Philippines: Its Environmental Issues

Jellane S. Seletaria
MA-SocSted
Abstract

The Philippines, like many of the world’s poor countries, will be among
the most vulnerable to the environmental issues because of its limited resources.
Four environmental issues — air pollution, water pollution, deforestation, and climate
change, — are discussed in this paper. Air pollution takes a substantial toll on
national health-care expenditures and economies in general. Of the 18 megacities
worldwide with severe levels of total suspended particulate matter emissions, 10 are
in the Philippines. Regarding water pollution, neglecting to have a coherent
environmental policy has led to the contamination of 58% of the groundwater in the
Philippines. The main source of pollution is untreated domestic and industrial
wastewater and the volume of water evaporated from reservoirs exceeds the
combined freshwater needs of industry and domestic consumption. Climate change
threatens more land, people, and economies in the Philippines. In the domain of
climate change, rising sea levels could contaminate freshwater aquifers possibly
reducing potable water supplies by 45%. Changes in land use for fuelwood collection
and biofuel production have resulted in deforestation at 5 times the global average
and 10 times the average in the Philippines. For the Philippines to become a more
stable, prosperous and well-governed nation, the country must become more
environmentally resilient and better able to cope with the impact of natural disasters
and recover quickly.
Introduction
As one of the fastest growing countries in Asia, the Philippines faces
environmental issues, with disproportionate impacts on the poor and women.
Ineffective management seriously degrades the country’s significant biodiversity
resources; water and air pollution levels exceed generally accepted healthy
standards; the climate change and greenhouse gas emissions are increasing from
the transport and power sectors; and the country is ranked as one of the world’s
most vulnerable to the impacts of environmental disasters.
The Philippines' evident risk to natural disasters is due to its location. Being a
country that lies in the Pacific Ring of Fire, it is prone to earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions. In addition, the country is surrounded by large bodies of water and facing
the Pacific Ocean where 60% of the world's typhoons are made. Other
environmental problems that the country is facing
include pollution, deforestation, global warming and climate change
This study explores the intersection of environmental constraints, climate
change, in the Philippines. Although environmental sustainability has only recently
emerged as an energy policy issue, the unchecked growth in fossil energy
consumption and the ensuing acceleration of global climate change as well as
related air and water pollution act as “threat multipliers” impinging on national
security globally. These environmental dimensions are just a subset of a larger array
of environmental concerns that threaten energy security including land pollution,
forestry, and biodiversity loss.
Water Pollution
Although water resources have become scarce in some regions and seasons,
the Philippines as a whole has more than enough surface and groundwater.
However, neglecting to have a coherent environmental policy has led to the
contamination of 58% of the groundwater in the Philippines. The main source of
pollution is untreated domestic and industrial wastewater. Only one third of Philippine
river systems are considered suitable for public water supply.

It is estimated that in 2025, water availability will be marginal in most major

cities and in 8 of the 19 major river basins. Besides severe health concerns, water
pollution also leads to problems in the fishing and tourism industries. The national
government recognized the problem and since 2004 has sought to introduce
sustainable water resources development management.

This widespread problem of water pollution is jeopardizing our health. Unsafe

water kills more people each year than war and all other forms of violence combined.
Meanwhile, our drinkable water sources are finite: Less than 1 percent of the earth’s
freshwater is actually accessible to us. Without action, the challenges will only
increase by 2050, when global demand for freshwater is expected to be one-third
greater than it is now.

Only 5% of the total population is connected to a sewer network. The vast

majority uses flush toilets connected to septic tanks. Since sludge treatment and
disposal facilities are rare, most effluents are discharged without
treatment. According the Asian Development Bank, the Pasig River is one of the
world's most polluted rivers, running through the capital city of Manila. In March
2008, Manila Water announced that a wastewater treatment plant will be constructed
in Taguig. The first Philippine constructed wetland serving about 700 households
was completed in 2006 in a peri-urban area of Bayawan City which has been used to
resettle families that lived along the coast in informal settlements and had no access
to safe water supply and sanitation facilities.

Categories of Water Pollution

a. Groundwater
When rain falls and seeps deep into the earth, filling the cracks,
crevices, and porous spaces of an aquifer (basically an underground
storehouse of water), it becomes groundwater—one of our least visible but
most important natural resources. Nearly 40 percent of Filipinos rely on
groundwater, pumped to the earth’s surface, for drinking water. For some
folks in rural areas, it’s their only freshwater source. Groundwater gets
polluted when contaminants—from pesticides and fertilizers to waste leached
from landfills and septic systems—make their way into an aquifer, rendering it
unsafe for human use. Ridding groundwater of contaminants can be difficult to
impossible, as well as costly. Once polluted, an aquifer may be unusable for
decades, or even thousands of years. Groundwater can also spread
contamination far from the original polluting source as it seeps into streams,
lakes, and oceans.
b. Surface water
Covering about 70 percent of the earth, surface water is what fills our
oceans, lakes, rivers, and all those other blue bits on the world map. Surface
water from freshwater sources (that is, from sources other than the ocean)
accounts for more than 60 percent of the water delivered to Filipino homes.
But a significant pool of that water is in peril. According to the most recent
surveys on national water quality from the DENR, nearly half of our rivers and
streams and more than one-third of our lakes are polluted and unfit for
swimming, fishing, and drinking. Nutrient pollution, which includes nitrates and
phosphates, is the leading type of contamination in these freshwater sources.
While plants and animals need these nutrients to grow, they have become
a major pollutant due to farm waste and fertilizer runoff. Municipal and
industrial waste discharges contribute their fair share of toxins as well. There’s
also all the random junk that industry and individuals dump directly into
waterways.

