SPORT - Science & Practice, Vol. 5, No 1 & 2, 2015, pp.

89-114

Professional paper

AN ANALYSIS OF LEG TECHNIQUES

IN KARATE
UDK 796.853.26.012.424(049.32)

Radomir Mudrić1
College of Sports and Health, Belgrade, Serbia

Miloš Mudrić
Faculty of Sports and Physical Education, University of Belgrade, Serbia

Velizar Ranković
Master of karate at 5 Dan

Abstract: Karate is today practiced in three forms: as a sports discipline, as

a skill of self-defense and in the form of recreation and health. Regardless
of the forms of practice, their place and roles, the leg techniques which are
executed are very significant. Today karate is primarily a modern sports event
in which strikes dominate and where leg techniques influence the scoring
system (points made by the leg strikes and kicks are larger than those made
by the arms). The paper has carried out an analysis of leg techniques which
are presented from several aspects, as well as from methodical aspects with
short methodological instructions which are significant in training. Also,
there is a short analysis of the muscle structure, with a review of all the
significant and relevant muscle groups which take part in the strikes. Also,
the technical elements which are significant in executing and applying the leg
techniques are defined. The techniques are presented as structural elements
of the assault itself, with time dimensions and the processes describing them.
This significant work segment affirms the scientific and research approach to
the issue of karate, as well as martial arts in general and it is presented with
the results of research in this area. The techniques are also illustrated with
adequate pictures – drawings, diagrams and accompanying tables.
Keywords: karate, methodology of training, structure, time dimension
research work

   [email protected]
1

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INTRODUCTION

Until the beginning of the 20th century, karate was considered a self-
defense skill and was carried out in secrecy as a martial art originating from Japan
from as far back as the 16th century. Due to some Okinawa-based masters from
the Far East and Japan, primarily Anko Itosu2 and Anko Azatou3, also a teacher
and the first reformer of karate Gichin Funakoshi4, karate was introduced into
the educational system of Okinawa, which put a stop to the long-time, secretive
practicing of this skill. Namely, in medieval, feudal Japan, all martial arts were
learned and practiced mostly in secrecy. This situation of covert practicing was
especially carried out in the 17th century, with an imperial decree in Japan and
the official decision about banning practice for the “ordinary” people. This ban
of carrying arms and learning martial arts occurred at a time of period of peace
lasting a long time during the dynasty of Tokugawa shogunte (1600-1868). This
was a thriving period in Japan in every regard (cultural, military and other areas
of life), as well as the development of martial arts.
With the appearance of Gichin Funakoshi, karate moved from Okinawa
to continental Japan. This teacher carried out the reform of karate which
started the transformation of mere self-defense skills into a sports discipline.
The measures which in that sense were taken up consisted of the following:
• Cutback of techniques (all the techniques which could cause grave
injuries or death were left out of the training program),
• Revision of katas (starting from the change of the kata names, with
the translating of the Chinese meaning to Japanese letters, as well
as introducing new katas in the training system),
• Changes of contents and training methods (thus far the method of a
traditional approach to training was known and was reflected in long-term
hard work with constant, numerous repetitions of the learned technique.
The new concept of learning and training took into consideration the
facts that karate was practiced as a school subject in schools all over
Japan, with different age categories and within a limited time duration),
• Ranking players according to belts (after judo, karate also
introduced the system of following and assessing the achieved level
of knowledge via the kyu/dan system5) and
• Introducing competitions.

2
  Anko Itosu (1831 - 1915), a karate expert from Okinawa, considered to be the father of karate
by many, as in 1905 he introduced karate into the school system of Okinawa.
3
  Anko Azato (1827 – 1906), one of the most renowned karate teachers of his time in Okinawa.
4
  Gichin Funakoshi (1871-1957), a great Okinawa karate master, known as the creator of sport karate.
5
  This system of belts, starting from the white beginner one, via the yellow, orange, green,
blue and pre-master brown belt, to the highest master one, the black belt and ranks in that
position, was established and created by the creator of judo Kanō Jigorō (1860-1938).
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Thanks to these changes, in the 50ties of the last century the first
tournaments started, which definitively initiated the transformation of the
traditional form of exercising in sports karate.
The karate techniques which are applied in sport martial arts those
carried out by the arms or hands as well as leg or foot techniques which are
very attractive and have very quickly and successfully affirmed karate as a
new sports event all over the world.
In the contemporary world today, sports karate, that is, the training,
learning, practicing and applying of techniques in fights or carrying out katas
is carried out according to contemporary sports principles of the training
system (process), which is also valid for other contemporary sports events.
Also, there is an increasing inflow of science by implementing the results
of scientific research, via scientific and research projects which consider
karate training, education and techniques from several aspects, structural,
functional, informational, energetic, biomechanical, biochemical, methodical,
educational, the training aspect, etc.

1. THEORETICAL WORK BASIS

Karate has plenty of different techniques which are executed with the
arms and the legs. Some of these techniques, which Funakoshi marked as
dangerous, nevertheless found their place among the dominant training model
by practicing katas.
Today karate is practiced in three most significant forms, such as:
• a sports event
• a skill of self-defense
• a health and recreational form.
Karate as a contemporary sport event is today the most dominant form
of exercising based on the principles of karate federations, and enables the
practitioners (competitors) to express themselves in various events, two of
which are the most represented:
a) sports contests (teams and individual in their own categories and
as absolute categories)
b) c ompetitions in katas (individual and team).
Some of the international karate federations also have their own
specific competitions: demonstrations of breaking hard objects, displays of
arranged sparring (some type of arranged contest in situationally complex
conditions), competitions between the handicapped, etc.
With the appearing of sport karate, the executed leg techniques have
attained an increasing significance. This in particular relates to the federations
which with the very system of refereeing favor these techniques, giving them

