Milestones Guide

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Table of Contents
Introduction .............................................................................................. 3
Feeding .................................................................................................... 4
Speech-Sound Acquisition
– Prelinguistic Speech Development ................................................. 5
– Phoneme Development .................................................................. 6
– Phonological Patterns ..................................................................... 7
– Speech Intelligibility Expectations .................................................. 9
Pronouns .................................................................................................. 9
Morphology ............................................................................................ 10
Mean Length of Utterance ..................................................................... 11
Pragmatics .............................................................................................. 12
Literacy ................................................................................................... 14
Phonological Awareness ........................................................................ 16
Concepts ................................................................................................ 17
Vocabulary .............................................................................................. 18
Questions
– Answering Questions .................................................................... 18
– Asking Questions .......................................................................... 19
Listening ................................................................................................. 20
References, Websites, & Resources ....................................................... 22
Red Flags in Communication Development ........................................ IBC
LS Guide to
Communication Milestones 1 © 2008 LinguiSystems, Inc.
Guide to CM_JK.indd 1 9/29/2008 2:46:15 PM

About the Authors
Janet R. Lanza, M.S., CCC-SLP, has worked as a speech-
language pathologist in public schools, private practice,
and a university clinic in Texas since 1976. She has been
on the faculty of the Department of Communication
Sciences and Disorders at Texas Christian University in
Fort Worth, Texas, since 1989. At the TCU Miller Speech
and Hearing Clinic, Janet is an instructor and clinical
supervisor for classroom settings of preschool children
with a variety of communication disorders.
Lynn K. Flahive, M.S., CCC-SLP, has over 25 years

experience as a speech-language pathologist. She
worked in private and public schools in Wisconsin,
Ohio, Illinois, and Texas for 12 years before joining the
Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders
at Texas Christian University in Fort Worth, Texas. Lynn
has special interests in working with early childhood and
early elementary-aged children with phonological and/or
language delays. She is a Board Recognized Specialist
in Child Language. Lynn is past President of the Texas
Speech-Language-Hearing Association and past Executive Director of the
National Student Speech Language Hearing Association.
Janet and Lynn have co-authored numerous products for LinguiSystems. They
also present workshops nationally and in Canada on the topics of practical and
motivational speech and language therapy for young children.
LS Guide to

Introduction
When should I expect my child to say two-word phrases, produce consonant
clusters, or follow two-step directions? Does this client have the speech and
language skills that are expected at his age? These are questions often asked
of us as speech-language pathologists (SLPs) or that we ask ourselves as we
work with children with communication disorders.
Thanks to researchers and clinicians who have provided us with invaluable
information over many years, we know that typical speech and language
development follows a predictable progression. SLPs must familiarize
themselves with the steps in this progression to provide the most effective
therapy for clients and to give honest, research-based information to their
families. If you are like us, you learned much of this information in college and,
given some time to search, could locate it if you needed to. But time is scarce
in the life of an SLP. This booklet provides this important information at your
fingertips.
We found many different sources for communication milestones while
conducting research to create this guide. Most sources agree with each
other; some vary a bit. We drew from numerous reliable sources to provide a
snapshot of milestones for the major areas of childhood speech and language.
As in all listings of milestones, the information represents an average age at
which most monolingual, English-speaking children will acquire a skill. If a child
has not mastered a certain skill by the suggested age, that does not indicate
a disorder. However, if most of the items in an age range have not been
achieved, parents and professionals who work with the child should consider
further investigation in that area.
LinguiSystems Guide to Communication Milestones contains developmental
milestones for the following areas:
• Feeding • Mean Length of Utterance
• Speech-Sound Acquisition • Pragmatics
- Prelinguistic Speech • Literacy
Development • Phonological Awareness
- Phoneme Development • Concepts
- Phonological Patterns • Vocabulary
- Speech Intelligibility • Questions
Expectations - Answering Questions
• Pronouns - Asking Questions
• Morphology • Listening
We learned a great deal and were reminded of so much helpful information

while developing this resource. This process also served as a nice validation
that we really are doing things in the right order! We look forward to having
this booklet on our shelves to use as a handy reference when talking to parents
and co-workers and when making clinical decisions. We hope you will too!
Janet and Lynn
LS Guide to