Air Pollution

Air pollution can harm us when it accumulates in the air in high enough
concentrations. Millions of Filipnos live in areas where urban smog, particle pollution,
and toxic pollutants pose serious health concerns. People exposed to high enough
levels of certain air pollutants may experience:
 Irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat
 Wheezing, coughing, chest tightness, and breathing difficulties
 Worsening of existing lung and heart problems, such as asthma
 Increased risk of heart attack.

In addition, long-term exposure to air pollution can cause cancer and damage
to the immune, neurological, reproductive, and respiratory systems. In extreme
cases, it can even cause death.

Air pollution is a problem for all of us. However, some groups of people are
especially sensitive to common air pollutants such as particulates and ground-level
ozone. Sensitive populations include children, older adults, people who are active
outdoors, and people with heart or lung diseases, such as asthma. If you are
sensitive to air pollution, you need to be aware of steps you can take to protect your
health.

Due to industrial waste and automobiles, Manila suffers from air pollution,

affecting 98% of the population. Annually, the air pollution causes more than 4,000
deaths. Ermita is Manila's most air polluted district due to open dump
sites and industrial waste. According to Metro Manila Development Authority
(MMDA), the country produces an average of 41 kilotons of garbage daily with
almost 10k tons/day coming from Metro Manila alone. While most local government
units establish a Material Recovery Facility (MRF), implement segregation at the
source, and collect and process all recyclable and biodegradable materials, most of
the municipal solid wastes are either disposed in the dump sites or openly burned,
which further worsen the quality of heavy polluted air in the cities. According to a
report in 2003, The Pasig River is one of the most polluted rivers in the world with
150 tons of domestic waste and 75 tons of industrial waste dumped daily.

Environmental Effects

Along with harming human health, air pollution can cause a variety of
environmental effects:
a. Acid rain
Is precipitation containing harmful amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids.
These acids are formed primarily by nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides
released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned. These acids fall to
the Earth either as wet precipitation (rain, snow, or fog) or dry precipitation
(gas and particulates). Some are carried by the wind, sometimes hundreds of
miles. In the environment, acid rain damages tree and causes soils and water
bodies to acidify, making the water unsuitable for some fish and other wildlife.
It also speeds the decay of buildings, statues, and sculptures that are part of
our national heritage. Acid rain has damaged lakes, ponds, rivers, and soils,
leading to damaged wildlife and forests. For more information on acid rain, go
to http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/.

b. Eutrophication
Is a condition in a water body where high concentrations of nutrients
(such as nitrogen) stimulate blooms of algae, which in turn can cause fish kills
and loss of plant and animal diversity. Although eutrophication is a natural
process in the aging of lakes and some estuaries, human activities can greatly
accelerate eutrophication by increasing the rate at which nutrients enter
aquatic ecosystems. Air emissions of nitrogen oxides from power plants, cars,
trucks, and other sources contribute to the amount of nitrogen entering
aquatic ecosystems.

c. Haze
Is caused when sunlight encounters tiny pollution particles in the air.
Haze obscures the clarity, color, texture, and form of what we see. Some
haze-causing pollutants (mostly fine particles) are directly emitted to the
atmosphere by sources such as power plants, industrial facilities, trucks and
automobiles, and construction activities. Others are formed when gases
emitted to the air (such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) form particles
as they are carried downwind.

d. Effects on wildlife.
Toxic pollutants in the air, or deposited on soils or surface waters, can
impact wildlife in a number of ways. Like humans, animals can experience
health problems if they are exposed to sufficient concentrations of air toxics
over time. Studies show that air toxics are contributing to birth defects,
reproductive failure, and disease in animals. Persistent toxic air pollutants
(those that break down slowly in the environment) are of particular concern in
aquatic ecosystems. These pollutants accumulate in sediments and may
biomagnify in tissues of animals at the top of the food chain to concentrations
many times higher than in the water or air.
e. Ozone depletion.
Ozone is a gas that occurs both at ground-level and in the Earth's
upper atmosphere, known as the stratosphere. At ground level, ozone is a
pollutant that can harm human health. In the stratosphere, however, ozone
forms a layer that protects life on earth from the sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV)
rays. But this "good" ozone is gradually being destroyed by man-made
chemicals referred to as ozone-depleting substances, including
chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and halons. These
substances were formerly used and sometimes still are used in coolants,
foaming agents, fire extinguishers, solvents, pesticides, and aerosol
propellants. Thinning of the protective ozone layer can cause increased
amounts of UV radiation to reach the Earth, which can lead to more cases of
skin cancer, cataracts, and impaired immune systems. UV can also damage
sensitive crops, such as soybeans, and reduce crop yields.

f. Crop and forest damage.

Air pollution can damage crops and trees in a variety of ways. Ground-
level ozone can lead to reductions in agricultural crop and commercial forest
yields, reduced growth and survivability of tree seedlings, and increased plant
susceptibility to disease, pests and other environmental stresses (such as
harsh weather). As described above, crop and forest damage can also result
from acid rain and from increased UV radiation caused by ozone depletion.

Deforestation
Deforestation is the clearing, destroying, or otherwise removal of trees
through deliberate, natural, or accidental means. It can occur in any area densely
populated by trees and other plant life.