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a larger number of points than the techniques carried out by the arms or
hands6. This was done in order for the sport of karate to gain in attractiveness
and interest and to attract as many spectators as possible, as there is a
noticeable decline of visitations to large competitions. However, there were
results of researches of some large world championships, whereupon there
was a follow-up of the parameters of technical and tactical features of the
karatekas as well as the parameters which speak of the representations and
correlation in which the arm and leg techniques appear and that, regardless
of this additional “stimulus,” leg techniques seem to be executed less than
the arm ones (Gužvica, M. 2000., Mudrić, R. 1999., Vučenović, B. 1998).
Thus, the results of these research papers show that the most represented
techniques continue to be those which are carried out by the arms (yjaku
zuki and kizami zuki), in a range between 89% and 94%. This is not an
accident as it is known that arm strikes are more natural movements than leg
kicks, as well as that they are easier to control, last shorter, and thus they are
more difficult to prevent and block, which sufficiently explains their greater
representation.
When we reflect on leg techniques, it should be known that they
are carried out from a greater distance (often extended), they are realized
on a longer path, they have a decreased precision, and they are easier to
“recognize” due to compensatory movements which are made prior to and
following the execution, and also, they are more risky during balancing and
harder to control in the final stage of execution.
One explanation for this significant phenomenon lies in the very
methodology of training and unchanged methodical contents which are
executed in the sport of karate as well as in the fixed methodology of the training
itself, which has to a large extent remained linked with the methodology of
training and coaching, which in turn corresponds to the traditional approach
and correlation.

1.1. Systematization of karate techniques

Karate techniques which are learned and applied in practice can be

divided into the following:
• Stances
• Movements
• Strikes
• Blocks
• Cleaning

6
  An example of this is the largest World Karate Federation (WKF) which in its rulebook of
contesting and refeering allowed the scoring system between the foot and hand techniques to be
3:1, in favor of executed leg techniques.
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Foot kick techniques are divided depending on the following

criteria:
1. d irection of execution
2. form of execution line
3. s triking surface
According to the first criterion, the strikes are divided into the
following:
• strikes towards the front (Mai geri koshi – with the top part of the
ball of the foot, Mae kakato geri – with the heel, Mae hiza geri –
with the knee)
• back kicks (Ushiro geri – with the heel or the ball of the foot, Ushiro
mawashi geri – with the heel or the ball of the foot)
• side snap kick (Yoko geri keage – with the side of the foot; a kick
with a “jerk” from the knee and a kick to the side with “inserting”
the hip into the kick)
• kick downwards (a kick with the side of the foot - Fumikomi geri).
According to the second criterion, strikes are divided into the following:
• f ront kick with the front leg (direct: Mae geri koshi – with the top of
the ball of the foot, Mae kakato geri – with the heel, Mae hiza geri
– with the knee, Ushiro geri – with the heel or the ball of the foot);
• roundhouse kick (spin kick: Mawashi geri – with the ball of the foot
or the upper part of the foot).
According to the criterion of the striking surface, we mention striking
surfaces such as the following (Fig. 1):
• the top of the ball (Mae geri koshi)
• the flat side of the foot (external)
• the upper side of the foot
• the toes
• the knee
• the heel
• the toes.
A special feature of the foot techniques is the striking surface which
helps to make contact with the target. Such as the case with the hand, thus
also with the foot, which represents from all sides a large striking surface
(the toes, the ball, the part of the ball under the toes, the arch of the foot, the
bottom of the foot and the heel) and this is also the case with the knee. Each of
the striking surfaces is distinctive for one of the techniques and it is specially
formed in order to be successfully “thrust at” the opponent. Forming the
striking surfaces requests good coordination and mobility of toes, joints, feet
and ankle and sometimes demands a special exercise. It is especially relevant
to firm up the foot in the ankle part to avoid any possible injuries, as well as
to make the kick more efficient.

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Figure 1. Surfaces which make contact with the target

1.1.1. Stances
Stances belong to the group of the most significant technical elements
in karate and have multiple significance for an efficient execution of defense
and offense techniques as without them there are no executed and applied
techniques, either with the hand or the foot.
Stances are static positions defined more or less by an appropriate
position of the body, the arms and feet from which all actions of defense and
offenses start and are used according to the aim and techniques which can be
executed from them (Mudrić, R. and associates, 2004).
A stance in karate indicates a specific position of the body which is
defined by the following elements:
• the position of the feet (the distance, the angle of the expanded axis)
• the correlations of the foot segments
• the position of the projection of the brunt of the body in comparison
with the area of the support
• the position of the hips, the torso and the shoulders.
Only in the so-called optimal karate stance can techniques be
manifested efficiently and such a stance must meet the following criteria
(Jovanović, S. and associates, 1989):
• stability (balance)
• mobility
• optimal anatomical and biomechanical conditions for displaying
maximal muscle forces.

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1.1.2. Movements
Movements are techniques which serve to reach the most optimal, but
also the most dominant position in relation to the opponent. All movements
can be divided into defense, assault, and maneuver movements according to
the basic aim or demands for their application and realization.
Defining movement as a special element of karate techniques, whether
this involves basic training or in the application of a combination of karate
techniques as well as sports contest is not easy, considering that movement
represents an integral part of a technique. In the wider sense of the word,
when we speak about technique, we speak about “movement activities” and
“movement.” It is impossible to imagine the practical application of any
technique of assault and defense without a specifically improved movement
technique, which is achieved by special karate training. Such a movement
is “interwoven” into the assault and defense technique and gives them a
special motor recognizability and specific nature, in comparison with other
motor skills. Thus the technique of movement implies “the part of quality
of technical ability which enables the maintaining of an optimal distance,
avoiding the opponent’s attack and an efficient execution of appropriate
assault techniques” (Jovanović, S. 1992). Also, movement can be defined as a
“change of the position of the body in space which is carried out with a certain
aim” (Mudrić, R. 2004).
In practice, there is the occurrence that practitioners did not dedicate
sufficient attention to movement. This ensued from a deficiency to review the
real function of movement (especially in preparing for the very realization
of some technique). Thus, very frequently there are irrational movements
and hops which, mildly put, can be denoted as “pro forma” movements or
an execution of movements which ensued from copying the movements of
the more successful competitors. On the other hand, a series of conducted
studies of the time dimensions of the assaults have shown that movement is
the basic generator of the quality of the assault technique and that it to the
largest extent explains the variability of the time dimensions of the assault in
karate (Mudrić, R. 1994).
The ability for “rational” movement is acquired by long-term training,
which primarily implies the improving of the ability to take up an optimally
preparation stance, an adequate function of the supporting and the leading foot,
as well as perfecting the appropriate physical abilities (especially explosive
strength, elasticity and coordination). The external picture of “rational”
movement is shown through the sliding of the feet along the surface, as well as
a maintaining of an approximate vertical position during the movement. The
basic principle of maintaining movement in any direction is based on causing
(producing) the force of the reaction of a hard surface by the quadriceps of the
supporting foot (Jovanović, S. 1992).