Feeding
The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association states that “speech-language
pathologists play a primary role in the evaluation and treatment of infants, children,
and adults with swallowing and feeding disorders” (ASHA, 2002). SLPs are
knowledgeable about normal and abnormal anatomy and physiology with respect to
respiration, swallowing, and speech. Thus, it is appropriate for SLPs to play a role in
feeding.
Age Milestones
Birth – 4 • Sucks fingers when near mouth
months • Places hands on bottle during feeding
• Recognizes a nipple or bottle
• Pats a bottle with one or both hands
5–6 • Holds a bottle independently with one or both hands

months • Mouths and gums solid foods
• Opens mouth when a spoon is presented
6–9 • Feeds self crackers

months • Drinks from a cup held by an adult – some loss of liquid
• Reaches for a spoon when presented/ bangs a spoon
• Prefers for a parent to feed
9 – 12 • Holds a soft cookie in mouth (9 months) and bites through it

months (12 months)
• Imitates stirring with a spoon
• Eats lumpy, mashed food
• Chews using rotary jaw action (emerging)
12 – 18 • Grasps a spoon with a full hand

months • Brings a full spoon to mouth, turning spoon over en route
• Begins to drink through a straw
• Holds a cup with two hands
• Drinks with four or five consecutive swallows
18 – 24 • Gives up the bottle

months • Scoops food with a spoon and brings to mouth with spillage
• Drinks from a cup with limited spillage
• Swallows with lip closure
• Self-feeds frequently
• Chews a broad range of food
• Has precise up/ down tongue movement
24 – 36 • Bites through a variety of food thicknesses

months • Brings a spoon/fork to mouth, palm up, self-feeds with little spillage
• Holds a small, open cup in one hand with little spillage
• Chews with lips closed
• Chews using stable rotary jaw action
We’d like to thank the following sources from which we obtained information for this
section: The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (www.asha.org/policy);
Arvedson (2006); and Nicolosi, Harryman, & Kresheck (2006). For more information,
please see the full References, Websites, & Resources list on pages 22-24.
LS Guide to

Speech-Sound Acquisition
Prelinguistic Speech Development
Oller’s study (1980) is widely referenced when looking at the stages children go
through in the acquisition of articulation and phonological skills. Though each stage
has a designated time frame, there is overlap between stages. Each new stage
features characteristics not observed in prior stages.
Stage Age Milestones

1—Phonation Birth – 1 • Demonstrates reflexive vocalizations such as crying,
month burping, coughing, and sneezing
• Demonstrates nonreflexive sounds that are similar to
syllabic nasals
2—Cooing and 2–3 • Uses sounds that are acoustically similar to

Gooing months - back vowels
- consonant-vowel (CV) and vowel-consonant (VC)
productions containing back vowels
(/u, ʊ, o, ɔ, a /) and back consonants
(velars /k, g, ŋ /)
3—Exploration/ 4–6 • Gains better control of laryngeal and articulatory

Expansion months mechanisms during this period by engaging in vocal play
• Squeals, growls, yells, produces “raspberries” (bilabial
/p, b, m/ and lingualabial trills)
• Produces vocalizations that vary daily and weekly
• Produces vowels with better oral resonance
• Begins marginal babbling with CV and VC syllable
sequences
4—Canonical 7–9 • Continues to use CV syllables that have more adult-like

Babbling months timing
• Uses some reduplicated syllables such as /bɔbɔ / and
/mama /
• Consonant phonetic inventory may have stops, glides,
nasals
• Vowel phonetic inventory may have lax vowels
/ ɛ, ɪ, ʌ /
• Uses fewer velars (back sounds); increases use
of alveolars and bilabials (front sounds)
5—Variegated 10 – 12 • Continues to use CV syllables

Babbling months • Begins variegated babbling; uses different CV syllables
that result in verbalizations such as / bɑməgʌ / and
/tikɑti/
• Produces adult-like intonation and prosody, resulting in
utterances that sound like a real question or exclamation
• Most commonly used vowels at this time are
/ɛ, ʌ, ɑ, ʊ / (Bauman-Wangler, 1994)
• Most frequently used consonants at this time are /h, d,
b, m, t, g, s, w, n, k, j, p/ (Locke, 1983)
LS Guide to