The Philippines is suffering from degradation of the natural environment. It

has fifty major rivers now polluted due to abuse and neglect. Approximately two-
thirds of the country's original mangroves have been lost. A hundred years ago, the
Philippines had close to 22 million hectares of old growth forest. At the start of 2000,
we had less than 600,000 hectares of old-growth forest left. In one century, we had
cut down close to 97 percent of our original forest.

A study by the Environmental Scientists for Social Change (ESSC) reveals

that we have systematically cut this forest down and that we have not stopped its
destruction and that of its core biodiversity.

The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) estimates that it takes over
4,000 liters of water to produce one kilo of rice. Because of the loss of forests, we
have less water since most of our freshwater comes from watersheds found in
forests. Therefore, loss of forests means loss of food.
More than 400 plant and animal species found in the Philippines are currently
threatened with extinction, including the Philippine eagle, the tamaraw, and the
dugong. In 2001, 49 of the nation's mammal species, 86 bird species, and 320 plant
species were threatened with extinction. Endangered species in the Philippines
include the monkey-eating eagle, Philippine tarsier, tamaraw, four species of turtle
(green sea, hawksbill, olive ridley, and leatherback), Philippine’s crocodile,
sinarapan, and two species of butterflies. The Cebu warty pig, Panay flying fox, and
Chapman's fruit bat have become extinct. The loss of trees and other vegetation can
cause climate change, desertification, soil erosion, fewer crops, flooding, increased
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, and a host of problems for indigenous people.

Deforestation occurs for a number of reasons, including farming, with 80% of

deforestation resulting from extensive cattle ranching, and logging for materials and
development. It has been happening for thousands of years, arguably since man
began converting from hunter/gatherer to agriculturally based societies, and required
larger, unobstructed tracks of land to accommodate cattle, crops, and housing. It
was only after the onset of the modern era that it became an epidemic.

Over the course of the 20th century the forest cover of the Philippines
dropped from 70 percent down to 20 percent. In total, 46 species are endangered,
and 4 have been eradicated completely. Only 3.2 percent of total rainforest is left.
Based on an analysis of land use pattern maps and a road map, an estimated 9.8
million acres of forests were lost in the Philippines from 1934 to 1988. Illegal
logging occurs in the Philippines and intensifies flood damage in some areas.
According to scholar Jessica Mathews, short-sighted policies by the Filipino
government have contributed to the high rate of deforestation:
The government regularly granted logging concessions of less than ten
years. Since it takes 30–35 years for a second-growth forest to mature,
loggers had no incentive to replant. Compounding the error, flat royalties
encouraged the loggers to remove only the most valuable species. A
horrendous 40 percent of the harvestable lumber never left the forests but,
having been damaged in the logging, rotted or was burned in place. The
unsurprising result of these and related policies is that out of 17 million
hectares of closed forests that flourished early in the century only 1.2 million
remain today.
The Philippines had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of
5.91/10, ranking it 91st globally out of 172 countries.

Environmental Effects of Deforestation from Above

a. Loss of Habitat
One of the most dangerous and unsettling effects of deforestation is
the loss of animal and plant species due to their loss of habitat. 70% of land
animals and plant species live in forests. Not only does deforestation threaten
species known to us, but also those unknown.

The trees of the rainforest that provide shelter for some species also
provide the canopy that regulates the temperature. Deforestation results in a
more drastic temperature variation from day to night, much like a desert,
which could prove fatal for many inhabitants.

b. Increased Greenhouse Gases

In addition to the loss of habitat, the lack of trees also allows a greater
amount of greenhouse gases to be released into the atmosphere. Healthy
forests absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, acting as valuable carbon
sinks. Deforested areas lose that ability and release more carbon.

c. Water in the Atmosphere

The trees also help control the level of water in the atmosphere by
helping to regulate the water cycle. In deforested areas, there is less water in
the air to be returned to the soil. This then causes dryer soil and the inability
to grow crops.

Environmental Effects of Deforestation from Below

a. Soil Erosion and Flooding

Further effects of deforestation include soil erosion and coastal
flooding. Trees help the land to retain water and topsoil, which provides the
rich nutrients to sustain additional forest life.

Without forests, the soil erodes and washes away, causing farmers to
move on and perpetuate the cycle. The barren land which is left behind in the
wake of these unsustainable agricultural practices is then more susceptible
to flooding, specifically in coastal regions.

Effects of Deforestation on Indigenous People

a. Destruction of Homelands
As large amounts of forests are cleared away, allowing exposed earth
to wither and die and the habitats of innumerable species to be destroyed,
the indigenous communities who live there and depend on the forest to
sustain their way of life are also under threat.

The loss of forests has an immediate and direct effect on their lifestyle
that we in the highly industrialized parts of the world, despite our own
dependency on what the rainforest provides, will never know. The level of
immediacy is exponentially greater for indigenous peoples.