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“The demand for a horizontal path of the brunt of the body during
all types of movements (and as little as possible fluctuating of the brunt in
the vertical direction) can be taken as the most representative criterion for
determining the rationality of movement” (Jovanović, S., Ćirković, Z. 1992).
Movements can be divided according to the following:
• forwards movement
• backward movement
• sideways movement
• rotational movement
There are many known movements which are used in karate and they
are mostly determined by the character of the applied technique. Thus, it can
be said that blocks are mainly efficiently executed by backwards movements
(step, backward sliding, rotational movement around a protruding foot, etc.),
while nearly all forward movements (sliding, double step, step, combined
movements) are efficiently used along with the execution of the technique in
assaults (strikes which are carried out with the feet or hands).
Movements in sports karate are adapted to the demands of the finals
and thus they are also different from the so-called “classical ones.” This
type of movement, according to the way of realization, is similar to the
movements which are executed in boxing (a highly raised brunt, support on
the toes). They are depicted by the following: hopping forwards, backwards
and sideways (moving diagonally backward or forward), a frequent change
of guard, softness of movement, as well as movement by hopping laterally.
These movements, according to some authors, have been systematized into
several modalities: hops, jump – leap, leap - hop – jump (Gužvica, M. 2000).

2. LEG TECHNIQUES

Techniques which are carried out by the legs or the feet are the real
depiction of karate and make this type of martial art especially attractive.
Roughly, they can be divided into strikes and blocks which are carried out by
the legs.
Even though these techniques are very attractive, the success of their
application depends on several factors: the level of training (it is, of course,
implied, that the ethnical level is the first, then the level of preparedness for
execution in the sense of joint mobility, elasticity, agility, the strength of the
leg muscles, as well as the stomach and the back muscles), the assessment of
distance, coordination, stability of the balancing position, especially in the
moments when the practitioner is on one leg, where the surface of the support
is only on the ball of the standing leg, but also in the moment of realizing
contact of the foot with the target.

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2.1. Strikes executed with the feet

All strike techniques, whether they are those which are carried out
with the hands or the feet, can be defined as “moving structures of a differing
complexity which are executed with the aim of destroying the opponent”
(Mudrić, R. 2004). The level of destruction depends on the specific application
of the technique. Thus, in a sports contest there is a symbolical destruction
which is conditioned by the rules of refereeing, while in some typical situations
of executing security affairs (policing), the strike techniques are executed with
the aim of a part or, ultimately, a total destruction as the last option, caused by
the specific nature of the situation during the use of authority.
Leg strikes can be spectacular, especially today in modern sports
karate, where these techniques have found their rightful place.
The first leg techniques were natural movements which could be
carried out easily, and these are a foot kick (Mae geri) and back thrust kick
(Ushiro geri). Created later on were the semicircular strikes in which the
attacker swings with the front of the leg or foot strike (Mawashi geri). Only
with the appearance of sports karate were there attractive leg techniques such
as the circular strike with the heel (or the ball of the foot) backwards, the
spinning heel kick (Ushiro mawashi geri), and the semicircular strike with the
heel or the hook kick (Ura mawashi geri).
According to the method of execution, leg techniques are carried out
in two ways, as strikes called a snap kick when the knee of the kicking leg
is pointed at the target (keage) and as strikes that are thrust kicks (kekomi).
Such an execution is applied with several techniques, such as the following:
Mae geri, Joko geri, Mawashi geri and even some specific variants of the back
kick - Ushiro geri. Both variants of execution are shown via the direct forward
leg strike Mae geri (Fig. 2).
The basic difference in carrying out the mentioned techniques consists
of a thrust of the pelvis and carrying over that thrust to the muscle groups
according to the open end of the kinetic chain, from the position of a raised
knee. The height to which the knee can be raised is knows as a position of the
knee in a preparation position for executing the technique - Hiki ashi. It must
be noted that the height or the position of the knee in the preparation position
(hiki ashi) is in the strike direction, and that the maximally bent knee in the
knee joint is one of the requirements for the size of the muscle force which
can be displayed. Of course, the corner which tilts the knee with the direction
of execution is of a vital importance for displaying the strength of the strike.
The height of the raised knee is also decisive for the height of the
realization of the strike technique. The higher the position of the knee,
the higher is the strike which is to be carried out at the “imposed” and
appropriate height, and it is never under the level of the knee position. Thus,

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the starting position for carrying out the technique should correspond to the
set demands.
Figure 2. Mae geri kekomi and Mae geri keage