Speech-Sound Acquisition, continued
Phoneme Development
Researchers use two different methodologies to determine the age of speech-sound
acquisition. In cross-sectional studies, children of different ages are tested on their
abilities to produce speech sounds at a given point in time. Longitudinal studies
involve testing the same children’s productions over time. Comparing the results
of the various studies can be difficult because researchers have used a variety of
mastery levels and means of eliciting responses. In some studies, sounds produced
correctly 100% of the time were considered mastered, but for others, the criterion
was 75% of the time. Words were produced spontaneously in some studies but
were imitated in others. Some researchers required the mastery level to be met in
all word positions, whereas others were concerned only with the initial and final word
positions (Flahive & Hodson, in press).
Despite the variability in criteria, some general agreement yields a few overall
conclusions about the acquisition of individual sounds. Nasals “m, n, ng,”
stops “p, b, t, d, k, g,” and glides “w, y” are acquired earliest, followed by fricatives
“f, v, s, z, sh, zh,” voiced and voiceless “th,” affricates “ch, j,” and then liquids
“l, r” (Sander, 1972). Sander’s analysis of previous studies also noted that voiced and
voiceless “th” were generally the latest phonemes to be acquired.
AGE
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
p
m
h
n
w
b
k
g
Speech Sounds
d
t
ng
f
y
r
l
s
ch
sh
z
j
v
voiceless th
voiced th
zh
Data from Sander (1972)
LS Guide to

Phonological Patterns
Processes Disappearing by 3 Years
Process Description Example

Unstressed syllable
omitting a weak syllable banana → / nænə /
deletion
Final consonant omitting a singleton consonant at the end
cat → / kæ /
deletion of a word
Diminutization adding / i / at the end of nouns dog → /dɑgi /
Velar fronting substituting a front sound for a back sound can → / tæn/
Consonant changing a phoneme so it takes on a
cat → / tæt /
assimilation characteristic of another sound in the word
Reduplication repeating phonemes or syllables bottle → / bɔbɔ/
substituting a voiced consonant for a

Prevocalic voicing sun → / zʌn /
voiceless consonant before a vowel
Processes Persisting After 3 Years
Process Description Example

omitting one or more consonants in a
Cluster reduction clean → /kin/
sequence of consonants
adding a sound, typically /ʌ/, between two
Epenthesis black → /bʌlæk/
consonants
Gliding substituting /w/ or /j/ for another consonant run → /wʌn/
Vocalization/
substituting a vowel for a consonant car → /kə /
Vowelization
substituting a stop consonant for a fricative,
Stopping sun → /dʌn/
liquid, nasal, or glide
substituting a nonpalatal consonant for a
Depalatalization shy → /sɑɪ/
palatal consonant
Final consonant substituting a voiceless final consonant for
bag → /bæk/
devoicing a voiced consonant
Data from Stoel-Gammon & Dunn (1985)
LS Guide to

Phonological Patterns, continued
We reviewed several studies to determine the age by which at least 75% of children
no longer use a given process.
Individual Likely Age of

Description Example
Process Disappearance
changing a nasal consonant to
Denasalization mat → /bæt/ 2.6
a nonnasal
changing a phoneme so it takes
Assimilation on a characteristic of another cat → /tæt/ 3
sound in the word
substituting an affricate for a
Affrication sheep → /tʃip/ 3
nonaffricate
Final consonant omitting a singleton consonant
cat → /kæ/ 3
deletion at the end of a word
Fronting of initial substituting a front sound for a
can → /tæn/ 4
velar singles back sound
replacing an affricate with a
Deaffrication chip → /sɪp/ 4
continuant or stop
Cluster omitting one or more
reduction consonants in a sequence of grape → /gep/ 4
(without / s /) consonants
substituting a nonpalatal for a
Depalatalization
palatal sound at the end of a dish → /dɪt/ 4.6
of final singles
word
substituting a nonpalatal for a
Depalatalization
palatal sound at the beginning shy → /taɪ/ 5
of initial singles
of a word
substituting an alveolar for a
Alveolarization chew → /tu/ 5
nonalveolar sound
Final substituting a voiceless final
consonant consonant for a voiced bag → /bæk/ 5
devoicing consonant
Cluster reduction omitting / s / in the initial
step → /tɛp/ 5
(with /s/) position of a cluster
replacing a nonlabial sound
Labialization tan → /pæn/ 6
with a labial sound
substituting a voiced consonant
Initial voicing for a voiceless consonant before sun → /zʌn/ 6
a vowel
Gliding of substituting a /w/ or /j/ for
run → /wʌn/ 7
initial liquids another consonant
adding a sound, typically /ʌ /,
Epenthesis black → /bʌlæk/ 8
between two consonants
Data from Peña-Brooks & Hegde (2007)
LS Guide to

