number
employment
length start-date interest-rate overdraft-amount
Fig. 2.16.1. ER diagram for a banking enterprise.

SQL DDL of ER diagram :
create table branch (branch-city varchar (40),
branch-name varchar (40) primary key,
assets number (20));
create table customer (customer-id number (5) primary key,
customer-name varchar (40),
customer-street varchar (20),
customer-city varchar (30));
create table loan (loan-number number (6) primary key,
amount number (10));
create table employee (employee-id number(5) primary key,
employee-name varchar (40),
telephone- number (10),
number
start-date date,
employment number (4),
length
dependent- varchar (10));
name
create table payment (payment- number (6),
number
payment- number (10),
amount
payment-date date);
create table account (account- number (12) primary key,
number
balance number (10));
create table
saving-account (interest-rate number (3);
create table
checking-account (overdraft- number (15));
amount
Que 2.17.
3.17. Describe the operators and its types in SQL.
Answer
Operators and conditions are used to perform operations such as addition,
subtraction or comparison on the data items in an SQL statement.
Different types of SQL operators are :
1. Arithmetic operators : Arithmetic operators are used in SQL
expressions to add, subtract, multiply, divide and negate data values.
The result of this expression is a number value.
Unary operators (B)

+, – Denotes a positive or negative expression
Binary operators (B)
* Multiplication
/ Division
+ Addition
– Subtraction
Fig. 2.17.1. Arithmetic operators.
2. Comparison operators : These are used to compare one expression
with another. The comparison operators are given below :
Operator Definition
= Equality
!=, <> Inequality
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal to
<= Less than or equal to
Fig. 2.17.2. Comparison operators.

3. Logical operators : A logical operator is used to produce a single
result from combining the two separate conditions.
Operator Definition
AND Returns true if both component conditions
are true; otherwise returns false.
OR Returns true if either component condition
is true otherwise returns false
NOT Returns true if the condition is false;
otherwise returns false.
Fig. 2.17.3. Logical operators.

4. Set operators : Set operators combine the results of two separate
queries into a single result.
Operator Definition
UNION Returns all distinct rows from both queries
INTERSECT Returns common rows selected by both queries
MINUS Returns all distinct rows that are in the first
query, but not in second one.
Fig. 2.17.4. Set operators.

5. Operator precedence :
a. Precedence defines the order that the DBMS uses when evaluating
the different operators in the same expression.
b. The DBMS evaluates operators with the highest precedence first
before evaluating the operators of lower precedence. Operators
of equal precedence are evaluated from the left to right.
Operator Definition
: Prefix for host variable
, Variable separator
() Surrounds subqueries
“ Surrounds a literal
“ “ Surrounds a table or column alias or literal text
() Overrides the normal operator precedence
+, – Unary operators
*, / Multiplication and division
+, – Addition and subtraction
|| Character concatenation
NOT Reverses the result of an expression
AND True if both conditions are true
OR True if either conditions are true
UNION Returns all data from both queries
INTERSECT Returns only rows that match both queries
MINUS Returns only row that do not match both queries
Fig. 2.17.5. Operator precedence.

Que 2.18. What are the relational algebra operations supported

in SQL ? Write the SQL statement for each operation.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 7.5
Answer
Basic relational algebra operations : Refer Q. 2.5, Page 2–6A, Unit-2.

SQL statement for relational algebra operations :
1. Select operation : Consider the loan relation,
loan (loan_number, branch_name, amount)
Find all the tuples in which the amount is more than ` 12000, then we
write
amount > 12000 (loan)
2. Project operation : We write the query to list all the customer names
and their cities as :
 customer_name, customer_city (customer)
3. Set difference operation : We can find all customers of the bank
who have an account but not a loan by writing :
 customer_name (depositor) –  customer_name (borrower)
4. Cartesian product : We have the following two tables :
PERSONNEL SOFTWARE PACKAGES

Id Name S
101 Jai J1
103 Suraj J2
104 XX
105 BB
106 CC
We want to manipulate the × operation between [personnel × software

packages].
Piid PiName S
101 Jai J1
101 Jai J2
103 Suraj J1
103 Suraj J2
104 XX J1
104 XX J2
105 BB J1
105 BB J1
106 CC J1
106 CC J2
5. Rename :
Consider the Book relation with attributes Title, Author, Year and
Price. The rename operator is used on Book relation as follows :
* Temp(Bname, Aname, Pyear, Bprice) (Book)
Here both the relation name and the attribute names are renamed.
PART-6
Tables, Views and Indexes, Queries and Sub Queries.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.19. Give the brief explanation of view.
Answer
1. A view is a virtual relation, whose contents are derived from already
existing relations and it does not exist in physical form.
2. The contents of view are determined by executing a query based on
any relation and it does not form the part of database schema.
3. Each time a view is referred to, its contents are derived from the
relations on which it is based.
4. A view can be used like any other relation that is, it can be queried,
inserted into, deleted from and joined with other relations or views.
5. Views can be based on more than one relation and such views are
known as complex views.
6. A view in SQL terminology is a single table that is derived from other
tables. These other tables can be base tables or previously defined
views.
Syntax for creating view :
CREATE VIEW view_name
AS SELECT * FROM table_name
WHERE Category IN (‘attribute1’, ‘attribute2’);
For example : Command to create a view consisting of attributes
Book_title, Category, Price and P_ID of the BOOK relation, Pname
and State of the PUBLISHER relation can be specified as
CREATE VIEW BOOK_3
AS SELECT BOOK_title, Category, Price, BOOK.P_ID, Pname, State
FROM BOOK, PUBLISHER
WHERE BOOK.P_ID = PUBLISHER.P_ID;
Que 2.20. Describe indexes in SQL.
Answer
1. Indexes are special lookup tables that the database search engine can
use to speed up data retrieval.
2. An index helps to speed up SELECT queries and WHERE clauses, but it
slows down data input, with the UPDATE and the INSERT statements.
3. Indexes can be created or dropped with no effect on the data.
4. Indexes are used to retrieve data from the database more quickly.
5. The users cannot see the indexes; they are just used to speed up searches/
queries.
6. Syntax :
CREATE INDEX index
ON TABLE column;
where the index is the name given to that index and TABLE is the name
of the table on which that index is created and column is the name of
that column for which it is applied.
7. Unique indexes are used for the maintenance of the integrity of the
data present in the table as well as for the fast performance; it does not
allow multiple values to enter into the table.
Syntax for creating unique index is :
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name
ON TABLE column;
8. To remove an index from the data dictionary by using the DROP INDEX
command.
DROP INDEX index_name;
Que 2.21. Explain sub-query with example.
Answer
1. A sub-query is a SQL query nested inside a larger query.
2. Sub-queries must be enclosed within parenthesis.
3. The sub-query can be used with the SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or
DELETE statement along with the operators like =, >, <, >=, <=, IN,
ANY, ALL, BETWEEN.
4 A sub-query is usually added within the WHERE clause of another SQL
SELECT statement.
5. A sub-query is also called an inner query while the statement containing
a sub-query is also called an outer query.
6. The inner query executes first before its parent query so that the result
of an inner query can be passed to the outer query.
Syntax of SQL sub-query : A sub-query with the IN operator,
SELECT column_names
FROM table_name1
WHERE column_name IN (SELECT column_name
FROM table_name2
WHERE condition);
Example :
We have the following two tables ‘student’ and ‘marks’ with common field
‘StudentID’.
Student Marks
StudentID Name StudentID Total_marks
V001 Abha V001 95
V002 Abhay V002 80
V003 Anand V003 74
V004 Amit V004 81
Now considering table ‘Student’, we want to write a query to identify all
students who get more marks than the student whose StudentID is ‘V002’,
but we do not know the marks of ‘V002’.
So, consider another table ‘Marks’ containing total marks of the student and
apply query considering both tables.
SQL code with sub-query :
SELECT a.StudentID, a.Name, b.Total_marks
FROM student a, marks b
WHERE a.StudentID = b.StudentID AND b.Total_marks >
(SELECT Total_marks
FROM marks
WHERE StudentID = ‘V002’);
Query result :
StudentID Name Total_marks

V001 Abha 95
V004 Amit 81
PART-7
Aggregate Functions, Insert,Update and Delete Operations.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.22. Write full relation operation in SQL. Explain any one
of them.
OR
Explain aggregate function in SQL.
Answer
In SQL, there are many full relation operations like :
i. Eliminating duplicates
ii. Duplicating in union, intersection and difference
iii. Grouping
iv. Aggregate function
Aggregate function :
1. Aggregate functions are functions that take a collection of clues as
input and return a single value.
2. SQL offers five built-in aggregate functions :
a. Average : avg
Syntax : avg ( [ Distinct |All ] n)
Purpose : Returns average value of n, ignoring null values.
Example : Let us consider a SQL query :
select avg(unit price) as “Average Price” from book;
Output :
Average Price
359.8
b. Minimum : min
Syntax : min ( [ Distinct | All ] expr)
Purpose : Returns minimum value of expression
Example :
SQL> select min(unit_price) as “Minimum Price”
from book ;
Output :
Minimum Price
250
c. Maximum : max
Syntax : max ([ Distinct | All ] expr)
Purpose : Returns maximum value of expression
Example :
SQL> select max(unit_price) as “Maximum Price”
from book;
Output :
Maximum Price
450
d. Sum : sum
Syntax : sum ([ Distinct | All ] n)
Purpose : Returns sum of values of n
Example :
SQL> select sum(unit price) as “Total”
from book;
Output :
Total
1799
e. Count : count
Syntax : count ([ Distinct | All ] expr)
Purpose : Returns the number of rows where expr is not null
Example :
SQL> select count(title) as “No. of Books”
from book;
Output :
No. of Books
5
Que 2.23. Explain how the GROUP BY clause in SQL works. What
is the difference between WHERE and HAVING clause ?
Answer
GROUP BY :
1. GROUP BY was added to SQL because aggregate functions (like SUM)
return the aggregate of all column values every time they are called,
and without the GROUP BY function it is not possible to find the sum
for each individual group of column values.
2. The syntax for the GROUP BY function is :
SELECT columns, SUM(column) FROM table GROUP BY column
Example :
This “Sales” Table :
Company Amount
TCS 5500
IBM 4500
TCS 7100
And this SQL :

SELECT Company, SUM(Amount) FROM Sales
GROUP BY Company
Return following result :
Company Amount
TCS 12600
IBM 4500
Difference :
S. No. WHERE HAVING
1. WHERE clause is used for HAVING clause is used to filter

filtering rows and it applies on groups in SQL.
each and every row.
2. WHERE clause is used before HAVING clause is used after
GROUP BY clause. GROUP BY clause.
3. WHERE clause can be used HAVING clause can only be used
with SELECT, IN SERT, with SELECT query i.e., if we
UPDATE and DELETE clause. want to pe rform IN SERT,
UPDATE and DELETE clause it
will returns an error.
4. We canno t use aggregate We can use aggregate function
functions in the WHERE clause in HAVING clause.
unless it is in a sub query
contained in a HAVING clause.
Que 2.24. Explain how a database is modified in SQL.

OR
Explain database modification.
Answer
Different operations that modify the contents of the database are :
1. Delete :
a. The delete operation is used to delete all or specific rows from
database.
b. Delete command do not delete values of particular attributes.
c. A delete command operates only on relation or table.
Syntax :
delete from table_name
where condition;
2. Insert :
a. Insert command is used to insert data into a relation/table.
b. The attribute values for inserted tuples must be members of the
attribute’s domain specified in the same order as in the relation
schema.
Syntax : Insert into table_name values (attribute1, attribute2, attribute3,
...... attributeN);
3. Updates : Update command is used to update a value in a tuple.
Syntax : Update table_name set column_name = new_value condition;
PART-8
Joins, Unions, Intersections, Minus.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.25. Discuss join and types with suitable example.

Define join. Explain different types of join.
Answer
A join clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables, based on a
related column between them.
Various types of join operations are :
1. Inner join :
a. Inner join returns the matching rows from the tables that are
being joined.
For example : Consider following two relations :
Employee (Emp_Name, City)
Employee_Salary (Emp_Name, Department, Salary)
These two relations are shown in Table 2.25.1 and 2.25.2.
Table. 2.25.1. The Employee relation.
Employee
Emp_Name City
Hari Pune
Om Mumbai
Suraj Nashik
Jai Solapur
Table. 2.25.2. The Employee_Salary relation.
Employee_Salary
Emp_Name Department Salary
Hari Computer 10000
Om IT 7000
Billu Computer 8000
Jai IT 5000
Select Employee.Emp_Name, Employee_Salary.Salary from Employee

inne r join Emplo ye e_ Salary o n Employe e .Emp_ N ame =
Employee_Salary.Emp_Name;
Result : The result of preceding query with selected fields of
Table 2.25.1 and Table 2.25.2.
Emp_Name Salary
Hari 10000
Om 7000
Jai 5000
2. Outer join :
a. An outer join is an extended form of the inner join.
b. It returns both matching and non-matching rows for the tables
that are being joined.
c. Types of outer join are as follows :
i. Left outer join : The left outer join returns matching rows
from the tables being joined and also non-matching rows
from the left table in the result and places null values in the
attributes that comes from the right table.
For example :
Select Employee.Emp_Name, Salary
from Employee left outer join Employee_Salary
on Employee.Emp_Name = Employee_Salary.Emp_Name;
Emp_Name Salary
Hari 10000
Om 7000
Jai 5000
Suraj null
ii. Right outer join : The right outer join operation returns
matching rows from the tables being joined, and also non-
matching rows from the right table in the result and places
null values in the attributes that comes from the left table.
For example :
Select Employee.Emp_Name, City, Salary from Employee
right outer join
Employee_Salary on Employee.Emp_Name =
Employee_Salary. Emp_Name;
Emp_Name City Salary
Hari Pune 10000
Om Mumbai 7000
Jai Solapur 5000
Billu null 8000
Que 2.26. Write difference between cross join, natural join, left
outer join and right outer join with suitable example.
Answer
Cross join :
1. Cross join produces a result set which is the product of number of rows
in the first table multiplied by the number of rows in the second table
if no where clause is used along with cross join. This kind of result is
known as Cartesian product.
2. If where clause is used with cross join, it functions like an inner join.
For example :
Beers Select * From Beers
Name Cross Join Likes
Manf
Name Manf Drinker Beer
Beer 1 XYZ
Beer 1 XYZ Kanika Beer 1
Beer 2 ABC
Beer 1 XYZ Aditya Beer 1
Beer 3 ABC
Beer 1 XYZ Mahesh Beer 3
Beer 2 ABC Kanika Beer 1
Likes Beer 2 ABC Aditya Beer 1
Drinker Beer Beer 2 ABC Mahesh Beer 3
Kanika Beer 1 Beer 3 ABC Kanika Beer 1
Aditya Beer 2 Beer 3 ABC Aditya Beer 1
Beer 3 ABC Mahesh Beer 3
Mahesh Beer 3
Natural join :
1. Natural join joins two tables based on same attribute name and data
types.
2. The resulting table will contain all the attributes of both the table but
keep only one copy of each common column.
3. In natural join, if there is no condition specifies then it returns the
rows based on the common column.
For example : Consider the following two relations :
Student (Roll_No, Name)
Marks (Roll_No, Marks)
These two relations are shown in Table 2.26.1 and 2.26.2.
Table 2.26.1. The Student relation.
Student
Roll_No Name
1 A
2 B
3 C
Table 2.26.2. The Marks relation.
Marks
Roll_No Marks
2 70
3 50
4 85
Consider the query :
Select * from Student natural join Marks ;
Result :
Roll_No Name Marks
2 B 70
3 C 50
Left outer join and right outer join : Refer Q. 2.25, Page 2–29A,
Unit-2.
Que 2.27. Describe the SQL set operations.
Answer
The SQL set operations are :
1. Union operation : Union clause merges the output of two or more
queries into a single set of rows and column.
Records Common Records

only in records only in
query one in both query one
queries
Fig. 2.27.1. Output of union clause.

Output = Record only in query one + records only in query two + A
single set of records which is common in both queries.
2. Intersect operation : The intersect clause outputs only rows produced
by both the queries intersected i.e., the intersect operation returns
common records from the output of both queries.
Common
records
in both
queries
Fig. 2.27.2. Output of intersect clause.

Output = A single set of records which are common in both queries.
3. The except operation : The except also called as Minus outputs rows
that are in first table but not in second table.
Records
only in
query one
Fig. 2.27.3. Output of except (Minus) clause.

Output = Records only in query one.
PART-9
Cursors, Triggers, Procedures in SQL/PL SQL.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.28. Explain cursors, sequences and procedures used in SQL.
Answer
Cursors :
1. A cursor is a temporary work area created in the system memory when
a SQL statement is executed.
2. A cursor contains information on a select statement and the rows of
data accessed by it.
3. A cursor can hold more than one row, but can process only one row at a
time.
4. The set of rows the cursor holds is called the active set.
5. There are two types of cursors :
a. Implicit cursors :
i. These are created by default when DML statements like,
INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements are executed.
ii. They are also created when a SELECT statement that returns
just one row is executed.
b. Explicit cursors :
i. They must be created when we are executing a SELECT
statement that returns more than one row.
ii. When we fetch a row the current row position moves to next
row.
Sequences :
Sequences are frequently used in databases because many applications
require each row in a table to contain a unique value and sequences provide
an easy way to generate them.
Syntax :
CREATE SEQUENCE [schema.]sequence_name
[ AS datatype ]
[ START WITH value ]
[ INCREMENT BY value ]
[ MINVALUE value | NO MINVALUE ]
[ MAXVALUE value | NO MAXVALUE ]
[ CYCLE | NO CYCLE ]
[ CACHE value | NO CACHE ];
Procedures :
1. A procedure is a sub-program that performs a specification.
2. A procedure has two parts :
i. Specification : The procedure specification begins with the keyword
procedure and ends with the procedure name or parameter list.
ii. Body : The procedure body begins with the keyword is and ends
with the keyword end.
Syntax : To create a procedure,
create or replace procedure <proc name> [parameter list] is
< local declaration >
begin
(executable statements)
[exception] (exception handlers)
end ;
Syntax : To execute a procedure,
exec < proce_name > (parameters);
Que 2.29. What is trigger ? Explain different trigger with example.

OR
Describe the following terms trigger. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 3.5
Answer
Triggers :
1. A trigger is a procedure (code segment) that is executed automatically
when some specific events occur in a table/view of a database.
2. Triggers are mainly used for maintaining integrity in a database.
Triggers are also used for enforcing business rules, auditing changes
in the database and replicating data.
Following are different types of triggers :
1. Data Manipulation Language (DML) triggers :
a. DML triggers are executed when a DML operation like INSERT,
UPDATE OR DELETE is fired on a Table or View.
b. DML triggers are of two types :
i. AFTER triggers :
1. AFTER triggers are executed after the DML statement
completes but before it is committed to the database.
2. AFTER triggers if required can rollback its actions and
source DML statement which invoked it.
ii. INSTEAD OF triggers :
1. INSTEAD OF triggers are the triggers which get
executed automatically in place of triggering DML (i.e.,
INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE) action.
2. It means if we are inserting a record and we have a
INSTEAD OF trigger for INSERT then instead of INSERT
whatever action is defined in the trigger that gets
executed.
2. Data Definition Language (DDL) triggers :
a. DDL triggers are executed when a DDL statements like CREATE,
ALTER, DROP, GRANT, DENY, REVOKE, and UPDATE
STATISTICS statements are executed.
b. DDL triggers can be DATABASE scoped or SERVER scoped. The
DDL triggers with server level scope gets fired in response to a
DDL statement with server scope like CREATE DATABASE,
CREATE LOGIN, GRANT_SERVER, ALTER DATABASE, ALTER
LOGIN etc.
c. Where as DATABASE scoped DDL triggers fire in response to
DDL statement with DATABASE SCOPE like CREATE TABLE,
CREATE PROCEDURE, CREATE FUNCTION, ALTER TABLE,
ALTER PROCEDURE, ALTER FUNCTION etc.
3. LOGON triggers :
a. LOGON triggers get executed automatically in response to a
LOGON event.
b. They get executed only after the successful authentication but
before the user session is established.
c. If authentication fails the LOGON triggers will not be fired.
4. CLR triggers :
a. CLR triggers are based on the Sql CLR.
b. We can write DML and DDL triggers by using the supported .NET
CLR languages like C#, VB.NET etc.
c. CLR triggers are useful if heavy computation is required in the

trigger or a reference to object outside SQL is required.
Que 2.30. Consider the following relational database employee

(employee_name, s treet, city works (employee_ name,
company_name, salary) company (company_name, city) manage
(employee_name, manager_name).
Give an expression in SQL to express each of the following queries :
i. Find the names and cities of residence of all employees who
work for XYZ bank.
ii. Find the names, street address, and cities of residence of all
employee who works for XYZ Bank and earn more than
Rs. 10,000 per annum.
iii. Find the names of all employees in this database who live in the
same city as the company for which they work.
Answer
i. Select E.employee_name, city
from employee E, works W
where W.company_name = ‘XYZ Bank’ and
W.employee_name = E.employee_name
ii. Select * from employee
where employee_name in
select employee_name from Works
where company_name=‘XYZ Bank’ and salary>10000
select E. employee_name, street address, city
from Employee as E, Works as W
where E. employee_name=W.person_name and
W.company_name = ‘XYZ Bank’ and W.salary>10000
iii. Select E. employee _name
from Employee as E, Works as W, Company as C
where E. employee _name=W.person_name and E.city=C.city
and W.company_name=C.company_name
Que 2.31. Consider the following relation. The primary key is

Rollno, ISBN, Student(Roll No, Name, Branch), Book(ISBN, Title,
Author, Publisher) Issue(Roll No, ISBN, date_of_issue). Write the
query in relational algebra and SQL of the following :
i. List the Roll Number and Name of All CSE Branch Students.
ii. Find the name of students who have iss ued a book of
publication ‘BPB’.
iii. List the title and author of all books which are issued by a
student name started with ‘a’.
iv. List the title of all books issued on or before 20/09/2012.
v. List the name of student who will read the book of author
named ‘Sanjeev’. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
i. In relational algebra :
Roll No, Name (Branch = “CSE” (Student))
In SQL :
Select Roll No, Name from Students
where Branch = “CSE”;
ii. In relational algebra :
Name Publisher = “BPB” and Student_Roll No = P.Roll No (Student  (Roll No,
(Issue.ISBN = Book.ISBN P (Book  Issue))))
Publisher
In SQL :
Select Student.name from Student inner join
(Select Book.Publisher, Issue.Roll No from Issue inner join Book on
Issue.ISBN = Book.ISBN as P)
ON Student.Roll No = P. Roll No
where P.Publisher = “BPB”;
iii. In relational algebra :
S.Title, S.Author S.Name like(‘a%’) (T.Name, Book.Author, Book.Title Book.ISBN = T.ISBN
S (Book  (Name, ISBN Student.Roll No = Issue.Roll No T (Student 
Issue))));
In SQL :
Select S.title, S.Author from
(Select T.Name, Book.Author, Book.Title from Book inner join (Select
Student.Name, Issue.ISBN from Student inner join Issue
ON Student.Roll No = Issue.Roll No as T)
ON Book.ISBN = T.ISBN as S)
where S.Name like ‘a%’;
iv. In relational algebra :
Title (date > = 20/09/2012 (Book  Issue))
In SQL :
Select Book.Title from Book inner join Issue ON Book.ISBN = Issue.ISBN
as R
where R.date > = 20/09/2012;
Name (Author = “Sanjeev” and Student.Roll No = Q.Roll No (Student  Roll No, Author
Issue.ISBN = Book.ISBN Q (Book  Issue)))
In SQL :
Select Student.Name from Student inner join
(Select Issue.Roll No, Book.Author from Issue inner join Book ON
Issue.ISBN = Book.ISBN as Q)
ON Student.Roll No = Q.Roll No
where Q.Author = “Sanjeev”;
Que 2.32. Suppose there are two relations R(A, B, C), S(D, E, F).
Write TRC and SQL for the following RAs :
i.  A, B (R)
ii. B = 45 (R)
iii.  A, F(C = D(R × S)) AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
i.  A, B (R) :
TRC : {s.A, s.B|R(s)}
SQL : Select A, B from R ;
ii. B = 45 (R) :
TRC : {s |R(s)  s.B = 45}
SQL : Select * from R where B = 45 ;
iii.  A, F(C = D(R × S)) :
TRC : {t|pr qs (t[A] = p[A]  t[F] = q[F]  p[C] = q[D])}
SQL : Select A, F from R inner join S ON R.C = S.D ;
Que 2.33. Consider the following relational DATABASE. Give an

expression in SQL for each following queries. Underline records
are primary key
Employee(person_name, street, city)
Works(person_name, Company_name, salary)
Company(Company_name, city)
Manages(person_name, manager_name)
i. Finds the names of all employees who works for the ABC bank.
ii. Finds the name of all employees who live in the same city and
on the same street as do their managers.
iii. Find the name street address and cities of residence of all
employees who work for ABC bank and earn more than 7,000
per annum.
iv. Find the name of all employee who earn more than every
employee of XYZ.
v. Give all employees of corporation ABC a 7% salary raise.
vi. Delete all tuples in the works relation for employees of ABC.
vii. Find the name of all employees in this DATABASE who live in
the same city as the company for which they work.
Answer
i. Select person_name from Works
Where company_name=‘ABC Bank’
ii. Select E1.person_name
From Employee as E1, Employee as E2, Manages as M
Where E1.person_name=M.person_name
and E2.person_name=M.manager_name
and E1.street=E2.street and E1.city=E2.city
iii. Select * from employee
where person_name in
(select person_name from Works
where company_name= ‘ABC Bank’ and salary>7000
select E.person_name, street,
city from Employee as E, Works as W
where E.person_name = W.person_name
and W.company_name=‘ABC Bank’ and W.salary>7000
iv. Select person_name from Works
where salary > all
(select salary from Works
where company_name=‘XYZ’)
select person_name from Works
where salary>(select max(salary) from Works
v. Update Works
set salary=salary*1.07
where company_name=‘ABC Bank’
vi. Delete from Works

vii. Select E.person_name
where E.person_name=W.person_name and E.city=C.city
Que 2.34. Explain embedded SQL and dynamic SQL in detail.
Answer
Embedded SQL :
1. The SQL standard defines embeddings of SQL in a variety of
programming languages such as Pascal, PL/I, Fortran, C and COBOL.
2. A language in which SQL queries are embedded is referred to as a host
language and the SQL structures permitted in the host language
constitute embedded SQL.
3. Programs written in the host language can use the embedded SQL
syntax to access and update data stored in a database.
4. In embedded SQL, all query processing is performed by the database
system.
5. The result of the query is then made available to the program one tuple
at a time.
6. Embedded SQL statements must be completely present at compile time
and compiled by the embedded SQL preprocessor.
7. To identify embedded SQL requests to the preprocessor, we use the
EXEC, SQL statement as :
EXEC SQL <embedded SQL statement> END.EXEC
8. Variable of the host language can be used within embedded SQL
statements, but they must be preceded by a colon (:) to distinguish them
from SQL variables.
Dynamic SQL :
1. The dynamic SQL component of SQL allows programs to construct and
submit SQL queries at run time.
2. Using dynamic SQL, programs can create SQL queries as strings at run
time and can either have them executed immediately or have them
prepared for subsequent use.
3. Preparing a dynamic SQL statement compiles it, and subsequent uses of
the prepared statement use the compiled version.
4. SQL defines standards for embedding dynamic SQL calls in a host
language, such as C, as in the following example,
char * sqlprog = “update account set balance = balance * 1.05
where account_number = ?”;
EXEC SQL prepare dynprog from : sqlprog;
char account[10] = “A-101”;
EXEC SQL execute dynprog using : account;
Que 2.35. Describe procedures in PL/SQL with its advantages and

disadvantages.
Answer
1. PL/SQL is a block-structured language that enables developers to combine
the power of SQL with procedural statements.
2. A stored procedure in PL/SQL is nothing but a series of declarative SQL
statements which can be stored in the database catalogue.
3. A procedure can be thought of as a function or a method.
4. They can be invoked through triggers, other procedures, or applications
on Java, PHP etc.
5. All the statements of a block are passed to Oracle engine all at once
which increases processing speed and decreases the traffic.
Advantages of procedures in PL/SQL :
1. They result in performance improvement of the application. If a
procedure is being called frequently in an application in a single
connection, then the compiled version of the procedure is delivered.
2. They reduce the traffic between the database and the application, since
the lengthy statements are already fed into the database and need not
be sent again and again via the application.
3. They add to code reusability, similar to how functions and methods
work in other languages such as C/C++ and Java.
Disadvantages of procedures in PL/SQL :
1. Stored procedures can cause a lot of memory usage. The database
administrator should decide an upper bound as to how many stored
procedures are feasible for a particular application.
2. MySQL does not provide the functionality of debugging the stored
procedures.

Q. 1. Explain constraints and its types.

Ans. Refer Q. 2.2.
Q. 2. Explain the following constraints :

i. Integrity constraint
ii. Entity integrity constraint
iii. Referential integrity constraint
iv. Domain constraint
Ans.
i. Refer Q. 2.3.
ii. Refer Q. 2.4(i).
iii. Refer Q. 2.4(ii).
iv. Refer Q. 2.4(iii).
Q. 3. What are the additional operations in relational algebra ?

Ans. Refer Q. 2.7.
Q. 4. Explain tuple relational calculus and domain relational

calculus.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.9.
Q. 5. Explain aggregate function in SQL.

Ans. Refer Q. 2.22.
Q. 6. Define join. Explain different types of join with example.

Ans. Refer Q. 2.25.
Q. 7. What is trigger ? Explain different types of trigger with

example.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.29.
Q. 8. Explain embedded SQL and dynamic SQL in detail.

Ans. Refer Q. 2.34.
Q. 9. Explain how the GROUP BY clause works in SQL. What is

the difference between WHERE and HAVING clause ?
Ans. Refer Q. 2.23.
Q. 10. What are the relational algebra operation supported in

SQL ? Write the SQL statement for each operation.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.18.
Q. 11. What are the different types of SQL commands ?

Ans. Refer Q. 2.14.