2.2. Methodical review with a muscle analysis of the leg strike

technique

Even though the leg techniques are from the methodological aspect
processed in detail in the available literature, all the same, by improving the
regulations of the contest and refereeing as well as the demands of the sports
contest, a form of practicing karate today, and also perfecting the desired
or aimed effects (results) in training various target groups, there is always
a problem of training and the model of the practice, as well as the model
of education, open and current. Every one of the mentioned elements has
its clearly defined aims and tasks whose solving depends on the disposable
time for training (the time framework within which the training should
be realized), the disposable training means, age and education groups and
profile of practitioners, etc. Of course, the solutions should also be sought
in permanent improvement and education a training staff, as well as in the
demands for improving and innovating the methodical contents of training.
Namely, the scientific and expert public, which is present in karate
and has had a significant effect especially in the last 30 years, recognizes the
mentioned problems and gives its opinions and specific solutions. It can be
said that today the theoretical support of practice prevails. However, in the
practicing public, it seems that there is not enough feeling or support for the
efforts invested for the prosperity of karate generally speaking, and not just
like a contemporary sports discipline.
One of the accepted models of training, recognized by these three
forms such as: basic, directed and situational training also has its defined
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aims from which ensue the training tasks. Each of these segments demands
a special methodological treatment with the methodological contents
adapted to all three forms of training. The methodology of training of
the same technique will be different if it is carried out on the following:
recreational exercises, competition orientated practitioners, practitioners
interested in the traditional (self-defense) approach, practitioners of
various specialist courses starting from security guards, to operational
coaches in a sports contest, students of coaching colleges or universities,
members of various police specialized security services, army members,
etc. The aims and desired training results differ for all the mentioned
structures of practitioners. According to this, various methodological
forms and contents will be applied with adapted and specialized training
means.
The most rational choice of methods (Mudrić, R. and associates 2004):
• Method of verbal emission of information
• Synthetic method
• A nalytical method
• Combined method
• Iterative method
• Method of transferring to other signal systems
• Ideomotor method
• Methods for developing CNS
• Methods for developing strength
• Methods for developing speed
• Methods for developing endurance
• Methods for developing agility
• Methods for developing suppleness

2.2.1. Direct kick and forward kick - Mae geri

The strike, like already noted, can be carried out in two ways: with a
“snap” from the knee - Mae geri keage, and a “snap” from the hip - Mae geri
kekomi (Fig. 2). Mae geri keage is carried out at a short distance (accessible
for that leg technique) and can be efficient if applied to the body or even the
head of the opponent (chin). Kekomi is a long strike forwards and it is carried
out from an extended distance. It is the most efficient if applied to the body of
the opponent.
A specific striking surface (the ball of the foot underneath the toes)
demands a special position of the feet in relation to the calf (the foot is “broken
up” in the ankle and almost extended in comparison to the calf) in order for
the strike not to be carried out with the entire ball of the foot.
The technique is most often applied in a karate stance (Fudo dachi),
with the arms in a middle guard position. At the moment of striking, the

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standing leg is on the floor with its entire surface and it is bent in the knee,
while the body is insignificantly bent towards the leg executing the strike.
It must be noted that this very attractive and efficient technique is
not represented enough in contemporary sports karate and almost not
even applied. The reason for this is primarily in the specific movement in
contemporary sports contests, but also a diagonal contest applied by the
opponents, which narrows down the surface of the body upon which the
strike can be executed.
As the principle of conveying the amount of movement is very
significant for carrying out the technique, it will be explained in detail
here.
The starting position for carrying out a strike is the stance (Fudo
dachi - Fig. 3, no. 1). From this position, the leg in the back stance (the
one executing the strike) with a speedy contracting of the ankle triceps (m.
triceps sure; m. plantaris; m. tibiali posterior; m. peroneus longus) and the
knee (m. quadriceps femoris), leads to the elementary position (hiki ashi),
for further realization. The most active in this movement are the triceps in
the hip joint (m. iliopsoas; m. tensor fascie latae; m. sartorius; m. rectus
femoris; m. pectineus; m. adductor longus; m. adductor braves) and the knee
(m. biceps femoris; m. semitendinosus; m. semimembranosus; m. sartorius;
m. gracilis; m. popliteus; m. plantaris). This movement transfers the body
weight to the kicking (now bearing) leg (Fig. 3, nos. 2 and 3). Also, at the
same time that the foot of the standing leg moves, it leads to the side which
enables the thrusting of the pelvis forwards with the hips, anatomically
thrust in the direction of the execution of the technique. This leg movement
is carried out with the lower ankle with the “help” of compensatory
movements in the hip and the knee joints, which are in a mild flexion. These
movements of twisting with abduction and with leading have in the lower
ankle a movement amplitude of 15º, that is, 25º (a total of 40º - Opavsky, P.
1976).
The bearing leg maintains a bent position in all joints with which it
prevents the oscillating of the brunt of the body in a vertical direction, and
at the same time it creates a prerequisite for pushing from the surface during
the strike (this position of the standing leg is enabled by the following: m.
rectus abdominis; m. vastus medialis; m. vastus lateralis; m. rectus femoris;
m. tensor fasciae late). The knee of this leg extends the movement forwards
for the maintaining of the starting impulse (strike). This movement is
followed by an appropriate “swaying” of the pelvis (nutation of the pelvis).
With the abrupt stopping of the movement of the knee and the pelvis there is
strong support created for the strike of the leg forwards. Using this support
and the created strike, from the position of a raised knee, the effect of the
quadriceps of the joint of the right leg (m. quadriceps femoris), there is

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a thrusting of the calf of this leg forward and directing the top of the toe
against the opponent’s body (m. extensor hallucis longus). At the same time,
with the extension of the leg there is also a compensatory flexing of the
torso forwards and retreating of the arms on the hips. At the moment of the
strike, the isometric contracting of all muscles in the kinetic chain enables
a maximum transmission of the force of the strike, as well as fixing those
joints closest to the striking surface (Fig. 1 - koshi). Immediately after the
impact, depending on the target, intention or the following activity, the feet
and knee can return to the hiki ashia position, be lowered to the initial stance
or take up a new one.
Figure 3. Technique shown in characteristic stages of performance