The governments of nations with rainforests in their borders often

attempt to evict indigenous tribes before the actual clear-cutting begins. This
is one of the pre-emptive effects of deforestation.
Climate Change
One of the most pressing environmental issues impacting the Philippines
is climate change. As an island country located in the Southeast Asia Pacific region,
the Philippines is extremely vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Some of
these impacts include increased frequency and severity of disasters, sea level rise,
extreme rainfall, resource shortages, and environmental degradation.
The Philippines is a hotspot for climate change disasters particularly the risk
for agriculture and food security due to extreme El Nino and severe tropical
cyclones. The spread of infectious diseases is influenced by fluctuations in climate
variables, temperature, relative humidity and rainfall. Sever super typhoons like
Reming that pummeled the Bicol region in 2006 destroyed at least $90- million worth
of agricultural products and infrastructure.
Diseases such as dengue fever, malaria, cholera have increased throughout
the years. Climate change impacts on coastal zones and marine ecosystems caused
massive coral bleaching especially in 1998 due to elevated sea temperature and fish
kills and red tides like the one that occurred in 1992 which was an El Nino period.
Scientists warned the Philippines could experience famine by 2020, as the
adverse impact of global warming takes its toll on natural resources. Thousands will
be displaced from their homes especially in low-lying coastal communities.
All of these impacts together have greatly affected the Philippines' agriculture,
water, infrastructure, human health, and coastal ecosystems and they are projected
to continue having devastating damages to the economy and society of the
Philippines.
Climate change is a substantial energy security concern not only because
direct flooding and natural disasters can damage power plants and transmission
lines, disrupt the delivery of imported energy fuels, and destroy crops for biofuels but
also because it has severe impacts on food security, health, and environmental
refugees that can all lower the income base of Asian countries and add to
government debt further complicating attempts at sound energy policy making.
Though climate change is certainly a global phenomenon, in many ways it is
becoming a Philippine problem.
a. Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Recent scientific studies reveal that human activities have contributed
significantly to the increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere that
causes climate change.
Philippines shares of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is
0.31%. Nevertheless, the country is highly vulnerable to the effects of climate
change. GHG emissions in the Philippines are rising. Over 40% of the
country's GHG emissions come from the burning of coal and fuel oil for
electricity generation,[2] with many coal plants being technically unable to ramp
down.[4] The Philippines, a signatory of the Paris climate accord, aims to cut
its emissions by 70% by 2030. In 2021 youth climate
activists protested Standard Chartered's financing of coal
companies. Legislation to create an emissions trading system is being
considered.
Unfortunately, from a climate standpoint, the GHGs already emitted will
threaten Philippines with a staggering list of negative consequences. Because
of their unique geography and climatology, low per capita incomes, and
changing patterns of urbanization, the Philippines, are expected to lose 6.7%
of combined gross domestic product (GDP) by 2100 if temperatures change
as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change predicts, which is more
than twice the rate of global average losses.
As greenhouse gas emissions from human activities increase, they
build up in the atmosphere and warm the climate, leading to many other
changes around the world—in the atmosphere, on land, and in the oceans.
The indicators in other chapters of this report illustrate many of these
changes, which have both positive and negative effects on people, society,
and the environment—including plants and animals. Because many of the
major greenhouse gases stay in the atmosphere for tens to hundreds of years
after being released, their warming effects on the climate persist over a long
time and can therefore affect both present and future generations.
Worldwide, net emissions of greenhouse gases from human activities
increased by 43 percent from 1990 to 2015. Emissions of carbon dioxide,
which account for about three-fourths of total emissions, increased by 51
percent over this period. As with the Philippines, the majority of the world’s
emissions result from transportation, electricity generation, and other forms of
energy production and use.
Concentrations of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere have increased since the beginning of the industrial era. Almost
all of this increase is attributable to human activities. Historical measurements
show that the current global atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide are
unprecedented compared with the past 800,000 years, even after accounting
for natural fluctuations.

Impact of Climate Change

a. Agriculture
Agriculture is one of the Philippines’ largest sectors and will continue to be
adversely impacted by the effects of climate change. The agriculture sector employs
35% of the working population and generated 13% of the country's GDP in
2009. The two most important crops, rice and corn, account for 67% of the land
under cultivation and stand to see reduced yields from heat and water stress. Rice,
wheat, and corn crops are expected to see a 10% decrease in yield for every 1°C
increase over a 30°C average annual temperature.
Increases in extreme weather events will have devastating effects on
agriculture. Typhoons (high winds) and heavy rainfall contribute to the destruction of
crops, reduced soil fertility, altered agricultural productivity through severe flooding,
increased runoff, and soil erosion. Droughts and reduced rainfall lead to increased
pest infestations that damage crops as well as an increased need for irrigation.
Rising sea levels increases salinity which leads to a loss of arable land and irrigation
water.
All of these factors contribute to higher prices of food and an increased
demand for imports, which hurts the general economy as well as individual
livelihoods. From 2006 to 2013, the Philippines experienced a total of 75 disasters
that cost the agricultural sector $3.8 billion in loss and damages. Typhoon Haiyan
alone cost the Philippines' agricultural sector an estimated US$724 million after
causing 1.1 million tons of crop loss and destroying 600,000 ha. of farmland. The
agricultural sector is expected to see an estimated annual GDP loss of 2.2% by 2100
due to climate impacts on agriculture.

b. Agricultural production and civil conflict

In the Philippines, there is a correlation between rainfall and civil conflict, and
manifests through agricultural production. The increased rainfall during the wet
season in the Philippines is proven to be harmful to agriculture as it leads to flooding
and/or water logging. This above average rainfall is associated with “more conflict
related incidents and casualties”. The rainfall has a negative effect on rice which is
an important crop that a majority of the country depends on as both a food sources
and employment. A poor rice crop can lead to large impacts on the wellbeing of poor
Filipino and cause widespread contempt for the government and more support for
insurgent groups. Climate change is expected to amplify the seasonal variation of
rainfall in the Philippines and exacerbate ongoing civil conflict in the country.