3
UNIT
Database
Design & Normalization
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Functional Dependencies ........................... 3–2A to 3–7A
Part-2 : Normal Forms, ........................................... 3–7A to 3–11A

First, Second, Third Normal
Form, BCNF
Part-3 : Inclusion Dependence, ........................... 3–11A to 3–13A

Lossless Join Decomposition
Part-4 : Normalization using FD, ........................ 3–13A to 3–18A

MVD and JDs,
Alternative Approaches to
Database Design
Database Design & Normalization 3–2 A (CS/IT-Sem-5)
PART-1
Functional Dependencies.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.1. What is functional dependency ? Explain its role in

database design. Describe the inference rules for functional
dependencies.
Answer
Functional dependency :
1. A functional dependency is a constraint between two sets of attributes
from the database.
2. A functional dependency is denoted by X  Y, between two sets of
attributes X and Y that are subsets of R specifies a constraint on the
possible tuples that can form a relation r.
3. The constraint for any two tuples t1 and t2, in r which have
t1 [X] = t2 [X];
Also, must have
t1 [Y] = t2 [Y];
4. This means that the values of the Y component of a tuple in r depends
on, or are determined by the value of the X components, or alternatively,
the values of the X component of a tuple uniquely (or functionally)
determine the value of the Y component.
Role of functional dependency :
1. Functional dependency allows the database designer to express facts
about the enterprise that the designer is modeling with the enterprise
databases.
2. It allows the designers to express constraints, which cannot be expressed
with super keys.
Inference rules for functional dependencies :
1. Reflexivity rule : If  is a set of attributes and then  holds.
2. Augmentation rule : If  holds and  is a set of attributes then
 holds.
3. Transitivity rule : If  holds and  holds, then  holds.
4. Complementation rule : If  hold, then  {R – ( )}
holds.
5. Multivalued augmentation rule :  hold and  R and ,

then  holds.
6. Multivalued transitivity rule : If  holds, then  holds,
then – holds.
7. Replication rule : If  holds and  and there is a  such that
 R and  =  and , then holds.
8. Union rule : if  holds and  holds, then  holds.
9. Decomposition rule : If  holds, then  holds, and 
holds.
10. Pseudotransitivity rule : If    holds and    holds, then
 holds.
Que 3.2. What is functional dependency ? Explain trivial and

non-trivial functional dependency. Define canonical cover. Compute
canonical cover for the following :
R = (A, B, C) F = {A  BC, B  C, A  B, AB  C}
Answer
Functional dependency : Refer Q. 3.1, Page 3–2A, Unit-3.
Trivial functional dependency : The dependency of an attribute on a set
of attributes is known as trivial functional dependency if the set of attributes
includes that attribute.
A  B is trivial functional dependency if B is a subset of A.
Non-trivial functional dependency : If a functional dependency X  Y
holds true where Y is not a subset of X then this dependency is called non-
trivial functional dependency.
For example :
Let a relation R (A, B, C)
The following functional dependencies are non-trivial :
A  B (B is not a subset of A)
A  C (C is not a subset of A)
The following dependencies are trivial :
{A, B}  B [B is a subset of {A, B}]
Canonical cover : A canonical cover of a set of functional dependencies F is
a simplified set of functional dependencies that has the same closure as the
original set F.
Numerical :
There are two functional dependencies with the same set of attributes
A  BC
AB
These two can be combined to get
A  BC
Now, the revised set F becomes :
F= {
A  BC
BC
AB  C
}
There is an extraneous attribute in AB  C because even after removing AB
 C from the set F, we get the same closures. This is because B  C is
already a part of F.
Now, the revised set F becomes :
F= {
A  BC
BC
}
C is an extraneous attribute in A  BC, also A  B is logically implied by
A  B and B  C (by transitivity)
F= {
AB
BC
}
After this step, F does not change anymore.
Hence, the required canonical cover is,
F = {A  B, B  C}
Que 3.3. Explain full functional dependency and partial

functional dependency.
Answer
Full functional dependency :
1. Given a relation scheme R and functional dependency X  Y, Y is fully
functionally dependent on X, if there is no Z, where Z is a proper subset
of Y such that Z  Y.
2. The dependency X  Y is left reduced, there being no extraneous
attributes in the L.H.S of the dependency.
For example : In the relational schema R (ABCDEH) with the FDs.
F = {A  BC, CD  E, E  C, CD  AH, ABH  BD, DH  BC}.
The dependency A  BC is left reduced and BD is fully functionally

dependent on A.
However the functional dependencies ABH  BC is not left reduced
because the attribute B being extraneous in this dependency.
Partial functional dependency :
1. Given a relation schema R with the functional dependencies F defined
on the attributes of R and K as a candidate keys if X is a proper subset of
K and if X  A then A is said to be partially dependent on K.
For example :
Name Course Grade Phone. no. Roll no. Course-deptt.
Fig. 3.3.1.
i. In Fig. 3.3.1, [Name + Course] is a candidate key, So Name and Course
are prime attributes, Grade is fully functionally dependent on the
candidate keys and Phone no., Course-deptt. and roll no. are partially
functional dependent on the candidate key.
ii. Given R (A, B, C, D) and F = {AB  C, B  D}. Then key of this relation
is AB and D is partially dependent on the key.
Que 3.4. Define partial functional dependency. Consider the

following two steps of functional dependencies F = {A  C, AC  D,
E  AD, E  H} and G = {A  CD, E  AH}. Check whether or not
they are equivalent. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
Partial functional dependency : Refer Q. 3.3, Page 3–4A, Unit-3.
Numerical :
From F,
E  AD
E  A (By Decomposition Rule)
ED
Also given that
EH
So, E  AH (By Union Rule)
which is a FD of set G.
Again A  C and AC  D
Imply A  D (By Pseudotransitivity Rule)
A  CD (by Union Rule)
which is FD of set G.
Hence, F and G are equivalent.
Que 3.5. Write the algorithm to find minimal cover F for set of
functional dependencies E.
Answer
Algorithm :
1. Set F : = E.
2. Replace each functional dependency X  {A1, A2, ..., An} in F by the n
functional dependencies X  A1, X  A2, ..., X  An.
3. For each functional dependency X  A in F
for each attribute B that is an element of X
if { {F – {X  A} }  { (X – {B})  A} } is equivalent to F,
then replace X  A with (X – {B} )  A in F.
4. For each remaining functional dependency X  A in F
if {F – {X  A} } is equivalent to F,
then remove X  A from F.
Que 3.6. Define minimal cover. Suppose a relation R(A, B, C) has

FD set F = {A  B, B  C, A  C, AB  B, AB  C, AC  B}. Convert
this FD set into minimal cover. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
Minimal cover : A minimal cover of a set of FDs F is a minimal set of
functional dependencies Fmin that is equivalent to F.
Numerical :
Given : R(A, B, C)
Non-redundant cover for F :
Step 1 : Only one attribute on right hand side
F=A B
B C
A C
AB  B
AB  C
AC  B
Step 2 : No extraneous attribute on left hand side. Since

AB  B, AB  C, AC  B are extraneous attribute. Hence, remove all these
we get
A B
B C
A C
Step 3 : By rule of transitivity, we can remove. Hence, we get the minimal
cover
A C
A B
B C
PART-2
Normal Forms, First, Second, Third Normal Form, BCNF.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.7. Define normal forms. List the definitions of first, second
and third normal forms. Explain BCNF with a suitable example.
OR
Explain 1NF, 2NF, 3NF and BCNF with suitable example.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 7.5
Answer
1. Normal forms are simply stages of database design, with each stage
applying more strict rules to the types of information which can be
stored in a table.
2. Normal form is a method to normalize the relations in database.
3. Normal forms are based on the functional dependencies among the
attributes of a relation.
Different normal forms are :
1. First Normal Form (1NF) :
a. A relations R is in 1NF if all domains are simple i.e., all elements
are atomic.
For example : The relation LIVED-IN given in Table 3.7.1 is not in
1NF because the domain values of the attribute ADDRESS are not
atomic.
Table 3.7.1. LIVED-IN
Name Address
CITY Year-moved-in Year-left
Ashok Kolkata 2007 2015
Delhi 2011 2015
Ajay Mumbai 2000 2004
Chennai 2005 2009
Relation not in 1NF and can be normalized by replacing the non-simple

domain with simple domains. The normalized form of LIVED-IN is
given in Table 3.7.2.
Table 3.7.2. LIVED-IN
Name City Year-moved-in Year-left
Ashok Delhi 2011 2015
Ajay Chennai 2005 2009
2. Second Normal Form (2NF) :

a. A relation R is in 2NF if and only if it is in 1NF and every non-key
attribute is fully dependent on the primary key.
b. A relation R is in 2NF if every non-prime attribute of R is fully
functionally dependent on each relation key.
For example : The relation flight (flight#, Type_of_aircraft, date,
source, destination) with functional dependencies given is not in 2NF.
flight#  Type_of_aircraft
flight# date  source destination
Here flight# date is key but Type_of_aircraft depends only on flight#.
To convert relation flight (flight#, Type_of_aircraft, data, source,
destination) into 2NF break the relation into two relation :
flight1 (flight#, Type_of_aircraft)
flight2 (flight#, date, source, destination)
3. Third Normal Form (3NF) :

a. A relation R is in 3NF if and only if, for all time, each tuple of R
consists of a primary key value that identifies some entity in the
database.
b. A relation schema R is in 3NF with respect to a set F of functional
dependencies, if for all functional dependencies in F+ of the form
 , where  R and  R, at least one of the following holds :
i.   is a trivial functional dependency.
ii.  is a super key for R.
iii. Each attribute A in  –  is contained in candidate key for R.
For example : Let us consider a relation R(B, E, F, G, H) with primary
key BFGH and functional dependency are B  F, F  GH.
The relation R has transitive property as B  F, F  GH then
B  GH. So R is not in 3NF. To convert relation R in 3NF break the
relation R into two relation as R1(B, E, F) , R2(F, G, H).
4. Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF) :
a. A relation R is in BCNF if and only if every determinant is a
candidate key.
b. A relation schema R is in BCNF with respect to a set F of functional
dependencies if for all functional dependencies in F+ of the form
 , where  R and  R, at least one of the following holds :
i.   is a trivial functional dependency (i.e.,  )
ii.  is a super key for schema R.
c. A database design is in BCNF if each member of the set of relation
schemas that constitute the design is in BCNF.
For example : Let consider a relation R(A, B, C, D, E) with AC as
primary key and functional dependencies in the relation R is given as
A  B, C  DE.
To convert relation R into BCNF break the relation in three relation
R1(A, B), R2(C, D, E), R3(A, C).
Que 3.8. Consider the universal relational schema R (A, B, C, D,

E, F, G, H, I, J) and a set of following functional dependencies.
F = {AB  C, A  DE, B  F, F  GH, D  IJ}
determine the keys for R ? Decompose R into 2nd normal form.
AKTU 2016-17, Marks 7.5
Answer
(AB)+ = ABC  AB  C
= ABCDE  A  DE
= ABCDEF  BF
= ABCDEFGH  F  GH
= ABCDEFGHIJ  D  IJ
So, AB is key of R.
In the given relation, R has a composite primary key [A,B].
The non-prime attribute are [C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J].
In this case, FDs are AB  C, A  DE, B  F which is only part of the
primary key. Therefore, this table does not satisfy 2NF.
To bring this table to 2NF, we break the table into three relation as :
R1(A, B, C), R2(A, D, E, I, J) and R3(B, F, G, H).
Que 3.9. Write the difference between BCNF and 3NF.
Answer
S. No. BCNF 3NF

1. In BCNF, for any FDs for a In 3NF, there should be no
relation R, A  B, A should be a transitive dependency that is no
super key of relation. non prime attribute should be
transitively dependent on the
candidate key.
2. It is comparatively stronger than It is less strong than BCNF.
3NF.
3. In BCN F, the functional In 3N F, the functio nal
dependencies are already in dependencies are already in
1NF, 2NF and 3NF. 1NF and 2NF.
4. Redundancy is low. Redundancy is high.
5. In BCNF, there may or may not In 3NF, there is preservation of
be preservation of all. all functional dependencies.
6. It is difficult to achieve. It is comparatively easier to
achieve.
7. Lossless decomposition is hard Lossless decomposition can be
to achieve in BCNF. achieved by 3NF.
Que 3.10. Prove that BCNF is stricter than 3NF.

OR
Prove that BCNF is stronger than 3NF.
Answer
1. A relation, R, is in 3NF iff for every dependency X  A satisfied by R at
least one of the following conditions :
a. X  A is trivial (i.e., A is subset of X)
b. X is a superkey for R, or
c. A is a key attribute for R.
BCNF does not permit the third of these options.
2. BCNF identifies some of the anomalies that are not addressed by 3NF.
3. A relation in BCNF is also in 3NF but vice-versa is not true.
Hence, BCNF is more strict / stronger than 3NF.
Que 3.11. Write the difference between 3NF and BCNF. Find the
normal form of relation R(A, B, C, D, E) having FD s et
F= {A  B, BC  E, ED  A}. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
Difference : Refer Q. 3.9, Page 3–10A, Unit-3.
Numerical :
Given : R(A, B, C, D, E) and
F= AB
BC  E
ED  A
(ACD)+ = ACDB  AB
= ABCDE  BC  E
= ABCDE  ED  A
So, ACD is a key of R.
Relation R is in 1NF as all domains are simple i.e., all elements are atomic.
PART-3
Inclusion Dependence, Lossless Join Decomposition.
Questions-Answers

Que 3.12. Explain inclusion dependencies.
Answer
1. An inclusion dependency R. X < S.Y between two set of attributes X of
relation schema R, and Y of relation schema S specifies the constraint
that, at any specific time when r is a relation state of R and s a relation
state of S, we must have
X(r(R)) Y(s(S))
2. The set of attributes on which the inclusion dependency is specified X of
R and Y of S must have the same number of attributes. Also domains for
each pair of corresponding attributes should be compatible.
3. Inclusion dependencies are defined in order to formalize two types of
interrelational constraints :
a. The foreign key (or referential integrity) constraint cannot be
specified as a functional or multivalued dependency because it
relates attributes across relations.
b. The constraint between two relations that represent a class/subclass
relationship also has no formal definition in terms of the functional,
multivalued, and join dependencies.
4. For example, if X = {A1, A2, . . . , An} and Y = {B1, B2, . . . , Bn}, one possible
correspondence is to have dom(Ai) compatible with dom(Bi) for 1  i  n.
In this case, we say that Ai corresponds to Bi.
Que 3.13. Describe lossless decomposition.

OR
Define functional dependency. What do you mean by lossless
decomposition ? Explain with suitable example how functional
dependencies can be used to show that decompositions are lossless.
Answer
Functional dependency : Refer Q. 3.1, Page 3–2A, Unit-3.
Lossless decomposition : A decomposition {R1, R2, ... Rn} of a relation R is
called a lossless decomposition for R if the natural join of R1, R2, ..., Rn
produces exactly the relation R.
Following are the condition to show that decompositions are lossless using
FD set :
1. Union of attributes of R1 and R2 must be equal to attribute of R. Each
attribute of R must be either in R1 or in R2.
Att(R1)  Att(R2) = Att(R)
2. Intersection of attributes of R1 and R2 must not be NULL.
Att(R1)  Att(R2) 

3. Common attribute must be a key for at least one relation (R1 or R2)
Att(R1)  Att(R2)  Att(R1) or Att(R1)  Att(R2)  Att(R2)
For example :
Consider a relation R (A, B, C, D) with FD set A  BC and A  D is
decomposed into R1(A, B, C) and R2(A, D) which is a lossless join decomposition
as :
1. First condition holds true as :
Att(R1)  Att(R2) = (A, B, C)  (A, D) = (A, B, C, D) = Att(R).
2. Second condition holds true as :
Att(R1)  Att(R2) = (A, B, C)  (A, D) 
3. Third condition holds true as :
Att(R1)  Att(R2) = A is a key of R1(A, B, C) because A BC.
Que 3.14. Consider the relation r(X, Y, Z, W, Q) the set F = {XZ,

YZ, ZW, WQZ, ZQX} and the decomposition of r into relations
R1(X, W), R2(X, Y), R3(Y, Q), R4(Z, W, Q) and R5(X, Q). Check whether
the decompositions are lossy or lossless.
Answer
To check the decomposition is lossless following condition should hold.
1. R1  R2  R3  R4  R5 = (X, W)  (X, Y)  (Y, Q)  (Z, W, Q)  (X, Q) =
(X, Y, Z, W, Q) = R
2. (R1  R2)  (R3  R4)  R5 = ((X, W)  (X, Y))  ((Y, Q)
 (Z, W, Q))  (X, Q) = X  Q {X, Q)
= XQ=
Since, condition 2 violates the condition of lossless join decomposition. Hence
decomposition is lossy.
PART-4
Normalization using FD, MVD and JDs, Alternative
Approaches to Database Design.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.15. What is normalization ? Explain.

OR
Write a short note on normalization with advantages.
Answer
1. Normalization is the process of reducing data redundancy in a relational
database.
2. Normalization is a refinement process that the database designer
undertakes. After identifying the data objects of the proposed database,
their relationships define the tables required and columns within each
table.
3. The fundamental principle of normalization is, “The same data should
not be stored in multiple places.” No information is lost in the process;
however, the number of tables generally increases as the rules are
applied.
Types of normalization : Refer Q. 3.7, Page 3–7A, Unit-3.
Advantages :
1. It helps to remove the redundancy from the relation.
2. It helps in easy manipulation of data.
3. It helps to provide more information to the user.
4. It eliminates modification anomalies.
Que 3.16. What is MVD and join dependency ? Describe.

OR
Write a short note on MVD or JD. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 05
OR
Describe the multivalued dependency. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 3.5
Answer
Multivalued Dependency (MVD) :
1. MVD occurs when two or more independent multivalued facts about
the same attribute occur within the same relation.
2. MVD is denoted by X  Y specified on relation schema R, where X
and Y are both subsets of R.
3. Both X and Y specifies the following constraint on any relation state r
of R : If two tuples t1 and t2 exist in r such that t1(X) = t2(X), then two
tuples t3 and t4 should also exist in r with the following properties,
where we use Z to denote (R – (X  Y))
t3(X) = t4(X) = t1(X) = t2(X)
t3(Y) = t1(Y) and t3 (Z) = t2(Z)
t4(Y) = t2(Y) and t4(Z) = t1(Z)

4. An MVD X  Y in R is called a trivial MVD if
a. X is a subset of Y or
b. XY=R
An MVD that satisfies neither (a) nor (b) is called a non-trivial MVD.
For example :
Relation with MVD
Faculty Subject Committee
John DBMS Placement
John Networking Placement
John MIS Placement
John DBMS Scholarship
John Networking Scholarship
John MIS Scholarship
Join Dependency (JD) :
1. A Join Dependency (JD), denoted by (R1, R2, ..., Rn) specified on relation
scheme R, specifies a constraints on the states r of R.
2. The constraint states that every legal state r of R should have a lossless
join decomposition into R1, R2, ..., Rn. That is, for every such r, we have
( R1(r),  R2(r), ....,  Rn(r)) = r
3. A join dependency JD (R1, R2, ..., Rn), specified on relation schema R, is
a trivial JD if one of the relation schemas Ri in JD (R1, R2, ..., R n) is
equal to R.
4. Such a dependency is called trivial because it has the lossless join
property for any relation state r of R and hence does not specify any
constraint on R.
Que 3.17. Explain the fourth and fifth normal with suitable
example.
Answer
Fourth Normal Form (4NF) :
1. A table is in 4NF, if it is in BCNF and it contains multivalued
dependencies.
2. A relation schema R is in 4NF, with respect to a set of dependencies F
(that includes FD and multivalued dependencies) if, for every non-
trivial multivalued dependency X  Y in F+, X is superkey for R.
For example : A Faculty has multiple courses to teach and he is
leading several committees. This relation is in BCNF, since all the
three attributes concatenated together constitutes its key. The rule
for decomposition is to decompose the offending table into two, with
the multi-determinant attribute or attributes as part of the key of
both. In this case to put the relation in 4NF, two separate relations are
formed as follows :
FACULTY_COURSE (FACULTY, COURSE)
FACULTY_COMMITTEE (FACULTY, COMMITTEE)
Faculty Course Faculty Committee
John Subject John Placement
John Networking John Scholarship
John MIS
Fifth Normal Form (5NF) :

1. A relation is in 5NF, if it is 4NF and cannot be further decomposed.
2. In 5NF, we use the concept of join dependency which is a generalized
form of multivalued dependency.
3. A relation schema R is in 5NF or Project Join Normal Form (PJNF)
with respect to a set F of functional, multivalued and join dependencies
if, for every non-trivial join dependency JD (R1, R2, .... Rn) in F* (that is
implied by F), every Ri is a superkey of R.
For example :
Company Product Supplier
Godrej Soap Mr. X
Godrej Shampoo Mr. X
Godrej Shampoo Mr. Y
Godrej Shampoo Mr. Z
H.Lever Soap Mr. X
H.Lever Soap Mr. Y
H.Lever Shampoo Mr. Y
The table is in 4NF as there is no multivalued dependency.
If we decompose the table then we will lose information, which can be
as follows :
Suppose the table is decomposed into two parts as :
Company_Product Company_Supplier
Company Product Company Supplier
Godrej Soap Godrej Mr. X
Godrej Shampoo Godrej Mr. X
H.Lever Soap Godrej Mr. Z
H.Lever Shampoo H.Lever Mr. X
H.Lever Mr. Y
The redundancy has been eliminated but we have lost the information.
Now suppose that the original table to be decomposed in three parts,
Company_Product, Company_Supplier and Product_Supplier, which
is as follows :
Product_Supplier
PRODUCT SUPPLIER
Soap Mr. X
Soap Mr. Y
Shampoo Mr. X
Shampoo Mr. Y
Shampoo Mr. Z
So, it is clear that if a table is in 4NF and cannot be further decomposed,

it is said to be in 5NF.
Que 3.18. What is meant by the attribute preservation condition

on decomposition ? Given relation R(A, B,C,D,E) with the functional
dependencies F = {ABCD, AE, CD}, the decomposition of R into
R1(A, B, C), R2(B, C, D), R3(C, D, E) check whether the relation is lossy
or lossless.
Answer
Attribute preservation condition on decomposition :
1. The relational database design algorithms start from a single universal
relation schema R = {A1, A2, ..., An} that includes all the attributes of the
database.
2. We implicitly make the universal relation assumption, which states that
every attribute name is unique.
3. Using the functional dependencies, the algorithms decompose the
universal relation schema R into a set of relation schemas D = {R1, R2, ...,
Rm} that will become the relational database schema; D is called a
decomposition of R.
4. Each attribute in R must appear in at least one relation schema Ri in the
decomposition so that no attributes are lost; formally, we have
m
R
i 1
i =R
This is called the attribute preservation condition of decomposition.

Numerical :
A B C D E
R1 = (A, B, C) R1 a 1 a2 a 3 a4 a 5
R2 = (B, C, D)
R2 a 1 b22 b 23 b 24 a 5
R3 = (C, D, E)
R1  R2  R3 = C R3 b 31 b32 a 3 a4 b 35
After applying first two functional dependencies first row contain all “a”
symbols. Hence it is lossless join.
Que 3.19. What are the alternate approaches to database design ?

OR
Describe dangling tuples.
Answer
An alternate approach to database design is dangling tuples :
1. Tuples that “disappear” in computing a join are known as dangling tuples.
a. Let r1(R1), r2(R2), ..., rn(Rn) be a set of relations.
b. A tuple t of relation Ri is a dangling tuple if t is not in the relation :
 Ri (r1  r2  ...  rn)
2. The relation r1  r2  ...  rn is called a universal relation since it
involves all the attributes in the “universe” defined by R1  R2  ...  Rn.
3. If dangling tuples are allowed in the database, instead of decomposing a
universal relation, we may prefer to synthesize a collection of normal
form schemas from a given set of attributes.

Q. 1. What is functional dependency ? Explain trivial and non-

trivial functional dependency. Define canonical cover.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.2.
Q. 2. Define normal forms. Explain 1NF, 2NF, 3NF and BCNF with
suitable example.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.7.
Q. 3. Explain fourth and fifth normal form.

Ans. Refer Q. 3.17.
Q. 4. Prove that BCNF is stricter than 3NF.

Ans. Refer Q. 3.10.
Q. 5. Write a short note on MVD and JD.

Ans. Refer Q. 3.16.
Q. 6. What do you mean by lossless decomposition ? Explain with

suitable example how functional dependencies can be used
to show that decompositions are lossless.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.13.

4
UNIT
Transaction Processing
Concept
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Transaction System, .................................... 4–2A to 4–6A
Testing of Serializability,
Serializability of Schedules
Part-2 : Conflict and View Serializable ................ 4–6A to 4–15A

Schedule, Recoverability,
Recovery from Transaction
Failures
Part-3 : Log Based Recovery, ............................... 4–15A to 4–20A

Checkpoints
Part-4 : Deadlock Handling .................................. 4–20A to 4–23A
Part-5 : Distributed Database : ............................ 4–23A to 4–30A

Distributed Data Storage
Part-6 : Concurrent Control, ................................ 4–30A to 4–33A

Directory System
Transaction Processing Concept 4–2 A (CS/IT-Sem-5)
PART-1
Transaction System, Testing of Serializability,
Serializability of Schedules.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.1. Write a short note on transaction.
Answer
1. A transaction is a logical unit of database processing that includes one
or more database access operations; these include insertion, deletion,
modification or retrieval operations.
2. The database operations that form a transaction can be embedded
within an application program.
3. By specifying explicit begin transaction and end transaction we can
specify the transaction boundaries.
4. If the database operations in a transaction do not update the database
but only retrieve data, the transaction is called a read-only transaction.
Que 4.2. Explain ACID properties of transaction.

OR
What do you mean by transaction ? Explain transaction property
with detail and suitable example. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
OR
What do you understand by ACID properties of transaction ?
Explain in details. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07
OR
Define transaction and explain its properties with suitable example.
Answer
Transaction : Refer Q. 4.1, Page 4–2A, Unit-4.
To ensure integrity of data, the database system maintains some properties
of transaction. These properties are known as ACID properties.
Let us consider an example for the set of operations :
1. Deduct the amount Rs.500 from A’s account.

2. Add amount Rs. 500 to B’s account.
ACID properties are as follows :
1. Atomicity : It implies that either all of the operations of the transaction
should execute or none of them should occur.
Example : All operations in this set must be done.
If the system fails to add the amount in B’s account after deducting
from A’s account, revert the operation on A’s account.
2. Consistency : The state of database before the execution of transaction
and after the execution of transaction should be same.
Example : Let us consider the initial value of accounts A and B are
Rs.1000 and Rs.1500. Now, account A transfer Rs. 500 to account B.
Before transaction : A + B = 1000 + 1500 = 2500
After transaction : A + B = 500 + 2000 = 2500
Since, total amount before transaction and after transaction are same.
So, this transaction preserves consistency.
3. Isolation : A transaction must not affect other transactions that are
running parallel to it.
Example : Let us consider another account C. If there is any ongoing
transaction between C and A, it should not make any effect on the
transaction between A and B. Both the transactions should be isolated.
4. Durability : Once a transaction is completed successfully. The changes
made by transaction persist in database.
Example : A system gets crashed after completion of all the operations.
If the system restarts it should preserve the stable state. An amount in
A and B account should be the same before and after the system gets
a restart.
Que 4.3. Write and describe ACID properties of transaction. How

does the recovery manager ensure atomicity of transactions ? How
does it ensure durability ?
Answer
ACID properties : Refer Q. 4.2, Page 4–2A, Unit-4.
Ensuring the atomicity :
1. To ensure atomicity, database system keeps track of the old values of
any data on which a transaction performs a write.
2. If the transaction does not complete its execution, the database system
restores the old values.
3. Atomicity is handled by transaction management component.

Ensuring the durability :
1. Ensuring durability is the responsibility of a component called the
recovery management component.
2. The durability property guarantees that, once a transaction completes
successfully, all the updates that it carried out on the database persist,
even if there is a system failure after the transaction completes execution.
Que 4.4. List the ACID properties. Explain the usefulness of each
property.
Answer
ACID properties of transaction : Refer Q. 4.2, Page 4–2A, Unit-4.
Usefulness of ACID properties :
Atomicity : Atomicity is useful to ensure that if for any reason an error
occurs and the transaction is unable to complete all of its steps, then the
system is returned to the state it was in before the transaction was started.
Consistency : The consistency property is useful to ensure that a complete
execution of transaction from beginning to end is done without interference
of other transactions.
Isolation : Isolation property is useful to ensure that a transaction should
appear isolated from other transactions, even though many transactions
are executing concurrently.
Durability : Durability is useful to ensure that the changes applied to the
database by a committed transaction must persist in the database.
Que 4.5. Explain transaction state in brief.

OR
What is transaction ? Draw a state diagram of a transaction showing
its states. Explain ACID properties of a transaction with suitable
examples. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
OR
Draw a transaction state diagram and describe the states that a
transaction goes through during execution.
Answer
Transaction : Refer Q. 4.1, Page 4–2A, Unit-4.
State diagram of transaction :
1. Active : The transaction is said to be in the active state till the final
statement is executed.
Partially
Committed
committed
Active
Failed Aborted
Fig. 4.5.1.
2. Partially committed : A transaction is said to be entered in the

partial state when final statement gets executed. But it is still possible
that it may have to be aborted, since its actual operation is still resided
in main memory in which the power failure brings failure of its
execution.
3. Failed : A transaction enters a failed state after the system determines
that the transaction can no longer proceeds with its normal execution.
4. Aborted : A transaction enters this state after the transaction has
been rolledback and the database has been restored to its state, prior
to the start of the transaction.
5. Committed : A transaction enter this state after successful completion.
ACID properties with example : Refer Q. 4.2, Page 4–2A, Unit-4.
Que 4.6. How can you implement atomicity in transactions ?
Answer
Implementation of atomicity in transaction can be done in two ways :
1. Completeness :
a. All of the operations encapsulated within a database transaction
represent an atomic unit of work.
b. According to atomicity either all of transaction will run to
completion (Commit) or none of them.
c. There will not be any partial transaction in left over state from
incomplete execution of one or more operations in a transaction.
d. If the user decides to cancel everything (Rollback), all of the
changes made by the transaction will be undone and the state
would be as if the transaction never began by using undo operation.
e. For every change made by operations in the database, it logs undo
data to be used to rollback the effects of operations.
2. Mutual exclusion/locking :
a. Only one transaction will be allowed to progress by taking an
exclusive lock on the particular data item.
b. The lock will not be released until the transaction ends (either
through rollback, commit or abort).
c. Any other concurrent transaction interested in updating the same
row will have to wait.
Que 4.7. What is serializability ? Why serializability is required ?
Write short note on serializability of schedule.
Answer
Serializability : Serializability is a property of a transaction schedule which
is used to keep the data in the data item in consistent state. It is the classical
concurrency scheme.
Serializability is required :
1. To control concurrent execution of transaction.
2. To ensure that the database state remains consistent.
Serializability of schedule :
1. In DBMS, the basic assumption is that each transaction preserves
database consistency.
2. Thus, the serial execution of a set of transaction preserves database
consistency.
3. A concurrent schedule is serializable if it is equivalent to a serial
schedule.
PART-2
Conflict and View Serializable Schedule, Recoverability,
Recovery from Transaction Failures.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.8. Discuss conflict serializability with example.
Answer
1. Consider a schedule S, in which there are two consecutive instructions
Ii and Ij of transactions Ti and Tj respectively (i  j).
2. If Ii and Ij refer to different data items, then swap Ii and Ij without
affecting the results of any instruction in the schedule.
3. However, if Ii and Ij refer to the same data item Q, then the order of the
two steps matter.
4. Following are four possible cases :
Ii Ij Swapping possible
Read (Q) Read (Q) Yes

Read (Q) Write (Q) No
Write (Q) Read (Q) No
Write (Q) Write (Q) No
5. Ii and Ij conflict if there are operations by different transactions on the
same data item, and at least one of these instructions is a write operation.
For example :
Schedule S
T1 T2
read (A)
write (A)
read (A)
write (A)
read (B)
write (B)
read (B)
write (B)
i. The write (A) instruction of T1 conflicts with read (A) instruction of

T2. However, the write (A) instruction of T2 does not conflict with
the read (B) instruction of T1 as they access different data items.
Schedule S'
T1 T2
read (A)
write (B)
read (A)
read (B)
write (A)
write (B)
read (B)
write (B)
ii. Since the write (A) instruction of T2 in Schedule S does not conflict
with the read (B) instruction of T1, we can swap these instructions
to generate an equivalent schedule.
iii. Both schedules will produce the same final system state.
6. If a schedule S can be transformed into a schedule S by a series of

swaps of non-conflicting instructions, we say that S and S are conflict
equivalent.
7. The concept of conflict equivalence leads to the concept of conflict
serializability and the schedule S is conflict serializable.
Que 4.9. Explain view serializability with example.
Answer
1. The schedule S and S are said to be view equivalent if following
three conditions met :
a. For each data item Q, if transaction Ti reads the initial value of Q
in schedule S, then transaction Ti in schedule S, must also read
the initial value of Q.
b. For each data item Q if transaction Ti executes read (Q) in schedule
S and if that value produced by a write (Q) operation executed by
transaction Tj, then the read (Q) operation of transaction Ti, in
schedule S, must also read the value of Q that was produced by
the same write (Q) operation of transaction Tj.
c. For each data item Q, the transaction (if any) that performs the
final write (Q) operation in schedule S must perform the final
write (Q) operation in schedule S.
2. Conditions (a) and (b) ensure that each transaction reads the same
values in both schedules and therefore, performs the same computation.
Condition (c), coupled with condition (a) and condition (b) ensure that
both schedules result in the same final system state.
3. The concept of view equivalence leads to the concept of view
serializability.
4. We say that schedule S is view serializable, if it is view equivalent to
serial schedule.
5. Every conflict serializable schedule is also view serializable but there
are view serializable schedules that are not conflict serializable.
Example :
Schedule S1 Schedule S2
T1 T2 T1 T2
read (A) read (A)

write (A) write (A)
read (B) read (A)
write (B) write (A)
read (A) read (B)
write (A) write (B)
read (B) read (B)
write (B) write (B)
Schedule S1 and S2 are view equivalent as :

1. T1 reads initial value of data item A in S1 and S2.
2. T2 reads value of data item A written by T1 in S1 and S2.
3. T2 writes final value of data item A in S1 and S2.
Que 4.10. What is schedule ? Define the concept of recoverable,

cascadeless and strict schedules.
Answer
Schedule : A schedule is a set of transaction with the order of execution of
instruction in the transaction.
Recoverable schedule :
A recoverable schedule is one in which for each pair of transaction Ti and Tj
if Tj reads a data item previously written by Ti, the commit operation of Ti
appears before the commit operation of Tj.
For example : In schedule S, let T2 commits immediately after executing
read (A) i.e., T2 commits before T1 does. Now let T1 fails before it commits,
we must abort T2 to ensure transaction atomicity. But as T2 has already
committed, it cannot be aborted. In this situation, it is impossible to recover
correctly from the failure of T1.
Schedule S
T1 T2
read (A)
write (A)
read (A)
read (B)
Cascadeless schedule :
1. A cascadeless schedule is one, where for each pair of transaction T i
and Tj such that Tj reads a data item previously written by T i, the
commit operation to Tj appears before the read operation of T i.
2. Even if a schedule is recoverable, to recover correctly from the
failure of a transaction Ti, we may have to rollback several transactions.
Such situations occur if transactions have read data written by T i.
Strict schedule :
1. A schedule is called strict if every value written by a transaction T is
not read or changed by other transaction until T either aborts or
commits.
2. A strict schedule avoids cascading and recoverability.
Que 4.11. What is precedence graph ? How can it be used to test

the conflict serializability of a schedule ?
Answer
Precedence graph :
1. A precedence graph is a directed graph G = (N, E) that consists of set of
nodes N = {T1, T2, ...., Tn} and set of directed edges E = [e1, e2...., em].
2. There is one node in the graph for each transaction Ti in the schedule.
3. Each edge ei in the graph is of the form (Tj  Tk), 1  j  n, 1  k  n,
where Tj is the starting node of ei and Tk is the ending node of ei.
4. Such an edge is created if one of the operations in Tj appears in the
schedule before some conflicting operation in Tk.
Algorithm for testing conflict serializability of schedule S :
a. For each transaction Ti participating in schedule S, create a node
labeled Ti in the precedence graph.
b. For each case in S where T j executes a read_item(X) after T i
executes a write_item(X), create an edge (Ti  Tj) in the precedence
graph.
c. For each case in S where Tj executes a write_item(X) after T i
executes read_item(X), create an edge (Ti  Tj) in the precedence
graph.
d. For each case in S where Tj executes a write_item(X) after T i
executes a write_item(X), create an edge (Ti  Tj) in the precedence
graph.
e. The schedule S is serializable if and only if the precedence graph
has no cycles.
5. The precedence graph is constructed as described in given algorithm.
6. If there is a cycle in the precedence graph, schedule S is not (conflict)
serializable; if there is no cycle, S is serializable.
7. In the precedence graph, and edge from Ti to Tj means that transaction
Ti must come before transaction Tj in any serial schedule that is
equivalent to S, because two conflicting operations appear in the schedule
in that order.
8. If there is no cycle in the precedence graph, we can create an equivalent
serial schedule S that is equivalent to S, by ordering the transactions
that participate in S as follows : Whenever an edge exists in the precedence
graph from Ti to Tj, Ti must appear before Tj in the equivalent serial
schedule S.
Example :
T1 T2 T3
read (Y) ;
read (Z) ;
read (X) ;
write (X) ;
write (Y) ;
write (Z) ;
read (Z) ;
read (Y) ;
write (Y) ;
read (Y) ;
write (Y) ;
read (X) ;
write (X) ;
Schedule S
X,Y
T1 T2
Y Y, Z
T3
Fig. 4.11.1. Equivalent serial schedules T 3  T 1  T2.
Que 4.12. Test the serializability of the following schedule :

i. r1(x); r3(x); w1(x); r2(x); w3(x)
ii. r3(x); r2(x); w3(x); r1(x); w1(x)
Answer
i. The serialization graph is :
T1 T2
T3
Fig. 4.12.1.
There are two cycles. It is not serializable.
ii. The serialization graph is :
T1 T2
T3
Fig. 4.12.2.
There is no cycle, so it is serialized.