2.2.2. Roundhouse kick - Mawashi geri

The roundhouse or spin kick is executed mostly at targets directly in
front or on the side of the executor. The kick is usually directed towards the
areas of the head, the neck, the stomach or the sides of the body.
The area for executing the kick is the part of the ball of the foot
underneath the toes (or the sole), which should be turned upward at the
moment of the kick (towards the upper side of the foot) in order for the
striking surface to be formed successfully. This striking surface is known
as the “koshi” and it has a great penetrating power (Fig. 1). It is mostly
executed towards the body of the opponent, from either side. The striking
surface which is applied in executing this strike can also be the arch of
the foot (over the toes) and it is known under the name “kubi.” During the
forming of this striking surface, it is necessary for the foot with the toes to
be stretched out and in an “extension” from the calf and the ankle (Fig. 1).
The path of the strike is an arched flicking out from the body and towards

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the target, in any form of execution, and does not depend on the choice of
striking surface. Of course, an arched path of the feet is conditioned by the
starting position for executing this strike (hiki ashi) when the foot which
executed this strike is bent completely at the knee (a position from which
great force can be executed), and beside the body (from the side). The calf
is, as much as possible, bent towards the thigh so that the knee is in a higher
position than the foot (Fig. 4). A characteristic moment in the training of this
technique is a rotation of the feet of the standing leg (already described in the
previous technique), during its movement towards the target (Fig. 4, no. 3).
The rotation of the foot of the standing leg is exceptionally significant as only
in this way can the striking surface be struck. Every unfinished, insufficient
or in any way disabled rotation of the foot (foot movement blocking) does not
permit an efficient executing of the technique and increases the possibility of
injury (especially the knee joint in the area of the meniscus, but the ligaments
as well). Injuries are inevitable, as blocking the movement of the feet in
the knee joint of the standing leg leads to a simultaneous executing of two
movements: extension and rotation. In comparison, in this way (this strike
can be compared with a volley strike in football) there are injuries of the
meniscus and ligaments in football players.
During the executing of a movement, the arms are in a guard position,
and among other things, they also have a function of maintaining the body’s
balance (Fig. 4). The body follows the executing of movements and the
position of the body is conditioned by the way of executing the technique, the
height of throwing out the striking surface, as well as the demands which are
set for the executor (if the body takes up a position towards the leg which is
executing the strike, forwards or more or less straight).
Executing the semicircular strike (Mawashi geri) from the fight stance
(Fig. 4):
• The elementary position is the stance with the arms in the position
of a middle guard (Fig. 4, no. 1).
• The leg which executes the strike is on the side beside the body
(abductio in the hip joint - m. gluteus maximus; m. gluteus medius;
m. gluteus minimus; m. piriformis; m. tensor fasciae latae) and with
a flexion in the knee joint. The arms are in a guard position, the
body somewhat bent towards the leg executing the strike. The foot
with the formed striking surface is in a somewhat lower position
than the knee (Fig. 4, no. 2).
• A semicircular movement forwards (extension in the knee joint -
m. quadriceps femoris), initiates the leg movement, along with a
simultaneous rotating of the standing leg or foot (Fig. 4, no. 3).
When the knee of the leg executing the strike is found near the
imaginary, horizontal line of execution (forwards), its movement is

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blocked, which enables the calf movement which flicks out the foot
with the striking surface towards the target
Figure 4. Mawashi geri – phase execution

2.2.3. Side thrust kick - Yoko geri

Previous practice has shown that the side thrust kick, whether this is a
thrust from the knee or the hip, is very hard to understand and adopt due to the
complexity of movement, complex coordination, a weak mobility of the hip,
knee and ankle joints, a poor leg flexibility, a weak strength of the stomach
and leg muscles — adductors and abductors) (Fig. 5, nos. 2, 3, 4).
The “striking surface” is represented by the ball of the foot (the sole)
of the leg (Fig. 1).
Unlike the “snap from the knee” strike, which is somewhat more
natural, yoko geri kekomi demands a very complex coordination of body
movements, of the arms and the legs, especially the leg which is being
extended and executes the strike. The leg is at the same time extending and
rotating, so that in all three joints (the hip, the knee and the ankle) there are
strong and complex movements, and thus a great concentration and attention
is needed during the execution to prevent injury. The standing leg is slightly
bent in the knee, the foot follows the leg movement, rotating in the opposite
direction from the one of the strike. The body and head are directed towards
the direction of the “striking” leg. The arms are in the “guard” position.
Executing the technique (Fig. 5):
1. E
lementary position: taken up is a stance with the arms in a guard
position.
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2. Lifting the legs in the elementary for carrying out the technique.
Taken up is the position in which the leg with the knee and the foot
is lifted in a position for executing strikes (hiki ashi).
3. E
xecuting the strike on the side (m. quadriceps femoris; m.
gluteus medius). Rotation of the torso (m. latissimus dorsi;
m.obliquus abdominis internus; m. obliquus abdominis externus;
m. transversus abdominis). The standing leg actively takes part in
the movement (extension in the knee joint; m.quadriceps femoris;
m. gastrocnemius; m. soleus), with a foot rotation in the field (the
foot movement has already been analyzed).
4. R
eturning the leg the same way backwards (bringing in the
knee joint adductio: m. gluteus maximus; m. adductor magnus;
m. adductor longus; m.adductor brevis; m. adductor minimus;
m.pectineus; m.gracilis; m. iliopsoas; m. biceps femoris; m.
semitendinosus; m.semimembranosus).
Figure 5. Direct side thrust kick - Yoko geri