Speech Intelligibility Expectations
Age Intelligibility Level

19 – 24 months 25% – 50%
2 – 3 years 50% – 75%
4 – 5 years 75% – 90%
5+ years 90% – 100%
Data from Peña-Brooks & Hegde (2007)
We’d like to thank the following sources from which we obtained information for
this chapter: Bauman-Wangler (1994), Bowen (www.speech-language-therapy.
com/acquisition.html), Flahive & Hodson (in press), Locke (1983), Oller (1980), Peña-
Brooks & Hegde (2007), and Sander (1972). For more information, please see the
full References, Websites, & Resources list on pages 22-24.
Pronouns
There is no clear-cut progression for the acquisition of pronouns. However, most
linguists agree that I and it are the first pronouns to emerge, followed by you.
Research also indicates that children use most subjective and objective pronouns by
three years of age and possessive pronouns by age five.
Approximate Age Pronouns
12 – 26 months I, it (subjective and objective)

27 – 30 months my, me, mine, you
31 – 34 months your, she, he, yours, we
35 – 40 months they, us, hers, his, them, her
41 – 46 months its, our, him, myself, yourself, ours, their, theirs
47+ months herself, himself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
We’d like to thank Owens (1996) from whom we obtained information for this
section. For more information, please see the full References, Websites, &
Resources list on pages 22-24.
LS Guide to

Morphology
Morphology is the study of how morphemes are put together. A morpheme
is the smallest meaningful unit of language. Grammatical morphemes apply
inflection that signals meaning to nouns, verbs, and adjectives.
Age Grammatical Morphemes Example

19 – 28 • Present progressive –ing crying
months
29 – 38 • Regular plural –s socks

months • Present progressive –ing without auxiliary baby crying
• Semiauxiliaries gonna, gotta, wanna
• Overgeneralization of past tense –ed I runned.
• Possessive –s girl’s hat
• Present tense auxiliary can, will, be, do
39 – 42 • Past tense modals could, would,

months should, must, might
• “Be” verb + present progressive –ing The baby is crying.
43 – 46 • Regular past tense –ed He kicked.

months • Irregular past tense She ate.
• Regular third-person-singular, present tense He drinks.
• Articles a boy, the tree
47 – 50 • Contractible auxiliary The boy’s talking.

months • Uncontractible copula It is big.
• Uncontractible auxiliary He is swimming.
• Irregular third person singular She has it.
• Past tense “be” verb She was dancing.
section: Bowen (http://members.tripod.com/Caroline_Bowen/?BrownsStages.htm);
Brown (1973); Haskill, Tyler, & Tolbert (2001); and Retherford (2000). For more
information, please see the full References, Websites, & Resources list on pages 22-24.
LS Guide to

Mean Length of Utterance
Based on Brown’s Stages of Language Development
For English-speaking children, the mean length of utterance (MLU) is a fairly
reliable predictor of the complexity of their language. MLU typically increases 1.2
morphemes per year from 18 months to five years of age (Owens, 1996).
Brown’s Stages
of Language Age MLU Milestones
Development
• Uses one-, two-, and three-word
utterances
12 – 26
I 1.0 – 2.0 • Uses intonation to ask yes/ no
months
questions
• Uses limited wh- questions
• Begins to use grammatical

27 – 30
II 2.0 – 2.5 morphemes
months
• Uses in and on
• Increases in length due to use of

31 – 34 auxiliaries
III 2.5 – 3.0
months • Increases use of wh- questions
• Uses interrogative reversals
• Uses object-noun-phrase complements

35 – 40
IV 3.0 – 3.75 • Uses indirect or embedded wh-
months
questions
• Coordinates simple sentences

41 – 46
V 3.75 – 4.5 • Uses locatives (e.g., up, down)
months
• Uses and as main conjunction
• Adds negative interrogatives

• Adds indefinite forms, such as
47+
V+ 4.5 + nobody, no one
months
• Has some difficulty with double
negatives
section: Bowen (http://members.tripod.com/Caroline_Bowen/?BrownsStages.htm);
Brown (1973); Nicolosi, Harryman, & Kresheck (2006); and Owens (1996). For more
information, please see the full References, Websites, & Resources list on pages 22-24.
LS Guide to

Pragmatics
Pragmatics is the study of speaker-listener intentions and interactions, and all
elements in the environment surrounding the message. It is often referred to as
social language skills.
Age Milestones
Birth – 6 • Startles to loud sounds

months • Responds to voice and sound
• Turns head toward sound source
• Watches speaker’s face when spoken to
• Discriminates between strangers and familiar people
• Stops crying when spoken to
• Varies responses to different family members
• Smiles when spoken to
• Has a social smile
• Uses babbling for gaining attention and expressing demand
• Establishes eye contact
6 – 12 • Responds to “no”
months • Responds to name and pats image of self in mirror
• Points to learn new vocabulary
• Tries to “talk” to listener
• Coos and squeals for attention
• Laughs when playing with objects
• Tries to communicate by actions and gestures
• Smiles at self in mirror
• Plays pat-a-cake and peek-a-boo games
• Copies simple actions of others
• Shouts to attract attention
1 – 2 years • Follows simple directions, especially with a gestural cue