The equivalent serial schedule is :
r3(x), r2(x), w3(x), r1(x), w1(x)
Que 4.13. Discuss cascadeless schedule and cascading rollback.

Why is cascadeless of schedule desirable ?
Answer
Cascadeless schedule : Refer Q. 4.10, Page 4–9A, Unit-4.
Cascading rollback : Cascading rollback is a phenomenon in which a
single failure leads to a series of transaction rollback.
For example :
Schedule S
T1 T2 T3
read (A )
read (B )
write (A )
read (A )
write (A )
read ( A)
In the example, transaction T1 writes a value of A that is read by transaction
T2. Transaction T2 writes a value of A that is read by transaction T3. Suppose
that at this point T1 fails. T1 must be rolled back. Since T2 is dependent on T1,
T2 must be rolled back, since T3 is dependent on T2, T3 must be rolled back.
Need for cascadeless schedules :
Cascadeless schedules are desirable because the failure of a transaction
does not lead to the aborting of any other transaction. This comes at the
cost of less concurrency.
Que 4.14. Discuss the rules to be followed while preparing a

serializable schedule. Why should we prefer serializable schedules
instead of serial schedules ?
Answer
The set of rules which must be followed for preparing serializable
schedule are :
1. Take any concurrent schedule.
2. Draw the precedence graph for concurrent schedule.
3. If there is a cycle in precedence graph then schedule is not serializable.
4. If there is no cycle the schedule is serializable.
5. Prepare serializable schedule using precedence graph.
We prefer serializable schedule instead of serial schedule because :

1. The problem with serial schedule is that it limits concurrency or
interleaving of operations.
2. In a serial schedule, if a transaction waits for an I/O operation to
complete, we cannot switch the CPU processor to another transaction,
thus wasting valuable CPU processing time.
3. If some transaction T is quite long, the other transactions must wait
for T to complete all its operations before committing.
Que 4.15. What are schedules ? What are differences between

conflict serializability and view serializability ? Explain with suitable
example what are cascadeless and recoverable schedules ?
Answer
Schedule : Refer Q. 4.10, Page 4–9A, Unit-4.
Difference between conflict and view serializability :
S. No. Conflict serializability View serializability
1. Easy to achieve. Difficult to achieve.
2. Cheaper to test. Expensive to test.
3. Every conflict serializable is Every view serializable is not
view serializable. conflict serializable.
4. Used in most concurrency Not used in concurrency control
control scheme. scheme.

Recoverable schedule : Refer Q. 4.10, Page 4–9A, Unit-4.
Que 4.16. What is schedule ? What are its types ? Explain view
serializable and cascadeless schedule with suitable example of each.
Answer
Schedule : Refer Q. 4.10, Page 4–9A, Unit-4.
Types of schedule are :
1. Recoverable schedule
2. Cascadeless schedule
3. Strict schedule
View serializable : Refer Q. 4.9, Page 4–8A, Unit-4.
Que 4.17. Which of the following schedules are conflicts

serializable ? For each serializable schedule find the equivalent
schedule.
S1 : r1(x); r3(x); w3(x); w1(x); r2(x)
S2 : r3(x); r2(x); w3(x); r1(x); w1(x)
S3 : r1(x); r2(x); r3(y); w1(x); r2(z); r2(y); w2(y)
Answer
For S1 :
T1 T2 T3
r1(x)
r3(x)
w3(x)
w1(x)
r2(x)
x
T2
T1
x T3
Fig. 4.17.1.
Since, the graph does not contain cycle. Hence, it is conflict serializable.
For S2 :
T1 T2 T3
r3(x)
r2(x)
w3(x)
r1(x)
w1(x)
T1 T2
x
x
T3
Fig. 4.17.2.
Since, the graph does not contain cycle. Hence, it is conflict serializable.
For S3 :
T1 T2 T3
r3(x)
r3(x)
r1(x)
w3(x)
w1(x)
T1 T2
x
T3
Fig. 4.17.3.
Since, the graph contains cycle. Hence, it is not conflict serializable.
PART-3
Log Based Recovery, Checkpoints.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.18. Explain log based recovery.

OR
What is log ? How is it maintained ? Discuss the features of deferred
database modification and immediate database modification in
brief. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
1. The log / system log is a sequence of log records, recording all the update
activities in the database.
2. Various types of log records are denoted as :
a. <Ti start> : Transaction Ti has started.
b. <Ti, Xj, V1, V2> : Transaction Ti has performed a write on data item
Xj. Xj had value V1 before the write, and will have value V2 after the
write.
c. <Ti commit> : Transaction Ti has committed.

d. <Ti abort> : Transaction Ti has aborted.
3. Whenever a transaction performs a write, it is essential that the log
record for that write be created before the database is modified.
Log based recovery : Log based recovery is a method to ensure atomicity
using log when failure occurs. In log based recovery, following two techniques
are used to ensure atomicity and to maintain log :
1. Deferred database modification :
i. The deferred database modification technique ensures transaction
atomicity by recording all database modifications in the log, but
deferring the execution of all write operations of a transaction until
the transaction partially commits.
ii When a transaction partially commits, the information on the log
associated with the transaction is used in executing the deferred
writes.
Features of deferred database modification :
1. All logs written onto the database is updated when a transaction
commits.
2. It does not require old value of data item on the log.
3. It do not need extra I/O operation before commit time.
4. It can manage with large memory space.
5. Locks are held till the commit point.
2. Immediate database modification :
i. The immediate database modification technique allows database
modifications to be output to the database while the transaction is
still in the active state.
ii. Data modification written by active transactions.
Features of immediate database modification :
1. All logs written onto the database is updated immediately after
every operation.
2. It requires both old and new value of data item on the log.
3. It needs extra I/O operation to flush out block-buffer.
4. It can manage with less memory space.
5. Locks are released after modification.
Que 4.19. Describe shadow paging recovery technique.

Answer
1. Shadow paging is a technique in which multiple copies (known as shadow
copies) of the data item to be modified are maintained on the disk.
2. Shadow paging considers the database to be made up of fixed-size logical
units of storage called pages.
3. These pages are mapped into physical blocks of storage with the help of
page table (or directory).
4. The physical blocks are of the same size as that of the logical blocks.
5. A page table with n entries is constructed in which the ith entry in the
page table points to the ith database page on the disk as shown in
Fig. 4.19.1.
6. The main idea behind this technique is to maintain two page tables.
a. In current page the entries points to the most recent database
pages on the disk. When a transaction starts, the current page
table is copied into a shadow page table (or shadow directory).
b. The shadow page table is then saved on the disk and the current
page table is used by the transaction. The shadow page table is
never modified during the execution of the transaction.
Shadow page
table Database Disk pages Current page table
1 1 Page 1 (old) 1
2 2 Page 2 2
3 3 Page 3 (old) 3
4 4 Page 4 4
5 5 Page 5 5
6 6 Page 6 6
7 7 Page 7 7
8 8 Page 8 8
9 Page 1 (new)
10 Page 3 (new)
11
Fig. 4.19.1. Shadow paging.

When shadow paging does not require log :

It does not require the use of log in an environment where only one transaction
is active at a time.
Que 4.20. What do you mean by checkpointing ? Explain

important types of checkpointing methods.
Answer
Checkpointing :
1. It is a process of saving a snapshot of the application’s state, so that it
can restart from that point in case of failure.
2. Checkpoint is a point of time at which a record is written onto the
database from the buffers.
3. Checkpointing shortens the recovery process.
Types of checkpointing techniques :
1. Consistent checkpointing :
a. Consistent checkpointing creates a consistent image of the database
at checkpoint.
b. During recovery, only those transactions which take place after
last checkpoint are undone or redone.
c. The transactions that take place before the last consistent
checkpoint are already committed and need not be processed again.
d. The actions taken for checkpointing are :
i. All changes in main-memory buffers are written onto the
disk.
ii. A “checkpoint” record is written in the transaction log.
iii. The transaction log is written to the disk.
2. Fuzzy checkpointing :
a. In fuzzy checkpointing, at the time of checkpoint, all the active
transactions are written in the log.
b. In case of failure, the recovery manager processes only those
transactions that were active during checkpoint and later.
c. The transactions that have been committed before checkpoint are
written to the disk and hence need not be redone.
Que 4.21. What is log file ? Write the steps for log based recovery
of a system with suitable example. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
Log file : A log file is a file that records all the update activities occur in the
database.
Steps for log based recovery :

1. The log file is kept on a stable storage media.
2. When a transaction enters the system and starts execution, it writes a
log about it
<Tn, start>
3. When the transaction modifies an item X, it write log as follows
<Tn, X, V1, V2>
It reads as Tn has changed the value of X, from V1 to V2.
4. When the transaction finishes, it logs
<Tn, commit>
For example :
<T0, start>
<T0, A, 0, 10>
<T0, commit>
<T1, start>
<T1, B, 0, 10>
<T2, start>
<T2, C, 0 , 10>
<T2, C, 10, 20>
<checkpoint (T1, T2)>
<T3, start>
<T3, A, 10, 20>
<T3, D, 0, 10>
<T3, commit>
Que 4.22. Describe the important types of recovery techniques.

Explain their advantages and disadvantages.
Answer
There are many different database recovery techniques to recover a database :
1. Deferred update recovery : Refer Q. 4.18, Page 4–15A, Unit-4.
Advantages :
a. Recovery is easy.
b. Cascading rollback does not occur because no other transaction
sees the work of another until it is committed.
Disadvantages :
a. Concurrency is limited.
2. Immediate update recovery : Refer Q. 4.18, Page 4–15A, Unit-4.
Advantages :
a. It allo ws higher concurrency because transactions write
continuously to the database rather than waiting until the commit
point.
Disadvantages :
a. It leads to cascading rollbacks.
b. It is time consuming and may be problematic.
PART-4
Deadlock Handling.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.23. What is a deadlock ? Describe methods to handle a

deadlock.
OR
What is deadlock ? How it can be detected and avoided ?
Answer
Deadlock :
1. A deadlock is a situation in which two or more transactions are waiting
for locks held by the other transaction to release the lock.
2. Every transaction is waiting for another transaction to finish its
operations.
Methods to handle a deadlock :
1. Deadlock prevention protocol : This protocol ensures that the system
will not go into deadlock state. There are different methods that can be
used for deadlock prevention :
a. Pre-declaration method : This method requires that each
transaction locks all its data item before it starts execution.
b. Partial ordering method : In this method, system imposes a
partial ordering of all data items and requires that a transaction
can lock a data item only in the order specified by partial order.
c. Timestamp method : In this method, the data item are locked
using timestamp of transaction.
2. Deadlock detection :
a. When a transaction waits indefinitely to obtain a lock, system
should detect whether the transaction is involved in a deadlock or
not.
b. Wait-for-graph is one of the methods for detecting the deadlock
situation.
c. In this method a graph is drawn based on the transaction and
their lock on the resource.
d. If the graph created has a closed loop or a cycle, then there is a
deadlock.
Wait-for-lock(R1)
T1 T2
Wait-for-lock(R2)
Fig. 4.23.1. Wait-for-graph.
3. Recovery from deadlock :

a. Selection of a victim : In this we determine which transaction
(or transactions) to roll back to break the deadlock. We should
rollback those transactions that will incur the minimum cost.
b. Rollback : The simplest solution is a ‘‘total rollback’’. Abort the
transaction and then restart it.
c. Starvation : In a system where selection of transactions, for
rollback, is based on the cost factor, it may happen that the some
transactions are always picked up.
4. Deadlock avoidance : Deadlock can be avoided by following methods :
a. Serial access : If only one transaction can access the database at
a time, then we can avoid deadlock.
b. Autocommit transaction : It includes that each transaction
can only lock one resource immediately as it uses it, then finishes
its transaction and releases its lock before requesting any other
resource.
c. Ordered updates : If transactions always request resources in
the same order (for example, numerically ascending by the index
value of the row being locked) then system do not enters in
deadlock state.
d. By rolling back conflicting transactions.
e. By allocating the locks where needed.
Que 4.24. Discuss about the deadlock prevention schemes.

OR
Discuss about deadlock prevention schemes.
Answer
Deadlock prevention schemes :
1. Wait-die scheme :
i. In this scheme, if a transaction request to lock a resource (data
item), which is already held with conflicting lock by some other
transaction, one of the two possibilities may occur :
a. If TS(Ti) < TS(Tj), i.e., Ti, which is requesting a conflicting
lock, is older than Tj, Ti is allowed to wait until the data item
is available.
b. If TS(Ti) > TS(Tj), i.e., Ti is younger than Tj, so Ti dies. Ti is
restarted later with random delay but with same timestamp.
ii. This scheme allows the older transaction to wait but kills the
younger one.
2. Wound-wait scheme :
a. If TS(Ti) < TS(Tj), i.e., Ti, which is requesting a conflicting
lock, is older than Tj, Ti forces Tj to be rolled back, that is Ti
wounds Tj. Tj is restarted later with random delay but with
same timestamp.
b. If TS(Ti) > TS(Tj), i.e., Ti is younger than Tj, Ti is forced to
wait until the resource (i.e., data item) is available.
ii. This scheme, allows the younger transaction to wait but when an
older transaction request an item held by younger one, the older
transaction forces the younger one to abort and release the item.
In both cases, transaction, which enters late in the system, is
aborted.
Que 4.25. What is deadlock ? What are necessary conditions for

it ? How it can be detected and recovered ?
Answer
Deadlock : Refer Q. 4.23, Page 4–20A, Unit-4.
Necessary condition for deadlock : A deadlock situation can arise if the
following four conditions hold simultaneously in a system :
1. Mutual exclusion : At least one resource must be held in a non-
sharable mode; that is, only one process at a time can use the resource.
If another process requests that resource, the requesting process must
be delayed until the resource has been released.
2. Hold and wait : A process must be holding at least one resource and
waiting to acquire additional resources that are currently being held by
other processes.
3. No pre-emption : Resources cannot be pre-empted; i.e., a resource can
be released only by the process holding it, after that process has
completed its task.
4. Circular wait : A set {P0, P1, ..., Pn} of waiting processes must exist
such that P0 is waiting for a resource held by P1, P1 is waiting for a
resource held by P2, ..., Pn–1 is waiting for a resource held by Pn, and Pn
is waiting for a resource held by P0.
Deadlock detection and recovery : Refer Q. 4.23, Page 4–20A, Unit-4.
PART-5
Distributed Database : Distributed Data Storage.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.26. What is distributed databases ? What are the advantages

and disadvantages of distributed databases ?
OR
Explain the advantages of distributed DBMS.
Answer
Distributed database :
Fragments
Fragments of Main
of Main database
database
User 2
User 1
Fragments Fragments
of Main of Main
database database
User 3
User 5
User 4 Fragments
of Main
database
Fig. 4.26.1. Distributed database.
1. A distributed database system consists of collection of sites, connected

together through a communication network.
2. Each site is a database system site in its own right and the sites have
agreed to work together, so that a user at any site can access anywhere
in the network as if the data were all stored at the user’s local site.
3. Each side has its own local database.
4. A distributed database is fragmented into smaller data sets.
5. DDBMS can handle both local and global transactions.
Advantages of DDBMS :
1. DDBMS allows each site to store and maintain its own database, causing
immediate and efficient access to data.
2. It allows access to the data stored at remote sites. At the same time
users can retain the control to its own site to access the local data.
3. If one site is not working due to any reason (for example, communication
link goes down) the system will not be down because other sites of the
network can possibly continue functioning.
4. New sites can be added to the system anytime with no or little efforts.
5. If a user needs to access the data from multiple sites then the desired
query can be subdivided into sub-queries in parallel.
Disadvantages of DDBMS :
1. Complex software is required for a distributed database environment.
2. The various sites must exchange message and perform additional
calculations to ensure proper coordination among the sites.
3. A by-product of the increased complexity and need for coordination is
the additional exposure to improper updating and other problems of
data integrity.
4. If the data are not distributed properly according to their usage, or if
queries are not formulated correctly, response to requests for data can
be extremely slow.
Que 4.27. What are atomic commit protocols ?
Answer
1. Atomic commit protocols are the key element in supporting global
atomicity of distributed transactions.
2. Two-phase commit protocol (2PC) is the standard atomic commit protocol.
3. 2PC is important to guarantee correctness properties in the complex
distributed world whilst at the same time it reduces parallelism due
to high disk and message overhead and locking during windows of
vulnerability.
4. An atomic commitment problem requires processes to agree on a
common outcome which can be either commit or abort.
5. An atomic commit protocol must guarantee the following atomic
commitment properties :
a. AC1 : All processes that reach an outcome reach the same one.
b. AC2 : A process cannot reverse its outcome after it has reached
one.
c. AC3 : The commit outcome can only be reached if all participant
voted Yes.
d. AC4 : If there are no failures and all participants voted Yes,
then the outcome will be commit.
e. AC5 : Consider any execution containing only failures that the
protocol is designed to tolerate.
6 At any point in the execution, if all existing failures are repaired and
no new failures occur for sufficiently long, then all processes will
eventually reach an outcome.
Que 4.28. Explain replication and its types in distributed system.
Answer
1. Replication is a technique of replicating data over a system.
2. Replication is a key to the effectiveness of distributed systems in that, it

provides enhanced performance, high availability and high fault tolerance.
3. The replication is the maintenance of copies of data at multiple computers.
4. Replication is a technique for enhancing a service.
5. When data are replicated, the replication transparency is required i.e.,
clients should not normally have to be aware that multiple copies of data
exist.
Types of replication :
i. Active replication :
1. In active replication each client request is processed by all the servers.
2. This requires that the process hosted by the servers is deterministic,
i.e., given the same initial state and a request sequence, all processes
will produce the same response sequence and end up in the same
final state.
Active replication
Client
Process Process Process
State State State
Server Server Server

Fig. 4.28.1.
3. In order to make all the servers receive the same sequence of
operations, an atomic broadcast protocol must be used.
4. An atomic broadcast protocol guarantees that either all the servers
receive a message or none, plus that they all receive messages in
the same order.
ii. Passive replication :
1. In passive replication there is only one server (called primary) that
processes client requests.
2. After processing a request, the primary server updates the state on
the other (backup) servers and sends back the response to the
client.
3. If the primary server fails, one of the backup servers takes its
place.
4. Passive replication may be used even for non-deterministic
processes.
Passive replication
Client
Process Process Process
State State State
Server Server Server

Fig. 4.28.2.
Que 4.29. Explain data fragmentation with types.
Answer
Fragmentation :
1. It is the decomposition of a relation into fragments.
2. It permits to divide a single query into a set of multiple sub-queries that
can execute parallel on fragments.
3. Fragmentation is done according to the data selection patterns of
applications running on the database.
Fragmentation techniques/types are as follows :
1. Vertical fragmentation :
a. It divides a relation into fragments which contain a subset of
attributes of a relation along with the primary key attribute of the
relation.
Name Reg. No. Course Dept
Fragmentation1 Fragmentation2 Fragmentation3
Fig. 4.29.1. Vertical fragmentation.
b. The purpose of vertical fragmentation is to partition a relation

into a set of smaller relations to enable user applications to run on
only one fragment.
2. Horizontal fragmentation :
a. It divides a relation into fragments along its tuples. Each fragment
is a subset of tuples of a relation.
b. It identifies some specific rows based on some criteria and marks it
as a fragment.
Name Reg. No. Course Depth
Fragmentation1
Fragmentation2
Fragmentation3
Fragmentation4
Fig. 4.29.2. Horizontal fragmentation.
c. Various horizontal fragmentation techniques are :
i. Primary horizontal fragmentation : This type of
fragmentation is done where the tables in a database are
neither joined nor have dependencies. So, no relationship exists
among the tables.
ii. Derived horizontal fragmentation : Derived horizontal
fragmentation is used for parent relation. It is used where
tables are interlinked with the help of foreign keys. It ensures
that the fragments which are joined together are put on the
same site.
3. Hybrid/mixed fragmentation :
a. The mixed/hybrid fragmentation is combination of horizontal and
vertical fragmentations.
b. This type is most complex one, because both types are used in
horizontal and vertical fragmentation of the DB application.
c. The original relation is obtained back by join or union operations.
R
HF HF
R1 R2
VF VF VF VF
VF
R 11 R12 R21 R 22 R23

Fig. 4.29.3. Hybrid/mixed fragmentation.
Que 4.30. What are distributed database ? List advantages and

disadvantages of data replication and data fragmentation. Explain
with a suitable example, what are the differences in replication and

fragmentation transparency ? AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
OR
Explain the types of distributed data storage.
OR
What are distributed database? List advantage and disadvantage
of data replication and data fragmentation.
Answer
Distributed database : Refer Q. 4.26, Page 4–23A, Unit-4.
Advantages of data replication :
i. Availability : If one of the sites containing relation r fails, then the
relation r can be found in another site. Thus, the system can continue to
process queries involving ‘r’, despite the failure of one site.
ii. Increased parallelism : Number of transactions can read relation r in
parallel. The more replicas of ‘r’ there are, the greater parallelism is
achieved.
Disadvantages of data replication :
i. Increased overhead on update : The system must ensure that all
replicas of a relation r are consistent; otherwise, erroneous computation
may result. Thus, whenever r is updated, the update must be propagated
to all sites containing replicas. The result is increased overhead.
Advantages of data fragmentation :
i. Parallelized execution of queries by different sites is possible.
ii. Data management is easy as fragments are smaller compare to the
complete database.
iii. Increased availability of data to the users/queries that are local to the
site in which the data stored.
iv. As the data is available close to the place where it is most frequently
used, the efficiency of the system in terms of query processing,
transaction processing is increased.
v. Data that are not required by local applications are not stored locally. It
leads to reduced data transfer between sites, and increased security.
Disadvantages of data fragmentation :
i. The performance of global application that requires data from several
fragments located at different sites may be slower.
ii. Integrity control may be more difficult if data and functional dependencies
are fragmented and located at different sites.
Differences in replication and fragmentation transparency :
S. No. Replication transparency Fragmentation transparency

1. It involves placing copies of It involves decomposition of a table
each table or each of their in many tables in the system.
fragments on more than one
site in the system.
2. The user does no t know The user does not know about
about how many replicas of how relatio n is divided/
the relation are present in fragmented in the system.
the system.
3. For example, if relation r is For example, if relation ‘r’ is
replicated, a copy of relation fragmented, ‘r’ is divided into a
r is stored in two or more number of fragments. These
sites. In extreme case, a copy fragme nts contain sufficie nt
is stored in every site in the information to allow
system which is called as full reconstruction of the original
replication. relation ‘r’.
There are two types of distributed data storage :

1. Data fragmentation : Refer Q. 4.29, Page 4–27A, Unit-4.
2. Data replication : Refer Q. 4.28, Page 4–25A, Unit-4.
Que 4.31. Discuss the types of distributed database.
Answer
Distributed databases are classified as :
1. Homogeneous distributed database :
a. In this, all sites have identical database management system
software.
b. All sites are aware of one another, and agree to co-operate in
processing user’s requests.
2. Heterogeneous distributed database :
a. In this, different sites may use different schemas, and different
database management system software.
b. The sites may not be aware of one another, and they may provide
only limited facilities for co-operation in transaction processing.
PART-6
Concurrent Control, Directory System.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.32. What is concurrency control ? Why it is needed in

database system.
OR
Explain concurrency control. Why it is needed in database system ?
Answer
1. Concurrency Control (CC) is a process to ensure that data is updated
correctly and appropriately when multiple transactions are concurrently
executed in DBMS.
2. It is a mechanism for correctness when two or more database
transactions that access the same data or dataset are executed
concurrently with time overlap.
3. In general, concurrency control is an essential part of transaction
management.
Concurrency control is needed :
1. To ensure consistency in the database.
2. To prevent following problem :
a. Lost update :
i. A second transaction writes a second value of a data item on
top of a first value written by a first concurrent transaction,
and the first value is lost to other transactions running
concurrently which need, by their precedence, to read the
first value.
ii. The transactions that have read the wrong value end with
incorrect results.
b. Dirty read :
i. Transactions read a value written by a transaction that has
been later aborted.
ii. This value disappears from the database upon abort, and should
not have been read by any transaction (“dirty read”).
iii. The reading transactions end with incorrect results.
Que 4.33. Explain concurrency control mechanism performed in

distributed databases ?
Answer
Following are concurrency control mechanism in distributed
database :
a. Two-phase commit protocol : Two-phase commit protocol is
designed to allow any participant to abort its part of transaction. Due to
the requirement for atomicity, if one part of a transaction is aborted
then the whole transaction must also be aborted.
Following are the two phase used in this protocol :
Phase 1 (voting phase) :
1. The co-ordinator sends a canCommit? request to each of the
participants in the transaction.
2. When a participant receives canCommit? request it replies with its
vote (Yes or No) to the co-ordinator. Before voting Yes, it prepares
to commit by saving objects in permanent storage. If the vote is No,
the participant aborts immediately.
Phase 2 (completion according to outcome of vote) :
1. The co-ordinator collects the votes (including its own).
a. If there are no failures and all the votes are Yes the co-ordinator
decides to commit the transaction and sends a doCommit
request to each of the participants.
b. Otherwise the co-ordinator decides to abort the transaction
and sends doAbort requests to all participants that voted Yes.
2. Participants that voted Yes are waiting for a doCommit or doAbort
request from the co-ordinator. When a participant receives one of
these messages it acts accordingly and in the case of commit, makes
a haveCommitted calls as confirmation to the co-ordinator.
Co-ordinator Participant
status step status step
canCommit?
1 prepared to commit 2 prepared to
(waiting for votes) Yes commit
(uncertain)
doCommit
3 committed 4 committed
have Committed
done
Fig. 4.23.2. Communication in two-phase commit protocol.

b. Moss concurrency control protocol :
1. Moss concurrency control protocol for nested transactions is based
on the concept of upward inheritance of locks.
2. A transaction can acquire a lock on object O in some mode M.

3. Doing that, it holds the lock in mode M until its termination.
4. Besides holding a lock, a transaction can retain a lock in mode M.
5. When a subtransaction commits, its parent transaction inherits its
locks and then retains them. If a transaction holds a lock, it has the
right to access the locked object (in the corresponding mode).
6. However, the same is not true for retained locks.
7. A retained lock is only a place holder and indicates that transactions
outside the hierarchy of the retainer cannot acquire the lock, but
that descendants potentially can.
8. As soon as a transaction becomes a retainer of a lock, it remains a
retainer for the lock until it terminates.
Que 4.33. Explain directory system in detail.
Answer
1. A directory is a listing of information about some class of objects such
as persons.
2. Directories can be used to find information about a specific object, or in
the reverse direction to find objects that meet a certain requirement.
3. In the networked world, the directories are present over a computer
network, rather than in a physical (paper) form.
4. A directory system is implemented as one of more servers, which
service multiple clients.
5. Clients use the application programmer interface defined by the
directory system to communicate with the directory servers.
Directory access protocols :
1. Directory access protocol is a protocol that allows to access directory
information through program.
2. Directory access protocols also define a data model and access control.
3. For instance, web browsers can store personal bookmarks and other
browser settings in a directory system. A user can thus access the
same settings from multiple locations, such as at home and at work,
without having to share a file system.

Q. 1. Write a short note on transaction. Explain ACID properties

of transaction.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.2.
Q. 2. Draw a transaction state diagram and describe the states

that a transaction goes through during transaction.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.5.
Q. 3. Explain view and conflict serializability with example.

Ans. View serializability : Refer Q. 4.9.
Conflict serializability : Refer Q. 4.8.
Q. 4. Explain log based recovery.

Ans. Refer Q. 4.18.
Q. 5. Describe shadow paging recovery technique.

Ans. Refer Q. 4.19.
Q. 6. What is deadlock ? How it can be detected and avoided ?

Ans. Refer Q. 4.23.
Q. 7. Write a short note on deadlock prevention schemes.

Ans. Refer Q. 4.24.
Q. 8. Give the types of distributed data storage with its

advantages and disadvantages.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.30.
Q. 9. Explain different types of recovery techniques. Give its

advantages and disadvantages.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.22.

5
UNIT
Concurrency Control
Techniques
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Concurrency Control, ............................... 5–2A to 5–11A
Locking Techniques for
Concurrency Control
Part-2 : Time Stamping ......................................... 5–11A to 5–16A

Protocols for Concurrency
Control, Validation
Based Protocol
Part-3 : Multiple Granularity ............................... 5–16A to 5–22A

Multiversion Schemes
Part-4 : Recovery with Concurrent .................... 5–22A to 5–26A

Transaction,
Case Study of Oracle
Concurrency Control Techniques 5–2 A (CS/IT-Sem-5)
PART-1
Concurrency Control, Locking Techniques for Concurrency Control.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.1. Describe concurrency control.
Answer
Refer Q. 4.32, Page 4–31A, Unit-4.
Que 5.2. What is lock ? Explain different types of locks.

OR
Describe lock based locking techniques.
Answer
Lock : A lock is a variable associated with each data item that indicates
whether read or write operation is applied.
Different types of locks are :
1. Binary lock :
i. A binary lock can be two states or values : locked and unlocked (or
1 and 0).
ii. A distinct lock is associated with each database item X.
iii. If the value of the lock on X is 1, item X cannot be accessed by a
database operation that requests the item.
iv. If the value of the lock on X is 0, the item can be accessed when
requested.
v. We refer to the current value (or state) of the lock associated with
item X as lock(X).
vi. Two operations, lock_item and unlock_item, are used with binary
locking.
If the simple binary locking scheme is used, every transaction
must obey the following rules :
i. A transaction T must issue the operation lock_item(X) before any
read_item(X) or write_item(X) operations are performed in T.
ii. A transaction T must issue the operation unlock_item(X) after all

read_item(X) and write_item(X) operations are completed in T.
iii. A transaction T will not issue a lock_item(X) operation if it already
holds the lock on item X.
iv. A transaction T will not issue an unlock_item(X) operation unless
it already holds the lock on item X.
2. Shared/Exclusive locks :
i. In this scheme there are three locking operations : read_lock(X),
write_lock(X), and unlock(X).
ii. A lock associated with an item X, lock(X), has three possible states
: read-locked, write-locked and unlocked.
iii. A read-locked item is also called share-locked because other
transactions are allowed to read the item, whereas a write-locked
item is called exclusive-locked because a single transaction
exclusively holds the lock on the item.
If the shared/exclusive locking scheme is used, every transaction
must obey the following rules :
i. A transaction T must issues the operation read_lock(X) or
write_lock(X) before any read_item(X) operation is performed in
T.
ii. A transaction T must issue the operation write_lock(X) before any
write_item(X) operation is performed in T.
iii. A transaction T must issue the operation unlock(X) after all
read_item(X) and write_item(X) operations are completed in T.
iv. A transaction T will not issue a read_lock(X) operation if it already
holds a read (shared) lock or a write (exclusive) lock on item X.
v. A transaction T will not issue a write_lock(X) operation if it already
holds a read (shared) lock or write (exclusive) lock on item X.
vi. A transaction T will not issue an unlock(X) operation unless it
already holds a read (shared) lock or a write (exclusive) lock on
item X.
Que 5.3. What do you understand by lock compatibility ? Explain

with example.
Answer
1. Lock compatibility determines whether locks can be acquired on a data
item by multiple transactions at the same time.
2. Suppose a transaction Ti requests a lock of mode m1 on a data item Q on
which another transaction Tj currently holds a lock of mode m2.
3. If mode m2 is compatible with mode m1, the request is immediately
granted, otherwise rejected.
4. The lock compatibility can be represented by a matrix called the

compatibility matrix.
5. The term “YES” indicates that the request can be granted and “NO”
indicates that the request cannot be granted.
Requested mode Shared Exclusive
Shared YES NO
Exclusive NO NO
Fig. 5.3.1. Compatibility matrix.
Que 5.4. How is locking implemented ? How are requests to lock

and unlock a data item handled ?
Answer
Implementation of locking :
1. The locking or unlocking of data items is implemented by a subsystem of
the database system known as the lock manager.
2. It receives the lock requests from transactions and replies them with a
lock grant message or rollback message (in case of deadlock).
3. In response to an unlock request, the lock manager only replies with an
acknowledgement. In addition, it may result in lock grant messages to
other waiting transactions.
The lock manager handles the requests by the transaction to lock
and unlock a data item in the following way :
1. Lock request :
a. When a first request to lock a data item arrives, the lock manager
creates a new linked list to record the lock request for the data
item.
b. It immediately grants the lock request of the transaction.
c. If the linked list for the data item already exists, it includes the
request at the end of the linked list.
d. The lock request will be granted only if the lock request is compatible
with all the existing locks and no other transaction is waiting for
acquiring lock on this data item otherwise, the transaction has to
wait.
2. Unlock request :
a. When an unlock request for the data items arrives, the lock manager
deletes the record corresponding to that transaction from the linked
list for the data item.
b. It then checks whether other waiting requests on that data item
can be granted.
c. If the request can be granted, it is granted by the lock manager, and

the next record, if any, is processed.
d. If a transaction aborts, the lock manager deletes all waiting lock
requests by the transaction.
e. In addition, the lock manager releases all locks acquired by the
transaction and updates the records in the lock table.
Que 5.5. Describe how a typical lock manager is implemented.