2.2.4. Back kick (with the heel) - Ushiro geri

All the principles which are exclusive for executing the feet technique
are very significant for the back kick as well, for several reasons: the kick
is executed in an unfavorable position backwards when it is very hard to
maintain a balance, and previously a proper position must be taken with
the eyes towards the target, which is often not feasible due to the speed
of executing the strike, and the kick must be executed very precisely or
there may be a possibility for an efficient counterstrike (due to the fact that
after the executed strike it is very hard to return to a “safe” position from
which there can be an adequate reaction, while the standing leg cannot be
maximally extended in the knee joint at the moment of executing the strike
due to a larger stability in the one-legged stance; also, in order to contract
the necessary muscles, there must be a unity of the upper and lower body,
as without a synergy of the entire body there is no strong and efficient
strike, and the strike must be executed directly backwards by a straight
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line, as in the contrary the target can be easy to miss (then the strike gains
an undesired semicircular path from which an imprecision of execution
can ensue).
In the final stage of movement, the leg is maximally extended in the
knee joint and can be found in the “extension” of the hips and the body. The
body and the leg are lined up and via the hip joint constitute a line. The foot
with the toes is bent towards the calf which enables flicking out the striking
surface (the heel) towards the target (Fig. 6).
Executing the strike from the stance of feet brought together (Fig. 6):
1. E
lementary position — the stance of feet brought together with the
arms beside the body.
2. The leg which executes the strike is raised in an elementary
position, bent in the knee and towards the chest (a position similar
with the forward leg strikes).
3. W
ith the flicking out of the leg backwards, that is, the thigh of the
standing leg, the execution of the strike is initiated. Already in this
stage, the foot with the calf forms such a position which enables
the flicking out of the striking surface (dorsal flexion: m. extensor
hallucis longus, m. peroneus, m. tibialis anterior, etc.).
In the final stage of the movement, the leg is extended in the knee
and can be found in the extension of the body (m. quadriceps femoris, m.
gluteus medius, m. gluteus maximus). The rotation of the body was enabled
by the following: m. latisimus dorsi, m. trapezius, m. oliqus abdominis
externus. A maximal contraction of the thigh muscles enables a larger
strength of the strike. The standing leg is standing on the surface with its
entire surface, and the muscles which actively take part are the following:
m. rectus femoris, m. gastrocnemius, m. soleus; in a passive form also m.
vastus lateralis. The arms are beside and in front of the body and have
the function of maintaining balance (m. trapezius, m. deltoideus). The eyes
are directed towards the target of executing the strike. After the executed
strike, the leg returns to the elementary position in front of the body or in
the desired direction.
The strike can be executed in the area of the stomach, the solar plexus,
the genitalia and the groin area, as well as the calf. Avoided are direct and
high strikes in the area of the head as they are quite risky. Very often they
are executed in a combination with with other leg kicks. The strike is most
often executed from a fighting stance by turning around the front, standing
leg, where special attention should be paid to the rotation of the foot of the
standing leg and bringing the body into a position for executing the technique
(the muscles which execute the rotation of the hip externally: m. gluteus
minimus, m. iliopsoas, m. gluteus maximus, m. gluteus medius, m. piriformis,
m. obturatorius internus (Fig. 7).

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Figure 6. Direct back kick - Ushiro geri

Figure 7. Back kick (with the heel) – Ushiro geri

2.3. Time parameters of karate kick techniques

The lasting time of karate technique was the subject of research papers
as early on as the 80ties of the past century (Jovanović, S. 1981, 1988, 1992;
Zulić, M., Milošević, M. 1988; 1989; Arlov, D. 1993; Milošević, M., Jovanović,
S., Ćirković, Z. 1993; Mudrić, R. 1994, 1999; Milošević, M., Mudrić, R.,
Mudrić, M. 2012; Mudrić, M. 2015). The obtained results of this research
have enabled a better planning and realizing of the training process in karate.
By researching the time dimensions of karate techniques, for the first
time were obtained results which have practically demystified the possibilities
of karate experts. The obtained results shows that karate experts in all
levels, from beginners to masters, are merely “ordinary” people, some with
exceptional motor abilities and others with average qualities.
A special problem of research of this kind were not ideas. The largest
problem was for the visions of the measuring instruments to be realized
(created), as no measuring instrument existed anywhere in the world until
then (Jovanović, S. 1988). Of course, what helped was new information
technology, enabling the mechanical parts of the entire measuring system
(the metal construction from the original solutions of the striking surfaces,
tensiometric platforms, etc.), to be skillfully linked with the computerized

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parts of the equipment which enabled reaching relevant results measured in

milliseconds via a certain measuring procedure.
The measuring of time parameters of the basic techniques was carried
out with the help of contact tensio platforms which were linked by a computer
into a unique system which enabled registering and memorizing relevant
times (Mudrić, R. 1994). Research helped to isolate the partial and integral
times of karate techniques. The obtained results enabled the explaining and
defining of the assault in later research papers, as the most significant element
of contemporary sports karate (Mudrić, R. 1999). The obtained results showed
that the configuration of partial and integral time of assault changes depends
on the situational complexity of the assault as well as from the type of applied
technique.
The time parameters of karate techniques can be divided into integral
and partial, depending on whether they define an integral or a partial realization
of simple or complex structures, with the accompanying processes.
The integral time parameters represent a sum of partial time parameters,
and they are measured by the total of lasting of the applied technique in the
assault, from the giving of a certain signal for initiating an assault to the
ending of the assault.
Partial time parameters represent a time realization of certain structure
segments or groups of segments, and they are assessed by measuring the time
from the start to the end of each segment.
The way of assessing the partial time parameters can be direct
(cinematographic analysis) or indirect (removing the time of lasting of certain
segments from the total measured times).
“The time parameters of an attack represent a time measurement of
planning and realization, the structure and its segments of a diverse complexity,
as well as the accompanying processes” (Mudrić, R. 1999). In the given
research treated were the karate techniques which are most often executed in
karate, whether individual or in combination with other techniques. From the
kick techniques, analyzed were the following: a direct back kick, Mae geri
and a semicircular foot kick, Mavashi geri.
This research project produced results which explained some techniques
from the aspect of integral and partial time which in turn can be defined via
the planning time (introductory programming) of the movement and the
time of the motor realization of the technique. The obtained partial times,
especially the planning time, is exceptionally significant, whose deciding
factor is primarily the efficiency of the executed technique. The partial
planning time practically explains the time from the moment of recognizing
the optimal moment7 for bringing decisions about the execution of a certain