• Waves bye-bye
• Indicates wet pants
• Repeats actions that made someone laugh
• Engages in parallel play
• Pairs gestures with words to make wants known (e.g., “more” and “up”)
• Imitates adult behaviors in play
• Refers to self by name
• Exhibits verbal turn-taking
• Protests by vocalizing “no”
• Engages in simple pretend play, such as talking on a telephone
• Says “bye” and other social words, such as “hi,” “thank you,” and “please”
• Talks to self during play
• Practices intonation, sometimes imitating an adult
2 – 3 years • Watches other children and briefly joins in their play

• Participates in associative play
• Requests permission for items or activities
• Begins to use language for fantasies, jokes, and teasing
• Makes conversational repairs when listener does not understand
LS Guide to

Pragmatics, continued
Age Milestones
2 – 3 years, • Engages in longer dialogues
continued • Begins to play house
• Participates in simple group activities
• Defends own possessions
• Carries on “conversation” with self and dolls
• Engages in simple, make-believe activities
• Begins to control behavior verbally rather than just physically
• Holds up fingers to tell age
• Looks for missing toys
• Helps put things away
3 – 4 years • Follows two-step related directions without cues

• Takes turns and plays cooperatively
• Relates personal experiences through verbalization
• Separates from primary caregiver easily
• Frequently practices conversation skills by talking to self
• Begins dramatic play, acting out whole scenes
• Shows frustration if not understood
• Expresses ideas and feelings
4 – 5 years • Follows three-step directions without cues

• Uses direct requests with justification (e.g., “Stop that. You’re hurting me.”)
• Uses words to invite others to play
• Uses language to resolve disputes with peers
• Plays competitive exercise games
• Has good control of the elements of conversation
• Speaks of imaginary conditions, such as “What if ...” or “I hope ...”
5 – 6 years • Begins to use word plays

• Uses threats and promises
• Asks meanings of words
• Likes to complete projects
• Makes purchases at stores
• Asks questions for information
• Chooses own friends
• Takes more care in communicating with unfamiliar people
• Engages in cooperative play, such as making group decisions,
assigning roles, and playing fairly
• Announces topic shifts
section: AutismInfo (www.autisminfo.com/milestones.htm#B); Beyond Therapy (http://
centralfltherapy.com/?page_id=140); Brooks & Engmann-Hartung (1987); the Child
Development Institute (www.childdevelopmentinfo.com); Communication Works (www.
cwtherapy.com/pragmatics2.html); KidTalk, Inc. (www.kidtalk.org/milestones.html); the
National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (http://www.nidcd.
nih.gov/health/voice/speechandlanguage.asp); Nicolosi, Harryman, & Kresheck (2006);
and Shulman (1991). For more information, please see the full References, Websites, &
Resources list on pages 22-24.
LS Guide to
Guide to CM.indd 13 3/16/2009 11:31:10 AM

Literacy
SLPs’ knowledge of normal and disordered language acquisition, and their clinical
experience in developing individualized programs for children and adolescents,
prepare them to assume a variety of roles related to the development of reading
and writing. Appropriate roles and responsibilities for SLPs include, but are
not limited to (a) preventing written language problems by fostering language
acquisition and emergent literacy; (b) identifying children at risk for reading and
writing problems; (c) assessing reading and writing; (d) providing intervention and
documenting outcomes for reading and writing; and (e) assuming other roles,
such as providing assistance to general education teachers, parents, and students;
advocating for effective literacy practices; and advancing the knowledge base
(ASHA, 2001).
This chart lists reasonable expectations of literacy skills in children from infancy
through seven years of age.
Age Milestones
3 – 12 • Likes to chew and pat books
months • Can focus on large and bright pictures in a book
• Shares books with an adult as routine part of life
1 – 2 years • Recognizes certain books by their covers

• Listens to simple stories, songs, and rhymes
• Likes to turn pages
• Attends to a book or a toy for two minutes
• Points to and labels pictures independently
• Pretends to read books
2 – 3 years • Likes to listen to books / stories for longer periods of time