Why must lock and unlock be atomic operations ? What is the
difference between a lock and a latch ? What are convoys and how
should a lock manager handle them ?
Answer
Implementation of lock manager :
1. A typical lock manager is implemented with a hash table, also called lock
table, with the data object identifier as the key.
2. A lock table entry contains the following information :
a. The number of transactions currently holding a lock on the object.
b. The nature of the lock.
c. A pointer to a queue of lock requests.
Reason for lock and unlock being atomic operations : Lock and
unlock must be atomic operations because it may be possible for two
transactions to obtain an exclusive lock on the same object, thereby
destroying the principles of 2PL.
Difference between lock and latch :
S. No. Lock Latch
1. It is used when we lock any It is used when we release lock.
data item.
2. Hold for long duration. Hold for short duration.
3. It is used at initial stage of It is used when all the operations
transaction. are completed.
Convoy :
1. Convoy is a queue of waiting transactions.
2. It occurs when a transaction holding a heavily used lock is suspended
by the operating system, and every other transaction that needs this
lock is queued.
Lock manager handle convoy by allowing a transaction to acquire lock only
once.
Que 5.6. Write short notes on lock based protocols.
Answer
1. Lock based protocol indicates when a transaction may lock and unlock
the data items, during the concurrent execution. It restricts the number
of possible schedules.
2. It ensures that the data items must be accessed in mutual exclusive
manner and for this we use different lock modes.
3. There are two modes in which a data item may be locked :
i. Shared mode lock : If a transaction Ti has obtained a shared
mode lock on item Q then Ti can read but cannot write Q. It is
denoted by S.
ii. Exclusive lock : If a transaction Ti has obtained an exclusive
mode lock on item Q then Ti can read and also write Q. It is denoted
by X.
Que 5.7. Explain two-phase locking technique for concurrency

control.
OR
What is two-phase locking (2PL) ? Describe with the help of example.
OR
Explain two phase locking protocol with suitable example.
Answer
1. Two-phase locking is a procedure in which a transaction is said to
follow the two-phase locking protocol if all locking operations precede
the first unlock operation in the transaction.
2. In 2PL, each transaction lock and unlock the data item in two phases :
a. Growing phase : In the growing phase, the transaction acquires
locks on the desired data items.
b. Shrinking phase : In the shrinking phase, the transaction
releases the locks acquired by the data items.
3. According to 2PL, the transaction cannot acquire a new lock, after it
has unlocked any of its existing locked items.
4. Given below, the two transactions T1 and T2 that do not follow the
two-phase locking protocol.
T1 T2
Read-lock (Y); Read-lock (X);

Read-item (Y); Read-item (X);
Unlock (Y); Unlock (X);
Write-lock (X); Write-lock (Y);
Read-item (X); Read-item (Y);
X : = X + 1; Y : = Y + 1;
Write-item (X); Write-item (Y);
Unlock (X); Unlock (Y);
5. This is because the write-lock (X) operation follows the unlock (Y)
operation in T1, and similarly the write-lock (Y) operation follows the
unlock (X) operation in T2.
6. If we enforce two-phase locking, the transaction can be rewritten as :
T1 T2

X : = X + 1; Y : = Y + 1;
7. It can be proved that, if every transaction in a schedule follows the
two-phase locking protocol, the schedule is guaranteed to be serializable,
obviating the need to test for serializability of schedules any more.
Que 5.8. Discuss strict 2PL.
Answer
1. Cascading rollbacks can be avoided by a modification of two-phase locking
called the strict two-phase locking protocol.
2. This protocol requires not only that locking be two phase, but also that
all exclusive-mode locks taken by a transaction be held until that
transaction commits.
3. This requirement ensures that any data written by an uncommitted
transaction are locked in exclusive mode until the transaction commits,
preventing any other transaction from reading the data.
4. Strict two-phase is the most widely used locking protocol in concurrency
control. This protocol has two rules :
a. If a transaction T wants to read (modify) an object, it first requests
a shared (exclusive) lock on the object.
b. All locks held by a transaction are released when the transaction is

completed.
5. If strict two-phase locking is used for concurrency control, locks held by
a transaction T may be released only after the transaction has been
rolledback.
6. Once transaction T (that is being rolledback) has updated a data item,
no other transaction could have updated the same data item, because of
the concurrency control requirements.
7. Therefore, restoring the old value of the data item will not erase the
effects of any other transaction.
Lock acquisition
Release at
phase
commit
T begin T end Time
Fig. 5.8.1.
Que 5.9. Write the salient features of graph based locking
protocol with suitable example. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 07
Answer
Salient features of graph based locking protocol are :
1. The graph based locking protocol ensures conflict serializability.
2. Free from deadlock.
3. Unlocking may occur earlier in the graph based locking protocol than
in the two phase locking protocol.
4. Shorter waiting time, and increase in concurrency.
5. No rollbacks are required.
6. Data items may be unlocked at any time.
7. Only exclusive locks are considered.
8. The first lock by T1 may be on any data item. Subsequently, a data Q
can be locked by T1 only if the parent of Q is currently locked by T1.
9. A data item that has been locked and unlocked by T 1 cannot
subsequently be relocked by T1.
For example :
We have three transactions in this schedule, i.e., we will only see how
locking and unlocking of data item.
A
C
B
F
D E
G H
T1 T2 T3
Lock-X(A)
Lock-X(D)
Lock-X(H)
Unlock-X(D)
Lock-X(E)
Lock-X(D)
Unlock-X(B)
Unlock-X(E)
Lock-X(B)
Lock-X(E)
Unlock-X(H)
The schedule is conflict serializable.

Serializablity for locks can be written as T2  T1  T3.
Que 5.10. Describe two-phase locking technique for concurrency

control. Explain. How does it guarantee serializability ?
Answer
Two-phase locking technique : Refer Q. 5.7, Page 5–6A, Unit-5.
Two-phase locking guarantee the serializability :
1. Two-phase locking protocol restricts the unwanted read/write by
applying exclusive lock.
2. Moreover, when there is an exclusive lock on an item it will only be
released in shrinking phase.
3. Due to this restriction, there is no chance of getting any inconsistent
state. Because any inconsistency may only be created by write operation.
In this way the two-phase locking protocol ensures serializability.
Que 5.11. Describe major problems associated with concurrent

processing with examples. What is the role of locks in avoiding
these problems ? AKTU 2015-16, Marks 15
OR
Describe the problem faced when concurrent transactions are
executing in uncontrolled manner. Give an example and explain.
Answer
Concurrent transaction : Concurrent transaction means multiple
transactions are active at the same time.
Following problems can arise if many transactions try to access a common
database simultaneously :
1. The lost update problem :
a. A second transaction writes a second value of a data item on top of
a first value written by a first concurrent transaction, and the first
value is lost to other transactions running concurrently which
need, by their precedence, to read the first value.
b. The transactions that have read the wrong value end with
incorrect results.
Example :
Transaction T1 Transaction T2
Read X  A 2
Read Y  A1
A2 + A1  A2
Read X  A2
A2 + 1  A2
Write A2  X
Write A1  Y Time Write A2  X
In the example, the update performed by the transaction T2 is lost

(overwritten) by transaction T1.
2. The dirty read problem :
a. Transactions read a value written by a transaction that has been
later aborted.
b. This value disappears from the database upon abort, and should
c. The reading transactions end with incorrect results.
Example :
Read Y  A1
Read X  A 2
A2 + A1  A2
Write A2  X
Read X  A2
Commit
Fails Time
In the example, transaction T1 fails and changes the value of X back to

its old value, but T 2 is committed and reads the temporary
incorrect value of X.
3. The incorrect summary problem :
a. While one transaction takes a summary over the values of all the
instances of a repeated data item, a second transaction updates
some instances of that data item.
b. The resulting summary does not reflect a correct result for any
(usually needed for correctness) precedence order between the
two transactions (if one is executed before the other).
Example :
Read Y  A2 Read X  A2
Read X  A 1 A2 + 1  A2
A2 + A1  A2 Write A2  X
Write A2  X Rollback
Time
An example of unrepeatable read in which if T1 were to read the

value of X after T2 had updated X, the result of T1 would be different.
Role of locks :
1. It locks the data item in the transaction in correct order.
2. If any data item is locked than it must be unlock at the end of operation.
PART-2
Time Stamping Protocols for Concurrency Control,
Validation Based Protocol.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.12. Explain timestamp based protocol and timestamp

ordering protocol.
OR
Discuss the timestamp based protocol to maintain serializability in
concurrent execution. Also explain its advantages and
disadvantages.
Answer
Timestamp based protocols :
Timestamp based protocol ensures serializability. It selects an ordering among
transactions in advance using timestamps.
Timestamps :
1. With each transaction in the system, a unique fixed timestamp is
associated. It is denoted by TS(Ti).
2. This timestamp is assigned by the database system before the transaction
Ti starts execution.
3. If a transaction Ti has been assigned timestamp TS(Ti), and a new
transaction Tj enters the system, then TS(Ti) < TS(Tj).
4. The timestamps of the transactions determine the serializability order.
Thus, if TS(Tj) > TS(Ti ) , then the system must ensure that in produced
schedule, transaction Ti appears before transaction Tj .
5. To implement this scheme, two timestamps are associated with each
data item Q.
a. W-timestamp (Q) : It denotes the largest timestamp of any
transaction that executed write(Q) successfully.
b. R-timestamp (Q) : It denotes the largest timestamp of any
transaction that executed read(Q) successfully.
These timestamps are updated whenever a new read(Q) or write(Q)
instruction is executed.
The timestamp ordering protocol :
The timestamp ordering protocol ensures that any conflicting read and write
operations are executed in timestamp order. This protocol operates as follows :
1. Suppose that transaction Ti issues read(Q).
a. If TS(Ti ) < W-timestamp(Q), then Ti needs a value of Q that was
already overwritten. Hence, read operation is rejected, and Ti is
rolledback.
b. If TS(Ti )  W-timestamp(Q), then the read operation is executed,

and R-timestamp(Q) is set to the maximum of R-timestamp(Q) and
TS(Ti ).
2. Suppose that transaction Ti issues write(Q).
a. If TS(Ti) < R-timestamp(Q), then the value of Q that Ti is producing
was needed previously, and the system assumed that the value
would never be produced. Hence, the system rejects write operation
and rolls Ti back.
b. If TS(Ti) < W-timestamp(Q), then Ti is attempting to write an
obsolete value of Q. Hence, the system rejects this write operation
and rolls back Ti.
c. Otherwise, the system executes the write operation and sets
W-timestamp(Q) to TS(Ti ). If a transaction Ti is rolled by the
concurrency control scheme, the system assigns it a new timestamp
and restarts it.
Advantages of timestamp ordering protocol :
1. The timestamp ordering protocol ensures conflict serializability. This is
because conflicting operation are processed in timestamp order.
2. The protocol ensures freedom from deadlock, since no transaction ever
waits.
Disadvantages of timestamp ordering protocol :
1. There is a possibility of starvation of long transaction if a sequence of
conflicting short transaction causes repeated restarting of the long
transaction.
2. The protocol can generate schedules that are not recoverable.
Que 5.13. Write short note on the following :
i. Thomas’ write rule

ii. Strict timestamp ordering protocol
Answer
i. Thomas’ write rule : Thomas’ write rule is a modified version of
timestamp ordering protocol. Suppose that transaction Ti issues
write(Q) :
1. If TS (Ti) < R-timestamp(Q), then the value of Q that Ti is producing
was previously needed, and it had been assumed that the value would
never be produced. Hence, the system rejects the write operation and
rolls Ti back.
2. If TS(Ti) < W-timestamp(Q), then Ti is attempting to write an obsolete
value of Q. Hence, this write operation can be ignored.
3. Otherwise, the system executes the write operation and sets

W-timestamps(Q) to TS (Ti).
ii. Strict timestamp ordering protocol :
1. Strict timestamp ordering ensures that the schedules are both strict and
serializable.
2. In this variation, a transaction T issues a read_ite m (X) or
write_item (X) such that TS (T) > W-timestamp (X) has its read or write
operation delayed until the transaction T1 that wrote the value of X
(hence TS (T1) = W-timestamp (X)) has committed or aborted.
3. To implement this algorithm, it is necessary to simulate the locking of
an item X that has been written by transaction T until T1 is either
committed or aborted.
4. This algorithm does not cause deadlock, since T waits for T1 only if
TS (T) > TS (T1).
Que 5.14. Explain validation protocol in concurrency control.
Answer
Validation protocol in concurrency control consists of following
three phase :
1. Read phase :
a. During this phase, the system executes transaction Ti.
b. It reads the values of the various data items and stores them in
variables local to Ti.
c. It performs all write operations on temporary local variables,
without updates of the actual database.
2. Validation phase : Transaction Ti performs a validation test to
determine whether it can copy to the database, the temporary local
variables that hold the results of write operations without causing a
violation of serializability.
3. Write phase : If transaction Ti succeeds in validation phase, then the
system applies the actual updates to the database, otherwise, the system
rolls back Ti.
All three phases of concurrently executing transactions can be interleaved.
To perform the validation test, we should know when the various phases of
transactions Ti took place. We shall, therefore, associate three different
timestamps with transaction Ti :
1. Start (Ti), the time when Ti started its execution.
2. Validation (Ti), the time when Ti finished its read phase and started its
validation phase.
3. Finish (Ti), the time when Ti finished its write phase.
Que 5.15. Explain the phantom phenomenon. Devise a timestamp

based protocol that avoids the phantom phenomenon.
OR
Explain the phantom phenomena. Discuss a timestamp protocol
that avoids the phantom phenomena. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07
Answer
Phantom phenomenon :
1. A deadlock that is detected but is not really a deadlock is called a phantom
deadlock.
2. In distributed deadlock detection, information about wait-for relationship
between transactions is transmitted from one server to another.
3. If there is a deadlock, the necessary information will eventually be
collected in one place and a cycle will be detected.
4. As this procedure will take some time, there is a chance that one of the
transactions that hold a lock will meanwhile have released it; in this
case the deadlock will no longer exist.
For example :
1. Consider the case of global deadlock detector that receives local wait-for
graph from servers X and Y as shown in Fig. 5.15.1 and 5.15.2.
T U
Fig. 5.15.1. Local wait-for graph.
V T
Fig. 5.15.2. Local wait-for graph.

U V
Fig. 5.15.3. Global wait-for graph.

2. Suppose that transaction U releases an object at server X and requests
the one held by V at server Y.
3. Suppose also that the global detector receives server Y’s local graph
before server X’s.
4. In this case, it would detect a cycle T  U  V  T, although the edge
T  U no longer exists.
5. A phantom deadlock could be detected if a waiting transaction in a
deadlock cycle aborts during the deadlock detection procedure.
For example, if there is a cycle T  U  V  T and U aborts after the
information concerning U has been collected, then the cycle has been
broken already and there is no deadlock.
Timestamp based protocol that avoids phantom phenomenon :
1. The B + tree index based approach can be adapted to timestamping by
treating index buckets as data items with timestamps associated with
them, and requiring that all read accesses use an index.
2. Suppose a transaction Ti wants to access all tuples with a particular
range of search-key values, using a B + tree index on that search-key.
3. Ti will need to read all the buckets in that index which have key values
in that range.
4. Ti will need to write one of the buckets in that index when any deletion
or insertion operation on the tuple is done.
5. Thus the logical conflict is converted to a conflict on an index bucket,
and the phantom phenomenon is avoided.
PART-3
Multiple Granularity, Multiversion Schemes.
Questions-Answers

Que 5.16. What do you mean by multiple granularities ? How it is
implemented in transaction system ? AKTU 2015-16, Marks 15
Answer
Multiple granularity :
1. Multiple granularity can be defined as hierarchically breaking up the
database into blocks which can be locked.
2. It maintains the track of what to lock and how to lock.
3. It makes easy to decide either to lock a data item or to unlock a data
item.
Implementation :
1. Multiple granularity is implemented in transaction system by defining
multiple levels of granularity by allowing data items to be of various
sizes and defining a hierarchy of data granularity where the small
granularities are nested within larger ones.
2. In the tree, a non leaf node represents the data associated with its
descendents.
3. Each node is an independent data item.
4. The highest level represents the entire database.
5. Each node in the tree can be locked individually using shared or exclusive
mode locks.
6. If a node is locked in an intention mode, explicit locking is being done at
lower level of the tree (that is, at a finer granularity).
7. Intention locks are put on all the ancestors of a node before that node is
locked explicitly.
8. While traversing the tree, the transaction locks the various nodes in an
intention mode. This hierarchy can be represented graphically as a tree.
DB Database
A1 A2 Area
Fb Fc File
Fa
ra1 ra2 ran rb1 rbk rc1 rcm Record

Fig. 5.16.1.
9. When a transaction locks a node, it also has implicitly locked all the
descendents of that node in the same mode.
Que 5.17.
3.17. What is multiple granularity protocol of concurrency
control ?
Answer
1. Multiple granularity protocol is a protocol in which we lock the data
items in top-down order and unlock them in bottom-up order.
2. In multiple granularity locking protocol, each transaction Ti can lock a
node Q in any locking mode by following certain rules, which ensures
serializability. These rules are as follows :
i. Ti must follow the compatibility matrix as shown in Fig. 5.17.1 to
lock a node Q. This matrix contain following additional locks :
a. Intension-Shared (IS) : Explicit locking at a lower level of
tree but only with shared locks.
b. Intension-Exclusive (IX) : Explicit locking at a lower level
with exclusive or shared locks.
c. Shared and Intension-Exclusive (SIX) : The sub-tree
rooted by that node is locked explicitly in shared mode and
explicit locking is being done at a lower level with exclusive
mode locks.
ii. It first locks the root of the tree and then locks the other nodes.
iii. It can lock a node Q in S or IS mode only if it currently has the
parent of Q locked in either IX or IS mode.
iv. It can lock node Q in X, SIX or IX mode only if it currently has the
parent of Q locked in either IX or SIX mode.
v. It can lock a node if it has not previously unlocked any node.
vi. It can unlock a node Q only if it currently has none of the children
of Q locked.
Requested mode X SIX IX S IS
X NO NO NO NO NO
SIX NO NO NO NO YES
IX NO NO YES NO YES
S NO NO NO YES YES
IS NO YES YES YES YES
Fig. 5.17.1. Compatibility matrix for different

mode in multiple granularity protocol.
Que 5.18. What is granularity locking ? How does granularity of

data item affect the performance of concurrency control ? What
factors affect the selection of granularity size of data item ?
Answer
Granularity locking :
1. Granularity locking is a concept of locking the data item on the basis of
size of data item.
2. It is based on the hierarchy of data where small granularities are nested
within larger one. The lock may be granted at any level from bottom to
top.
Effect of granularity of data item over the performance of
concurrency control :
1. The larger the data item size is, the lower the degree of concurrency
permitted. For example, if the data item size is disk block, a transaction
T that need to lock a record B must lock the whole disk block X that
contains B. If the other transactions want to lock record C which resides
in same lock then it is forced to wait.
2. If the data item size is small then the number of items in the database
increases. Because every item is associated with a lock, the system will
have a larger number of active locks to be handled by the lock manager.
3. More lock and unlock operations will be performed which cause higher
overhead.
Factors affecting the selection of granularity size of data items :
1. It depends on the types of transaction involved.
2. If a typical transaction accesses a small number of records, it is
advantageous to have the data item granularity be one record.
3. If a transaction typically accesses many records in the same file, it may
be better to have block or file granularity so that the transaction will
consider all those records as one (or a few) data items.
Que 5.19. What do you mean by multi granularity ? How the

concurrency is maintained in this case. Write the concurrent
transaction for the following graph.
A
B E
C D F G
T1 wants to access item C in read mode
T2 wants to access item D in exclusive mode
T3 wants to read all the children of item B
T4 wants to access all items in read mode
Answer
Multi granularity : Refer Q. 5.16, Page 5–17A, Unit-5.
Concurrency in multi granularity protocol : Refer Q. 5.17,
Page 5–17A, Unit-5.
Numerical :
1. Transaction T1 reads the item C in B. Then, T2 needs to lock the item
the item A and B in IS mode (and in that order), and finally to lock the
item C in S mode.
2. Transaction T2 modifies the item D in B. Then, T2 needs to lock the
item A AND B (and in that order) in IX mode, and at last to lock the
item D in X mode.
3. Transaction T3 reads all the records in B. Then, T3 needs to lock the A
and B (and in that order) in IS mode, and at last to lock the item B in S
mode.
4. Transaction T4 read the all item. It can be done after locking the item
A in S mode.
Que 5.20. What is multiversion concurrency control ? Explain

multiversion timestamping protocol.
Answer
Multiversion concurrency control :
1. Multiversion concurrency control is a schemes in which each write(Q)
operation creates a new version of Q.
2. When a transaction issues a read(Q) operation, the concurrency-control
manager selects one of the version of Q to be read.
3. The concurrency control scheme must ensure that the version to be
read is selected in manner that ensures serializability.
Multiversion timestamping protocol :
1. The most common transaction-ordering technique used by multiversion
schemes is timestamping.
2. With each transaction Ti in the system, we associate a unique static
timestamp, denoted by TS(Ti).
3. This timestamp is assigned before the transaction starts execution.
4. Concurrency can be increased if we allow multiple versions to be stored,
so that the transaction can access the version that is consistent for them.
5. With this protocol, each data item Q is associated with a sequence of
versions < Q1, Q2, . . . , Qm >.
6. Each version Qk contains three data fields :
a. Content is the value of version Qk.
b. W-timestamp(Qk) is the timestamp of the transaction that created

version Qk.
c. R-timestamp(Qk) is the largest timestamp of any transaction that
successfully read version Qk.
7. The scheme operates as follows :
Suppose that transaction Ti issues a read(Q) operation. Let Qk denote
the version of Q whose write timestamp is the largest write timestamp
less than or equal to TS(Ti).
a. If transaction Ti issues a read(Q), then the value returned is the
content of version Qk.
b. When transaction Ti issues write(Q) :
i. If TS(T j) < R-timestamp(Qk), then the system rolls back
transaction Ti.
ii. If TS(T i) = W-timestamp(Qk), the system overwrites the
contents of Qk; otherwise it creates a new version of Q.
iii. This rule forces a transaction to abort if it is “too late” in doing
a write.
Que 5.21. Discuss multiversion two-phase locking.
Answer
1. The multiversion two-phase locking attempts to combine the advantages
of multiversion concurrency control with the advantages of two-phase
locking.
2. In addition to read and write lock modes, multiversion two-phase locking
provides another lock mode, i.e., certify.
3. In order to determine whether these lock modes are compatible with
each other or not, consider Fig. 5.21.1
Requested mode Shared Exclusive Certify
Shared YES YES NO

Exclusive YES NO NO
Certify NO NO NO
Fig. 5.21.1. Compatibility matrix for multiversion two-phase locking.

4. The term “YES” indicates that if a transaction Ti hold a lock on data item
Q than lock can be granted by other requested transaction Tj on same
data item Q.
5. The term “NO” indicates that requested mode is not compatible with the
mode of lock held. So, the requested transaction must wait until the lock
is released.
6. In multiversion two-phase locking, other transactions are allowed to

read a data item while a transaction still holds an exclusive lock on the
data item.
7. This is done by maintaining two versions for each data item i.e., certified
version and uncertified version.
8. In this situation, Tj is allowed to read the certified version of Q while Ti
is writing the value of uncertified version of Q.
However, if transaction Ti is ready to commit, it must acquire a certify
lock on Q.
Que 5.22. What are the problems that can arise during concurrent
execution of two or more transactions ? Discuss methods to prevent
or avoid these problems.
Answer
Problems that can arise during concurrent execution of two or
more transaction : Refer Q. 5.11, Page 5–10A, Unit-5.
Methods to avoid these problems :
1. Lock based protocol :
a. It requires that all data items must be accessed in a mutually
exclusive manner.
b. In this protocol, concurrency is controlled by locking the data
items.
c. A lock guarantees exclusive use of a data item to current
transaction.
d. Locks are used as a means of synchronizing the access by
concurrent transaction to the database items.
2. Timestamp based protocol : Refer Q. 5.12, Page 5–12A, Unit-5.
3. Multiversion scheme :
a. Multiversion timestamping protocol : Refer Q. 5.20,
Page 5–20A, Unit-5.
b. Multiversion two-phase locking : Refer Q. 5.21, Page 5–21A,
Unit-5.
PART-4
Recovery with Concurrent Transaction, Case Study of Oracle.
Questions-Answers

Que 5.23. Explain the recovery with concurrent transactions.
Answer
Recovery from concurrent transaction can be done in the following four
ways :
1. Interaction with concurrency control :
a. In this scheme, the recovery scheme depends greatly on the
concurrency control scheme that is used.
b. So to rollback a failed transaction, we must undo the updates
performed by the transaction.
2. Transaction rollback :
a. In this scheme we rollback a failed transaction by using the log.
b. The system scans the log backward, for every log record found in
the log the system restores the data item.
3. Checkpoints :
a. In this scheme we used checkpoints to reduce the number of log
records that the system must scan when it recovers from a crash.
b. In a concurrent transaction processing system, we require that
the checkpoint log record be of the form <checkpoint L>, where
‘L’ is a list of transactions active at the time of the checkpoint.
4. Restart recovery :
a. When the system recovers from a crash, it constructs two lists.
b. The undo-list consists of transactions to be undone, and the redo-
list consists of transaction to be redone.
c. The system constructs the two lists as follows : Initially, they are
both empty. The system scans the log backward, examining each
record, until it finds the first <checkpoint> record.
Que 5.24. Describe Oracle. How data is stored in Oracle RDBMS ?
Answer
1. The Oracle database (commonly referred to as Oracle RDBMS or simply
Oracle) consists of a relational database management system (RDBMS).
2. Oracle is a multi-user database management system. It is a software
package specializing in managing a single, shared set of information
among many concurrent users.
3. Oracle is one of many database servers that can be plugged into a
client/server equation.
4. Oracle works to efficiently manage its resource, a database of
information, among the multiple clients requesting and sending data
in the network.
Storage :
1. The Oracle RDBMS stores data logically in the form of table spaces and
physically in the form of data files.
2. Table spaces can contain various types of memory segments, such as
data segments, index segments, etc.
Que 5.25. Write the name of disk files used is Oracle. Explain
database schema.
Answer
Disk files consists two files which are as follows :
1. Data files :
a. At the physical level, data files comprise one or more data blocks,
where the block size can vary between data files.
b. Data files can occupy pre-allocated space in the file system of a
computer server, utilize raw disk directly, or exist within ASM
logical volumes.
2. Control files : One (or multiple multiplexed) control files (also known
as “control files”) store overall system information and statuses.
Database schema :
1. Oracle database conventions refer to defined groups of object ownership
as schemas.
2. Most Oracle database installation has a default schema called SCOTT.
3. After the installation process has set up the sample tables, the user can
log into the database with the username scott and the password tiger.
5. The SCOTT schema has seen less use as it uses few of the features of
the more recent releases of Oracle.
6. Most recent examples supplied by Oracle Corporation reference the
default HR or OE schemas.
Que 5.26. Define in terms of Oracle :

i. Tablespace
ii. Package
iii. Schema
Answer
i. Tablespace :
1. A tablespace is a logical portion of an Oracle database used to allocate
storage for table and index data.
2. Each tablespace corresponds to one or more physical database files.
3. Every Oracle database has a tablespace called SYSTEM and may

have additional tablespaces.
4. A tablespace is used to group related logical structures together.
ii. Package :
1. Packages are a method of encapsulating and storing related
procedures, functions, and other package constructs together as a
unit in the database.
2. It also offers increased functionality and database performance.
3. Calling a public procedure or function that is part of a package is no
different than calling a standalone procedure or function, except
that we must include the program’s package name as a prefix to the
program name.
iii. Schema :
1. A schema is a collection of table definitions or related objects owned
by one person or user.
2. SCOTT is schema in the Oracle database.
3. Schema objects are the logical structures that directly refer to the
database’s data.
4. Schema objects include such structures as tables, views, sequences,
stored procedures, synonyms, indexes, clusters and database links.
Que 5.27. Explain SQL Plus, SQL * Net and SQL & LOADER.
Answer
SQL Plus :
1. SQL Plus is the front end tools for Oracle.
2. The SQL Plus window looks much like a DOS window with a white
background similar Notepad.
3. This tool allows us to type in our statements, etc., and see the results.
SQL * Net :
1. This is Oracle’s own middleware product which runs on both the client
and server to hide the complexity of the network.
2. SQL * Net’s multiprotocol interchange allows client/server connections
to span multiple communication protocols without the need for bridges
and routers, etc., SQL * Net will work with any configuration design.
SQL * LOADER :
1. A utility used to load data from external files into Oracle tables.
2. It can load data from as ASCII fixed-format or delimited file into an
Oracle table.
Que 5.28. What do you mean by locking techniques of

concurrency control ? Discuss the various locking techniques and
recovery with concurrent transaction also in detail.
Answer
Locking techniques :
1. The locking technique is used to control concurrency execution of
transactions which is based on the concept of locking data items.
2. The purpose of locking technique is to obtain maximum concurrency
and minimum delay in processing transactions.
3. A lock is a variable associate with a data item in the database and
describes the status of that data item with respect to possible operations
that can be applied to the item; there is one lock for each data item in the
database.
Following are the locking techniques with concurrent transaction :
1. Lock based locking technique : Refer Q. 5.2, Page 5–2A, Unit-5.
2. Two-phase locking technique : Refer Q. 5.7, Page 5–6A, Unit-5.
Following are the recovery techniques with concurrent transaction :
1. Log based recovery : Refer Q. 4.18, Page 4–15A, Unit-4.
2. Checkpoint : Refer Q. 4.20, Page 4–18A, Unit-4.

Q. 1. Explain two-phase locking for concurrency control.

Ans. Refer Q. 5.7.
Q. 2. What do you mean by locking techniques of concurrency

control ? Discuss various locking techniques and recovery
with concurrent transaction also in detail.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.28.
Q. 3. Describe the major problems associated with concurrent

processing with examples. What is the role of avoiding these
problems ?
Ans. Refer Q. 5.11.
Q. 4. What do you mean by multiple granularity ? How it is

implemented in transaction system ?
Ans. Refer Q. 5.16.
Q. 5. Explain multiversion concurrency control.

Ans. Refer Q. 5.20.
Q. 6. What are the problems that can arise during concurrent

execution of two or more transactions ? Discuss methods
to prevent or avoid these problems.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.22.
Q. 7. Describe Oracle. How data is stored in Oracle RDBMS ?

Ans. Refer Q. 5.24.

Database Management System SQ–1 A (CS/IT-Sem-5)
1
UNIT
Introduction
(2 Marks Questions)
1.1. What are the functions of DBMS ?

Ans. The functions of DBMS are :
i. The ability to update and retrieve data
ii. Support concurrent updates
iii. Recovery of data
iv. Security
v. Data integrity
1.2. List some applications of DBMS.

Ans. Applications of DBMS are :
i. Banking ii. Airlines
iii. Credit card transactions iv. Finance
v. Web based services vi. Telecommunications
1.3. What are the advantages of file processing system which

were removed by the DBMS ? AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans.
i. No problem of centralization
ii. Less expensive
iii. Less need of hardware
iv. Less complex in backup and recovery
1.4. What is data model ? List the types of data model used.
Ans. Data model is a logical structure of the database. It is a collection of
conceptual tools for describing data, data relationships, data
semantics and consistency constraints.
Types of data model used :
1. Hierarchical model
2. Network model
3. Relational model
4. Object-oriented model
5. Object-relational model
2 Marks Questions SQ–2 A (CS/IT-Sem-5)
1.5. Explain the difference between physical and logical data

independence with example. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans.
S. No. Physical data Logical data
independence independence
1. Physical data independence is Logical data independence is the
the ability to modify physical ability to modify the conceptual
schema without causing the schema without having to change
conceptual schema or the external schemas or application
application programs to be programs.
rewritten.
2. Examples of physical Examples of logical data
independence are independence are addition/removal
re organisations of files, of entities.
adding a new access path etc.
1.6. Write advantages of database. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02

Ans. Advantages of database :
1. Controlling data redundancy
2. Sharing of data
3. Data consistency
4. Integration of data
5. Integration constraints
6. Data security
1.7. Explain logical data independence.

Ans. The separation of the external views from the conceptual views
which enables the user to change the conceptual view without
effecting the external views or application program is called logical
data independence
1.8. Define the term data redundancy and data consistency.
Ans. Data redundancy : The occurrence of values for data elements
more than once within a file or database is called data redundancy.
Data consistency : Data consistency states that only valid data
will be written to the database.
1.9. What do you mean by DML and DDL ?

