Module 1

Facilitating Student-Centered Teaching and Learning

Module Overview
Welcome dear student to another important course in your journey to become an
excellent teacher. Indeed, if you have the desire to become an effective 21st century teacher
for millennial learners, this module will help you reach that goal. You are highly encouraged
to embrace a growth mindset as you go through the lessons. This module will open your mind
to what is learner centered teaching, what teaching approaches promote learner-centeredness,
and how it is applied in a face-to-face classroom setting or even in a virtual learning
environment.

Module Outcome

• Apply theories of learner –centered teaching in planning instructional activities for

students

Lessons in the Module

• Lesson 1: Theories in Support of learner-centered Teaching

A. Behaviorism
B. Cognitive Theories
C. Social learning Theories
D. Constructivist Theories
Lesson 1: Theories in Support of learner-centered Teaching

Learning Outcomes

• Analyze student’s learning context through learning theories in Support of

learnercentered Teaching

Introduction
Hello dear learner! Welcome to another exciting course that will deepen your
understanding on how to become proficient in implementing a learner-centered teaching
approach.
In the last 20 years of research in the field of learner-centered teaching, the evidence
points strongly to bringing the students at the center or the focus of the learning process. As a
future teacher, you need to consider very well your students’ learning goals, the subject matter
they want students to learn, and select an appropriate pedagogical approach that will really
enable them to learn.
With new researches, explanations provided but the basic principles of behaviorism
appeared not satisfy all learning scenarios. New theories came into view which maintained
some of the behaviorist concepts but excluded others and added new ideas which later came
to be associated with the cognitive views of learning. The neo-behaviorist, then, were
transitional group, bridging the gap behaviorism and cognitive theories learning.

Activity
1. Observation
A. Choose a place where you can observe adult-child interactions – such as mall,
in church, parks or at the playground, etc. Spend one hour observing such
adultchild interactions. Focus your attention on the stimulus – response –
consequence patter you observe.
B. Describe the consequences you observe. (It is better to write or scribble the
details on the spot or as soon as you finish your observation).

2. Connectionism
A. Fill the table below.
Primary Laws How would I apply? Cite Situation

Law of Readiness

Law of Effect
Law of Exercise

3. Maze Runner
A. Solve the maze given. Use Red pen to easily identify your path. You will be
given 1 minute to plan. You have only 1 chance to solve the maze and record
your time. Compare your time lapsed to your other classmates. The smaller
time you have, the greater the possibility that you will become a winner.

Analysis
Directions: Answer the following questions.
Activity 1:

1. What kind of stimuli for children’s and adult behavior did you observe?
2. What kinds of behaviors on the part of children elicit reinforcement and punishment
consequences from the adult?
3. What kind of behaviors of adults are reinforced or punished by the children?
4. What kinds of reinforcement and punishments seem to be most “successful”?
5. Given this experience, what are your thoughts about operant conditioning? Do you
think children reinforce and punish adults reinforce and punish them? How might the
two be interdependent?
Activity 3:
1. How did you solve maze A?
2. What strategy did you use?
3. Was it easier to solve maze B? Why?

Abstraction
People learn through repetition. Learner is a passive blank slate shaped by
environmental stimuli, both positive and negative reinforcement. This topic helps you
understand behaviorism and its connection to learning reinforcement.
BEHAVIORISM
This particular learning theory assumes that the learner is essentially passive, simply
responding to their environmental stimuli. Behavioral theorists therefore believe that a learner
basically begins as a clean slate, and their behavior is shaped by positive/negative
reinforcement.
The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and measurable
behavior. It emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned through conditioning and
reinforcement (rewards and punishment). It does not give much attention to the mind, and the
possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind.
Contributions in the development of the behaviorist theory largely came from Pavlov,
Watson, Thorndike and Skinner.
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiological is well known for his work in classical
conditioning or stimulus substitution. Pavlov’s most renowned experiment involved meat, a
dog and a bell. Initially, Pavlov was measuring the dog’s salivation in order to study
digestion. This is when he stumbled upon classical conditioning.