• Holds a book correctly
• Begins to recognize logos (e.g., McDonald’s Golden Arches)
• Begins to show a difference in writing versus drawing
3 – 4 years • Begins to pay attention to specific print, such as the first letter
of his name
• Recognizes logos and other environmental print and understands
that print carries a message
• Identifies some letters and makes letter / sound matches
• Participates in rhyming games
• Talks about characters in a book
• Likes to “read” stories to herself and others
• Protests if an adult changes the story
• Produces some letter-like forms in scribbles that resemble letters
4 – 5 years • Understands story sequence

• Understands the function and purpose of print
• Knows many letter names
• Uses more letter-like forms than scribbles
LS Guide to

Literacy, continued
Age Milestones
Kindergarten • Recognizes letters and letter-sound matches
• Understands that print is read left to right and top to bottom
• Retells simple stories
• Begins to write letters and some words heard often
• Begins to write stories with some readable parts with assistance
• Tries to spell words when writing
End of • Understands that spoken words are made up of sounds

Kindergarten • Recognizes some words by sight
• Identifies and writes uppercase and lowercase letters
• “Reads” a few picture books from memory
• Prints own first and last name
Beginning of • Identifies an increasing number of words by sight

First Grade • Begins to decode new words independently
• Uses a variety of reading strategies such as rereading,
predicting what will happen, asking questions, or using
visual cues or pictures
• Reads and retells familiar stories
• Reads aloud with ease
• Decides independently to use reading and writing for
different purposes
• Sounds out and represents major sounds in words when
trying to spell
• Tries to use some punctuation and capitalization
End of • Identifies letters, words, and sentences

First Grade • Has a sight vocabulary of 100 words
• Understands what is read
• Creates rhyming words
• Reads grade-level material fluently
• Expresses ideas through writing
• Prints clearly
• Spells frequently-used words correctly
• Begins sentences with capital letters and attempts to
use punctuation
• Writes a variety of stories, journal entries, or notes
this section: The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (www.asha.
org/policy, www.asha.org/public/speech/development/chart.htm, and www.asha.
org/about/publications/literacy/); the United States Department of Education (www.
ed.gov/parents/academic/help/reader/part9.html); and the University of North
Carolina at Chapel Hill, School of Medicine (www.med.unc.edu/ahs/clds/files/early-
childhood-resources/OralandWrittenLanguageMilestones.pdf). For more information,
please see the full References, Websites, & Resources list on pages 22-24.
LS Guide to

Phonological Awareness
Phonological awareness is the ability to manipulate the structure of an utterance
independently from its meaning. It is an auditory task that requires an individual
to manipulate the utterance at the word, syllable, or sound level. According
to the National Center on Education and the Economy, “Children who readily
develop phonemic awareness in kindergarten will probably learn to read easily”
(Goldsworthy, 2001, p. 3).
Phonological awareness skills develop from syllable, to onset-rime, to phoneme.
These skills begin at age three and continue through the development of early
reading skills at ages six and seven.
Skill Definition Sample Task

counts the number of syllables How many syllables do
Syllable Segmentation
in a word you hear in butterfly?
blends syllables into a word What word do you hear

Syllable Blending
after they are given separately when I say cow…boy?
identifies words that sound Which word rhymes with

Rhyming
alike or rhyme mat; star or hat?
identifies whether a given

In the word sun, is the /s /
sound occurs at the
Phoneme Isolation at the beginning, middle,
beginning, middle, or
or end of the word?
end of a word
identifies the beginning sound Which word begins with

Initial Alliteration
in a word /t /; toad or boat?
identifies the last sound in Which word ends with /b/;

Final Alliteration
a word dog or tub?
blends sounds into a word after What word do you hear

Sound Blending
they are given separately when I say /b/… /a /…/t /?
deletes a given sound from a

Sound Deletion Say cup without the / k / .
word and says the new word
replaces a specified sound in

Say top; now change /t/
Sound Substitution a word and says the new word
to /h /.
or syllable
Sound-Grapheme identifies grapheme(s) associated

What letters say / k / ?
Matching with individual sounds
this section: Gillon (2004) and Goldsworthy (2001). Flahive & Lanza (2004) was
used as a source for this chapter as well. For more information, please see the full
References, Websites, & Resources list on pages 22-24.
LS Guide to

Concepts
Knowledge of basic concepts is an essential component of language development.
Basic concepts include terms that describe position, time, equality, quantity, and
comparisons. These terms are commonly included in directions at home and
especially in educational settings.
Age Milestones
1 – 2 years • Follows simple spatial directions, such as in and on
• Understands another
• Uses simple directional terms, such as up and down
• Uses two or three prepositions, such as on, in, or under
2 – 3 years • Distinguishes between in and under, one and many