OR
Define DML. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. Data Manipulation Language (DML) : A DML is a language

that enables users to access and manipulate data as organized by
the appropriate data model. Insert, update, delete, query are
commonly used DML commands.
Data Definition Language (DDL) : DDL is set of SQL commands
used to create, modify and delete database structures but not
data.They are normally used by the DBA. Create, drop, alter,
truncate are commonly used DDL command.
1.10. Give example of a simple, composite attributes of an entity.

Ans. Simple attribute : A simple attribute is an attribute composed of
a single component with an independent existence.
Example : Roll number, salary etc.
Composite attribute : An attribute composed of multiple
components each with an independent existence is called a composite
attribute.
Example : Name, which is composed of attributes like first name,
middle name and last name.
First name Middle name Last name
Student name
Fig. 1.11.1.
1.11. Write the difference between super key and candidate key.
Ans.
S. No. Super key Candidate key
1. Super key is a set of one or A candidate key is a column, or set
mo re attribute s take n of column, in the table that can
collectively that allows us to uniquely identify any database
identify uniquely an entity in record without referring to any
the entity set. other data.
2. Supe r ke y is a bro adest Candidate key is a subset of super
unique identifier. key.
1.12. Give example for one to one and one to many relationships.
Ans.
A B A B
b1
a1 b1
a1 b2
a2 b2
a2 b3
a3 b3
a3 b4
a4 b4
b5
(a) One to one (b) One to many

Fig. 1.12.1.
1.13. Describe the purpose of foreign key.

Ans. A foreign key is used to link tables together and create a
relationship. It is a field in one table that is linked to the primary
key in another table.
1.14. Explain specialization. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. Specialization is the abstracting process of introducing new
characteristics to an existing class of objects to create one or more
new classes of objects. This involves taking a higher-level, and
using additional characteristics, generating lower-level entities.
1.15. What do you mean by aggregation ?

Ans. Aggregation is an abstraction through which relationships are
treated as higher level entities.
1.16. Define super key, candidate key, primary key and foreign
key. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 02
Ans. Super key : It is a set of one or more attributes that, taken
collectively, allows us to identify uniquely an entity in the entity
set.
Candidate key : A candidate key is a column, or set of column, in
the table that can uniquely identify any database record without
referring to any other data.
Primary key : Primary key is a candidate key that is used for
unique identification of entities within the table.
Foreign key : A foreign key is derived from the primary key of the
same or some other table. Foreign key is the combination of one or
more columns in a table (parent table) at references a primary key
in another table (child table).
1.17. What is strong and weak entity set ?

Ans. Strong entity : Strong entity is not dependent of any other entity
in schema. Strong entity always has primary key. Strong entity is
represented by single rectangle. Two strong entity’s relationship is
represented by single diamond.
Weak entity : Weak entity is dependent on strong entity to ensure
the existence of weak entity. Weak entity does not have any primary
key, it has partial discriminator key. Weak entity is represented by
double rectangle.
1.18. Explain the difference between a weak and a strong entity

set with example. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans.
S. No. Weak entity set Strong entity set
1. An entity set which does not An entity set which does have a
possess sufficient attributes primary key is called a strong entity
to from a primary key is called set.
a weak entity set.
2. It is repre se nted by a It is represented by a double
rectangle. rectangle.
3. It contains a primary key It contains a primary ke y
represented by an underline. represented by a dashed underline.
1.19. Discuss three level of abstractions or schemas architecture

of DBMS. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. Different levels of data abstraction :
1. Physical level
2. Logical level
3. View level

2
UNIT
Relational Data Model
and Language
(2 Marks Questions)
2.1. Define the term degree and cardinality.

Ans. Degree : The number of attributes in a relation is known as degree.
Cardinality : The number of tuples in a relation is known as
cardinality.
2.2. What do you mean by referential integrity ?

Ans. In the relational model, for some cases, we often wish to ensure
that a value that appears in one relation for a given set of attributes
also appears for a certain set of attributes in another relation. This
condition is called as referential integrity.
2.3. Explain entity integrity constraints.

Ans. The entity integrity constraint states that primary keys cannot be
null. There must be a proper value in the primary key field. This is
because the primary key value is used to identify individual rows
in a table. If there were null values for primary keys, it would
mean that we could not identify those rows.
2.4. Define foreign key constraint.

Ans. A foreign key constraint allows certain attributes in one relation to
refer to attributes in another relation. The relation on which foreign
key constraint is defined contains the partial information.
2.5. With an example show how a referential integrity can be

implemented. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans. This rule states that if a foreign key in Table 1 refers to the primary
key of Table 2, then every value of the foreign key in Table 1 must
be null or be available in Table 2.
Foreign Key
Table 1.
ENO NAME Age DNO
1 Ankit 19 10
2 Srishti 18 11
3 Somvir 22 14 Not Allowed as DNO 14 is not
4 Sourabh 19 10 defined as a primary key of Table 2,
and in Table 1, DNO is a foreign
key defined
Relationship
Table 2.
DNO D.Location
10 Rohtak
11 Bhiwani
12 Hansi
Primary Key
2.6. When do you get constraints violation ? Also, define null

value constraint.
Ans. Constraints get violated during update operations on the relation.
Null value constraint : While creating tables, if a row lacks a
data value for a particular column, that value is said to be null.
2.7. What is the role of join operations in relational algebra ?

Ans. The join operation, denoted by , is used to join two relations to
form a new relation on the basis of a common attribute present in
the two operand relations.
2.8. What are characteristics of SQL ?

Ans. Characteristics of SQL :
1. SQL usage is extremely flexible.
2. It uses a free form syntax
2.9. Give merits and demerits of SQL database.

Ans. Merits of SQL database :
i. High speed
ii. Security
iii. Compatibility
iv. No coding required
Demerits of SQL database :
i. Some versions of SQL are costly.
ii. Difficulty in interfacing

iii. Partial control is given to database.
2.10. What is the purpose of view in SQL ?

Ans. A view is a virtual relation, whose contents are derived from already
existing relations and it does not exist in physical form. A view can
be used like any other relation, which is, it can be queried, inserted
into, deleted from and joined with other relations or views, though
with some limitations on update operations.
2.11. Which command is used for creating user-defined data

types ?
Ans. The user-defined data types can be created using the CREATE
DOMAIN command.
2.12. What do you mean by query and subquery ?

Ans. Query is a request to database for obtaining some data.
A subquery is a SQL query nested inside a larger query. Sub-
queries must be enclosed within parenthesis.
2.13. Write the purpose of trigger. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02

Ans. Purpose of trigger :
1. Automatically generate derived column values.
2. Prevent invalid transactions.
3. Enforce complex security authorizations.
4. Enforce referential integrity across nodes in a distributed database.
5. Enforce complex business rules.
2.14. What do you mean by PL / SQL ?

Ans. PL/SQL stands for Procedural Language/SQL. PL/SQL extends SQL
by adding constructs found in procedural languages, resulting is a
structural language that is more powerful than SQL.
2.15. What is union compatibility ?

Ans. Two relation instances are said to be union compatible if the following
conditions hold :
i. They have the same number of the fields.
ii. Corresponding fields, taken in order from left to right, have the
same domains.
2.16. What is Relational Algebra ? AKTU 2019-20, Marks 02

Ans. The relational algebra is a procedural query language. It consists of

a set of operations that take one or two relations as input and
produces a new relation as a result.
2.17. Define constraint and its types in DBMS.

Ans. A constraint is a rule that is used for optimization purposes.
1. NOT NULL
2. UNIQUE
3. DEFAULT
4. CHECK
5. Key constraints
i. Primary key
ii. Foreign key
6. Domain constraints

3
UNIT
Database Design &
Normalization
(2 Marks Questions)
3.1. Distinguis h between functional dependency and

multivalued dependency. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02
Ans. Functional dependency :
A functional dependency, denoted by X  Y, between two sets of
attributes X and Y that are subsets of R specifies a constraint on
the possible tuples that can form a relation, state r or R.
Multivalued dependency (MVD) :
MVD occurs when two or more independent multivalued facts
about the same attribute occur within the same relation. MVD is
denoted by X  Y specified on relation schema R, where X and
Y are both subsets of R.
3.2. When are two sets of functional dependencies said to be

equivalent ?
Ans. Two sets F 1 and F 2 of FDs are said to be e quivalent, if
F1+ = F2+, that is, every FD in F1 is implied by F2 and every FD in F2
is implied by F1.
3.3. Define the following :

a. Full functional dependency
b. Partial dependency
Ans.
a. A dependency X  Y in a relational schema R is said to be a fully
functionally dependency if there is no A, where A is the proper
subset of X such that A  Y. It implies removal of any attribute
from X means that the dependency does not hold any more.
b. A dependency X  Y in a relational schema R is said to be a partial
dependency if there is any attribute A where A is the proper subset
of X such that A  Y. The attribute Y is said to be partially dependent
on the attribute X.
3.4. What is transitive dependency ? Name the normal form

which is based on the concept of transitive dependency.
Ans. An attribute Y of a relational schema R is said to be transitively

dependent on attribute X (X  Y), if there is a set of attributes A
that is neither a candidate key nor a subset of any key of R and both
X  A and A  Y hold.
The normal form that is based on transitive dependency is 3NF.
3.5. What is normalization ? AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02

Ans. Normalization is the process of organizing a database to reduce
redundancy and improve data integrity.
3.6. Define 2NF. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02

Ans. A relation R is in second normal form (2NF) if and only if it is in
1NF and every non-key attribute is fully dependent on the primary
key. A relation R is in 2NF if every non-prime attribute of R is
fully functionally dependent on each relation key.
3.7. Why is BCNF considered simpler as well as stronger than

3NF ?
Ans. BCNF is the simpler form of 3NF as it makes explicit reference to
neither the first and second normal forms nor to the concept of
transitive dependence.
In addition, it is stronger than 3NF as every relation that is in
BCNF is also in 3NF but the vice versa is not necessarily true.
3.8. Define lossless join decomposition.

Ans. Let R be a relational schema and let F be a set of functional
dependencies on R. Let R1 and R2 form a decomposition of R. This
decomposition is a lossless join decomposition of R if at least one of
the following functionl dependencies is in F+.
i. R1 R2  R1
ii. R1 R2  R2
3.9. What do you understand by the closure of a set of attribute ?

Ans. The closure of a set of attributes implies a certain subset of the
closure that consists of all FDs with a specified set of Z attributes as
determinant.
3.10. What are the uses of the closure algorithm ?

Ans. Besides computing the subset of closure, the closure algorithm has
other uses that are as follows :
i. To determine if a particular FD, say X  Y is in the closure F+ of F,
without computing the closure F+. This can be done by simply
computing X+ by using the closure algorithm and then checking if
Y  X+.
ii. To test if a set of attributes A is a superkey of R. This can be done by

computing A+ and checking if A+ contains all the attributes of R.
3.11. Describe the dependency preservation property.

Ans. It is a property that is desired while decomposition, that is, no FD of
the original relation is lost. The dependency preservation property
ensures that each FD represented by the original relation is enforced
by examining and single relation resulted from decomposition or
can be inferred from FDs in some decomposed relation.
3.12. What are the various anomalies associated with RDBMS ?

OR
What are the different types of anomalies associated with
database ? AKTU 2018-19, Marks 02
Ans. In RDBMS, certain update anomalies can arise, which are as follows :
i. Insertion anomaly : It leads to a situation in which certain
information cannot be inserted in a relation unless some other
information is stored.
ii. Deletion anomaly : It leads to a situation in which deletion of data
representing certain information results in losing data representing
some other information that is associated with it.
iii. Modification anomaly : It leads to a situation in which repeated
data changed at one place results in inconsistency unless the same
data are also changed at other places.
3.13. Explain normalization. What is normal form ?

Ans. Normalization : Refer Q. 3.5, Page SQ–11A, Unit-3, Two Marks
Questions.
Normal form : Normal forms are based on the functional
dependencies among the attributes of a relation. These forms are
simply stages of database design, with each stage applying more
strict rules to the types of information which can be stored in a
table.
3.14. Why do we normalize database ?

Ans. We normalize database :
1. To avoid redundancy
2. To avoid update/delete anomalies
3.15. Are normal forms alone sufficient as a condition for a good

schema design ? Explain.
Ans. No, normal forms alone are not sufficient as a condition for a good
schema design. There are two additional properties, namely lossless
join property and dependency preservation property that must hold
on decomposition to qualify it as a good design.

4
UNIT
Transaction Processing
Concept
(2 Marks Questions)
4.1. Define transaction.

Ans. A collection of operations that form a single logical unit of work is
called a transaction. The operations that make up a transaction
typically consist of requests to access existing data, modify existing
data, add new data or any combination of these requests.
4.2. Define the term ACID properties.

Ans. ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability) is a set of
properties of database transactions intended to guarantee validity
even in the event of errors, power failures, etc.
4.3. State the properties of transaction.

Ans. ACID properties of transaction :
i. Atomicity
ii. Consistency
iii. Isolation
iv. Durability
4.4. Explain I in ACID property. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02

Ans. I in ACID property stands for isolation i.e., each transaction is
unaware of other transaction executing concurrently in the system.
4.5. What is serializability ? How it is tested ?

Ans. Serializability is the classical concurrency scheme which ensures
that a schedule for executing concurrent transaction serially in
same order. Serializability is tested by constructing precedence
graph.
4.6. Define schedule. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02
Ans. A schedule is a list of operations (actions) ordered by time,

performed by a set of transactions that are executed together in
the system.
4.7. What do you mean by serial schedule ?

Ans. Serial schedule is a schedule in which transactions in the schedule
are defined to execute one after the other.
4.8. Define replication in distributed database.

Ans. Replication is a technique used in distributed databases to store
multiple copies of a data table at different sites.
4.9. Define data atomicity.

Ans. Data atomicity is one of the transaction properties which specify
that either all operations of the transaction are reflected properly
in the database or not.
4.10. Define cascading rollback and blind writes.
Ans. Cascading rollback is a situation in which failure of single transaction
leads to a series of transaction rollbacks.
Blind writes are those write operations which are performed
without performing the read operation.
4.11. Define precedence graph.

Ans. A precedence graph is a directed graph G = (N, E) where N = {T1,
T2, .... , Tn} is a set of nodes and E = {e1, e2 .... en} is a set of directed
edges.
4.12. Give types of failures.

Ans. Types of failures :
i. Transaction failure
ii. System crash
iii. Disk failure
4.13. Give the idea behind shadow paging technique.

Ans. The key idea behind shadow paging technique is to maintain
following two page tables during the life of transaction :
i. Current page table
ii. Shadow page table
4.14. Give merits and demerits of shadow paging.

Ans. Merits of shadow paging :
i. The overhead of log record output is eliminated.
ii. Recovery from crashes is significantly faster.
Demerits :
i. Commit overhead
ii. Data fragmentation
iii. Garbage collection
4.15. What is multimedia database ?

Ans. Multimedia database provides features that allow users to store
and query different types of multimedia information, which includes
images (pictures or drawings), video clips (movies, news reels, home
video), audio clips (songs, phone messages, speeches) and documents
(books, articles).
4.16. Why is it desirable to have concurrent execution of multiple

transactions ?
Ans. It is desirable to have concurrent execution of multiple transaction :
i. To increase system throughput.
ii. To reduce average response time.
4.17. What do you mean by conflict serializable schedule ?

Ans. A schedule is called conflict serializable if it can be transformed into
a serial schedule by swapping non-conflicting operation.
4.18. Define concurrency control. AKTU 2019-20, Marks 02

Ans. Concurrency Control (CC) is a process to ensure that data is updated
correctly and appropriately when multiple transactions are
concurrently executed in DBMS.

5
UNIT
Concurrency Control
Techniques
(2 Marks Questions)
5.1. Why is concurrency control needed ?

Ans. Concurrency control is needed so that the data can be updated
correctly when multiple transactions are executed concurrently.
5.2. Write down the main categories of concurrency control.

Ans. Categories of concurrency control are :
i. Optimistic ii. Pessimistic
iii. Semi-optimistic
5.3. What do you mean by optimistic concurrency control ?

Ans. Optimistic concurrency control states means transactions fails
when they commit with conflicts. It is useful where we do not
expect conflicts but if it occurs than the committing transaction is
rollbacked and can be restarted.
5.4. Define locks.

Ans. A lock is a variable associated with each data item that indicates
whether read or write operation is applied.
5.5. Define the modes of lock.

Ans. Data items can be locked in two modes :
1. Exclusive (X) mode : If a transaction Ti has obtained an exclusive
mode lock on item Q, then Ti can read as well as write Q data item.
2. Shared (S) mode : If a transaction Ti has obtained a shared mode
lock on item Q, then Ti can only read the data item Q but Ti cannot
write the data item Q.
5.6. Give merits and demerits of two-phase locking.
Ans. Merits of two phase locking :
i. It maintains database consistency.
ii. It increases concurrency over static locking as locks are held for
shorter period.
Demerits of two-phase locking :
i. Deadlock
ii. Cascade aborts / rollback
5.7. Define lock compatibility.

Ans. Lock compatibility determines whether locks can be acquired on a
data item by multiple transactions at the same time.
5.8. Define upgrade and downgrade in locking protocol.

Ans. Upgrade : Upgrade is the lock conversion from shared to exclusive
mode. It takes place only in growing phase.
Downgrade : Downgrade is the lock conversion from exclusive
to shared mode. It can take place only in shrinking phase.
5.9. Define the term intention lock.
Ans. Intention lock is a type of lock mode used in multiple granularity
locking in which a transaction intends to explicitly lock a lower
level of the tree. To provide a higher degree of concurrency,
intention mode is associated with shared mode and exclusive mode.
5.10. What are the pitfalls of lock based protocol ?
Ans. Pitfalls of lock based protocols are :
i. Deadlock can occur.
ii. Starvation is also possible if concurrency control manager is badly
designed.
5.11. Define exclusive lock. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 02

Ans. Exclusive lock is a lock which provides only one user to read a
data item at a particular time.
5.12. Define timestamp. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02

Ans. A timestamp is a unique identifier created by the DBMS to identify
a transaction. This timestamp is used in timestamp based
concurrency control techniques.
5.13. Define multiversion scheme. AKTU 2015-16, Marks 02

Ans. Multiversion concurrency control is a scheme in which each
write(Q) operation creates a new version of Q. When a transaction
issues a read(Q) operation, the concurrency control manager
selects one of the version of Q to be read that ensures serializability.
5.14. Define Thomas’ write rule.
Ans. Thomas’ write rule is the modification to the basic timestamp
ordering, in which the rules for write operations are slightly
different from those of basic timestamp ordering. It does not enforce
conflict serializability.

Database Management System SP–1 A (CS/IT-Sem-5)
B. Tech.
(SEM. IV) EVEN SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2015-16
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 100
SECTION – A
Note : Attempt all parts. All parts carry equal marks. Write answer
of each part in short. (2 × 10 = 20)
1. a. What are the advantages of file processing system which

were removed by the DBMS ?
b. Give example of a simple, composite attributes of an entity.
c. What do you mean by referential integrity ?
d. What do you mean by DML and DDL ?
e. Distinguis h between functional dependency and

multivalued dependency.
f. Define multiversion scheme.
g. What are the pitfalls of lock based protocol ?
h. What is multimedia database ?
i. What is union compatibility ?
j. What are the various anomalies associated with RDBMS ?
SECTION – B
Note : Attempt any five questions from this section : (10 × 5 = 50)
2. A university registrar’s office maintains data about the
following entities (a) courses, including number, title,
credits, syllabus and prerequisites; (b) course offerings,
including course number, year, semester section number,
instructor(s), timings and classroom; (c) students, including
student-id, name and program; and (d) instructors,
Solved Paper (2015-16) SP–2 A (CS/IT-Sem-5)
including identification number, name department and title.

Further the enrollment of students in courses and grades
awarded to students in each course they are enrolled for
must be appropriately modeled. Construct an ER diagram
for the registrar’s office. Document all assumption that
you make about the mapping constraints.
3. Consider the following relations :

e. Name of students and the titles of courses they registered
to.
f. SSNs of students who are registered for both Database
Systems and Analysis of Algorithms.
g. SSNs of students who are registered for both Database
h. The name of students who are registered for both Database
j. List of courses in which all ‘ECMP’ major students are
registered.
4. What do you mean by a key to the relation ? Explain the

differences between super key, candidate key and primary
key.
5. Define functional dependency. What do you mean by loss-

less decomposition ? Explain with suitable example how
functional dependencies can be used to show that
decompositions are lossless.
6. Define normal forms. List the definitions of first, second

and third normal forms. Explain BCNF with a suitable
example.
7. What is transaction ? Draw a state diagram of a transaction

showing its states. Explain ACID properties of a transaction
with suitable examples.
8. What are schedules ? What are differences between conflict

serializability and view serializability ? Explain with
suitable example what are cascadeless and recoverable
schedules ?
9. What are distributed database ? List advantages and

disadvantages of data replication and data fragmentation.
Explain with a suitable example, what are the differences
in replication and fragmentation transparency ?
SECTION – C
Note : Attempt any two questions from this section : (15 × 2 = 30)
10. Describe major problems associated with concurrent
processing with examples. What is the role of locks in
avoiding these problems ?
11. Explain the phantom phenomenon. Devise a timestamp

12. What do you mean by multiple granularities ? How it is


SOLUTION OF PAPER (2015-16)
SECTION – A
Note : Attempt all parts. All parts carry equal marks. Write answer
of each part in short. (2 × 10 = 20)
1. a. What are the advantages of file processing system which

were removed by the DBMS ?
Ans.
i. No problem of centralization
ii. Less expensive
iii. Less need of hardware
iv. Less complex in backup and recovery
b. Give example of a simple, composite attributes of an entity.

Ans. Simple attribute : A simple attribute is an attribute composed of
a single component with an independent existence.
Example : Roll number, salary etc.
Composite attribute : An attribute composed of multiple
components each with an independent existence is called a composite
attribute.
Example : Name, which is composed of attributes like first name,
middle name and last name.
First name Middle name Last name
Student name
Fig. 1.
c. What do you mean by referential integrity ?

Ans. In the relational model, for some cases, we often wish to ensure
that a value that appears in one relation for a given set of attributes
also appears for a certain set of attributes in another relation. This
condition is called as referential integrity.
d. What do you mean by DML and DDL ?

Ans. Data Manipulation Language (DML) : A DML is a language
that enables users to access and manipulate data as organized by
the appropriate data model. Insert, update, delete, query are
commonly used DML commands.
Data Definition Language (DDL) : DDL is set of SQL commands

used to create, modify and delete database structures but not
data.They are normally used by the DBA. Create, drop, alter,
truncate are commonly used DDL command.
e. Distinguis h between functional dependency and

multivalued dependency.
A functional dependency, denoted by X  Y, between two sets of
the possible tuples that can form a relation, state r or R.
Multivalued dependency (MVD) :
MVD occurs when two or more independent multivalued facts
about the same attribute occur within the same relation. MVD is
denoted by X  Y specified on relation schema R, where X and
Y are both subsets of R.
f. Define multiversion scheme.

Ans. Multiversion concurrency control is a scheme in which each
write(Q) operation creates a new version of Q. When a transaction
issues a read(Q) operation, the concurrency control manager
selects one of the version of Q to be read that ensures serializability.
g. What are the pitfalls of lock based protocol ?

Ans. Pitfalls of lock based protocols are :
i. Deadlock can occur.
ii. Starvation is also possible if concurrency control manager is badly
designed.
h. What is multimedia database ?

Ans. Multimedia database provides features that allow users to store
and query different types of multimedia information, which includes
images (pictures or drawings), video clips (movies, news reels, home
video), audio clips (songs, phone messages, speeches) and documents
(books, articles).
i. What is union compatibility ?

Ans. Two relation instances are said to be union compatible if the following
conditions hold :
i. They have the same number of the fields.
ii. Corresponding fields, taken in order from left to right, have the
same domains.
j. What are the various anomalies associated with RDBMS ?

SECTION – B
Note : Attempt any five questions from this section : (10 × 5 = 50)
2. A university registrar’s office maintains data about the
following entities (a) courses, including number, title,
credits, syllabus and prerequisites; (b) course offerings,
including course number, year, semester section number,
instructor(s), timings and classroom; (c) students, including
student-id, name and program; and (d) instructors,
including identification number, name department and title.
Further the enrollment of students in courses and grades
awarded to students in each course they are enrolled for
must be appropriately modeled. Construct an ER diagram
for the registrar’s office. Document all assumption that
you make about the mapping constraints.
Ans. In this ER diagram, the main entity sets are student, course, course
offering and instructor. The entity set course offering is a weak
entity set dependent on course. The assumptions made are :
a. A class meets only at one particular place and time. This ER diagram
cannot model a class meeting at different places at different times.
b. There is no guarantee that the database does not have two classes
meeting at the same place and time.
s_id name time secno room i_id name
enrolls course
student offerings teaches instructor
year semester deptt title

program grade
is
offered
syllabus courseno
prerequisite
requires course title
maincourse
credits
Fig. 2. ER diagram for University.
3. Consider the following relations :

e. Name of students and the titles of courses they registered
to.
f. SSNs of students who are registered for both Database
g. SSNs of students who are registered for both Database
h. The name of students who are registered for both Database
j. List of courses in which all ‘ECMP’ major students are
registered.
Ans.
a. code (Registered)
b. title (Course  Registered)
c. code (Course) – code (Registered)
d. name ((code (Course) – code (Registered))  Course)

e. name, title (Student  Registered  Course))
f&g. ssn (Student  Registered  (title = ‘Database Systems’ Course)) 
ssn (Student  Registered  (title = ‘Analysis of Algorithms’
Course))
h. A = ssn (Student  Registered  (title = ‘Database System’
Course)) 
ssn (Student  Registered  (title = ‘Analysis of Algorithms’
Course))
name (A  Student)
A = ( ) function
i. code, ssn (Registered) / ssn (Student)
j. code, ssn (Registered) / ssn (major = ‘ECMP’ Student)
4. What do you mean by a key to the relation ? Explain the

differences between super key, candidate key and primary
key.
Ans.
Key :
entity sets.
Difference between super key, candidate key and primary
key :
S. No. Super key Candidate key Primary key
1. Super ke y is an Candidate key is a Primary key is a

attribute (or set of minimal set of super minimal set of
attributes) that is key. attributes that
used to uniquely uniquely identifies
identifies all rows in a relation.
attributes in a
relation.
2. All super keys All candidate keys are Primary key is a
cannot be super keys but not subset of candidate
candidate keys. primary key. key and super key.
3. It can be null. It can be null. It cannot be null.
4. A relation can have Number of candidate Number of primary
any number of keys is less than keys is less than
super keys. super keys. candidate keys.
5. For example, in For example, in For example, in

Fig. 3, super key Fig. 3, candidate key Fig. 3, primary key is :
are : are : (Registration)
(Registration), (Registration,
(Vehicle_id), Vehicle_id)
( Re gist ration,
Vehicle_id),
(Registration,
Vehicle_id, Make)
etc.
Registration Vehicle_id
Year CAR Model
Colour Make
Fig. 3. An entity CAR for defining keys.
5. Define functional dependency. What do you mean by loss-

less decomposition ? Explain with suitable example how
functional dependencies can be used to show that
decompositions are lossless.
1. A functional dependency is a constraint between two sets of
attributes from the database.
2. A functional dependency is denoted by X  Y, between two sets of
the possible tuples that can form a relation r.
3. The constraint for any two tuples t1 and t2, in r which have
t1 [X] = t2 [X];
Also, must have t1 [Y] = t2 [Y];
4. This means that the values of the Y component of a tuple in r
depends on, or are determined by the value of the X components,
or alternatively, the values of the X component of a tuple uniquely
(or functionally) determine the value of the Y component.
Lossless decomposition : A decomposition {R1, R2, ... Rn} of a
relation R is called a lossless decomposition for R if the natural join
of R1, R2, ..., Rn produces exactly the relation R.
Following are the condition to show that decompositions are lossless
using FD set :
1. Union of attributes of R1 and R2 must be equal to attribute of R.

Each attribute of R must be either in R1 or in R2.
Att(R1)  Att(R2) = Att(R)
2. Intersection of attributes of R1 and R2 must not be NULL.
Att(R1)  Att(R2) 
3. Common attribute must be a key for at least one relation (R1 or R2)
Att(R1)  Att(R2)  Att(R1) or Att(R1)  Att(R2)  Att(R2)
For example :
Consider a relation R (A, B, C, D) with FD set A BC and A  D
is decomposed into R1(A, B, C) and R2(A, D) which is a lossless join
decomposition as :
1. First condition holds true as :
Att(R1)  Att(R2) = (A, B, C)  (A, D) = (A, B, C, D) = Att(R).
2. Second condition holds true as :
Att(R1)  Att(R2) = (A, B, C)  (A, D) 
3. Third condition holds true as :
Att(R1)  Att(R2) = A is a key of R1(A, B, C) because A BC.
6. Define normal forms. List the definitions of first, second

and third normal forms. Explain BCNF with a suitable
example.
Ans.
1. Normal forms are simply stages of database design, with each
stage applying more strict rules to the types of information which
can be stored in a table.
2. Normal form is a method to normalize the relations in database.
3. Normal forms are based on the functional dependencies among
the attributes of a relation.
Different normal forms are :
are atomic.
For example : The relation LIVED-IN given in Table 3.7.1 is not
in 1NF because the domain values of the attribute ADDRESS are
not atomic.
Table 1. LIVED-IN
Name Address
Delhi 2011 2015
Chennai 2005 2009
Relation not in 1NF and can be normalized by replacing the non-

simple domain with simple domains. The normalized form of
LIVED-IN is given in Table 2.
Table 2. LIVED-IN

a. A relation R is in 2NF if and only if it is in 1NF and every non-
key attribute is fully dependent on the primary key.
For example : The relation flight (flight#, Type_of_aircraft,
date, source, destination) with functional dependencies given
is not in 2NF.
Here flight# date is key but Type_of_aircraft depends only on
flight#.
To convert relation flight (flight#, Type_of_aircraft, data,
source, destination) into 2NF break the relation into two
relation :
a. A relation R is in 3NF if and only if, for all time, each tuple of
R consists of a primary key value that identifies some entity
in the database.
b. A relation schema R is in 3NF with respect to a set F of
functional dependencies, if for all functional dependencies in
F+ of the form  , where  R and  R, at least one of
the following holds :
iii. Each attribute A in  –  is contained in candidate key for
R.
For example : Let us consider a relation R(B, E, F, G, H) with
primary key BFGH and functional dependency are B  F,
F  GH.
B  GH.So R is not in 3NF. To convert relation R in 3NF
break the relation R into two relation as R1 (B, E, F) ,

R2(F, G, H).
candidate key.
b. A relation schema R is in BCNF with respect to a set F of
functional dependencies if for all functional dependencies in
c. A database design is in BCNF if each member of the set of
relation schemas that constitute the design is in BCNF.
For example : Let consider a relation R(A, B, C, D, E) with
AC as primary key and functional dependencies in the relation
R is given as A  B, C  DE.
To convert relation R into BCNF break the relation in three
relation R1(A, B), R2(C, D, E), R3(A, C).
7. What is transaction ? Draw a state diagram of a transaction

showing its states. Explain ACID properties of a transaction
Ans. Transaction :
A transaction is a logical unit of database processing that includes
one or more database access operations; these include insertion,
deletion, modification or retrieval operations.
State diagram of transaction :
1. Active : The transaction is said to be in the active state till the final
statement is executed.
Partially
Committed
committed
Active
Failed Aborted
Fig. 4.
2. Partially committed : A transaction is said to be entered in the
partial state when final statement gets executed. But it is still
possible that it may have to be aborted, since its actual operation
is still resided in main memory in which the power failure brings
failure of its execution.
3. Failed : A transaction enters a failed state after the system
determines that the transaction can no longer proceeds with its
normal execution.
4. Aborted : A transaction enters this state after the transaction

has been rolledback and the database has been restored to its
state, prior to the start of the transaction.
5. Committed : A transaction enter this state after successful
completion.
ACID properties with example : To ensure integrity of data,
the database system maintains some properties of transaction.
These properties are known as ACID properties.
1. Atomicity : It implies that either all of the operations of the
transaction should execute or none of them should occur.
2. Consistency : The state of database before the execution of
transaction and after the execution of transaction should be same.
Example : Let us consider the initial value of accounts A and B
are Rs.1000 and Rs.1500. Now, account A transfer Rs. 500 to
account B.
Since, total amount before transaction and after transaction are
same. So, this transaction preserves consistency.
3. Isolation : A transaction must not affect other transactions that
are running parallel to it.
Example : Let us consider another account C. If there is any
ongoing transaction between C and A, it should not make any
effect on the transaction between A and B. Both the transactions
should be isolated.
4. Durability : Once a transaction is completed successfully. The
changes made by transaction persist in database.
Example : A system gets crashed after completion of all the
operations. If the system restarts it should preserve the stable
state. An amount in A and B account should be the same before
and after the system gets a restart.
8. What are schedules ? What are differences between conflict

serializability and view serializability ? Explain with
suitable example what are cascadeless and recoverable
schedules ?
Ans. Schedule : A schedule is a set of transaction with the order of
execution of instruction in the transaction.
Difference between conflict and view serializability :