7
  In the conducted research process (Mudrić, R.1999) this part began with giving a light
signal (by way of a light indicator) by tapping on a computer keyboard.
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technique, to bringing decisions about including the relevant muscle groups

which are responsible for initiating the movement. In the biomechanical sense
of the word, the movement starts with the adductors of the ankle and knee
joints. The motor realization of the movement represents the continuation of
the initiated movement and its execution to the realizing of contact with the
target.
After the analysis of the correlation between the partial and integral
time in different types of assaults, the following has been concluded:
• Partial time planning parameters in a situation of an unconditional8
executing (application) of technique have insignificantly different
values, depending on whether the assault is carried out with the
arms or hands or the legs or feet. However, it has also been concluded
that the process of planning the assault, regardless whether this
involves an assault with the arms or legs, in average amounts to
around 30%, and the time of the realization of the attack is 70% of
the integral time of attack.
• Partial time planning parameters, in a situation of an elective
assault9 also have different values, depending on whether the attack
is executed with the arms or legs, and the average time for this kind
of attack amounts to around 38% of the total time of attack.
It must be noted that this involves the partial time obtained as a
product of analysis and resolving complex information processes which
speak only about the initiating of the movement. In the majority of cases,
this involves techniques which last too little (around 300 milliseconds)
which enables gaining feedback information on a proprioceptive level.
However, what is the most significant fact and it is linked with the extracted
time with processes which describe them, is the possibility to shorten the
time of processing by a special training method, that is, to speed up the
information processing processes. In this way, it is possible to increase the
number of unknowns which can be processed. The international unit for
these processes is a bit/sec.
The descriptive indicators of the lasting time of these leg techniques in
situations of unconditional and optional reacting are shown in Table 1.

8
  In the conducted research process (Mudrić, R.1999) this part began with giving a light
signal (by way of a light indicator) by tapping on a computer keyboard.
9
  “An elective assault” is a complex situation in which the respondent before the execution
(application) of the technique knew only which technique to execute, according to the obtained
signal - the signaling system switched on four light indicators arranged on four different places
which symbolized certain parts of the “opponent’s” body (two striking surfaces of a square
shape set one next to another or beside a sack hung at a certain height – see the measuring
procedure in Mudrić, R. 1999).
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Table 1. Descriptive indicators of leg techniques (Mudrić, 1999)

No. Varijable Mean Std. Dev. Min. Max. % Var. Ske. Kur.
Registered times of mae geri and mavashi geri leg techniques in an unconditional assault.
MGS1LV
1. (planning time for mae geri in an 271.373 65.657 186 591 24.194 2.346 7.685
unconditional assault)
MGS1VP
2. 593.333 92.447 302 906 15.581 .835 2.782
(movement realization time)
MGS1UVP
3. 864.794 104.018 644 1268 12.028 1.148 2.209
(total movement time)
MWGS1LV
4. (planning time of mavashi geri in an 292.745 78.666 189 720 26.872 2.241 8.005
unconditional assault)
MWGS1VP
5. 693.402 101.669 275 989 14.662 -.508 4.151
(movement realization time)
MWGS1UVP
6. 986.147 100.573 553 1285 10.199 -.261 3.145
(total movement time)
Registered times of mae geri and mavashi geri leg techniques in an elective assault.
MGS4LV
1. (planning time for mae geri in 403.833 105.795 216 705 26.198 .719 .081
an elective assault)
MGS4VP
2. 619.922 85.735 425 875 13.83 .421 1.043
(movement realization time)
MGS4UVP
3. 1023.755 131.152 781 1554 12.811 1.154 2.751
(total movement time)
MWGS4LV
4. (planning time of mavashi geri in an 406.843 103.524 240 672 25.446 .491 -.401
unconditional assault)
MWGS4VP
5. 668.294 112.689 316 879 16.862 -.588 .724
(movement realization time)
MWGS4UVP
6. 1075.137 117.72 683 1468 10.949 -.002 1.212
(total movement time)

By comparing the obtained results of the research at various levels of

complexity, it can be concluded that the average values of the executed karate
techniques are different. Namely, there is a longer lasting of the techniques
executed in more complex situational conditions.
Partial time planning parameters, in a situation of an elective assault
in average amount to around 37% of the integral time, while the realization
of the assault in the same situations amount to about 63% of the total time.
By comparing the assault with the arms and the legs, it can be concluded that
the partial time planning parameters of assault which are carried out with the
arms amount to 35.9% of the total time, while with the leg assaults, this time
is 38.5% (Mudrić, R. 1999). This is another indicator why arm techniques
continue to be applied in sports contests (the degree of complexity is smaller),
regardless of the score favoring of leg techniques.
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2.4. Karate leg techniques as structural elements in an assault

All karate techniques which are executed in defense and assault can be
defined as “movable structures10 of a different complexity which are carried
out with a certain aim” (Mudrić, R. 1999). Each of these movable structures
build up integral segments and they are represented by stances, movements,
cleaning and strikes (Diagrams 1 and 1a).

Diagram 1. Segments of a one-off assault with the reverse foot

Diagram 1a. Segments of a one-off assault with the kicking foot

An assault as an integral motor activity, conditionally speaking,

consists of two stages: the stage of preparation and the stage of scoring, and in
practical situations – the final stage (Diagram 2).
Diagram 2. General model of assault

The number of segments which build up such an assault can differ,

depending on the biomechanical complexity and external conditions in which
they are realized, that is, they depend on the type of stances, movements,
strikes and cleansing, as well as the distance and time within which the given
frame can be realized.
The links between the segments can be different. With one type of this
assault (basic linear), made up of two two or more segments, the assigned
realization of every attack segment is given in advance. There is only one
possibility for its realization, which means that the next segment cannot
begin until the previous one has finished. With such assault constructions,
the schedule of carrying out the segments does not depend on the external
conditions (the situational complexity), but is realized according to a previously