• Understands number concepts of one and two
• Understands size differences, such as big/little
• Understands in, off, on, under, out of, together, away from
• Begins to understand time concepts of soon, later, wait
• Selects three that are the same from a set of four objects
• Selects the object that is not the same from four objects with
three of them identical
• Begins to use adjectives for color and size
3 – 4 years • Follows quantity directions empty, a lot

• Follows equality directions same, both
• Understands next to, beside, between
• Identifies colors
• Matches one-to-one
• Points to object that is different from others
• Uses position concepts behind, in front, around
4 – 5 years • Understands comparative and superlative adjectives, such as

big, bigger, biggest
• Understands time concepts yesterday, today, tomorrow, first,
then, next, days of the week, last week, next week
• Understands different, nearest, through, thin, whole
• Identifies positional concepts first, middle, last
5 – 6 years • Understands opposite concepts, such as big/little, over/ under

• Understands left / right
• Understands number concepts up to 20
• Answers “How are things the same/different?”
• Uses adjectives for describing
• Uses comparative adjectives, such as loud, louder
• Uses yesterday and tomorrow
• Uses adverb concepts backward and forward
• Uses prepositions through, nearest, corner, middle
• Names ordinal numbers, such as first, second, third
section: AutismInfo (www.autisminfo.com/milestones.htm#B); the Child Development
Institute (www.childdevelopmentinfo.com); Nicolosi, Harryman, & Kresheck (2006);
and Touhy, Brown, & Mercer-Moseley (2001). For more information, please see the
full References, Websites, & Resources list on pages 22-24.
LS Guide to

Vocabulary
A child’s expressive vocabulary grows rapidly from the time of his first word at
approximately 12 months, through first grade. Vocabulary increases throughout
an individual’s lifetime due to education, reading, and life experiences.
Age Approximate Words in Expressive Vocabulary

12 months 2 to 6 words other than mama and dada
15 months 10
18 months 50
24 months 200-300
30 months 450
36 months (3 years) 1,000
42 months 1,200
48 months (4 years) 1,600
54 months 1,900
60 months (5 years) 2,200-2,500
6 years 2,600-7,000
12 years 50,000
this section: the Child Development Institute (www.childdevelopmentinfo.com);
Nicolosi, Harryman, & Kresheck (2006); and Owens (1996). For more information,
please see the References, Websites, & Resources list on pages 22-24.
Questions
In language development, a child must be able to ask and answer questions
in order to navigate a conversation and to seek and relay information. When
assessing a child’s ability to ask and answer questions, it is important to separate
her content knowledge from her ability to ask or answer questions.
Answering Questions
Age Milestones
1 – 2 years • Looks in the appropriate place when asked a simple question, such
as “Where is Daddy?”
• Chooses an object with intentionality when asked about a choice
of two, such as “Do you want milk or juice?”
LS Guide to

Questions, continued
Answering Questions, continued
Age Milestones
1 – 2 years, • Answers “where” questions, such as “Where’s the ball?” by
continued pointing to the pictured item in a book
• Answers “What’s this?” questions about familiar objects or pictures
such as cookie or baby
• Answers “yes / no” questions, possibly with a head nod or shake
2 – 3 years • Points to objects when described, such as “What do you wear on

your head?”
• Answers simple wh- questions logically
• Answers critical thinking questions, such as “What do you do when
you are cold?”
• Answers questions such as “Where…?,” “What’s that?,” “What’s
… doing?,” “Who is…?”
• Answers or understands “Can you…?” questions
3 – 4 years • Answers more complex questions logically, such as “who,” “why,”

“where,”and “how”
• Answers “If…what?” questions, such as “If it starts raining, what
would you do?”
• Answers questions about functions of objects, such as “What are
spoons for?,” “Why do we have shoes?”
4 years • Answers “when” questions

• Answers “how many” questions (in which the answer does not
exceed four)
Asking Questions
Age Milestones
1 – 2 years • Starts to use question forms, beginning with “What’s that?”
• Uses rising intonation
2 – 3 years • Asks simple ego-centric questions, such as “Where cookie?”