c. Gender disparities among farmers

Smallholder farmers in the Philippines are expected to be among the most
vulnerable and impacted by the effects of climate change in the region. However,
there are differences in how men and women experience these impacts and often
lead to differences in farming patterns and coping strategies. Some of the problems
caused by extreme climate events in agrarian areas that are prone to civil conflict
that disproportionately affect women include loss of customary rights to land, forced
migration, increased discrimination, resource poverty and food insecurity.
The effect that the combination of severe climate events and civil conflict has
on Filipino women is further exacerbated by discriminatory policies, belief and
practices, and restricted access to resources. 
For example, climate change is linked to increase civil conflict in the
Mindanao region which increases the number of casualties and deaths of young men
in the area. This effectively widows women married to those men and leaves them
on their own to take care of them and their children, even when the society and
government makes it difficult for single mothers to succeed. Women are often
relegated to be the caretakers of children which increases the burden and stress
placed on them as well as inhibiting them from escaping from conflict ridden areas
d. Energy
Climate change could simultaneously reduce the Philippines’ supply of energy
and increase its demand for energy. The increased chance of extreme weather
events would reduce hydropower production, which accounts for 20% of the
country's energy supply, as well as cause widespread damage to energy
infrastructure and services. There will be more power outages on average in addition
to an increased demand for power, specifically cooling.

e. Water
Several factors of climate change are impacting the availability of water in the
Philippines. The increasing number of intense droughts are reducing water levels
and river flows and thus creating a shortage in water. The floods and landslides
caused by extreme rainfall degrade watershed health and water quality by increasing
runoff and erosion that increases sedimentation in reservoirs. Many freshwater
coastal aquifers have seen saltwater intrusion which reduces the amount of
freshwater available for use. About 25% of coastal municipalities in Luzon, Visayas,
and Mindanao are affected by this and the issue is expected to get worse with sea
level rise.

f. Infrastructure
Rising sea levels, heavy rainfall and flooding, and strong typhoons pose an
enormous risk to the Philippines’ infrastructure. 45% of Philippines’ urban population
lives in informal settlements with already weak infrastructure and are extremely
vulnerable to flooding and typhoons. A giant storm would wreak havoc on these
informal settlements and cause the deaths and displacement of millions of people
who inhabit 25 different coastline cities. These natural disasters will also cause
millions of dollars in damages to urban infrastructure like bridges and roads. In
2009, Tropical Storm Ketsana cost the Philippines $33 million to repair damaged
roads and bridges.

g. Risk to "double exposure"

Large cities in the Philippines such as Manila, Quezon City, Cebu, and Davao
City see an increased risk from both climate change and globalization. Double
exposure, infrastructure planning, and urban climate resilience in coastal megacities.
For example, in addition to being one of the world's most vulnerable cities to climate
change due to geographical location, Manila has also been shaped by globalization
and abides by many tenets of neoliberal urbanism, including "a strong focus on
private sector led development, attracting global capital, market-oriented policies and
decentralization".
These cities experience challenges to their own climate resilience due to this
double exposure to climate change and globalization, where many cities are most at
risk to climate events in addition to having a large percentage of the population live
in informal settlements with weak infrastructure. Four million people, or about a third
of Manila's population, live in informal settlements that put them at higher risk and
danger from tropical storms and flooding, and they often have fewer resources
available to recover from damage caused by environmental hazards.

h. Human health
Climate change, heavy rains, and increased temperatures are linked with the
increased transmission of vector and waterborne diseases, such as malaria, dengue,
and diarrhea (WHO). The heavy rains and increased temperatures lead to increased
humidity which increases the chance of mosquito breeding and survival. Increased
natural disasters not only directly contribute to the loss of human life, but also
indirectly through food insecurity and the destruction of health services.

i. Coastal ecosystems and fisheries

Climate change and global warming and the rising amounts of CO2 in the
atmosphere have contributed to ocean warming and ocean acidification. The ocean
has acted as a carbon sink for earth for millennia and is currently slowing the rate of
global warming through the sequestration of carbon. This comes at a cost however
as the oceans are becoming more and more acidic as they sequester more carbon
dioxide. Ocean acidification has dire consequences as it causes coral bleaching and
ultimately leads to the collapse of coral reefs. Rising sea levels cause increased
salinity that can have damaging impacts on the country's extensive system
of mangroves. 
Both coral reefs and mangroves help reduce coastal erosion and support
water quality. Erosion from the loss of coral reefs and mangroves increase the
chance of coastal flooding and loss of land. Coral reefs and mangroves also act as
important feeding and spawning areas for many fish species that many fisherfolk
depend on for survival. Over 60% of the coastal population depends on marine
resources such as coral reefs or mangroves for their contributions to fisheries,
tourism, and storm protection.