10
  According to the Vujaklija Dictionary: structure (Lat. structura), mode of building, construction,
or organization; arrangement of parts, elements or constituents; a complex system considered from
the point of view of the whole rather than of any single part construction; structuralism.
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defined schedule and within a programmed time. The characteristic of this

structure of assault is that the attacks last for a short time, most often up to 300
milliseconds or longer, and that it is not possible to establish control over their
realization based on the visual and proprioceptive feedback.
Such assault structures are applied in situations of carrying out a direct
attack with a previously planned segment structure. The number of segments
depends on the distance from which the assault is carried out, the expected
behavior of the opponent, the assessment of his or her abilities as well as their
technical qualities.
The other type of assault (basic branched), is made up of four or more
segments which can be realized once at the most, although there are segments
which can remain unrealized. In this kind of structure, there must be at least
one condition for branching (a deviation from the assigned), which in the
total structure also exists as a segment. This modality of structure assault is
characteristic for situations when a particular kind of reaction by the opponent
is provoked (forced), after which a previously planned structural composition
is realized.
In relation to the previously described structure, this type of assault
has a greater complexity due to a longer lasting time of the segment in which,
among other things, there is an analysis of the disrupting of the initiated
assault carried out.
The third kind of assault structure (basic cyclical) are those structure
in which one or more segments can be realized more than once. This type
is structured in such a way that it is most often made up of two basic line
structures, with one conditional segment. The number of repetitions of one or
more segments depends on the meeting of the external conditions.
This type of assault structure is typical for sports as well as real-
practical situations. It is usually present in the conflict between the equal
qualities of the opponent, who has the ability of recognizing a large number
of assaults (Mudrić, R. 1999).
Regardless of the type of structure, every structural segment is realized
within a certain time interval.
Assault structures can be divided into simple and complex, depending
on the number of decisions and compositions of segments during the
realization of the current assault structure.
The basic characteristic of the simple structure is that there is only a
one-time decision at the beginning of the realization.
The basic feature of a complex structure is that it consists of several
simple structures and that the decisions about their further realization are
brought several times.
With both types of structures, the following processes precede the
initiating of the realization: recognizing the given signal (in a real situation,

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this is some sort of sign which “uncovers” the opponent, a specific movement
which precedes the assault); comparing the given signal which should be
realized; a choice of the given structure and giving the order for a realization,
including the necessary muscles which are responsible for initiating movement.
All these processes can be called thus: Processes of introductory
programming or planning an assault.
These processes of planning or programming have their time of
duration and differ according to the fact whether the assault was carried out
with the arms or the legs. According to the research results (Mudrić, R. 1999),
the time separated for these processes amounts to a total of 30% of the total
time. Also, the obtained results speak of the fact that the processes which
are responsible for the leg assaults are somewhat more complex than those
planned to be realized by the arms.
With complex assault structures, the decisions on branching11 precede
the following processes: analysis of technical and tactical tasks; perception of
disruptions; problem analysis; muting the realization of the initiated structure;
choice of appropriate branches which continue with the realization; and the
reprogramming of the realization of the initiated structure. These processes,
due to the specific character of the impact on the total realization of the assault,
can be called as follows: Processes of reorganization or reprogramming of
assault.
Along with the processes which are called processes of programming
and reorganization of assault, there are also processes which follow the time of
realization of the simple as well as complex assault structures: the realization
of intensity and lasting of excitation of motor units; control of a number and
types of motor units; control of the speed of motor units; control of the change
of the speed of generating force; analysis of appearance of assault; analysis of
logical connecting of structure; analyses of situation certainty (uncertainty) of
assault realization. Considering the need for a definition, these processes can
be marked as such: Processes of the motor realization of an assault.
The processes of assault realization take part in the total time with
70%. Here too it was shown that the more complex processes are those which
are linked to the realization of the assault executed by the feet or legs.

11
  Branching is an expression which implies that at some moment, due to a variety of reasons,
some disruption occurred for the realization of the anticipated assault, and thus the continuation
of the action need to be restructured and some other alternatives have to be looked at (or other
ways). Bringing decisions for such actions requires that at that moment (which should be as
short as possible) there is an observing and processing of the new situation and the most efficient
decisions are brought. The progression of the new situations demands a certain time period. The
shorter the time, the better the efficiency will be. The speed of processing the information is
measured by an international measurement unit: bit/sec.
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IN LIEU OF A CONCLUSION

Leg techniques are a representative of karate in a specific way with

their attractive character, which is expressly reflected in their execution and
application, and they contribute to the vast difference between karate and
other martial arts. These techniques play a significant role in all forms of
practicing karate today. In contemporary sport karate, where the contest is
mostly led by the assault, unlike before, in the defense and counterattack,
these techniques become decisive factors in the victory of any competitor.
However, even though leg strikes are quite prominent in contests and
they have greater value and number of points in comparison with the arm
techniques, they are nevertheless represented much less. This is confirmed by
the results of a large number of research papers on the topic of the technical
and tactical features of competitions in the sport of karate. The problem is
expressed in unchanged methodical contents and work forms in a stereotypical
training, still based on traditional principles. Also, the results of scientific
research, especially those involving time parameters of karate techniques and
the processes describing them, clearly point to the fact that arm techniques,
techniques of a lesser complexity, last longer and thus are also more secure for
executing and application.
But regardless of the obvious problems which are expressed in sport
karate, leg techniques will continue to be the focus of experts in this area,
primarily from the methodical aspect, and then via the training technology.
Largely contributing to this is the education of the training staff, but also
further scientific research in this area, with results which will be able to be
implemented in karate practice in an adequate manner.

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karateu. Beograd: Fakultet fizičke kulture. Doktorska disertacija.
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Other sources:

1. http://decisaoclinica.com/?page_id=2251 - za mae geri, joko i mavaši

2. http://www.csvaran.ro/arteMartiale/pagina-practicantului/kihon/
lovituri-de-picior-2-za mavaši
3. http://okinawaclubkarate.altervista.org/okinew/index.php/lo-stile-
shotokan/le-tecniche/le gambe.html
4. http://karatetechnic.blogspot.rs/2014/01/geri-keage-yoko-geri-keage.
html
5. http://sistema.bushidoryu.com/arte/bases_ataques.asp - USHIRO GERI
6. http://www.vokabular.org/ - vujaklija

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