PAVLOV ALSO HAD THE FOLLOWING FINDINGS:

• Stimulus Generalization. Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell,
it well salivates at the other similar sounds
• Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cease
in response to the bell.
• Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses can be “recovered” after an elapsed
time but will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food.
• Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli)
and discern which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not.
• Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell
with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the same
time that the bell is rung. Eventually the dog will salivate at the flash of the light
without the sound of the bell.

CONNECTIONISM
Connectionism is a learning theory developed by George Siemens and Steven Downs.
It stresses the connections and combinatorial creativity. All the knowledge is out there – it’s a
matter of making the connections. Siemens (2004) states, “A community is the clustering of
similar areas of interest that allows for interaction, sharing, dialoguing, and thinking
together.”
For example, if a learner is trying to learn how Donald Trump has risen to power, they
may start on a Facebook post that a friend made, which could then take them to an article, but
the text is dense and confusing, so instead the student the student scroll down to the
comments sections and finds another link to blog, and from the blog there is an embedded
YouTube video that they watch to more fully understand the issue. The student has used
various forms of gathering information using the internet and has gleaned the most salient
information by using many different modes to more fully understand the issue.
Edward Lee Thorndike 1904-1990

Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism theory gave us the original S-R framework of

behavioral psychology. More than a hundred years ago he wrote a text book entitled,
Educational Psychology. He was the first one to use this term. He explained that learning is
the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses. Such associations or
“habits” become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings.
The model for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain responses came to be
repeated than others because of rewards. The main principle of connectionism (like all
behavioral theory) was that learning could be adequately explained without considering any
unobservable internal states. Thorndike’s theory on connectionism stated that learning has
taken place when a strong connection or bond between stimulus and response is formed. He
came up with three primary laws.
Edward Thorndike (1898) is famous in psychology for his work on learning theory
that lead to the development of operant conditioning within Behaviorism. Whereas classical
conditioning depends on developing associations between events, operant conditioning
involves learning from the consequences of our behavior. Skinner wasn’t the first
psychologist to study learning by consequences. Indeed, Skinner's theory of operant
conditioning is built on the ideas of Edward Thorndike.
He placed a cat in the puzzle box, which was encouraged to escape to reach a scrap of
fish placed outside. Thorndike would put a cat into the box and time how long it took to
escape. The cats experimented with different ways to escape the puzzle box and reach the
fish.
Eventually they would stumble upon the lever which opened the cage. When it had
escaped it was put in again, and once more the time it took to escape was noted. In successive
trials the cats would learn that pressing the lever would have favorable consequences and they
would adopt this behavior, becoming increasingly quick at pressing the lever.
Edward Thorndike put forward a “Law of effect” which stated that any behavior that
is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by
unpleasant consequences is likely to be stopped.

THORDIKE’S THEORY ON CONNECTIONISM

Stated that learning has taken place when a strong connection or bond between
stimulus and response is formed. He came up with three primary laws:

• Law of Effect. The Law of Effect stated that a connection between a stimulus and
response is strengthened when the consequence is positive (reward) and the
connection between the stimulus and the response is weakened when the consequence
is negative.
Thorndike later on, revised this “law” when he found that negative reward, seemingly
pleasurable consequences do not necessarily motivate performance.
• Law of Exercise. Tell us that the more an S-R (stimulus response) bond in practice the
stronger it will become. “Practice makes perfect” seem to be associated with this.
However, like the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to revise when Thorndike
found that practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance performance.
• Law of Readiness. This states that, the more readiness the learner has to respond to the
stimulus, the stronger will be the bond between them. When a person is ready to a
stimulus and is not made to respond, it becomes annoying to the person. Example, if
the teacher says, “Okay we will now watch the movie (stimulus) you’ve been waiting
for.” And suddenly the power goes off, the students will feel frustrated because they
were ready to respond to the stimulus but were prevented from doing so. Likewise, if
the person is not at all ready to respond to stimuli and is asked to respond, that
becomes annoying. For instance, the teacher asks the question and expects the
students to respond right away when he is still not ready. This will be annoying to the
student. This is why teacher should remember to say the question first and wait for a
few seconds before calling on anyone to answer.