S. No. Conflict serializability View serializability
1. Easy to achieve. Difficult to achieve.
2. Cheaper to test. Expensive to test.
3. Every conflict serializable is Every view serializable is not
view serializable. conflict serializable.
4. Used in most concurrency Not used in concurrency control
control scheme. scheme.
Cascadeless schedule : Cascading rollback is a phenomenon

in which a single failure leads to a series of transaction rollback.
For example :
Schedule S
T1 T2 T3
read (A )
read (B )
write (A )
read (A )
write (A )
read ( A)
In the example, transaction T1 writes a value of A that is read by
transaction T2. Transaction T2 writes a value of A that is read by
transaction T3. Suppose that at this point T1 fails. T1 must be rolled
back. Since T2 is dependent on T1, T2 must be rolled back, since T3
is dependent on T2, T3 must be rolled back.
Recoverable schedule : A recoverable schedule is one in which
for each pair of transaction Ti and Tj if Tj reads a data item
previously written by Ti, the commit operation of Ti appears before
the commit operation of Tj.
For example : In schedule S, let T2 commits immediately after
executing read (A) i.e., T2 commits before T1 does. Now let T1 fails
before it commits, we must abort T 2 to ensure transaction
atomicity. But as T2 has already committed, it cannot be aborted.
In this situation, it is impossible to recover correctly from the
failure of T1.
Schedule S
T1 T2
read (A)
write (A)
read (A)
read (B)
9. What are distributed database ? List advantages and

disadvantages of data replication and data fragmentation.
Explain with a suitable example, what are the differences
in replication and fragmentation transparency ?
Ans. Distributed database :
1. A distributed database system consists of collection of sites,
connected together through a communication network.
2. Each site is a database system site in its own right and the sites
have agreed to work together, so that a user at any site can access
anywhere in the network as if the data were all stored at the
user’s local site.
relation r can be found in another site. Thus, the system can continue
to process queries involving ‘r’, despite the failure of one site.
ii. Increased parallelism : Number of transactions can read relation
r in parallel. The more replicas of ‘r’ there are, the greater parallelism
is achieved.
i. Increased overhead on update : The system must ensure that
all replicas of a relation r are consistent; otherwise, erroneous
computation may result. Thus, whenever r is updated, the update
must be propagated to all sites containing replicas. The result is
increased overhead.
complete database.
iii. Increased availability of data to the users/queries that are local to
the site in which the data stored.
v. Data that are not required by local applications are not stored locally.
It leads to reduced data transfer between sites, and increased
security.
i. The performance of global application that requires data from
several fragments located at different sites may be slower.
ii. Integrity control may be more difficult if data and functional

dependencies are fragmented and located at different sites.
Differences in replication and fragmentation transparency :
S. No. Replication transparency Fragmentation transparency
1. It involves placing copies of It involves decomposition of a table
each table or each of their in many tables in the system.
fragments on more than one
site in the system.
2. The user does no t know The user does not know about
about how many replicas of how relatio n is divided/
the relation are present in fragmented in the system.
the system.
3. For example, if relation r is For example, if relation ‘r’ is
replicated, a copy of relation fragmented, ‘r’ is divided into a
r is stored in two or more number of fragments. These
sites. In extreme case, a copy fragme nts contain sufficie nt
is stored in every site in the information to allow
system which is called as full reconstruction of the original
replication. relation ‘r’.
SECTION – C
Note : Attempt any two questions from this section : (15 × 2 = 30)
10. Describe major problems associated with concurrent

processing with examples. What is the role of locks in
avoiding these problems ?
Ans. Concurrent transaction : Concurrent transaction means
multiple transactions are active at the same time.
Following problems can arise if many transactions try to access a
common database simultaneously :
1. The lost update problem :
a. A second transaction writes a second value of a data item on
top of a first value written by a first concurrent transaction,
and the first value is lost to other transactions running
concurrently which need, by their precedence, to read the
first value.
b. The transactions that have read the wrong value end with
incorrect results.
Example :
Read X  A 2
Read Y  A1
A2 + A1  A2
Read X  A2
A2 + 1  A2
Write A2  X
Write A1  Y Time Write A2  X
In the example, the update performed by the transaction T2 is lost

(overwritten) by transaction T1.
2. The dirty read problem :
a. Transactions read a value written by a transaction that has
been later aborted.
b. This value disappears from the database upon abort, and should
c. The reading transactions end with incorrect results.
Example :
Read Y  A1
Read X  A 2
A2 + A1  A2
Write A2  X
Read X  A2
Commit
Fails Time
In the example, transaction T1 fails and changes the value of X

back to its old value, but T2 is committed and reads the temporary
incorrect value of X.
3. The incorrect summary problem :
a. While one transaction takes a summary over the values of all
the instances of a repeated data item, a second transaction
updates some instances of that data item.
b. The resulting summary does not reflect a correct result for
any (usually needed for correctness) precedence order
between the two transactions (if one is executed before the
other).
Example :
Read Y  A2 Read X  A2
Read X  A 1 A2 + 1  A2
A2 + A1  A2 Write A2  X
Write A2  X Rollback
Time
An example of unrepeatable read in which if T1 were to read the
value of X after T2 had updated X, the result of T1 would be different.
Role of locks :
1. It locks the data item in the transaction in correct order.
2. If any data item is locked than it must be unlock at the end of
operation.
11. Explain the phantom phenomenon. Devise a timestamp

Ans. Phantom phenomenon :
1. A deadlock that is detected but is not really a deadlock is called a
phantom deadlock.
2. In distributed deadlock detection, information about wait-for
relationship between transactions is transmitted from one server
to another.
4. As this procedure will take some time, there is a chance that one of
the transactions that hold a lock will meanwhile have released it; in
this case the deadlock will no longer exist.
For example :
1. Consider the case of global deadlock detector that receives local
wait-for graph from servers X and Y as shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6.
T U
Fig. 5. Local wait-for graph.
V T

U V
Fig. 7. Global wait-for graph.

2. Suppose that transaction U releases an object at server X and
requests the one held by V at server Y.
4. In this case, it would detect a cycle T  U  V  T, although the
edge T  U no longer exists.
For example, if there is a cycle T  U  V  T and U aborts after
the information concerning U has been collected, then the cycle
has been broken already and there is no deadlock.
Times tamp bas ed protocol that avoids phantom
phenomenon :
1. The B + tree index based approach can be adapted to timestamping
by treating index buckets as data items with timestamps associated
with them, and requiring that all read accesses use an index.
range of search-key values, using a B + tree index on that search-
key.
3. Ti will need to read all the buckets in that index which have key
values in that range.
4. Ti will need to write one of the buckets in that index when any
deletion or insertion operation on the tuple is done.
12. What do you mean by multiple granularities ? How it is

Ans. Multiple granularity :
1. Multiple granularity can be defined as hierarchically breaking up
the database into blocks which can be locked.
item.
Implementation :
1. Multiple granularity is implemented in transaction system by
defining multiple levels of granularity by allowing data items to be
of various sizes and defining a hierarchy of data granularity where

the small granularities are nested within larger ones.
2. In the tree, a non leaf node represents the data associated with its
descendents.
3. Each node is an independent data item.
4. The highest level represents the entire database.
5. Each node in the tree can be locked individually using shared or
exclusive mode locks.
6. If a node is locked in an intention mode, explicit locking is being
done at lower level of the tree (that is, at a finer granularity).
7. Intention locks are put on all the ancestors of a node before that
node is locked explicitly.
8. While traversing the tree, the transaction locks the various nodes
in an intention mode. This hierarchy can be represented graphically
as a tree.
DB Database
A1 A2 Area
Fb Fc File
Fa
ra1 ra2 ran rb1 rbk rc1 rcm Record

Fig. 8.
9. When a transaction locks a node, it also has implicitly locked all the
descendents of that node in the same mode.

B. Tech.
(SEM. IV) EVEN SEMESTER THEORY
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Section-A
1. Answer all parts. All parts carry equal marks. Write answer of
each part in short. (2 × 10 = 20)
a. What is data model ? List the types of data model used.
b. Give example for one to one and one to many relationships.
c. With an example show how a referential integrity can be

implemented.
d. Write the purpose of trigger.
e. What is normalization ?
f. Define the term ACID properties.
g. State the properties of transaction.
h. What is serializability ? How it is tested ?
i. Why is concurrency control needed ?
j. Define timestamp.
Section-B
2. Attempt any five question from this section. (10 × 5 = 50)
a. Consider the following relational database employee
(employee_name, street, city works (employee_name,
company_name, salary) company (company_name, city)
manage (employee_name, manager_name).
Give an expression in SQL to express each of the following
queries :
work for XYZ bank.
iii. Find the names of all employees in this database who live
in the same city as the company for which they work.
b. Discuss about the deadlock prevention schemes.
c. Explain the differences between physical level, conceptual

level and view level of data abstraction.
d. Explain embedded SQL and dynamic SQL in detail.
e. Describe shadow paging recovery technique.
f. Write down in detail about deadlock and serializability.
Section-C
Note : Attempt any two questions from this section. (15 × 2 = 30)
3. a. What are the relational algebra operation supported in
b. Draw an ER diagram for a small marketing company

4. a. Explain 1NF, 2NF, 3NF and BCNF with suitable example.
b. Consider the universal relational schema R (A, B, C, D, E, F,

G, H, I, J) and a set of following functional dependencies.
determine the keys for R ? Decompose R into 2nd normal
form.
5. Explain the following protocols for concurrency control.

i. Lock based protocols
ii. Time stamp based protocols

Section-A
1. Answer all parts. All parts carry equal marks. Write answer of
each part in short. (2 × 10 = 20)
a. What is data model ? List the types of data model used.

Ans. Data model is a logical structure of the database. It is a collection of
conceptual tools for describing data, data relationships, data
semantics and consistency constraints.
Types of data model used :
1. Hierarchical model
2. Network model
3. Relational model
4. Object-oriented model
5. Object-relational model
b. Give example for one to one and one to many relationships.

Ans.
A B A B
b1
a1 b1
a1 b2
a2 b2
a2 b3
a3 b3
a3 b4
a4 b4
b5
(a) One to one (b) One to many

Fig. 1.
c. With an example show how a referential integrity can be

implemented.
Ans. This rule states that if a foreign key in Table 1 refers to the primary
key of Table 2, then every value of the foreign key in Table 1 must
be null or be available in Table 2.
Foreign Key
Table 1.
ENO NAME Age DNO
1 Ankit 19 10
2 Srishti 18 11
3 Somvir 22 14 Not Allowed as DNO 14 is not
4 Sourabh 19 10 defined as a primary key of Table 2,
and in Table 1, DNO is a foreign
key defined
Relationship
Table 2.
DNO D.Location
10 Rohtak
11 Bhiwani
12 Hansi
Primary Key
d. Write the purpose of trigger.

Ans. Purpose of trigger :
1. Automatically generate derived column values.
2. Prevent invalid transactions.
3. Enforce complex security authorizations.
4. Enforce referential integrity across nodes in a distributed database.
5. Enforce complex business rules.
e. What is normalization ?
Ans. Normalization is the process of organizing a database to reduce
redundancy and improve data integrity.
f. Define the term ACID properties.

Ans. ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability) is a set of
properties of database transactions intended to guarantee validity
even in the event of errors, power failures, etc.
g. State the properties of transaction.

Ans. ACID properties of transaction :
i. Atomicity
ii. Consistency
iii. Isolation
iv. Durability
h. What is serializability ? How it is tested ?

Ans. Serializability is the classical concurrency scheme which ensures
that a schedule for executing concurrent transaction serially in
same order. Serializability is tested by constructing precedence
graph.
i. Why is concurrency control needed ?

Ans. Concurrency control is needed so that the data can be updated
correctly when multiple transactions are executed concurrently.
j. Define timestamp.
Ans. A timestamp is a unique identifier created by the DBMS to identify
a transaction. This timestamp is used in timestamp based
concurrency control techniques.
Section-B
2. Attempt any five question from this section. (10 × 5 = 50)

a. Consider the following relational database employee
(employee_name, street, city works (employee_name,
company_name, salary) company (company_name, city)
manage (employee_name, manager_name).
Give an expression in SQL to express each of the following
queries :
work for XYZ bank.
iii. Find the names of all employees in this database who live
Ans.
i. Select E.employee_name, city
from employee E, works W
where W.company_name = ‘XYZ Bank’ and
W.employee_name = E.employee_name
ii. Select * from employee
where employee_name in
select employee_name from Works
where company_name=‘XYZ Bank’ and salary>10000
select E. employee_name, street address, city
from Employee as E, Works as W
where E. employee_name=W.person_name and
W.company_name = ‘XYZ Bank’ and W.salary>10000
iii. Select E. employee _name

where E. employee _name=W.person_name and E.city=C.city
b. Discuss about the deadlock prevention schemes.

Ans. Deadlock prevention schemes :
a.If TS(Ti) < TS(Tj), i.e., Ti, which is requesting a conflicting lock,
is older than Tj, Ti is allowed to wait until the data item is available.
b.If TS(Ti) > TS(Tj), i.e., Ti is younger than Tj, so Ti dies. Ti is
restarted later with random delay but with same timestamp.
younger one.
a. If TS(Ti) < TS(Tj), i.e., Ti, which is requesting a conflicting lock, is
older than Tj, Ti forces Tj to be rolled back, that is Ti wounds Tj.
Tj is restarted later with random delay but with same timestamp.
b. If TS(Ti) > TS(Tj), i.e., Ti is younger than Tj, Ti is forced to wait
until the resource (i.e., data item) is available.
ii. This scheme, allows the younger transaction to wait but when an
older transaction request an item held by younger one, the older
transaction forces the younger one to abort and release the item.
In both cases, transaction, which enters late in the system, is
aborted.
c. Explain the differences between physical level, conceptual

level and view level of data abstraction.
Ans.
S. No. Physical level Conceptual/ View level
Logical level
1. This is the lowest This is the middle level This is the highest
le ve l of data of data abstraction. level of data
abstraction. abstraction.
2. It describes how It describes what data It describes the user
data is actually is stored in database. interaction with
stored in database. database system.
3. It de scribe s the It de scribe s the It describes only those
complex low-level structure o f whole part of the database
data structures in database and hides in which the users are
detail. de tails of physical interested and hides
storage structure. rest of all information
from the users.
4. A user is not aware A user is not aware of A user is aware of the
of the complexity the co mple xity o f complexity of
of database. database. database.
d. Explain embedded SQL and dynamic SQL in detail.

Ans. Embedded SQL :
1. The SQL standard defines embeddings of SQL in a variety of
programming languages such as Pascal, PL/I, Fortran, C and
COBOL.
2. A language in which SQL queries are embedded is referred to as a
host language and the SQL structures permitted in the host
language constitute embedded SQL.
3. Programs written in the host language can use the embedded SQL
syntax to access and update data stored in a database.
4. In embedded SQL, all query processing is performed by the database
system.
5. The result of the query is then made available to the program one
tuple at a time.
6. Embedded SQL statements must be completely present at compile
time and compiled by the embedded SQL preprocessor.
7. To identify embedded SQL requests to the preprocessor, we use
the EXEC, SQL statement as :
EXEC SQL <embedded SQL statement> END.EXEC
8. Variable of the host language can be used within embedded SQL
statements, but they must be preceded by a colon (:) to distinguish
them from SQL variables.
Dynamic SQL :
1. The dynamic SQL component of SQL allows programs to construct
and submit SQL queries at run time.
2. Using dynamic SQL, programs can create SQL queries as strings at
run time and can either have them executed immediately or have
them prepared for subsequent use.
3. Preparing a dynamic SQL statement compiles it, and subsequent
uses of the prepared statement use the compiled version.
4. SQL defines standards for embedding dynamic SQL calls in a host
language, such as C, as in the following example,
char * sqlprog = “update account set balance = balance * 1.05
where account_number = ?”;
EXEC SQL prepare dynprog from : sqlprog;
char account[10] = “A-101”;
EXEC SQL execute dynprog using : account;
e. Describe shadow paging recovery technique.

Ans.
1. Shadow paging is a technique in which multiple copies (known as
shadow copies) of the data item to be modified are maintained on
the disk.
2. Shadow paging considers the database to be made up of fixed-size
logical units of storage called pages.
3. These pages are mapped into physical blocks of storage with the
help of page table (or directory).
4. The physical blocks are of the same size as that of the logical blocks.
5. A page table with n entries is constructed in which the ith entry in
the page table points to the ith database page on the disk as shown
in Fig. 3.
6. The main idea behind this technique is to maintain two page tables.
a. In current page the entries points to the most recent database
pages on the disk. When a transaction starts, the current page
table is copied into a shadow page table (or shadow directory).
b. The shadow page table is then saved on the disk and the current
page table is used by the transaction. The shadow page table is
never modified during the execution of the transaction.
Shadow page
table Database Disk pages Current page table
1 1 Page 1 (old) 1
2 2 Page 2 2
3 3 Page 3 (old) 3
4 4 Page 4 4
5 5 Page 5 5
6 6 Page 6 6
7 7 Page 7 7
8 8 Page 8 8
9 Page 1 (new)
10 Page 3 (new)
11
Fig. 2. Shadow paging.
f. Write down in detail about deadlock and serializability.

Ans. Deadlock :
1. A deadlock is a situation in which two or more transactions are
waiting for locks held by the other transaction to release the lock.
operations.
Necessary condition for deadlock : A deadlock situation can
arise if the following four conditions hold simultaneously in a
system :
sharable mode; that is, only one process at a time can use the
resource. If another process requests that resource, the requesting
process must be delayed until the resource has been released.
2. Hold and wait : A process must be holding at least one resource
and waiting to acquire additional resources that are currently being
held by other processes.
3. No pre-emption : Resources cannot be pre-empted; i.e., a resource
can be released only by the process holding it, after that process has
completed its task.
resource held by P2, ..., Pn–1 is waiting for a resource held by Pn, and
Pn is waiting for a resource held by P0.
Serializability :
1. Serializability is a property of a transaction schedule which is used
to keep the data in the data item in consistent state.
2. It is the classical concurrency scheme.
3. There are two type of serializability :
a. Conflict serializatility.
b. View serializability.
4. Serializability of schedule :
a. In DBMS, the basic assumption is that each transaction
preserves database consistency.
b. Thus, the serial execution of a set of transaction preserves
database consistency.
c. A concurrent schedule is serializable if it is equivalent to a
serial schedule.
Section-C
Note : Attempt any two questions from this section. (15 × 2 = 30)
3. a. What are the relational algebra operation supported in
Ans. Basic relational algebra operations are as follows :
1. Select operation :
a. The select operation selects tuples that satisfies a given
predicate.
b. Select operation is denoted by sigma ().
c. The predicate appears as a subscript to .
d. The argument relation is in parenthesis after the .
2. Project operation :
a. The project operation is a unary operation that returns its
argument relation with certain attributes left out.
b. In project operation duplicate rows are eliminated.
c. Projection is denoted by pi ().
3. Set difference operation :
a. The set difference operation denoted by  allows us to find
tuples that are in one relation but are not in another.
b. The expression r  s produces a relation containing those
tuples in r but not in s.
4. Cartesian product operation :
a. The cartesian product operation, denoted by a cross (×), allows
us to combine information from any two relations. The
cartesian product of relations r1 and r2 is written as r1 × r2.
5. Rename operation :
a. The rename operator is denoted by rho ().
b. Given a relational algebra expression E, x(E)
returns the result of expression E under the name x.
c. The rename operation can be used to rename a relation r to
get the same relation under a new name.
d. The rename operation can be used to obtain a new relation
with new names given to the original attributes of original
relation as
xA1, xA2, ......, xAn(E)

SQL statement for relational algebra operations :
1. Select operation : Consider the loan relation,
loan (loan_number, branch_name, amount)
Find all the tuples in which the amount is more than ` 12000, then
we write
Select * from loan where amount > 12000
2. Project operation : We write the query to list all the customer
names and their cities as :
Select customer_name, customer_city from customer
3. Set difference operation : We can find all customers of the
bank who have an account but not a loan by writing :
Select customer_name from depositor d where not exists (select
customer_name from borrower b where
d. customer_name =
b. customer_name
4. Cartesian product : We have the following two tables :
PERSONNEL SOFTWARE_PACKAGES
Id Name S
101 Jai J1
103 Suraj J2
104 XX
105 BB
106 CC
We want to manipulate the × operation between [personnel ×
software_packages] using SQL as :
Select * from personnel, software_packages
Piid PiName S
101 Jai J1
101 Jai J2
103 Suraj J1
103 Suraj J2
104 XX J1
104 XX J2
105 BB J1
105 BB J1
106 CC J1
106 CC J2
5. Rename :
Consider the Book relation with attributes Title, Author, Year
and Price. The rename operator is used on Book relation as follows :
Select title as Bname, Author as Aname, year as Pyear, price as
Bprice from Book as Temp
Here both the relation name and the attribute names are renamed.
b. Draw an ER diagram for a small marketing company

Ans.
Products purchased
Payment mode
Amount paid
Payee name
Invoice
Purchase No.
Product ID
Store No.
Store address
Product name
Expiry date
Price
Confirmation
Payment
Store
Store name
Available
Product
Product ID
Address
Salary
Shipping
Employee
Demand
Work
Employee name
delivery
Date of
Delivery
Employee
Number of
ID
No. of items
items
Promo name
Promotion
Shipping type
Initiates
Order
Tracking No.
Order ID
Promo code
Availability
location
Product ID
Order
Product
Price
name
Fig. 3.
4. a. Explain 1NF, 2NF, 3NF and BCNF with suitable example.

Ans.
are atomic.
For example : The relation LIVED-IN given in Table 3.7.1 is not
in 1NF because the domain values of the attribute ADDRESS are
not atomic.
Table 1. LIVED-IN
Name Address
Delhi 2011 2015
Chennai 2005 2009
Relation not in 1NF and can be normalized by replacing the non-
simple domain with simple domains. The normalized form of
LIVED-IN is given in Table 2.
Table 2. LIVED-IN

a. A relation R is in 2NF if and only if it is in 1NF and every non-
key attribute is fully dependent on the primary key.
For example : The relation flight (flight#, Type_of_aircraft, date,
source, destination) with functional dependencies given is not in
2NF.
Here flight# date is key but Type_of_aircraft depends only on
flight#.
To convert relation flight (flight#, Type_of_aircraft, data, source,
destination) into 2NF break the relation into two relation :

a. A relation R is in 3NF if and only if, for all time, each tuple of
R consists of a primary key value that identifies some entity
in the database.
b. A relation schema R is in 3NF with respect to a set F of
functional dependencies, if for all functional dependencies in
iii. Each attribute A in  –  is contained in candidate key for R.
For example : Let us consider a relation R(B, E, F, G, H) with
primary key BFGH and functional dependency are B  F, F 
GH.
B  GH.So R is not in 3NF. To convert relation R in 3NF break
the relation R into two relation as R1(B, E, F) , R2(F, G, H).
candidate key.
b. A relation schema R is in BCNF with respect to a set F of
functional dependencies if for all functional dependencies in
c. A database design is in BCNF if each member of the set of
relation schemas that constitute the design is in BCNF.
For example : Let consider a relation R(A, B, C, D, E) with AC as
primary key and functional dependencies in the relation R is given
as A  B, C  DE.
To convert relation R into BCNF break the relation in three relation
R1(A, B), R2(C, D, E), R3(A, C).
b. Consider the universal relational schema R (A, B, C, D, E, F,

G, H, I, J) and a set of following functional dependencies.
determine the keys for R ? Decompose R into 2nd normal
form.
Ans. (AB)+ = ABC  AB  C
= ABCDE  A  DE
= ABCDEF  BF
= ABCDEFGH  F  GH
= ABCDEFGHIJ  D  IJ
So, AB is key of R.
In the given relation, R has a composite primary key [A,B].
The non-prime attribute are [C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J].
In this case, FDs are AB  C, A  DE, B  F which is only part of

the primary key. Therefore, this table does not satisfy 2NF.
To bring this table to 2NF, we break the table into three relation
as :
R1(A, B, C), R2(A, D, E, I, J) and R3(B, F, G, H).
5. Explain the following protocols for concurrency control.

i. Lock based protocols
ii. Time stamp based protocols
Ans.
i. Lock based protocols :
a. It requires that all data items must be accessed in a mutually
exclusive manner.
b. In this protocol, concurrency is controlled by locking the data
items.
c. A lock guarantees exclusive use of a data item to current
transaction.
d. Locks are used as a means of synchronizing the access by
concurrent transaction to the database items.
ii. Time stamp based protocols :
Timestamp based protocol ensures serializability. It selects an
ordering among transactions in advance using timestamps.
The timestamp ordering protocol ensures that any conflicting read
and write operations are executed in timestamp order. This protocol
operates as follows :
a. If TS(Ti ) < W-timestamp(Q), then Ti needs a value of Q that
was already overwritten. Hence, read operation is rejected,
and Ti is rolledback.
b. If TS(Ti )  W-timestamp(Q), then the read operation is
executed, and R-timestamp(Q) is set to the maximum of R-
timestamp(Q) and TS(Ti ).
a. If TS(Ti) < R-timestamp(Q), then the value of Q that Ti is
producing was needed previously, and the system assumed
that the value would never be produced. Hence, the system
rejects write operation and rolls Ti back.
obsolete value of Q. Hence, the system rejects this write
operation and rolls back Ti.
concurrency control scheme, the system assigns it a new
timestamp and restarts it.

B. Tech.
(SEM. V) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Note : Attempt all Sections. Assume any missing data.

SECTION-A
1. Attempt all questions of the following : (2 × 10 = 20)

a. Explain specialization.
b. Write advantages of database.
c. Define DML.
d. Explain logical data independence.
e. Explain entity integrity constraints.
f. Define 2 NF.
g. Explain I in ACID property.
h. Define schedule.
i. Define exclusive lock.
j. Define replication in distributed database.
SECTION-B
2. Attempt any three of the following : (10 × 3 = 30)

a. Discuss the role of database administrator.
b. Discuss join and types with suitable example.
c. What is trigger ? Explain different trigger with example.
d. Write difference between BCNF vs 3 NF.
e. What is two phase locking (2PL) ? Describe with the help of

example.
SECTION-C
3. Attempt any one of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. What do you mean by serializability ? Discuss the conflict
and view serializability with example. Discuss the testing
of serializability also.
b. What are multiversion schemes of concurrency control ?

Describe with the help of an example. Discuss the various
time stamping protocols for concurrency control also.

a. Consider the following relation. The primary key is Rollno,
Isbn, Student(Roll No, Name, Branch), Book(Isbn, Title,
Author, Publisher) Issue(Roll No, Isbn, date_of_issue).
Write the query in relational algebra and SQL of the
following :
i. List the roll number and name of all CSE branch students.
ii. Find the name of students who have issued a book of
named ‘Sanjeev’.
b. Draw an ER diagram of hospital or bank with showing the

specialization, aggregation, generalization. Also convert
it in to relational schemas and SQL DDL.

a. Explain the primary key, super key, foreign key and
candidate key with example.
b. Short notes of the following :

i. MVD or JD
ii. Normalization with advantages

a. What is log ? How is it maintained ? Discuss the features
of deferred database modification and immediate database
modification in brief.
b. What do you mean by transaction ? Explain transaction

property with detail and suitable example.

a. Explain all database languages in detail with example.
b. Explain data fragmentation with types.

Note : Attempt all Sections. Assume any missing data.
SECTION-A
1. Attempt all questions of the following : (2 × 10 = 20)

a. Explain specialization.
Ans. Specialization is the abstracting process of introducing new
characteristics to an existing class of objects to create one or more
new classes of objects. This involves taking a higher-level, and
using additional characteristics, generating lower-level entities.
b. Write advantages of database.

Ans. Advantages of database :
1. Controlling data redundancy
2. Sharing of data
3. Data consistency
4. Integration of data
5. Integration constraints
6. Data security
c. Define DML.
Ans. A DML is a language that enables users to access and manipulate
data as organized by the appropriate data model. Insert, update,
delete, query are commonly used DML commands.
d. Explain logical data independence.

Ans. The separation of the external views from the conceptual views
which enables the user to change the conceptual view without
effecting the external views or application program is called logical
data independence
e. Explain entity integrity constraints.

Ans. The entity integrity constraint states that primary keys cannot be
null. There must be a proper value in the primary key field. This is
because the primary key value is used to identify individual rows
in a table. If there were null values for primary keys, it would
mean that we could not identify those rows.
f. Define 2 NF.
Ans. A relation R is in second normal form (2NF) if and only if it is in
1NF and every non-key attribute is fully dependent on the primary
key. A relation R is in 2NF if every non-prime attribute of R is
fully functionally dependent on each relation key.
g. Explain I in ACID property.

Ans. I in ACID property stands for isolation i.e., each transaction is
unaware of other transaction executing concurrently in the system.
h. Define schedule.
Ans. A schedule is a list of operations (actions) ordered by time,
performed by a set of transactions that are executed together in
the system.
i. Define exclusive lock.

Ans. Exclusive lock is a lock which provides only one user to read a
data item at a particular time.
j. Define replication in distributed database.

Ans. Replication is a technique used in distributed databases to store
multiple copies of a data table at different sites.
SECTION-B

a. Discuss the role of database administrator.
Ans. Database administrators are the personnel’s who has control over
data and programs used for accessing the data.
Functions/role of database administrator (DBA) :
1. Schema definition :
a. Original database schema is defined by DBA.
translated by the DDL compiler to a set of labels that are permanently
stored in the data dictionary.
2. Storage structure and access method definition :
a. The creation of appropriate storage structure and access method.
translated by the data storage and definition language compiler.
3. Schema and physical organization and modification :
a. Modification of the database schema or the description of the physical
storage organization.
b. These changes are accomplished by writing a set of definition to do
modification to the appropriate internal system tables.
4. Granting of authorization for data access : DBA grants
different types of authorization for data access to the various users
of the database.
5. Integrity constraint specification : DBA carry out data
administration in data dictionary such as defining constraints.
b. Discuss join and types with suitable example.

Ans. A join clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables,
based on a related column between them.

1. Inner join :
being joined.
These two relations are shown in Table 1 and 2.
Table. 1. The Employee relation.
Employee
Emp_Name City
Hari Pune
Om Mumbai
Suraj Nashik
Jai Solapur
Table. 2. The Employee_Salary relation.
Employee_Salary
Hari Computer 10000
Om IT 7000
Billu Computer 8000
Jai IT 5000
Select Employee.Emp_Name, Employee_Salary.Salary from
Employee inner join Employee_Salary on Employee.Emp_Name
= Employee_Salary.Emp_Name;
Table 1 and Table 2.
Emp_Name Salary
Hari 10000
Om 7000
Jai 5000
2. Outer join :

i. Left outer join : The left outer join returns matching rows from
the tables being joined and also non-matching rows from the left
table in the result and places null values in the attributes that
comes from the right table.
For example :
Emp_Name Salary
Hari 10000
Om 7000
Jai 5000
Suraj null
matching rows from the tables being joined, and also non-matching
rows from the right table in the result and places null values in
the attributes that comes from the left table.
For example :
Select Employee.Emp_Name, City, Salary from Employee right
outer join
Hari Pune 10000
Om Mumbai 7000
Jai Solapur 5000
Billu null 8000
c. What is trigger ? Explain different trigger with example.

Ans. Triggers :
1. A trigger is a procedure (code segment) that is executed
automatically when some specific events occur in a table/view of a
database.
2. Triggers are mainly used for maintaining integrity in a database.

Triggers are also used for enforcing business rules, auditing
changes in the database and replicating data.
Following are different types of triggers :
1. Data Manipulation Language (DML) triggers :
a. DML triggers are executed when a DML operation like
INSERT, UPDATE OR DELETE is fired on a Table or View.
b. DML triggers are of two types :
i. AFTER triggers :
1. AFTER triggers are executed after the DML
statement completes but before it is committed to
the database.
2. AFTER triggers if required can rollback its actions
and source DML statement which invoked it.
ii. INSTEAD OF triggers :
1. INSTEAD OF triggers are the triggers which get
executed automatically in place of triggering DML
(i.e., INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE) action.
2. It means if we are inserting a record and we have a
INSTEAD OF trigger for INSERT then instead of
INSERT whatever action is defined in the trigger
that gets executed.
For example : This trigger select all the column from inserted
when we insert new value in employee table.
Create trigger tr_employee_For insert on Employee
For Insert
as
Begin
Select * from inserted
end
2. Data Definition Language (DDL) triggers :
a. DDL triggers are executed when a DDL statements like
CREATE, ALTER, DROP, GRANT, DENY, REVOKE, and
UPDATE STATISTICS statements are executed.
b. DDL triggers can be DATABASE scoped or SERVER scoped.
The DDL triggers with server level scope gets fired in
response to a DDL statement with server scope like CREATE
DATABASE, CREATE LOGIN, GRANT_SERVER, ALTER
DATABASE, ALTER LOGIN etc.
c. Where as DATABASE scoped DDL triggers fire in response

to DDL statement with DATABASE SCOPE like CREATE
TABLE, CREATE PROCEDURE, CREATE FUNCTION,
ALTER TABLE, ALTER PROCEDURE, ALTER FUNCTION
etc.
For example :
DDL trigger safety will fire whenever a drop_table or alter_table
event occurs in the database.
Create trigger safety on database
For drop_table, Alter_table
As
Print ‘You must disable trigger ‘safety’ to drop or alter table’
Rollback;
3. LOGON triggers :
a. LOGON triggers get executed automatically in response to a
LOGON event.
b. They get executed only after the successful authentication
but before the user session is established.
c. If authentication fails the LOGON triggers will not be fired.
For example : This trigger inserts a logon event record into
hr_user table whenever someone connects to hr schema.
Create dr replace trigger note hr_logon_trigger
After logon ON hr
Begin
Insert into hr_user_log values (users, ‘Logon’, sysdate)
End
4. CLR triggers :
a. CLR triggers are based on the Sql CLR.
b. We can write DML and DDL triggers by using the supported
.NET CLR languages like C#, VB.NET etc.
c. CLR triggers are useful if heavy computation is required in
the trigger or a reference to object outside SQL is required.
For example : Replace the sample bits with assembly bits.
Create assembly HelloWorld
From OX4D5A900000 with permission_set = safe;
d. Write difference between BCNF vs 3 NF.