Conclusions

For the Philippines to become a more stable, prosperous and well-

governed nation, the country must become more environmentally resilient and better
able to cope with the impact of natural disasters and recover quickly. Natural
resources play a critical role in the Philippine economy, as agriculture, fisheries, and
forestry represent about 10 percent of gross domestic product and account for
almost 30 percent of employment. Equally important, natural capital provides energy,
water, flood control, storm mitigation and other environmental services that benefit
the entire country, including cities. USAID assistance improves natural resource
management in the Philippines; promotes water and energy security; and reduces
vulnerability to and natural disasters.
Annual waste generation in the Philippines is expected to grow 40 percent by
2010. Improvements in recycling, collection, and disposal will become even more
critical as garbage production continues to increase with population growth and
economic development.
Past efforts to promote waste segregation at source have minimal impact
despite the presence of Republic Act 9003. Most of these were barangay, city, and
municipal ordinances providing for sanctions and penalties for non-compliance.
Campaigns, seminars, trainings and other different community activities were
implemented with the help of various private groups or NGO’s to pursue the
objective of solving the garbage problem.
RA 9003 further calls for the establishment of materials recovery facilities, or
ecology centers, in every barangay or cluster of a barangay. To date, only 1,923
ecology centers exist, serving 2,133 barangays of a total 41,975 nationwide. In
Quezon City alone, only 52 barangays have established Materials Recovery
Facilities out of a total of 142.
Recognizing the importance of the environment’s immediate recovery and
effects of improper waste management to the Philippines, there is a need for
understanding and reformation of attitudes and concern towards the protection of
environment. The impending garbage crisis can be prevented if we only practice
waste segregation at source, recycling, and composting as what the law requires. An
intensive social marketing program has to be established on a long-term scale within
a barangay – the smallest unit of the local government.
As a manifestation of the country’s commitment to engage in multilateral
efforts aiming to address the global problem of climate change and achieve
sustainable development, the Philippines has participated in the discussions and
negotiations leading to the ratification of various international agreements. These
international agreements are geared towards the mitigation of the effects of climate
change and the strategic adaptation to the conditions.
The most important outcomes of these negotiations include the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) ratified on August 2,
1994 and the Kyoto Protocol, which was ratified on November 20, 2003. At the
national level, the Medium-Term Philippine Development Plan of 2004-2010 (MTDP)
underscored the need to manage the environment more effectively in order for the
country to address the problem of poverty particularly in the rural areas.
As one of the first countries to sign the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change in 1992, the Philippines expressed adherence to the principles of
sustainable development and environmental preservation based on the notion of
equity and the unique capabilities of the participating countries.
More specifically, Article 3 of the UNFCC states that countries who have
aligned themselves with the mandates set forth by the Convention “should protect
the climate system for the benefit of present and future generations of humankind,
on the basis of equity and in accordance with their common but differentiated
responsibilities and respective capabilities.” Under the Kyoto Protocol, developing
countries such as the Philippines are called to pass and implement national
measures that shall advance the international community’s agenda pertaining to
environmental preservation through the reduction of greenhouse emissions (GHGs)
in the atmosphere.
Pursuant to the provisions in this treaty, the Philippines passed national
legislations to uphold the agreements embedded in the Kyoto Protocol. The Clean
Air Act of 1999, otherwise known as Republic Act 8749, was enacted in order to
arrive at an effective air quality management program that will mitigate the worsening
problem of air pollution in the country. Reinforcing the country’s drive towards a
healthier environment was the enactment of the Solid Waste Management Act of
2000 (RA 9003) that aimed at providing a comprehensive solution to the country’s
garbage problem. At the institutional level, the Philippines was one of the earliest
countries to recognize the importance of a systematic institutional response to the
problem of climate change. Prior to the signing and ratification of the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change, the creation of the Inter-Agency Committee on
Climate Change (IACC) in May 8, 1991 under the Environmental Management
Bureau of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) was a
concrete manifestation of the Philippines’ attempt to promptly address the issue of
climate change.
Composed of representatives from government agencies as well as NGO
representatives, IACC was created by virtue of Presidential Order No. 220 with the
secretary of the DENR sitting as chair and the secretary of the DOST as co-chair.
The ultimate aim of the committee is to harness and synergize the various activities
being undertaken by the national government and civil society in response to the
crisis posed by growing problem on climate change. The essential mandate of the
IACC is to perform various coordinative, development and monitoring functions with
respect to activities related to climate change in the county.
As an organization that is at the forefront in advancing the government’s
climate change agenda, the IACC likewise formulates policy actions and
recommendations while at the same time assumes a very significant role in terms of
shaping the Philippines’ national positions in the various international negotiations
that aim to mitigate the effects of global climate change and prevent the worse
possible consequences of this. The IACC therefore ensures the Philippines’ faithful
compliance to the mandates and principles contained in the UNFCCC and the Kyoto
Protocol and sees to it that adequate public awareness campaign and initiatives are
held to bring the issue to all the sectors of the country.
PHILIPPINE CLIMATE CHANGE ACT OF 2007. This bill seeks to create a
National Framework Program on Climate Change Mitigation, Adaptation and
Communication and establish mechanisms to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
from energy, power, transport and manufacturing sectors to usher in a low-carbon
revolution in the Philippines and institutionalize the country's commitments to
international efforts to address the problem on climate change.