Principles Derived from Thorndike’s Connectionism:

1. Learning requires both practice and reward (laws of effect/exercise)
2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action
(law of readiness)
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

Generalization: Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

Usually, people who worked on a maze activity, which you just did, would say they
found the second maze easier. This is because they say that the two mazes were identical,
except that the entrance and exit points had been reversed. Their experience in Maze A was
much easier for them to answer Maze B. People are building mind maps of events that they
perceived. These mental maps help them to respond to other things or tasks later, particularly
if they see the similarity. You may start responding with trial and error (behavioral), but later
on your response becomes more internally driven (cognitive perspective). This is what
neobehaviorism is all about. It has behavioral aspects, but it also has a cognitive perspective.
There are two neo-behaviorism-reflecting theories that stand out. Edward Tolman's
purposive behaviorism and Albert Bandura's theory of social learning. Both theories are
influenced by behaviorism (focused on internal elements and learning).
Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism
Purposive behaviorism has also been referred to as sign learning theory and is often
seen as a link between behaviorism and cognitive theory. Tolman 's theory was based on the
psychological views of the Gestalt Psychologist and the behaviorist John Watson.

Tolman believes that learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves building belief
in the acquisition of knowledge about the environment and then the discovery of knowledge
through purposeful and objective behavior.
Tolman stated in his sign theory that an organism learns by pursuing signs for a goal,
i.e. learning is acquired through meaningful behavior. He stressed that the organized aspect of
learning is acquired through meaningful behavior. He emphasized that the organized aspect of
learning is that the stimuli allowed in are not connected by simple one-to-one switches to the
outgoing reactions. Rather, the incoming impulses are usually worked out and elaborated in
the central control room into a tentative cognitive environment map. And it is this tentative
map, indicating routes and pathways, and environmental relations that finally determines
what kind of response the animal will finally make.
Tolman's form of behaviorism underscored the relationship between stimuli rather
than stimulus-response. Tolman said that a new stimulus (sign) would be associated with
already meaningful stimuli (significant ones) through a series of pairings; there was no need
for reinforcement to establish learning. In your labyrinth activity, the new stimulus or "sign"
(maze B) has become associated with the already meaningful stimulus, the signicate (maze
A). So you may have connected the two stimuli, Labyrinth A and Labyrinth B, and used your
knowledge and experience in Labyrinth A to learn how to respond to Labyrinth A.

Tolman’s Key Concepts

This is a learning theory that was in response to behaviorism. Psychologist who
promoted this idea claimed that behaviorism failed to explain cognition. In this theory, mind
is an information processor. It emphasizes understanding the concept as a whole instead of
just the piece.
This is the learning theory that was taught in developing online education using
Blooms Taxonomy. Examples of cognitivist strategies for learning higher-level thinking are
starting a lesson with a hook to create interest, a review quiz to promote prior learning, using
learning outcomes, chunking content into organized bite-sized pieces, using graphic
organizers, and the student takes on an active role on learning. The teacher gives lots of
encouragement and positive feedback.

Social Learning Theory: Albert Bandura

The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and
modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Bandura (1977) states:
“Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely
solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human
behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an
idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information
serves as a guide for action. Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of
continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influence.

The component processes underlying observational learning are:

1. Attention - includes modeled events (distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity,
prevalence, functional value) and observer characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal
level, perceptual set, past reinforcement).
2. Retention - includes symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal,
motor rehearsal)
3. Motor Reproduction - includes physical capabilities, self-observation of reproduction,
accuracy of feedback.
4. Motivation, including external, vicarious and self-reinforcement.

Principles of Social Learning Theory

1. People can learn by observing the behavior of the others and the outcomes of those
behaviors.
2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior.
3. Cognition plays a role in learning.
4. Social learning can be considered a bridge or a transition between behaviorist learning
theories and cognitive learning theories.
People are often to reinforced for modeling the behavior of others. Bandura suggested that
the environment also reinforces modeling. This is several possible ways;
1. The observer is reinforced by the model
2. The observer reinforce by a third person
3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences
4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer’s behavior vicariously.