Ans.
S. No. BCNF 3NF
1. In BCNF, for any FDs for a In 3NF, there should be no
relation R, A  B, A should be a transitive dependency that is no
super key of relation. non prime attribute should be
candidate key.
2. It is comparatively stronger than It is less strong than BCNF.
3NF.
3. In BCN F, the functional In 3N F, the functio nal
dependencies are already in dependencies are already in
1NF, 2NF and 3NF. 1NF and 2NF.
4. Redundancy is low. Redundancy is high.
5. In BCNF, there may or may not In 3NF, there is preservation of
be preservation of all. all functional dependencies.
6. It is difficult to achieve. It is comparatively easier to
achieve.
7. Lossless decomposition is hard Lossless decomposition can be
to achieve in BCNF. achieved by 3NF.
e. What is two phase locking (2PL) ? Describe with the help of

example.
Ans.
follow the two-phase locking protocol if all locking operations
precede the first unlock operation in the transaction.
2. In 2PL, each transaction lock and unlock the data item in two
phases :
3. According to 2PL, the transaction cannot acquire a new lock, after
it has unlocked any of its existing locked items.
T1 T2

X : = X + 1; Y : = Y + 1;
operation in T1, and similarly the write-lock (Y) operation follows
the unlock (X) operation in T2.
6. If we enforce two-phase locking, the transaction can be rewritten
as :
T1 T2

X : = X + 1; Y : = Y + 1;
two-phase locking protocol, the schedule is guaranteed to be
serializable, obviating the need to test for serializability of schedules
any more.
SECTION-C

a. What do you mean by serializability ? Discuss the conflict
and view serializability with example. Discuss the testing
of serializability also.
Ans. Serializability :
Serializability is a property of a transaction schedule which is used
to keep the data in the data item in consistent state. It is the
classical concurrency scheme.
Conflict serializability :
1. Consider a schedule S, in which there are two consecutive
instructions Ii and Ij of transactions Ti and Tj respectively (i  j).
2. If Ii and Ij refer to different data items, then swap Ii and Ij without
affecting the results of any instruction in the schedule.
3. However, if Ii and Ij refer to the same data item Q, then the order
of the two steps matter.
4. Following are four possible cases :
Ii Ij Swapping possible
Read (Q) Read (Q) Yes

Read (Q) Write (Q) No
Write (Q) Read (Q) No
Write (Q) Write (Q) No
5. Ii and Ij conflict if there are operations by different transactions
on the same data item, and at least one of these instructions is a
write operation.
For example :
Schedule S
T1 T2
read (A)
write (A)
read (A)
write (A)
read (B)
write (B)
read (B)
write (B)
i. The write (A) instruction of T1 conflicts with read (A) instruction of

T2. However, the write (A) instruction of T2 does not conflict with
the read (B) instruction of T1 as they access different data items.
Schedule S'
T1 T2
read (A)
write (B)
read (A)
read (B)
write (A)
write (B)
read (B)
write (B)
ii. Since the write (A) instruction of T2 in Schedule S does not conflict
with the read (B) instruction of T1, we can swap these instructions
to generate an equivalent schedule.
iii. Both schedules will produce the same final system state.
6. If a schedule S can be transformed into a schedule S by a series of
swaps of non-conflicting instructions, we say that S and S are
conflict equivalent.
7. The concept of conflict equivalence leads to the concept of conflict
serializability and the schedule S is conflict serializable.
View serializability :
a. For each data item Q, if transaction Ti reads the initial value
of Q in schedule S, then transaction Ti in schedule S, must
also read the initial value of Q.
b. For each data item Q if transaction Ti executes read (Q) in
schedule S and if that value produced by a write (Q) operation
executed by transaction Tj, then the read (Q) operation of
transaction Ti, in schedule S, must also read the value of Q
that was produced by the same write (Q) operation of
transaction Tj.
c. For each data item Q, the transaction (if any) that performs
the final write (Q) operation in schedule S must perform the
final write (Q) operation in schedule S.
values in both schedules and therefore, performs the same
computation. Condition (c), coupled with condition (a) and condition
(b) ensure that both schedules result in the same final system
state.
serializability.
4. We say that schedule S is view serializable, if it is view equivalent
to serial schedule.
5. Every conflict serializable schedule is also view serializable but
there are view serializable schedules that are not conflict
serializable.
Example :
T1 T2 T1 T2
read (A) read (A)

write (A) write (A)
read (B) read (A)
write (B) write (A)
read (A) read (B)
write (A) write (B)
read (B) read (B)
write (B) write (B)

Testing of serializability :
1. Algorithm for testing conflict serializability of schedule S :
a. For each transaction Ti participating in schedule S, create a
node labeled Ti in the precedence graph.
b. For each case in S where Tj executes a read_item(X) after Ti
executes a write_item(X), create an edge (Ti  Tj) in the
precedence graph.
c. For each case in S where Tj executes a write_item(X) after Ti
executes read_item(X), create an edge (T i  T j ) in the
precedence graph.
d. For each case in S where Tj executes a write_item(X) after Ti
executes a write_item(X), create an edge (Ti  Tj) in the
precedence graph.
e. The schedule S is serializable if and only if the precedence
graph has no cycles.
2. The precedence graph is constructed as described in given algorithm.
3. If there is a cycle in the precedence graph, schedule S is not (conflict)
serializable; if there is no cycle, S is serializable.
b. What are multiversion schemes of concurrency control ?

Describe with the help of an example. Discuss the various
time stamping protocols for concurrency control also.
Ans. Multiversion schemes of concurrency control :
a. Multiversion time stamping protocol :
1. The most common transaction-ordering technique used by
multiversion schemes is timestamping.
2. With each transaction Ti in the system, we associate a unique
static timestamp, denoted by TS(Ti).
3. This timestamp is assigned before the transaction starts
execution.
4. Concurrency can be increased if we allow multiple versions to
be stored, so that the transaction can access the version that is
consistent for them.
5. With this protocol, each data item Q is associated with a
sequence of versions < Q1, Q2, . . . , Qm >.
6. Each version Qk contains three data fields :
a. Content is the value of version Qk.
b. W-timestamp(Qk) is the timestamp of the transaction that
created version Qk.
c. R-timestamp(Q k ) is the largest timestamp of any
transaction that successfully read version Qk.
7. The scheme operates as follows :
Suppose that transaction Ti issues a read(Q) operation. Let Qk

denote the version of Q whose write timestamp is the largest
write timestamp less than or equal to TS(Ti).
a. If transaction Ti issues a read(Q), then the value returned
is the content of version Qk.
b. When transaction Ti issues write(Q) :
i. If TS(Tj) < R-timestamp(Qk), then the system rolls
back transaction Ti.
ii. If TS(Ti) = W-timestamp(Qk), the system overwrites
the contents of Qk; otherwise it creates a new version
of Q.
iii. This rule forces a transaction to abort if it is “too late”
in doing a write.
b. Multiversion two-phase locking :
1. The multiversion two-phase locking attempts to combine the
advantages of multiversion concurrency control with the
advantages of two-phase locking.
2. In addition to read and write lock modes, multiversion two-
phase locking provides another lock mode, i.e., certify.
3. In order to determine whether these lock modes are compatible
with each other or not, consider Fig. 1.
Requested mode Shared Exclusive Certify
Shared YES YES NO
Exclusive YES NO NO
Certify NO NO NO
Fig. 1. Compatibility matrix for multiversion two-phase locking.
4. The term “YES” indicates that if a transaction Ti hold a lock on

data item Q than lock can be granted by other requested
transaction Tj on same data item Q.
5. The term “NO” indicates that requested mode is not compatible
with the mode of lock held. So, the requested transaction must
wait until the lock is released.
6. In multiversion two-phase locking, other transactions are
allowed to read a data item while a transaction still holds an
exclusive lock on the data item.
7. This is done by maintaining two versions for each data item
i.e., certified version and uncertified version.
8. In this situation, Tj is allowed to read the certified version of Q
while Ti is writing the value of uncertified version of Q.
However, if transaction Ti is ready to commit, it must acquire a
certify lock on Q.
Various time stamping protocols :

The timestamp ordering protocol ensures that any conflicting read
and write operations are executed in timestamp order. This protocol
operates as follows :
a. If TS(Ti ) < W-timestamp(Q), then Ti needs a value of Q that
was already overwritten. Hence, read operation is rejected,
and Ti is rolledback.
b. If TS(Ti )  W-timestamp(Q), then the read operation is
executed, and R-timestamp(Q) is set to the maximum of R-
timestamp(Q) and TS(Ti ).
a. If TS(Ti) < R-timestamp(Q), then the value of Q that Ti is
producing was needed previously, and the system assumed
that the value would never be produced. Hence, the system
rejects write operation and rolls Ti back.
obsolete value of Q. Hence, the system rejects this write
operation and rolls back Ti.
concurrency control scheme, the system assigns it a new
timestamp and restarts it.

a. Consider the following relation. The primary key is Rollno,
Isbn, Student(Roll No, Name, Branch), Book(Isbn, Title,
Author, Publisher) Issue(Roll No, Isbn, date_of_issue).
Write the query in relational algebra and SQL of the
following :
i. List the roll number and name of all CSE branch students.
ii. Find the name of students who have issued a book of
named ‘Sanjeev’.
Ans.
i. In relational algebra :
Roll No, Name (Branch = “CSE” (Student))
In SQL :
Select Roll No, Name from Students
where Branch = “CSE”;

ii. In relational algebra :
Name Publisher = “BPB” and Student_Roll No = P.Roll No (Student  (Roll
No, Publisher (Issue.ISBN = Book.ISBN P (Book
 Issue))))
In SQL :
Select Student.name from Student inner join
(Select Book.Publisher, Issue.Roll No from Issue inner join Book
on Issue.ISBN = Book.ISBN as P)
ON Student.Roll No = P. Roll No
where P.Publisher = “BPB”;
iii. In relational algebra :
S.Title, S.Author S.Name like(‘a%’) (T.Name, Book.Author, Book.Title Book.ISBN =
T.ISBN S (Book
 (Name, ISBN Student.Roll No = Issue.Roll No T (Student
 Issue))));
In SQL :
Select S.title, S.Author from
(Select T.Name, Book.Author, Book.Title from Book inner join
(Select Student.Name, Issue.ISBN from Student inner join Issue
ON Student.Roll No = Issue.Roll No as T)
ON Book.ISBN = T.ISBN as S)
where S.Name like ‘a%’;
Title (date > = 20/09/2012 (Book  Issue))
In SQL :
Select Book.Title from Book inner join Issue ON Book.ISBN =
Issue.ISBN as R
where R.date > = 20/09/2012;
Name (Author = “Sanjeev” and Student.Roll No = Q.Roll No (Student  Roll No,
Author Issue.ISBN = Book.ISBN Q (Book
 Issue)))
In SQL :
Select Student.Name from Student inner join
(Select Issue.Roll No, Book.Author from Issue inner join Book ON
Issue.ISBN = Book.ISBN as Q)
ON Student.Roll No = Q.Roll No
where Q.Author = “Sanjeev”;
b. Draw an ER diagram of hospital or bank with showing the

specialization, aggregation, generalization. Also convert
it in to relational schemas and SQL DDL.
Ans. Relational schemas :
branch (branch-name, branch-city, assets)
customer (customer-name, customer-street, customer-city,
customer-id)
account (account-number, balance)
loan (loan-number, amount)

employee (employee-id, employee-name, telephone-number, start-
date, employment length, dependent-name)
payment (payment-number, payment-amount, payment-date)
saving-account (interest-rate)
checking-account (overdraft-amount)
branch-city
branch-name assets
branch
loan-branch
customer-name payment-date
customer-street payment-number payment-amount

customer-id loan-number
customer-city
amount
customer loan loan- payment

borrower
payment
access-date
account-number balance
cust-banker type
Aggregation
depositor account
manager
Generalization
Specialization
employee works-for ISA

worker
employee-id employee-name savings-account checking-account
dependent-name telephone-number
employment
length start-date interest-rate overdraft-amount
Fig. 2. ER diagram for a banking enterprise.

SQL DDL of ER diagram :
create table branch (branch-city varchar (40),
branch-name varchar (40) primary key,
assets number (20));
create table customer (customer-id number (5) primary key,
customer-name varchar (40),
customer-street varchar (20),
customer-city varchar (30));
create table loan (loan-number number (6) primary key,
amount number (10));
create table employee (employee-id number(5) primary key,

employee-name varchar (40),
telephone- number (10),
number
start-date date,
employment number (4),
length
dependent- varchar (10));
name
create table payment (payment- number (6),
number
payment- number (10),
amount
payment-date date);
create table account (account- number (12) primary key,
number
balance number (10));
create table
saving-account (interest-rate number (3);
create table
checking-account (overdraft- number (15));
amount

a. Explain the primary key, super key, foreign key and
candidate key with example.
Ans. Various types of keys are :
1. Primary key :
a. Primary key uniquely identifies each record in a table and
must never, be the same for records. Here in Employee table
we can choose either EmployeeID or SSN columns as a
primary key.
b. Primary key is a candidate key that is used for unique
identification of entities within the table.
2. Super key :
a. A super key for an entity is a set of one or more attribute
whose combined value uniquely identifies the entity in the
entity set.
b. For example : Here in employee table (EmployeeID,
FullName) or (EmployeeID, FullName, DeptID) is a super
key.
3. Candidate key :
a. A candidate key is a column, or set of column, in the table
that can uniquely identify any database record without
b. Candidate key are individual columns in a table that qualifies
for uniqueness of all the rows. Here in Employee table
EmployeeID and SSN are candidate keys.
4. Composite key :
a. A composite key is a combination of two or more columns in
a table that can be used to uniquely identify each row in the
table.
b. It is used when we cannot identify a record using single
attributes.
c. A primary key that is made by the combination of more than
one attribute is known as a composite key.
5. Alternate key :
a. The alternate key of any table are those candidate keys which
are not currently selected as the primary key.
b. Exactly one of those candidate keys is chosen as the primary
key and the remainders, if any are then called alternate keys.
primary key.
d. Here in Employee table if EmployeeID is primary key then
SSN would be the alternate key.
6. Foreign key :
b. A foreign key is derived from the primary key of the same or
some other table.
c. Foreign key is the combination of one or more columns in a
table (parent table) at references a primary key in another
table (child table).
b. Short notes of the following :

i. MVD or JD
ii. Normalization with advantages
Ans.
i. MVD or JD :
1. MVD occurs when two or more independent multivalued facts
about the same attribute occur within the same relation.
2. MVD is denoted by X  Y specified on relation schema R,
where X and Y are both subsets of R.
3. Both X and Y specifies the following constraint on any relation
state r of R : If two tuples t1 and t2 exist in r such that
t1(X) = t2(X), then two tuples t3 and t4 should also exist in r
with the following properties, where we use Z to denote
(R – (X  Y))
t3(X) = t4(X) = t1(X) = t2(X)
t3(Y) = t1(Y) and t3 (Z) = t2(Z)
t4(Y) = t2(Y) and t4(Z) = t1(Z)
b. X  Y = R
An MVD that satisfies neither (a) nor (b) is called a non-trivial
MVD.
For example :
Relation with MVD
Faculty Subject Committee
John DBMS Placement
John Networking Placement
John MIS Placement
John DBMS Scholarship
John Networking Scholarship
John MIS Scholarship
Join Dependency (JD) :
1. A Join Dependency (JD), denoted by (R1, R2, ..., Rn) specified
on relation scheme R, specifies a constraints on the states r of
R.
2. The constraint states that every legal state r of R should have
a lossless join decomposition into R1, R2, ..., Rn. That is, for
every such r, we have
( R1(r),  R2(r),....,  Rn(r)) = r
3. A join dependency JD (R1, R2, ..., Rn), specified on relation
schema R, is a trivial JD if one of the relation schemas Ri in
JD (R1, R2, ..., Rn) is equal to R.
4. Such a dependency is called trivial because it has the lossless
join property for any relation state r of R and hence does not
specify any constraint on R.
ii.
1. Normalization is the process of reducing data redundancy in a
relational database.
2. Normalization is a refinement process that the database
designer undertakes. After identifying the data objects of the
proposed database, their relationships define the tables
required and columns within each table.
3. The fundamental principle of normalization is, “The same data
should not be stored in multiple places.” No information is lost
in the process; however, the number of tables generally
increases as the rules are applied.
Advantages :
1. It helps to remove the redundancy from the relation.
2. It helps in easy manipulation of data.
3. It helps to provide more information to the user.
4. It eliminates modification anomalies.

a. What is log ? How is it maintained ? Discuss the features
of deferred database modification and immediate database
modification in brief.
Ans.
1. The log / system log is a sequence of log records, recording all the
update activities in the database.
2. Whenever a transaction performs a write, it is essential that the log
record for that write be created before the database is modified. In
log based recovery, following two techniques are used to ensure
atomicity and to maintain log :
1. Deferred database modification :
i. The deferred database modification technique ensures
transaction atomicity by recording all database modifications
in the log, but deferring the execution of all write operations of
a transaction until the transaction partially commits.
ii When a transaction partially commits, the information on the
log associated with the transaction is used in executing the
deferred writes.
Features of deferred database modification :
1. All logs written onto the database is updated when a transaction
commits.
2. It does not require old value of data item on the log.
3. It do not need extra I/O operation before commit time.
4. It can manage with large memory space.
5. Locks are held till the commit point.
2. Immediate database modification :
i. The immediate database modification technique allows
database modifications to be output to the database while the
transaction is still in the active state.
ii. Data modification written by active transactions.

Features of immediate database modification :
1. All logs written onto the database is updated immediately after
every operation.
2. It requires both old and new value of data item on the log.
3. It needs extra I/O operation to flush out block-buffer.
4. It can manage with less memory space.
5. Locks are released after modification.
b. What do you mean by transaction ? Explain transaction

property with detail and suitable example.
Ans. Transaction : A transaction is a logical unit of database processing
that includes one or more database access operations; these include
insertion, deletion, modification or retrieval operations.
To ensure integrity of data, the database system maintains some
properties of transaction. These properties are known as ACID
properties.
account B.
should be isolated.

a. Explain all database languages in detail with example.
Ans. Database languages :
a. DDL is set of SQL commands used to create, modify and
delete database structures but not data.
b. They are used by the DBA to a limited extent, a database
designer, or application developer.
c. Create, drop, alter, truncate are commonly used DDL
command.
a. A DML is a language that enables users to access or
manipulates data as organized by the appropriate data model.
i. Procedural DMLs : It requires a user to specify what
data are needed and how to get those data.
ii. Declarative DMLs (Non-procedural DMLs) : It
requires a user to specify what data are needed without
specifying how to get those data.
c. Insert, update, delete, query are commonly used DML
commands.
3. Data Control Language (DCL) :
a. It is the component of SQL statement that control access to
data and to the database.
b. Commit, rollback command are used in DCL.
4. Data Query Language (DQL) :
a. It is the component of SQL statement that allows getting data
from the database and imposing ordering upon it.
b. It includes select statement.
5. View Definition Language (VDL) :
1. VDL is used to specify user views and their mapping to
conceptual schema.
2. It defines the subset of records available to classes of users.
3. It creates virtual tables and the view appears to users like
conceptual level.
4. It specifies user interfaces.
SQL is a DML language.
Examples :
DDL :
CREATE, ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE, COMMENT, GRANT,
REVOKE statement
DML :
INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE statement
DCL :
GRANT and REVOKE statement
DQL :
SELECT statement
VDL :
1. create view emp5 as
select * from employee
where dno = 5 ;
Creates view for dept 5 employees.
2. create view empdept as
select fname, lname, dno, dname
from employee, department
where dno=dnumber ;
Creates view using two tables.
b. Explain data fragmentation with types.

Ans.
1. It is the decomposition of a relation into fragments.
2. It permits to divide a single query into a set of multiple sub-queries
that can execute parallel on fragments.
3. Fragmentation is done according to the data selection patterns of
applications running on the database.
Fragmentation techniques/types are as follows :
1. Vertical fragmentation :
a. It divides a relation into fragments which contain a subset of
attributes of a relation along with the primary key attribute
of the relation.
Name Reg. No. Course Dept
Fragmentation1 Fragmentation2 Fragmentation3
Fig. 3. Vertical fragmentation.

b.
The purpose of vertical fragmentation is to partition a relation
into a set of smaller relations to enable user applications to
run on only one fragment.
2. Horizontal fragmentation :
a. It divides a relation into fragments along its tuples. Each
fragment is a subset of tuples of a relation.
b. It identifies some specific rows based on some criteria and
marks it as a fragment.
Name Reg. No. Course Depth
Fragmentation1
Fragmentation2
Fragmentation3
Fragmentation4
Fig. 4. Horizontal fragmentation.
c. Various horizontal fragmentation techniques are :

i. Primary horizontal fragmentation : This type of
fragmentation is done where the tables in a database are
neither joined nor have dependencies. So, no relationship
exists among the tables.
ii. Derived horizontal fragmentation : De rive d
horizontal fragmentation is used for parent relation. It is
used where tables are interlinked with the help of foreign
keys. It ensures that the fragments which are joined
together are put on the same site.
3. Hybrid/mixed fragmentation :
a. The mixed/hybrid fragmentation is combination of horizontal
and vertical fragmentations.
b. This type is most complex one, because both types are used in
horizontal and vertical fragmentation of the DB application.
c. The original relation is obtained back by join or union
operations.
R
HF HF
R1 R2
VF VF VF VF
VF
R 11 R12 R21 R 22 R23

Fig. 5. Hybrid/mixed fragmentation.

B. Tech.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Note : Attempt all Sections.
SECTION-A
1. Attempt all questions in brief : (2 × 7 = 14)

a. Explain the difference between a weak and a strong entity
set with example.
b. Discuss three level of abstractions or schemas architecture

of DBMS.
c. Define constraint and its types in DBMS.
d. Explain the difference between physical and logical data

independence with example.
e. What are the different types of anomalies associated with

database ?
f. Write the difference between super key and candidate key.
g. Why do we normalize database ?
SECTION-B

a. Define transaction and explain its properties with suitable
example.
b. What is schedule ? What are its types ? Explain view

serializable and cascadeless schedule with suitable
example of each.
c. What is log file ? Write the steps for log based recovery of a
system with suitable example.
d. What is deadlock ? What are necessary conditions for it ?

How it can be detected and recovered ?
e. Draw overall s tructure of DBMS and explain its

components in brief.
SECTION-C

a. Compare generalization, specialization and aggregation
b. Write difference between cross join, natural join, left outer

join and right outer join with suitable example.
4. Attempt any one part of the following : (7 × 1 = 7)

a. Define partial functional dependency. Consider the
following two steps of functional dependencies F = {A  C,
AC  D, E  AD, E  H} and G = {A  CD, E  AH}. Check
whether or not they are equivalent.
b. Define minimal cover. Suppose a relation R(A, B, C) has FD

set F = {A  B, B  C, A  C, AB  B, AB  C, AC  B} convert
this FD set into minimal cover.

a. Explain two phase locking protocol with suitable example.
b. Write the salient features of graph based locking protocol

with suitable example.

a. Which of the following schedules are conflicts serializable ?
For each serializable schedule find the equivalent schedule.
S1 : r1(x); r3(x); w3(x); w1(x); r2(x)
S2 : r3(x); r2(x); w3(x); r1(x); w1(x)
b. Write the difference between 3NF and BCNF. Find the

normal form of relation R(A, B, C, D, E) having FD set
F= {A  B, BC  E, ED  A}.

a. Suppose there are two relations R(A, B, C), S(D, E, F). Write
TRC and SQL for the following RAs :
i.  A, B (R)
ii. B = 45 (R)
iii.  A, F(C = D(R × S))
b. What do you mean by multi granularity ? How the

concurrency is maintained in this case. Write the
concurrent transaction for the following graph.
A
B E
C D F G

SECTION-A

a. Explain the difference between a weak and a strong entity
set with example.
Ans.
S. No. Weak entity set Strong entity set
1. An entity set which does not An entity set which does have a
possess sufficient attributes primary key is called a strong entity
to from a primary key is called set.
a weak entity set.
2. It is repre se nted by a It is represented by a double
rectangle. rectangle.
3. It contains a primary key It contains a primary ke y
represented by an underline. represented by a dashed underline.
b. Discuss three level of abstractions or schemas architecture

of DBMS.
Ans. Different levels of data abstraction :
1. Physical level
2. Logical level
3. View level
c. Define constraint and its types in DBMS.

Ans. A constraint is a rule that is used for optimization purposes.
1. NOT NULL
2. UNIQUE
3. DEFAULT
4. CHECK
5. Key constraints
i. Primary key
ii. Foreign key
6. Domain constraints
d. Explain the difference between physical and logical data

independence with example.
Ans.
S. No. Physical data Logical data
independence independence
1. Physical data independence is Logical data independence is the
the ability to modify physical ability to modify the conceptual
schema without causing the schema without having to change
conceptual schema or the external schemas or application
application programs to be programs.
rewritten.
2. Examples of physical Examples of logical data
independence are independence are addition/removal
re organisations of files, of entities.
adding a new access path etc.
e. What are the different types of anomalies associated with

database ?
f. Write the difference between super key and candidate key.

Ans.
S. No. Super key Candidate key
1. Super key is a set of one or A candidate key is a column, or set
mo re attribute s take n of column, in the table that can
collectively that allows us to uniquely identify any database
identify uniquely an entity in record without referring to any
the entity set. other data.
2. Supe r ke y is a bro adest Candidate key is a subset of super
unique identifier. key.
g. Why do we normalize database ?

Ans. We normalize database :
1. To avoid redundancy
2. To avoid update/delete anomalies
SECTION-B

a. Define transaction and explain its properties with suitable
example.
Ans. Transaction :
1. A transaction is a logical unit of database processing that includes
one or more database access operations; these include insertion,
deletion, modification or retrieval operations.
2. To ensure integrity of data, the database system maintains some
properties.
account B.
should be isolated.
b. What is schedule ? What are its types ? Explain view

serializable and cascadeless schedule with suitable
example of each.
Ans. Schedule : A schedule is a set of transaction with the order of

execution of instruction in the transaction.
Types of schedule are :
1. Recoverable schedule :
A recoverable schedule is one in which for each pair of transaction
Ti and Tj if Tj reads a data item previously written by Ti, the
commit operation of Ti appears before the commit operation of Tj.
For example : In schedule S, let T2 commits immediately after
executing read (A) i.e., T2 commits before T1 does. Now let T1 fails
before it commits, we must abort T 2 to ensure transaction
atomicity. But as T2 has already committed, it cannot be aborted.
In this situation, it is impossible to recover correctly from the
failure of T1.
Schedule S
T1 T2
read (A)
write (A)
read (A)
read (B)
2. Cascadeless schedule :
a. A cascadeless schedule is one, where for each pair of
transaction Ti and Tj such that Tj reads a data item previously
written by T i, the commit operation to T j appears before
the read operation of T i.
b. Even if a schedule is recoverable, to recover correctly from
the failure of a transaction T i, we may have to rollback
several transactions. Such situations occur if transactions
have read data written by T i.
3. Strict schedule :
a. A schedule is called strict if every value written by a transaction
T is not read or changed by other transaction until T either
aborts or commits.
b. A strict schedule avoids cascading and recoverability.
View serializability :
a. For each data item Q, if transaction Ti reads the initial value
of Q in schedule S, then transaction Ti in schedule S, must
also read the initial value of Q.
b. For each data item Q if transaction Ti executes read (Q) in
schedule S and if that value produced by a write (Q) operation
executed by transaction Tj, then the read (Q) operation of

transaction Ti, in schedule S, must also read the value of Q
that was produced by the same write (Q) operation of
transaction Tj.
c. For each data item Q, the transaction (if any) that performs
the final write (Q) operation in schedule S must perform the
final write (Q) operation in schedule S.
values in both schedules and therefore, performs the same
computation. Condition (c), coupled with condition (a) and condition
(b) ensure that both schedules result in the same final system
state.
serializability.
4. We say that schedule S is view serializable, if it is view equivalent
to serial schedule.
5. Every conflict serializable schedule is also view serializable but
there are view serializable schedules that are not conflict
serializable.
Example :
T1 T2 T1 T2
read (A) read (A)

write (A) write (A)
read (B) read (A)
write (B) write (A)
read (A) read (B)
write (A) write (B)
read (B) read (B)
write (B) write (B)

c. What is log file ? Write the steps for log based recovery of a
system with suitable example.
Ans. Log file : A log file is a file that records all the update activities
occur in the database.
Steps for log based recovery :

1. The log file is kept on a stable storage media.
2. When a transaction enters the system and starts execution, it
writes a log about it
<Tn, start>
3. When the transaction modifies an item X, it write log as follows
<Tn, X, V1, V2>
It reads as Tn has changed the value of X, from V1 to V2.
4. When the transaction finishes, it logs
<Tn, commit>
For example :
<T0, start>
<T0, A, 0, 10>
<T0, commit>
<T1, start>
<T1, B, 0, 10>
<T2, start>
<T2, C, 0 , 10>
<T2, C, 10, 20>
<checkpoint (T1, T2)>
<T3, start>
<T3, A, 10, 20>
<T3, D, 0, 10>
<T3, commit>
d. What is deadlock ? What are necessary conditions for it ?

How it can be detected and recovered ?
Ans. Deadlock :
1. A deadlock is a situation in which two or more transactions are
waiting for locks held by the other transaction to release the lock.
operations.
Necessary condition for deadlock : A deadlock situation can
arise if the following four conditions hold simultaneously in a
system :
sharable mode; that is, only one process at a time can use the
resource. If another process requests that resource, the requesting
process must be delayed until the resource has been released.
2. Hold and wait : A process must be holding at least one resource

and waiting to acquire additional resources that are currently being
held by other processes.
3. No pre-emption : Resources cannot be pre-empted; i.e., a resource
can be released only by the process holding it, after that process has
completed its task.
resource held by P2, ..., Pn–1 is waiting for a resource held by Pn, and
Pn is waiting for a resource held by P0.
Deadlock detection and recovery :
1. Deadlock detection :
a. When a transaction waits indefinitely to obtain a lock, system
should detect whether the transaction is involved in a deadlock
or not.
b. Wait-for-graph is one of the methods for detecting the deadlock
situation.
c. In this method a graph is drawn based on the transaction and
their lock on the resource.
d. If the graph created has a closed loop or a cycle, then there is
a deadlock.
Wait-for-lock(R1)
T1 T2
Wait-for-lock(R2)
Fig. 1. Wait-for-graph.
2. Recovery from deadlock :
a. Selection of a victim : In this we determine which
transaction (or transactions) to roll back to break the deadlock.
We should rollback those transactions that will incur the
minimum cost.
b. Rollback : The simplest solution is a ‘‘total rollback’’. Abort
the transaction and then restart it.
c. Starvation : In a system where selection of transactions, for
rollback, is based on the cost factor, it may happen that the
some transactions are always picked up.
e. Draw overall s tructure of DBMS and explain its

components in brief.
Ans. A database system is partitioned into modules that deal with each
of the responsibilities of the overall system. The functional
components of a database system can be broadly divided into two
components :
Application Sophisticated Database

Naive Users
Programmers users Administrator
Use Write Use Use
Application Application Administrative

Query Tools
Interfaces Programs Tools
Compiler and DDL

DML Queries
Application Linker Interpreter
Program Object
Code
DML Compiler
and Organizer
Query Evaluation
Engine
Query processor
Buffer File Authorization and Transaction

manager manager integrity manager manager
Storage manager
Indices Data
Disk storage
Dictionary
Data Statistical data
Fig. 2. Overall database structure.