SUGGESTED ACTIONS TO BE UNDERTAKEN

1. Participatory Communication for Development
 Social Capital/ Community Empowerment
 Developing Community Leaders
 Engaging multi-sectoral participation (youth, schools, businesses,
church, etc.) in community design and planning
2. Community Immersion
 Immersion and Research on Community’s sociographic and
psychographic profile
 Community Interaction with women, youth, and local community
officials
 Environmental Education Workshops and Demos
 Environmental Education lessons to be familiar with a variety of
ways in understanding the environment and the ecological crisis
 Exploration of local Biodiversity
 Evaluation of Stakeholders’ Available Skills and Resources
 Evaluation of community’s existing level of environmental
awareness
3. Community IEC Campaigns
 Development of local environmental campaigns
 Distribution and Exhibit of created IEC materials
 Flyers and Posters
4. Environmental Management Capacity Building Workshops for Community •
 Hands-on Household Ecological Solid Waste Management Trainings
 Training on Creating Ordinances for local community officials
 Establishment of Materials Recovery Facilities in Local Schools and
Community Center/s
 Appointment of stakeholder representatives – women sector, youth
sector, etc.
5. Environmental Management Capacity Building Workshops for local School
 Environmental Education Facilitator’s Training for Teachers – Project
Learning Tree, Water Education for Teachers, Watershed Box and
Ecological Solid Waste Management
 Developing Creative and Environmentally relevant modules and
classroom activities
So as Filipinos, we must face the prospect of changing our basic ways of
living. This change will either be made on our own initiative in a planned way or
forced on us with chaos and suffering by the inexorable laws of nature. It would be
far better to implement carbon taxes, to incorporate the cost of negative
environmental consequences into energy prices, to pass feed-in tariffs, and to
harness the powers of energy efficiency now in a proactive way rather than a few
decades from now when forced to by crises.
References
http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/
http://www.epa.gov/oar/visibility/
http://www.epa.gov/globalwarming/
https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg1
https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/greenhouse-gases
Asian Development Bank (ADB). 2005. Climate Proofing: A Risk-Based
Approach to Adaptation. Manila.
2009. The Economics of Climate Change in Southeast Asia: A Regional
Review. Manila
Jalandoni, Apples (2018-11-20). "Greenhouse gas emissions in PH rising:
report". ABS-CBN News. Retrieved 2020-07-07.

"Getting a Grip on Climate Change in the Philippines". World Bank.

Retrieved April 14, 2018.

Kahana, Ron, et al. "Projections of mean sea level change for the
Philippines." (2016).

Crost, Benjamin; Duquennois, Claire; Felter, Joseph H.; Rees, Daniel I.

(March 2018). "Climate change, agricultural production and civil conflict: Evidence
from the Philippines". Journal of Environmental Economics and Management. 88:
379–395. 

Chandra, Alvin; McNamara, Karen E.; Dargusch, Paul; Caspe, Ana Maria;
Dalabajan, Dante (February 2017). "Gendered vulnerabilities of smallholder farmers
to climate change in conflict-prone areas: A case study from Mindanao,
Philippines". Journal of Rural Studies. 50: 45–59. doi:10.1016/j.jrurstud.2016.12.011
Appendices

Appendix 1: Sources of Environmental Information in the Philippines

Philippine Government Agencies

1) Implementing Agency of Pollution Control in Metro Manila

 Department of Environmental & Natural Resources
Aaronn II Building, 20 G. Araneta Ave. Extension
Quezon City, Metro Manila Philippines
phone(63-2)712-5278,743-1597 fax(63-2)731-3746 2)

2. Implementing Agency of Pollution Control around the Laguna Lake ・

 Laguna Lake Development Authority
3rd Floor, Rizal Provincial Capitol Bldg.,
Shaw Blvd. Pasig City, Metro Manila Philippines
phone (63-2)635-6680, 631-2587,631-2552 fax (63-2)631-2595

3. Environmental Issues in General

 Department of Environment and Natural Resources
Visayas Ave., Diliman Quezon City, Metro Manila Philippines
phone (63-2)929-6626 to 29, 929-6633 to 35

4. Pollution control in general

 Environmental Management Bureau, DENR 99-101
Topaz Bldg., Kamias Road
Quezon City, Metro Manila Philippines
phone (63-2)926-8745 90 (2)
Appendix 2: Environment-Related Legislation in the Philippines

PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NO. 1151

PHILIPPINE ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY

Date of promulgation: June 6 1977

WHEREAS, the individual and, at times, conflicting demands of population

growth, urbanization, industrial expansion, rapid natural resources utilization and
increasing technological advances have resulted in a piece meal approach concept
of environmental protection;

WHEREAS, such tunnel-vision concept is not conducive to the attainment of

an ideal environmental situation where man and nature can thrive in harmony with
one another; and WHEREAS, there is now an urgent need to formulate an intensive,
integrated program of environmental protection that will bring about a concerted
effort towards the protection of the entire spectrum of the environment through a
requirement of environmental impact assessments and statements;

NOW, THEREFORE, I, FERDINAND E. MARCOS, President of the

Philippines, by virtue of the powers vested in me by the Constitution, do hereby order
and decree :
SEC. 1. Policy ― It is hereby declared as continuing policy of the State (a) to
create, develop, maintain and improve conditions under which man and nature can
thrive in productive and enjoyable harmony with each other, (b) to fulfill the social,
economic and other requirements of present and future generations of Filipino, and
(c) to insure the attainment of an environmental quality that is conductive to a life of
dignity and wellbeing.

SEC. 2. Goal ― In pursuing this policy, it shall be the responsibility of the

Government, in cooperation with concerned private organizations and entities, to use
all practicable means, consistent with other essential considerations of national
policy, in promoting the general welfare to the end that the Nation may (a) recognize,
discharge and fulfill the responsibilities of each generation as trustee and guardian of
the environment for succeeding generations, (b) to assure the people of a safe,
decent, healthful, productive and aesthetic environment, (c) encourage the widest
exploitation of the environment without degrading it, or endangering human life,
health and safety or creating conditions adverse to agriculture, commerce and
industry, (d) preserve important historic and cultural aspects of the Philippine
heritage, (e) attain a rational and orderly balance between population and resource
use, and (f) improve the utilization of renewable and non-renewable resources.
SEC. 3. Right to a Healthy Environment ― In furtherance of these goals and
policies, the Government recognizes the right of the people to a healthy
environment. It shall be the duty and responsibility of each individual to contribute to
the preservation and enhancement of the Philippine environment.