Observation to Social Learning Theory

1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and punishment have indirect
effects on learning.
2. Reinforcement ad punishment influence the extent to which an individual exhibits a
behavior that has been learned.
3. The expectation of reinforcement process that promote learning.
4. Learning without performance. (through observation and actual imitation)
5. Cognitive processing during learning (attention)
6. Expectations (consequences)
7. Reciprocal causation (person, behavior and environment)
8. Modeling (live models, and symbolic models)
COGNITIVISM
Cognitivism revived the psychological study of thinking, developing scientifically
rigorous ways of studying unobservable mental activity. In this module you will encounter
different questions on how cognitivism brings on the development of learning, and you will
find answers or solution to these questions.
What is Cognitivism?
Cognitivism is "the psychology of learning which emphasizes human cognition or
intelligence as a special endowment enabling man to form hypotheses and develop
intellectually" (Cognitivism) and is also known as cognitive development. The underlying
concepts of cognitivism involve how we think and gain knowledge. Cognitivism involves
examining learning, memory, problem solving skills, and intelligence. Cognitive theorists
may want to understand how problem-solving changes throughout childhood, how cultural
differences affect the way we view our own academic achievements, language development,
and much more. (Feldman, Cognitivism)

How Does Learning Occur?

Cognitive theories stress the acquisition of knowledge and internal mental structures
and, as such, are closer to the rationalist end of the epistemology continuum (Bower &
Hilgard, 1981). Learning is equated with discrete changes between states of knowledge rather
than with changes in the probability of response. Cognitive theories focus on the
conceptualization of students’ learning processes and address the issues of how information is
received, organized, stored, and retrieved by the mind. Learning is concerned not so much
with what learners do but with what they know and how they come to acquire it (Jonassen,
1991b). Knowledge acquisition is described as a mental activity that entails internal coding
and structuring by the learner. The learner is viewed as a very active participant in the
learning process.

Which factors Influence Learning?

Cognitivism, like behaviorism, emphasizes the role that environmental conditions play
in facilitating learning. Instructional explanations, demonstrations, illustrative examples and
matched non-examples are all considered to be instrumental in guiding student learning.
Similarly, emphasis is placed on the role of practice with corrective feedback. Up to this
point, little difference can be detected between these two theories. However, the “active”
nature of the learner is perceived quite differently.
The cognitive approach focuses on the mental activities of the learner that lead up to a
response and acknowledges the processes of mental planning, goal-setting, and organizational
strategies (Shuell, 1986). Cognitive theories contend that environmental “cues” and
instructional components alone cannot account for all the learning that results from an
instructional situation. Additional key elements include the way that learners attend to, code,
transform, rehearse, store and retrieve information. Learners’ thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, and
values are also considered to be influential in the learning process (Winne, 1985). The real
focus of the cognitive approach is on changing the learner by encouraging him/her to use
appropriate learning strategies.
How Does Transfer Occur?
According to cognitive theories, transfer is a function of how information is stored in
memory (Schunk, 1991). When a learner understands how to apply knowledge in different
contexts, then transfer has occurred. Understanding is seen as being composed of a
knowledge base in the form of rules, concepts, and discriminations (Duffy & Jonassen, 1991).
Prior knowledge is used to establish boundary constraints for identifying the similarities and
differences of novel information. Not only must the knowledge itself be stored in memory but
the uses of that knowledge as well. Specific instructional or real-world events will trigger
particular responses, but the learner must believe that the knowledge is useful in a given
situation before he will activate it.

Classroom Implications
In a classroom environment, there are many variables that influence and contribute to
learning. When creating and implementing a learning environment, it is imperative that the
teachers not only create a setting that promotes learning, but also take the time to understand
each child. Classrooms are widely diverse and complex. Students learn differently and are at
various developmental levels. Teachers who properly manage their classrooms and establish
expectations will be able to incorporate diverse teaching philosophies and create an excellent
learning environment for each student. It is important that teachers create a learning
environment that encourages students to do their best and makes learning interesting. This
creates a motivational climate within the classroom.
There are two factors that are critical to motivate students, value and effort.
(Classroom Management) Students must understand that the work they are performing is
worthwhile. Value measures the importance of a student's work to himself and others. Effort
is the amount of time and energy students put into their work. Understanding the value of
academic tasks and the effort needed to complete those tasks can motivate students to
perform better in the classroom environment (Classroom Management)

Cognitive Development Implied in the Classroom (“Piaget’s Theory”)