1. Storage Manager (SM) : A storage manager is a program module
that provides the interface between the low level data stored in the
database and the application programs and queries submitted to
the system. The SM components include :
a. Authorization and integrity manager : It tests for the

satisfaction of integrity constraints and checks the authority
of users to access data.
b. Transaction manager : It ensures that the database remains
in a consistent state despite of system failures and that
concurrent transaction executions proceed without conflicting.
c. File manager : It manages the allocation of space on disk
storage and the data structures are used to represent
information stored on disk.
d. Buffer manager : It is responsible for fetching data from disk
storage into main memory and deciding what data to cache in
main memory. The buffer manager is a critical part of the
database system, since it enables the database to handle data
sizes that are much larger than the size of main memory.
2. Query Processor (QP) : The Query Processor (Query Optimizer)
is responsible for taking every statement sent to SQL Server and
figure out how to get the requested data or perform the requested
operation.
The QP components are :
a. DDL interpreter : It interprets DDL statements and records
the definition in data dictionary.
b. DML compiler : It translates DML statements in a query
language into an evaluation plan consisting of low-level
instructions that the query evaluation engine understands.
c. Query optimization : It picks the lowest cost evaluation plan
from among the alternatives.
d. Query evaluation engine : It executes low-level instructions
generated by the DML compiler.
SECTION-C

a. Compare generalization, specialization and aggregation
Ans.
Comparison :
S. No. Generalization Specialization Aggregation
1. In generalization, In specialization, an Aggregation is an

the common entity of higher-level abstraction through
attributes of two or entity is broken down which relationships
more lower-level into two or more are treated as higher
entities combines entities of lower level. level entities.
to form a ne w
higher-level entity.
2. Generalization is a Specialization is a top- It allows us to
bottom-up down approach. indicate that a
approach. relationship set
participates in
another relationship
set.
3. It helps in reducing It increases the size It also increases the
the schema size. of schema. size of schema.
4. It is applied to group It can be applied to a It is applied to group
of entities. single entity. of relationships.
For example :
1. Generalization :
Generalization
Account
IS
A
Saving Current
Fig. 3.
2. Specialization :
Specialization
Person
IS
A
Employee Customer
Fig. 4.
3. Aggregation :
For example :
a. The relationship works_on (relating the entity sets employee,
branch and job) act as a higher-level entity set.
b. We can then create a binary relationship ‘Manages’, between
works on and manager to represent who manages what tasks.
Job
Employee Works_on Branch
Manages
Manager
Fig. 5. ER diagram with aggregation.
b. Write difference between cross join, natural join, left outer

join and right outer join with suitable example.
Ans. Cross join :
1. Cross join produces a result set which is the product of number of
rows in the first table multiplied by the number of rows in the
second table if no where clause is used along with cross join. This
kind of result is known as Cartesian product.
2. If where clause is used with cross join, it functions like an inner
join.
For example :
Beers Select * From Beers

Name Cross Join Likes
Manf
Name Manf Drinker Beer
Beer 1 XYZ
Beer 1 XYZ Kanika Beer 1
Beer 2 ABC
Beer 1 XYZ Aditya Beer 1
Beer 3 ABC
Beer 1 XYZ Mahesh Beer 3
Beer 2 ABC Kanika Beer 1
Likes Beer 2 ABC Aditya Beer 1
Drinker Beer Beer 2 ABC Mahesh Beer 3
Kanika Beer 1 Beer 3 ABC Kanika Beer 1
Aditya Beer 2 Beer 3 ABC Aditya Beer 1
Beer 3 ABC Mahesh Beer 3
Mahesh Beer 3
Natural join :
1. Natural join joins two tables based on same attribute name and
data types.
2. The resulting table will contain all the attributes of both the table
but keep only one copy of each common column.
3. In natural join, if there is no condition specifies then it returns the
rows based on the common column.
For example : Consider the following two relations :
Student (Roll_No, Name)
Marks (Roll_No, Marks)
Table 1. The Student relation.
Student
Roll_No Name
1 A
2 B
3 C
Table 2. The Marks relation.
Marks
Roll_No Marks
2 70
3 50
4 85
Consider the query :
Select * from Student natural join Marks ;
Result :
Roll_No Name Marks
2 B 70
3 C 50
Left outer join and right outer join :
Consider following two relations :
Employee
Emp_Name City
Hari Pune
Om Mumbai
Suraj Nashik
Jai Solapur
Employee_Salary
Hari Computer 10000
Om IT 7000
Billu Computer 8000
Jai IT 5000

a. Define partial functional dependency. Consider the
following two steps of functional dependencies F = {A  C,
AC  D, E  AD, E  H} and G = {A  CD, E  AH}. Check
whether or not they are equivalent.
Ans. Partial functional dependency :
1. Given a relation schema R with the functional dependencies F
defined on the attributes of R and K as a candidate keys if X is a
proper subset of K and if X  A then A is said to be partially
dependent on K.
For example :
Name Course Grade Phone. no. Roll no. Course-deptt.
Fig. 6.
i. In Fig. 6, [Name + Course] is a candidate key, So Name and Course
are prime attributes, Grade is fully functionally dependent on the
candidate keys and Phone no., Course-deptt. and roll no. are
partially functional dependent on the candidate key.
ii. Given R (A, B, C, D) and F = {AB  C, B  D}. Then key of this

relation is AB and D is partially dependent on the key.
Numerical :
From F,
E  AD
E  A (By Decomposition Rule)
ED
Also given that
EH
So, E  AH (By Union Rule)
which is a FD of set G.
Again A  C and AC  D
Imply A  D (By Pseudotransitivity Rule)
A  CD (by Union Rule)
which is FD of set G.
Hence, F and G are equivalent.
b. Define minimal cover. Suppose a relation R(A, B, C) has FD

set F = {A  B, B  C, A  C, AB  B, AB  C, AC  B} convert
this FD set into minimal cover.
Ans. Minimal cover : A minimal cover of a set of FDs F is a minimal
set of functional dependencies Fmin that is equivalent to F.
Numerical :
Given : R(A, B, C)
Non-redundant cover for F :
Step 1 : Only one attribute on right hand side
F=A B
B C
A C
AB  B
AB  C
AC  B
Step 2 : No extraneous attribute on left hand side. Since
AB  B, AB  C, AC  B are extraneous attribute. Hence, remove
all these we get
A B
B C
A C
Step 3 : By rule of transitivity, we can remove. Hence, we get the
minimal cover
A C
A B
B C

a. Explain two phase locking protocol with suitable example.
Ans.
follow the two-phase locking protocol if all locking operations
precede the first unlock operation in the transaction.
2. In 2PL, each transaction lock and unlock the data item in two
phases :
3. According to 2PL, the transaction cannot acquire a new lock, after
it has unlocked any of its existing locked items.
T1 T2

X : = X + 1; Y : = Y + 1;
operation in T1, and similarly the write-lock (Y) operation follows
the unlock (X) operation in T2.
6. If we enforce two-phase locking, the transaction can be rewritten
as :
T1 T2

X : = X + 1; Y : = Y + 1;
two-phase locking protocol, the schedule is guaranteed to be
serializable, obviating the need to test for serializability of schedules
any more.
b. Write the salient features of graph based locking protocol

with suitable example.
Ans. Salient features of graph based locking protocol are :
1. The graph based locking protocol ensures conflict serializability.
2. Free from deadlock.
3. Unlocking may occur earlier in the graph based locking protocol
than in the two phase locking protocol.
4. Shorter waiting time, and increase in concurrency.
5. No rollbacks are required.
6. Data items may be unlocked at any time.
7. Only exclusive locks are considered.
8. The first lock by T1 may be on any data item. Subsequently, a data
Q can be locked by T1 only if the parent of Q is currently locked by
T1.
9. A data item that has been locked and unlocked by T1 cannot
subsequently be relocked by T1.
For example :
We have three transactions in this schedule, i.e., we will only see
how locking and unlocking of data item.
A
C
B
F
D E
G H
T1 T2 T3
Lock-X(A)
Lock-X(D)
Lock-X(H)
Unlock-X(D)
Lock-X(E)
Lock-X(D)
Unlock-X(B)
Unlock-X(E)
Lock-X(B)
Lock-X(E)
Unlock-X(H)
The schedule is conflict serializable.

Serializablity for locks can be written as T2  T1  T3.

a. Which of the following schedules are conflicts serializable ?

For each serializable schedule find the equivalent schedule.
S1 : r1(x); r3(x); w3(x); w1(x); r2(x)
S2 : r3(x); r2(x); w3(x); r1(x); w1(x)
Ans. For S1 :
T1 T2 T3
r1(x)
r3(x)
w3(x)
w1(x)
r2(x)
x
T2
T1
x T3
Fig. 7.
Since, the graph does not contain cycle. Hence, it is conflict
serializable.
For S2 :
T1 T2 T3
r3(x)
r2(x)
w3(x)
r1(x)
w1(x)
T1 T2
x
x
T3
Fig. 8.
Since, the graph does not contain cycle. Hence, it is conflict
serializable.
For S3 :
T1 T2 T3
r3(x)
r3(x)
r1(x)
w3(x)
w1(x)
T1 T2
x
T3
Fig. 9.
Since, the graph contains cycle. Hence, it is not conflict serializable.
b. Write the difference between 3NF and BCNF. Find the

normal form of relation R(A, B, C, D, E) having FD set
F= {A  B, BC  E, ED  A}.
Ans. Difference :
S. No. 3NF BCNF
1. In 3NF, there should be no In BCNF, for any FDs for a
transitive dependency that is no relation R, A  B, A should be a
non prime attribute should be super key of relation.
candidate key.
2. It is less strong than BCNF. It is comparatively stronger
than 3NF.
3. In 3N F, the functio nal In BCN F, the functional
dependencies are already in 1NF dependencies are already in
and 2NF. 1NF, 2NF and 3NF.
4. Redundancy is high. Redundancy is low.
5. In 3NF, there is preservation of In BCNF, there may or may not
all functional dependencies. be preservation of all.
6. It is comparatively easier to It is difficult to achieve.
achieve.
7. Lossless decomposition can be Lossless decomposition is hard
achieved by 3NF. to achieve in BCNF.
Numerical :
Given : R(A, B, C, D, E) and
F= AB
BC  E
ED  A
(ACD)+ = ACDB  AB
= ABCDE  BC  E
= ABCDE  ED  A
So, ACD is a key of R.
Relation R is in 1NF as all domains are simple i.e., all elements are
atomic.

a. Suppose there are two relations R(A, B, C), S(D, E, F). Write
TRC and SQL for the following RAs :
i.  A, B (R)
ii. B = 45 (R)
iii.  A, F(C = D(R × S))
Ans.
i.  A, B (R) :
TRC : {s.A, s.B|R(s)}
SQL : Select A, B from R ;
ii. B = 45 (R) :
TRC : {s |R(s)  s.B = 45}
SQL : Select * from R where B = 45 ;
iii.  A, F(C = D(R × S)) :
TRC : {t|pr qs (t[A] = p[A]  t[F] = q[F]  p[C] = q[D])}
SQL : Select A, F from R inner join S ON R.C = S.D ;
b. What do you mean by multi granularity ? How the

concurrency is maintained in this case. Write the
concurrent transaction for the following graph.
A
B E
C D F G
Ans. Multi granularity :
1. Multiple granularity can be defined as hierarchically breaking up
the database into blocks which can be locked.
item.
Concurrency in multi granularity protocol :

1. Multiple granularity protocol is a protocol in which we lock the
data items in top-down order and unlock them in bottom-up order.
2. In multiple granularity locking protocol, each transaction Ti can
lock a node Q in any locking mode by following certain rules,
which ensures serializability. These rules are as follows :
i. T i must follow the compatibility matrix as shown in Fig. 10
to lock a node Q. This matrix contain following additional
locks :
a. Intension-Shared (IS) : Explicit locking at a lower level
of tree but only with shared locks.
b. Intension-Exclusive (IX) : Explicit locking at a lower
level with exclusive or shared locks.
c. Shared and Intension-Exclusive (SIX) : The sub-
tree rooted by that node is locked explicitly in shared
mode and explicit locking is being done at a lower level
with exclusive mode locks.
ii. It first locks the root of the tree and then locks the other
nodes.
iii. It can lock a node Q in S or IS mode only if it currently has the
parent of Q locked in either IX or IS mode.
iv. It can lock node Q in X, SIX or IX mode only if it currently has
the parent of Q locked in either IX or SIX mode.
v. It can lock a node if it has not previously unlocked any node.
vi. It can unlock a node Q only if it currently has none of the
children of Q locked.
Requested mode X SIX IX S IS

X NO NO NO NO NO
SIX NO NO NO NO YES
IX NO NO YES NO YES
S NO NO NO YES YES
IS NO YES YES YES YES
Fig. 10. Compatibility matrix for different

mode in multiple granularity protocol.
Numerical :
1. Transaction T1 reads the item C in B. Then, T2 needs to lock the
item the item A and B in IS mode (and in that order), and finally to
lock the item C in S mode.

2. Transaction T2 modifies the item D in B. Then, T2 needs to lock
the item A AND B (and in that order) in IX mode, and at last to
lock the item D in X mode.
3. Transaction T3 reads all the records in B. Then, T3 needs to lock
the A and B (and in that order) in IS mode, and at last to lock the
item B in S mode.
4. Transaction T4 read the all item. It can be done after locking the
item A in S mode.

B. Tech.
DATA BASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
SECTION-A

a. What is Relational Algebra ?
b. Explain normalization. What is normal form ?
c. What do you mean by aggregation ?
d. Define super key, candidate key, primary key and foreign

key.
e. What is strong and weak entity set ?
f. What do you mean by conflict serializable schedule ?
g. Define concurrency control.
SECTION-B

a. Explain data independence with its types.
b. Describe mapping constraints with its types.
c. Define key. Explain various types of keys.
d. Explain the phantom phenomena. Discuss a time stamp

protocol that avoids the phantom phenomena.
e. What are distributed database? List advantage and

disadvantage of data replication and data fragmentation.
SECTION-C

a. Define join. Explain different types of join.
b. Discuss the following terms (i) DDL Command (ii) DML

command.

a. What is tuple relational calculus and domain relational
calculus ?
b. Describe the following terms :

i. Multivalued dependency
ii. Trigger

a. What do you unders tand by ACID properties of
transaction ? Explain in details.
b. Discuss about deadlock prevention schemes.

a. Explain concurrency control. Why it is needed in database
system ?
b. Give the following queries in the relational algebra using

the relational schema :
student(id, name)
enrolled(id, code)
vii. What are the names of students in both cs1500 and cs1200 ?

a. Explain directory system in detail.
b. Consider the following relational DATABASE. Give an

expression in SQL for each following queries. Underline
records are primary key

i. Finds the names of all employees who works for the ABC
bank.
ii. Finds the name of all employees who live in the same city
and on the same street as do their managers.
employees who work for ABC bank and earn more than
7,000 per annum.
employee of XYZ.
vi. Delete all tuples in the works relation for employees of
ABC.
vii. Find the name of all employees in this DATABASE who live

SECTION-A

a. What is Relational Algebra ?
Ans. The relational algebra is a procedural query language. It consists of
a set of operations that take one or two relations as input and
produces a new relation as a result.
b. Explain normalization. What is normal form ?

Ans. Normal forms are based on the functional dependencies among
the attributes of a relation. These forms are simply stages of
database design, with each stage applying more strict rules to the
types of information which can be stored in a table.
c. What do you mean by aggregation ?

Ans. Aggregation is an abstraction through which relationships are
treated as higher level entities.
d. Define super key, candidate key, primary key and foreign

key.
Ans. Super key : It is a set of one or more attributes that, taken
collectively, allows us to identify uniquely an entity in the entity
set.
Candidate key : A candidate key is a column, or set of column, in
the table that can uniquely identify any database record without
Primary key : Primary key is a candidate key that is used for
unique identification of entities within the table.
Foreign key : A foreign key is derived from the primary key of the
same or some other table. Foreign key is the combination of one or
more columns in a table (parent table) at references a primary key
in another table (child table).
e. What is strong and weak entity set ?

Ans. Strong entity : Strong entity is not dependent of any other entity
in schema. Strong entity always has primary key. Strong entity is
represented by single rectangle. Two strong entity’s relationship is
represented by single diamond.
Weak entity : Weak entity is dependent on strong entity to ensure
the existence of weak entity. Weak entity does not have any primary
key, it has partial discriminator key. Weak entity is represented by

double rectangle.
f. What do you mean by conflict serializable schedule ?

Ans. A schedule is called conflict serializable if it can be transformed into
a serial schedule by swapping non-conflicting operation.
g. Define concurrency control.

Ans. Concurrency Control (CC) is a process to ensure that data is updated
correctly and appropriately when multiple transactions are
concurrently executed in DBMS.
SECTION-B

a. Explain data independence with its types.
Ans. Data independence : Data independence is defined as the capacity
to change the schema at one level of a database system without
having to change the schema at the next higher level.
Types of data independence :
1. Physical data independence :
a. Physical data independence is the ability to modify internal schema
without changing the conceptual schema.
b. Modification at the physical level is occasionally necessary in order
to improve performance.
c. It refers to the immunity of the conceptual schema to change in the
internal schema.
d. Examples of physical data independence are reorganizations of
files, adding a new access path or modifying indexes, etc.
2. Logical data independence :
a. Logical data independence is the ability to modify the conceptual
schema without having to change the external schemas or
b. It refers to the immunity of the external model to changes in the
conceptual model.
c. Examples of logical data independence are addition/removal of
entities.
b. Describe mapping constraints with its types.

Ans.
1. Mapping constraints act as a rule followed by contents of database.
2. Data in the database must follow the constraints.
Types of mapping constraints are :
1. Mapping cardinalities :
a. Mapping cardinalities (or cardinality ratios) specifies the number of
entities of which another entity can be associated via a relationship
set.
b. Mapping cardinalities are used in describing binary relationship

sets, although they contribute to the description of relationship
sets that involve more than two entity sets.
c. For binary relationship set R between entity sets A and B, the
mapping cardinality must be one of the following :
i. One to one : An entity in A is associated with at most one entity in
B and an entity in B is associated with at most one entity in A.
A B
a1 b1
a2 b2
a3 b3
a4 b4
Fig. 1.
ii. One to many : An entity in A is associated with any number of
entities in B. An entity in B, however, can be associated with at
most one entity in A.
A B
b1
a1 b2
a2 b3
a3 b4
b5
Fig. 2.
iii. Many to one : An entity in A is associated with at most one entity
in B, and an entity in B, however, can be associated with any
number of entities in A.
A B
a1
a2 b1
a3 b2
a4 b3
a5
Fig. 3.
iv. Many to many : An entity in A is associated with any number of
entities in B, and an entity in B is associated with any number of
entities in A.
A B
a1 b1
a2 b2
a3 b3
a4 b4
Fig. 4.
2. Participation constraints : It tells the participation of entity
sets. There are two types of participations :
i. Partial participation
ii. Total participation
c. Define key. Explain various types of keys.

Ans.
entity sets.
Various types of keys are :
1. Primary key :
a. Primary key uniquely identifies each record in a table and
must never, be the same for records. Here in Employee table
we can choose either EmployeeID or SSN columns as a
primary key.
b. Primary key is a candidate key that is used for unique
identification of entities within the table.
2. Super key :
a. A super key for an entity is a set of one or more attribute
whose combined value uniquely identifies the entity in the
entity set.
b. For example : Here in employee table (EmployeeID,
FullName) or (EmployeeID, FullName, DeptID) is a super
key.
3. Candidate key :
a. A candidate key is a column, or set of column, in the table
that can uniquely identify any database record without
b. Candidate key are individual columns in a table that qualifies
for uniqueness of all the rows. Here in Employee table
EmployeeID and SSN are candidate keys.

4. Composite key :
a. A composite key is a combination of two or more columns in
a table that can be used to uniquely identify each row in the
table.
b. It is used when we cannot identify a record using single
attributes.
c. A primary key that is made by the combination of more than
one attribute is known as a composite key.
5. Alternate key :
a. The alternate key of any table are those candidate keys which
are not currently selected as the primary key.
b. Exactly one of those candidate keys is chosen as the primary
key and the remainders, if any are then called alternate keys.
primary key.
d. Here in Employee table if EmployeeID is primary key then
SSN would be the alternate key.
6. Foreign key :
b. A foreign key is derived from the primary key of the same or
some other table.
c. Foreign key is the combination of one or more columns in a
table (parent table) at references a primary key in another
table (child table).
d. Explain the phantom phenomena. Discuss a time stamp

protocol that avoids the phantom phenomena.
Ans. Phantom phenomenon :
1. A deadlock that is detected but is not really a deadlock is called a
phantom deadlock.
2. In distributed deadlock detection, information about wait-for
relationship between transactions is transmitted from one server
to another.
4. As this procedure will take some time, there is a chance that one of
the transactions that hold a lock will meanwhile have released it; in
this case the deadlock will no longer exist.
For example :
1. Consider the case of global deadlock detector that receives local
wait-for graph from servers X and Y as shown in Fig. 9 and 10.
T U
V T
U V
Fig. 7. Global wait-for graph.

2. Suppose that transaction U releases an object at server X and
requests the one held by V at server Y.
4. In this case, it would detect a cycle T  U  V  T, although the
edge T  U no longer exists.
For example, if there is a cycle T  U  V  T and U aborts after
the information concerning U has been collected, then the cycle
has been broken already and there is no deadlock.
Times tamp bas ed protocol that avoids phantom
phenomenon :
1. The B + tree index based approach can be adapted to timestamping
by treating index buckets as data items with timestamps associated
with them, and requiring that all read accesses use an index.
range of search-key values, using a B + tree index on that search-
key.
3. Ti will need to read all the buckets in that index which have key
values in that range.
4. Ti will need to write one of the buckets in that index when any
deletion or insertion operation on the tuple is done.
e. What are distributed database? List advantage and

disadvantage of data replication and data fragmentation.
Ans. Distributed database :
1. A distributed database system consists of collection of sites,
connected together through a communication network.
2. Each site is a database system site in its own right and the sites
have agreed to work together, so that a user at any site can access
anywhere in the network as if the data were all stored at the
user’s local site.
relation r can be found in another site. Thus, the system can continue
to process queries involving ‘r’, despite the failure of one site.
ii. Increased parallelism : Number of transactions can read relation
r in parallel. The more replicas of ‘r’ there are, the greater parallelism
is achieved.
i. Increased overhead on update : The system must ensure that
all replicas of a relation r are consistent; otherwise, erroneous
computation may result. Thus, whenever r is updated, the update
must be propagated to all sites containing replicas. The result is
increased overhead.
complete database.
iii. Increased availability of data to the users/queries that are local to
the site in which the data stored.
v. Data that are not required by local applications are not stored locally.
It leads to reduced data transfer between sites, and increased
security.
i. The performance of global application that requires data from
several fragments located at different sites may be slower.
ii. Integrity control may be more difficult if data and functional
dependencies are fragmented and located at different sites.
SECTION-C

a. Define join. Explain different types of join.
Ans. A join clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables,
based on a related column between them.
1. Inner join :
being joined.
Employee
Emp_Name City
Hari Pune
Om Mumbai
Suraj Nashik
Jai Solapur
Employee_Salary
Hari Computer 10000
Om IT 7000
Billu Computer 8000
Jai IT 5000
Select Employee.Emp_Name, Employee_Salary.Salary from
Employee inner join Employee_Salary on Employee.Emp_Name
= Employee_Salary.Emp_Name;
Emp_Name Salary
Hari 10000
Om 7000
Jai 5000
2. Outer join :
i. Left outer join : The left outer join returns matching rows from
the tables being joined and also non-matching rows from the left
table in the result and places null values in the attributes that
comes from the right table.
For example :
Emp_Name Salary
Hari 10000
Om 7000
Jai 5000
Suraj null
matching rows from the tables being joined, and also non-matching
rows from the right table in the result and places null values in
the attributes that comes from the left table.
For example :
Select Employee.Emp_Name, City, Salary from Employee right
outer join

Hari Pune 10000
Om Mumbai 7000
Jai Solapur 5000
Billu null 8000
b. Discuss the following terms (i) DDL Command (ii) DML

command.
Ans. Classification of database languages :
a. DDL is set of SQL commands used to create, modify and
delete database structures but not data.
b. They are used by the DBA to a limited extent, a database
designer, or application developer.
c. Create, drop, alter, truncate are commonly used DDL
command.
a. A DML is a language that enables users to access or
manipulates data as organized by the appropriate data model.
i. Procedural DMLs : It requires a user to specify what
data are needed and how to get those data.
ii. Declarative DMLs (Non-procedural DMLs) : It
requires a user to specify what data are needed without
specifying how to get those data.
c. Insert, update, delete, query are commonly used DML
commands.

a. What is tuple relational calculus and domain relational
calculus ?
Ans. Tuple Relational Calculus (TRC) :
1. The TRC is a non-procedural query language.
2. It describes the desired information without giving a specific
procedure for obtaining that information.
3. A query in TRC is expressed as :
{t | P(t)}
That is, it is the set of all tuples t such that predicate P is true for t.
The notation t[A] is used to denote the value of tuple t on attribute
A and t  r is used to denote that tuple t is in relation r.
4. A tuple variable is said to be a free variable unless it is quantified
by a  or  .
5. Formulae are built using the atoms and the following rules :
b. If P1 is a formula, then so are ¬ P1 and (P1).

c. If P2 and P1 are formulae, then so are P1  P2, P1  P2 and
P1  P2.
d. If P1(s) is a formula containing a free tuple variable s, and r is
a relation, then  s  r (P1(s)) and  s  r (P1(s)) are also
formulae.
Domain Relational Calculus (DRC) :
1. DRC uses domain variables that take on values from an attributes
domain, rather than values for an entire tuple.
2. An expression in the DRC is of the form :
{<x1, x2, ……., xn> | P(x1, x2, ………, xn)}
where x1, x2, ………, xn represent domain variable. P represents a
formula compose of atoms.
3. An atom in DRC has one of the following forms :
a. <x1, x2, …….., xn>  r, where r is a relation on n attributes and
x1, x2, ……., xn are domain variables or domain constant.
b. x y, where x and y are domain variable and is a comparison
operator (< , , =, , >, ). The attributes x and y must have the
domain that can be compared.
c. x c, where x is a domain variable, is a comparison operator
and c is a constant in the domain of the attribute for which x
is a domain variable.
4. Following are the rules to build up the formula :
b. If P1 is a formula then so is P1.
c. If P1 and P2 are formula, then so are P1  P2, P1  P2 and
P1 P2.
d. If P1(x) is a formula in x, where x is a domain variable, then
 x (P1(x)) and x  (P1(x)) are also formulae.
b. Describe the following terms :

i. Multivalued dependency
ii. Trigger
Ans.
i. Multivalued Dependency (MVD) :
1. MVD occurs when two or more independent multivalued facts
about the same attribute occur within the same relation.
2. MVD is denoted by X  Y specified on relation schema R,
where X and Y are both subsets of R.
3. Both X and Y specifies the following constraint on any relation
state r of R : If two tuples t1 and t2 exist in r such that t1(X) =
t2(X), then two tuples t3 and t4 should also exist in r with the
following properties, where we use Z to denote (R – (X  Y))
t3(X) = t4(X) = t1(X) = t2(X)
t3(Y) = t1(Y) and t3 (Z) = t2(Z)
t4(Y) = t2(Y) and t4(Z) = t1(Z)

b. X  Y = R
An MVD that satisfies neither (a) nor (b) is called a non-
trivial MVD.
ii. Triggers :
1. A trigger is a procedure (code segment) that is executed
automatically when some specific events occur in a table/
view of a database.
2. Triggers are mainly used for maintaining integrity in a
database. Triggers are also used for enforcing business rules,
auditing changes in the database and replicating data.
3. Following are different types of triggers :
a. Data Manipulation Language (DML) triggers :
i. DML triggers are executed when a DML operation
like INSERT, UPDATE OR DELETE is fired on a
Table or View.
b. Data Definition Language (DDL) triggers :
i. DDL triggers are executed when a DDL statements
like CREATE, ALTER, DROP, GRANT, DENY,
REVOKE, and UPDATE STATISTICS statements
are executed.
c. LOGON triggers :
i. LOGON triggers get executed automatically in
response to a LOGON event.
d. CLR triggers :
i. CLR triggers are based on the Sql CLR.
ii. CLR triggers are useful if heavy computation is
required in the trigger or a reference to object
outside SQL is required.

a. What do you unders tand by ACID properties of
transaction ? Explain in details.
Ans. To ensure integrity of data, the database system maintains some
properties.

account B.
should be isolated.
b. Discuss about deadlock prevention schemes.

Ans. Deadlock prevention schemes :
i. In this scheme, if a transaction request to lock a resource
(data item), which is already held with conflicting lock by
some other transaction, one of the two possibilities may occur :
a. If TS(T i) < TS(T j ), i.e., T i, which is requesting a
conflicting lock, is older than Tj, Ti is allowed to wait
until the data item is available.
b. If TS(Ti) > TS(Tj), i.e., Ti is younger than Tj, so Ti dies.
Ti is restarted later with random delay but with same
timestamp.
younger one.
i. In this scheme, if a transaction request to lock a resource
(data item), which is already held with conflicting lock by
some other transaction, one of the two possibilities may occur :
a. If TS(T i) < TS(T j ), i.e., T i, which is requesting a
conflicting lock, is older than Tj, Ti forces Tj to be rolled
back, that is Ti wounds Tj. Tj is restarted later with
random delay but with same timestamp.
b. If TS(Ti) > TS(Tj), i.e., Ti is younger than Tj, Ti is forced
to wait until the resource (i.e., data item) is available.
ii. This scheme, allows the younger transaction to wait but when
an older transaction request an item held by younger one,
the older transaction forces the younger one to abort and
release the item. In both cases, transaction, which enters late
in the system, is aborted.

a. Explain concurrency control. Why it is needed in database
system ?
Ans.
1. Concurrency Control (CC) is a process to ensure that data is
updated correctly and appropriately when multiple transactions
are concurrently executed in DBMS.
2. It is a mechanism for correctness when two or more database
transactions that access the same data or dataset are executed
concurrently with time overlap.
3. In general, concurrency control is an essential part of transaction
management.
Concurrency control is needed :
1. To ensure consistency in the database.
2. To prevent following problem :
a. Lost update :
i. A second transaction writes a second value of a data
item on top of a first value written by a first concurrent
transaction, and the first value is lost to other
transactions running concurrently which need, by their
precedence, to read the first value.
ii. The transactions that have read the wrong value end
with incorrect results.
b. Dirty read :
i. Transactions read a value written by a transaction that
has been later aborted.
ii. This value disappears from the database upon abort, and
should not have been read by any transaction (“dirty
read”).
iii. The reading transactions end with incorrect results.
b. Give the following queries in the relational algebra using

the relational schema :
student(id, name)
enrolled(id, code)

vii. What are the names of students in both cs1500 and cs1200 ?
Ans.
i.name(code = cs3020(student enrolledin))
ii.code(name = Hector(student enrolledin))
iii.lecturer(code = cs1500(subject))
iv. lecturer(code = cs1500  code = cs3020(subject))
v. For this query we have to relate subject to itself. To disambiguate
the relation, we will call the subject relation R and S.
lecturer(R.lecture = S.lecturer  R.code< >S.code(R S))
vi. name ( code = cs1500 (stude nt e nrolledin))  (name ( co de =
cs307(student enrolledin)))
vii. name ( co de = cs1500 (student enro lle din))  name ( co de =
cs1200(student enrolledin))

a. Explain directory system in detail.
Ans.
1. A directory is a listing of information about some class of objects
such as persons.
2. Directories can be used to find information about a specific object,
or in the reverse direction to find objects that meet a certain
requirement.
3. In the networked world, the directories are present over a
computer network, rather than in a physical (paper) form.
4. A directory system is implemented as one of more servers, which
service multiple clients.
5. Clients use the application programmer interface defined by the
directory system to communicate with the directory servers.
Directory access protocols :
1. Directory access protocol is a protocol that allows to access directory
information through program.
2. Directory access protocols also define a data model and access
control.
3. For instance, web browsers can store personal bookmarks and
other browser settings in a directory system. A user can thus
access the same settings from multiple locations, such as at home
and at work, without having to share a file system.
b. Consider the following relational DATABASE. Give an
expression in SQL for each following queries. Underline
records are primary key
i. Finds the names of all employees who works for the ABC
bank.
ii. Finds the name of all employees who live in the same city
and on the same street as do their managers.
employees who work for ABC bank and earn more than
7,000 per annum.
employee of XYZ.
vi. Delete all tuples in the works relation for employees of
ABC.
vii. Find the name of all employees in this DATABASE who live
Ans.
i. Select person_name from Works
Where company_name=‘ABC Bank’
ii. Select E1.person_name
From Employee as E1, Employee as E2, Manages as M
Where E1.person_name=M.person_name
and E2.person_name=M.manager_name
and E1.street=E2.street and E1.city=E2.city
iii. Select * from employee
where person_name in
(select person_name from Works
where company_name= ‘ABC Bank’ and salary>7000
select E.person_name, street,
city from Employee as E, Works as W
where E.person_name = W.person_name
and W.company_name=‘ABC Bank’ and W.salary>7000
iv. Select person_name from Works
where salary > all
(select salary from Works
select person_name from Works
where salary>(select max(salary) from Works
v. Update Works
set salary=salary*1.07
vi. Delete from Works
vii. Select E.person_name
where E.person_name=W.person_name and E.city=C.city


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Database Management System

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PUBLISHED BY : Apram Singh

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Information contained in this work is derived from sources

Database Management System (CS/IT : Sem-5)

Price: Rs. 80/- only

Printed Version : e-Book.

UNIT-1 : INTRODUCTION (1–1 A to 1–33 A)

SHORT QUESTIONS (SQ-1 A to SQ-18 A)

SOLVED PAPERS (2015-16 TO 2019-20) (SP-1 A to SP-15 A)

Part-2 : Data Model Schema and .......................... 1–9A to 1–16A

Part-3 : Data Modeling using ............................... 1–16A to 1–22A

Part-4 : Keys, Concept of Super .......................... 1–22A to 1–27A

Part-5 : Reduction of an ER Diagram ................ 1–27A to 1–32A

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.1. What is database management system (DBMS) ? What

Que 1.2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of DBMS ?

2. Data sharing : In DBMS, the authorized users of an organization can

Que 1.3. What do you understand by database users ? Describe

4. Granting of authorization for data access : DBA grants different

Que 1.5. What is data abstraction ? Explain different levels of

Fig. 1.5.1. The three levels of data abstraction.

Que 1.6. Explain the differences between physical level,

S. No. Physical level Conceptual/ View level

Que 1.7. Explain the difference between database management

S. No. DBMS File System

1. In DBMS, the user is not In this system, the user has to

3. DBMS pro vide s a crash File system do not have a crash

Database system Server

Fig. 1.8.1. 2-Tier architecture.

iii. 3-Tier architecture :

Fig. 1.8.1. 3-Tier architecture.

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Attribute Attribute Attribute Attribute

Entity Relationship Entity

Fig. 1.9.1. The ER model.

Que 1.10. Describe data schema and instances.

Que 1.11. Describe data independence with its types.

Que 1.12. Describe the classification of database language. Which

Que 1.13. Explain all database languages in detail with example.

AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Application Sophisticated Database

Use Write Use Use

Application Application Administrative

Compiler and DDL

Buffer File Authorization and Transaction

Data Statistical data

Fig. 1.15.1. Overall database structure.

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.16. What is ER model ? What are the elements of ER model ?

Que 1.18. What is purpose of the ER diagram ? Construct an ER

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