SEC. 4. Environmental Impact Statement ― Pursuant to the above

enunciated policies and goals, all agencies and instrumentalities of the national
government, including government-owned of controlled corporations, as well as
private corporations, firms and entities shall prepare, file and include in every action,
project or undertaking which significantly affects the quality of the environment a
detailed statement on : a) the environmental impact of the proposed action, project
or undertaking; b) any adverse environmental effect which cannot be avoided should
the proposal be implemented ; c) alternative to the proposed action; d) a
determination that the short-term uses of the resources of the environment are
consistent with the maintenance and enhancement of the long-term productivity of
the same; and e) whenever a proposal involves the use of depletable or
nonrenewable resources, a finding must be made that such use and commitment are
warranted. Before an environmental impact statement is issued by a lead agency, all
agencies having jurisdiction over, or special expertise on, the subject matter involved
shall comment on the draft environmental impact statement made by the lead
agency within thirty (30) days from the receipt of the same.

SEC. 5. Agency Guidelines ― The different agencies charged with

environmental protection as enumerated in Letter of Instruction No. 422 shall sixty
(60) days from the effectivity of this Decree, submit to the National Environmental
Protection Council (NEPC) , their respective guidelines, rules and regulations to
carry out the provisions of Sec. 4 hereof on environmental impact assessments and
statements.

SEC. 6. Repealing Clause ― All Acts, Presidential Decrees, executive orders,

rules and regulations or parts thereof which are inconsistent with the provisions of
this Decree are hereby repealed, amended or modified accordingly.

SEC. 7. Effectivity ― This Decree shall take effect immediately.

Done in the City of Manila this 6th June in the year of Our Lord, nineteen
hundred and seventy-seven.

PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NO. 1152

PHILIPPINE ENVIRONMENT CODE

Date of promulgation: June 6 1977

WHEREAS, the broad spectrum of environment has become a matter of vital

concern to the government;
WHEREAS, the national leadership has taken a step towards this direction by
creating the National Environment Protection Council under Presidential Decree No.
1121;

WHEREAS, it is necessary that the creation of the Council be complemented

with the launching of a comprehensive program of environmental protection and
management;

WHEREAS, such a program can assume tangible and meaningful

significance only by establishing specific environment management policies and
prescribing environment quality standards in a Philippine Environment Code.

NOW, THEREFORE, I, FERDINAND E. MARCOS, President of the Republic

of the Philippines, by virtue of the powers vested in me by the Constitution, do
hereby order and decree :

SEC. 1. Short Title ― This decree shall be known and cited as the "Philippine
Environment Code."

REPUBLIC ACT 9003

ECOLOGICAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ACT OF 2000

In partnership with stakeholders, the law aims to adopt a systematic,

comprehensive and ecological solid waste management program that shall ensure
the protection of public health and environment. The law ensures proper
segregation, collection, storage, treatment and disposal of solid waste through the
formulation and adaptation of best eco-waste products.

REPUBLIC ACT 9275

PHILIPPINE CLEAN WATER ACT OF 2004

The law aims to protect the country's water bodies from pollution from land-
based sources (industries and commercial establishments, agriculture and
community/household activities). It provides for comprehensive and integrated
strategy to prevent and minimize pollution through a multi-sectoral and participatory
approach involving all the stakeholders.

REPUBLIC ACT 8749

PHILIPPINE CLEAN AIR ACT OF 1999

The law aims to achieve and maintain clean air that meets the National Air
Quality guideline values for criteria pollutants, throughout the Philippines, while
minimizing the possible associated impacts to the economy.

REPUBLIC ACT 6969

TOXIC SUBSTANCES, HAZARDOUS AND NUCLEAR WASTE CONTROL ACT OF
1990
The law aims to regulate restrict or prohibit the importation, manufacture,
processing, sale, distribution, use and disposal of chemical substances and mixtures
the present unreasonable risk to human health. It likewise prohibits the entry, even in
transit, of hazardous and nuclear wastes and their disposal into the Philippine
territorial limits for whatever purpose; and to provide advancement and facilitate
research and studies on toxic chemicals.

PRESIDENTIAL DECREE 1586

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT (EIS) STATEMENT OF 1978 

The Environment Impact Assessment System was formally established in

1978 with the enactment of Presidential Decree no. 1586 to facilitate the attainment
and maintenance of rational and orderly balance between socio-economic
development and environmental protection. EIA is a planning and management tool
that will help government, decision makers, the proponents and the affected
community address the negative consequences or risks on the environment. The
process assures implementation of environment-friendly projects.

Presidential Decree No. 1152

Philippine Environment Code

To achieve and maintain such levels of air quality as to protect public health
and to prevent to the greatest extent practicable, injury and/or damage to plant and
animal life and property, and promote the social and economic development of the
country

Philippine Climate Change Act Of 2007

This bill seeks to create a National Framework Program on Climate Change

Mitigation, Adaptation and Communication and establish mechanisms to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions from energy, power, transport and manufacturing sectors
to usher in a low-carbon revolution in the Philippines and institutionalize the country's
commitments to international efforts to address the problem on climate change

Presidential Order No. 220

The ultimate aim of the committee is to harness and synergize the various
activities being undertaken by the national government and civil society in response
to the crisis posed by growing problem on climate change.

Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 (RA 9003)

Reinforcing the country’s drive towards a healthier environment that aimed at

providing a comprehensive solution to the country’s garbage problem.