Teachers should carefully assess the current stage of a child's cognitive development
and only assign tasks for which the child is prepared. The child can then be given tasks that
are tailored to their developmental level and are motivating.
Teachers must provide children with learning opportunities that enable them to
advance through each developmental stage. This is achieved by creating disequilibrium.
Teachers should maintain a proper balance between actively guiding the child and allowing
opportunities for them to explore things on their own to learn through discovery.
Teachers should be concerned with the process of learning rather than the end product.
For example, the teacher should observe the way a child manipulates play dough instead of
concentrating on a finished shape.
Children should be encouraged to learn from each other. Hearing others' views can
help breakdown egocentrism. It is important for teachers to provide multiple opportunities for
small group activities.
Piaget believed that teachers should act as guides to children's learning processes and
that the curriculum should be adapted to individual needs and developmental levels.
Examples of Cognitive Games in the Classroom
Cognitive games are designed to help stimulate various regions of the brain. These
games are used to improve reflexes, help people learn, promote critical thinking, and help
people learn different patterns of association. Cognitive games are helpful when used to learn
a foreign language and memorize new material. Various learning techniques are used in the
classroom because there are various learning styles. There are many games that promote and
influence cognitive learning.

Examples of cognitive games include:

1. Educational Websites and Computer Games. Most educational websites computer
games focus on stimulating a young child's senses while engaging them in various
cognitive tasks. Below are three of the many learning websites that are available to
enhance cognitive development in young children. Example, PBS kids Educational
Games, Spelling City, Cognitive Fun Games etc.

2. Sorting Games. Sorting games require individuals to utilize recognition and

reasoning. Teachers can engage children in games in which the children sort items by
various criteria, such as color, size, texture, and other physical attributes of the items.
A more advanced approach to sorting is discussing how the items are similar. This
process promotes critical thinking.

3. Flash Cards. Flash cards can be used various tasks. This involves notecards or an
even scrap of paper in which two parts of information is written on either side of the
notecard. These can be as simple as having cards with a red dot on one side and the
word red on the other. Flash cards are typically used in a classroom for drills or in
private study. These cards are used to aid memorization. Pre-made flash cards are
available for many subjects. Teachers and students may also make homemade flash
cards, depending on how and what they are studying. Flash cards may also be
personalized and printed from certain websites. (Flashcards) Flash cards can be
utilized into various games as well.

4. Board Games. Teachers may include board games in their classrooms to promote
cognitive development. Unlike computer and video games, boardgames are tangible.
Children can manipulate different pieces in the game. Board games can be
implemented to enhance mathematical and linguistic skills and enhance a child's
ability to understand and follow directions. Example, monopoly and bingo.

5. Puzzles. Finding a solution to a puzzle develops a child's problem-solving ability.

Children who actively solve puzzles that they are able to touch, and piece together are
more likely to understand certain concepts and develop their own theories about those
concepts.
CONSTRUCTIVISM
In this unit you will be introduce to many of the issues understanding and applying
constructivism and constructivist principles for instructional design purposes.
Students learn new things through experience. They build knowledge through
experiences and interactions. In cognitive learning, the students are taught to do something in
constructivism. The students are encouraged to discover something on their own; this is
known as self-directed learning. The major difference is that cognitive learning is about
building on prior knowledge, and constructivism is about building new ideas and concepts
based on your own discoveries.

What are the principles of constructivism?

1. Knowledge is constructed, rather than innate, or passively absorbed
Constructivism's central idea is that human learning is constructed, that
learners build new knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning. This prior
knowledge influences what new or modified knowledge an individual will construct
from new learning experiences (Phillips, 1995).

2. Learning is an active process.

The second notion is that learning is an active rather than a passive process.
The passive view of teaching views the learner as ‘an empty vessel’ to be filled with
knowledge, where constructivism states that learners construct meaning only through
active engagement with the world (such as experiments or real-world problem
solving). Information may be passively received, but understanding cannot be, for it
must come from making meaningful connections between prior knowledge, new
knowledge, and the processes involved in learning.

3. All Knowledge is socially constructed

Learning is a social activity - it is something we do together, in interaction
with each other, rather than an abstract concept (Dewey, 1938). For example,
Vygotsky (1978), believed that community plays a central role in the process of
"making meaning." For Vygotsky, the environment in which children grow up will
influence how they think and what they think about. Thus, all teaching and learning is
a matter of sharing and negotiating socially constituted knowledge. For example,
Vygotsky (1978) states cognitive development stems from social interactions from
guided learning within the zone of proximal development as children and their
partner's coconstruct knowledge.
4. All knowledge is Personal
Each individual learner has a distinctive point of view, based on existing
knowledge and values. This means that same lesson, teaching or activity may result in
different learning by each pupil, as their subjective interpretations differ. This
principle appears to contradict the view the knowledge is socially constructed. Fox
(2001, p. 30) argues (a) that although individuals have their own personal history of
learning, nevertheless they can share in common knowledge, and (b) that although
education is a social process, powerfully influenced by cultural factors, nevertheless
cultures are made up of sub-cultures, even to the point of being composed of sub-
cultures of one. Cultures and their knowledge-based are constantly in a process of
change and the knowledge stored by individuals is not a rigid copy of some socially
constructed template. In learning a culture, each child changes that culture.

5. Learning exists in the mind

The constructivist theory posits that knowledge can only exist within the
human mind, and that it does not have to match any real-world reality (Driscoll,
2000). Learners will be constantly trying to develop their own individual mental
model of the real world from their perceptions of that world. As they perceive each
new experience, learners will continually update their own mental models to reflect
the new information, and will, therefore, construct their own interpretation of reality.

What are the three main types of constructivism?

Typically, this continuum is divided into three broad categories:
Cognitive constructivism based on the work of Jean Piaget, social constructivism
based on the work of Lev Vygotsky, and radical constructivism. According to the GSI
Teaching and Resource Center (2015, p.5): Cognitive constructivism states knowledge is
something that is actively constructed by learners based on their existing cognitive structures.
Therefore, learning is relative to their stage of cognitive development.
Cognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in assimilating new information to
existing knowledge, and enabling them to make the appropriate modifications to their existing
intellectual framework to accommodate that information. According to social constructivism
learning is a collaborative process, and knowledge develops from individuals' interactions
with their culture and society.
Social constructivism was developed by Lev Vygotsky (1978, ) who suggested that,
every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level and,
later on, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the
child (intrapsychological).
Radical constructivism was developed by Ernst von Glasersfeld (1974) and states that
all knowledge is constructed rather than perceived through senses. Learners construct new
knowledge on the foundations of their existing knowledge. However, radical constructivism
states that the knowledge individuals create tells us nothing about reality, and only helps us to
function in your environment. Thus, knowledge is invented not discovered. The humanly
constructed reality is all the time being modified and interacting to fit ontological reality,
although it can never give a ‘true picture’ of it. (Ernest, 1994).

What is the role of the teacher in a constructivist classroom?

The primary responsibility of the teacher is to create a collaborative problem-solving
environment where students become active participants in their own learning. From this
perspective, a teacher acts as a facilitator of learning rather than an instructor. The teacher
makes sure he/she understands the students' preexisting conceptions and guides the activity to
address them and then build on them (Oliver, 2000).
Scaffolding is a key feature of effective teaching, where the adult continually adjusts
the level of his or her help in response to the learner's level of performance. In the classroom,
scaffolding can include modeling a skill, providing hints or cues, and adapting material or
activity (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009).

Features of a Constructivist Classroom

Tam (2000) lists the following four basic characteristics of constructivist learning
environments, which must be considered when implementing constructivist teaching
strategies:
1. Knowledge will be shared between teachers and students.
2. Teachers and students will share authority.
3. The teacher's role is one of a facilitator or guide.
4. Learning groups will consist of small numbers of heterogeneous students.

Application
Activity 1: Use and Reuse
Directions:
A. Select a particular report/article regarding teaching and learning whether in a
newspaper, magazine, or online news. Cite the title of the report or article and sources. B.
Analyze the report or article using the lens of a particular theory and explain it.
C. Cite the implication of the report or article.

Activity 2: Reflection Directions:

A. Write a reflection paper with the format (A4 Paper, Arial 11, with 1.15 space, 1’
margin all sides, 100 words only).
B. How theories influence the teaching and learning process in the classroom?
Note: Submission of output is through google classroom. The link will be given in your
facebook group. Rubrics are also attached in the google classroom.

Closure
Congratulations! You have successfully finished your lesson 1. Now, it’s time for you
to venture your module 2. Enjoy your journey.