• Asks “Where…?,” “What…?,” “What...doing?” questions
3 – 4 years • Asks one-word “why” questions

• Uses “what,” “where,” “when,” “how,” and “whose” when asking
questions
• Asks “is” questions
• Inverts auxiliary and subject in wh- questions, such as “Where is
dad going?”
LS Guide to

Questions, continued
Asking Questions, continued
4 years • Asks the following types of questions using correct grammatical

structure:
Early Infinitive: “Do you want to…?”
Future: “Are we going to …?”
Modal can / may: “Can you…?”
section: AutismInfo (www.autisminfo.com/milestones.htm#C); Beyond Therapy
(http://centralfltherapy.com/?page_id=123 and http://centralfltherapy.com/?page_
id=130); the Child Development Institute (www.childdevelopmentinfo.com); Nicolosi,
Harryman, & Kresheck (2006); and Touhy, Brown, & Mercer-Moseley (2001). For more
information, please see the full Reference, Websites, & Resources list on pages 22-24.
Listening
Listening to something is not the same as hearing it. Listening skills involve a child’s
ability to attend to and process what he hears. These skills are integral components
of a child’s speech and language, social, and academic development.
Age Milestones
Birth – 3 • Discriminates speech from non-speech sounds
months • Startles to loud sounds
• Quiets or excites in response to novel sounds
• Recognizes a primary caregiver’s voice
• Smiles or quiets when spoken to
• Decreases or increases sucking behavior in response to sounds
3–6 • Moves eyes in direction of sounds

months • Discriminates friendly and angry voices
• Reacts to changes in tone of voice
• Attends to music and toys that make sounds
• Listens to a speaker and watches a speaker’s face when spoken to
6 – 12 • Responds to sound when a source is not visible

months • Responds physically to music
• Stops an activity when name is called
• Recognizes words for common items
• Listens with increased interest to new words
• Begins to respond to simple requests, such as “Sit here”
1 – 2 years • Follows one-step directions with cues

• Understands simple questions, such as “Where’s Daddy?”
• Points to named pictures in a book
• Follows directions to find two familiar objects
• Listens to simple stories
LS Guide to

Listening, continued
Age Milestones
2 – 3 years • Responds to commands involving body parts, such as “Show me
your foot”
• Follows two-step directions, such as “Get your cup and bring
it to me”
• Follows directions that include action + adverb or action +
adjective, such as “Walk slowly” or “Give me the red ball”
• Demonstrates understanding of several verbs by selecting
corresponding pictures
• Recognizes family labels such as baby, grandpa
3 – 4 years • Attends to name being called from another room

• Understands simple wh- questions
• Understands most simple questions pertaining to her activities and
environment
• Improves listening skills and begins to learn from listening
4 – 5 years • Attends to a short story and answers simple questions about it

• Hears and understands most of what is said at home and
in school
• Repeats four digits when they are given slowly
• Readily follows simple commands involving remote objects
5 – 6 years • Repeats sentences up to nine words in length

• Follows three-step directions
• Responds correctly to more types of sentences but may still be
confused at times by more complex sentences
this section: The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (www.asha.
org/public/speech/development/chart.htm); the Child Development Institute (www.
childdevelopmentinfo.com); and Wilkes (1999). For more information, please see
the full References, Websites, & Resources list on pages 22-24.
LS Guide to

References, Websites, & Resources
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2001). Roles and
responsibilities of speech-language pathologists with respect to reading
and writing in children and adolescents [Position Statement]. Available from
www.asha.org/policy
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2002). Roles of speech-
language pathologists in swallowing and feeding disorders [Position
Statement]. Available from www.asha.org/policy
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (n.d.). How does your child
hear and talk? Retrieved February 28, 2008, from http://www.asha.org/
public/speech/development/chart.htm
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (n.d.). Welcome to ASHA’s
literacy gateway. Retrieved February 28, 2008, from http://www.asha.org/
about/publications/literacy/
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (n.d.). Your child’s
communication: Kindergarten. Retrieved February 28, 2008, from http://
www.asha.org/public/speech/development/kindergarten.htm
Arvedson, J.C. (2006). Swallowing and feeding in infants and young children. GI
Motility online. Retrieved from http://www.nature.com/gimo/contents/pt1/
full/gimo17.html
AutismInfo. (n.d.). Developmental sequences of language behavior. Retrieved
from www.autisminfo.com/milestones.htm#C
AutismInfo. (n.d.). Social skills milestones. Retrieved from www.autisminfo.com/
milestones.htm#B
BabyCenter. (n.d.). Warning signs of a language/communication developmental
delay. Retrieved February 28, 2008, from http://www.babycenter.com/0_
warning-signs-of-a-language-communication-developmental-dela_6734.bc
Bauman-Wangler, J. (1994). Normal phonological development. In R.J. Lowe
(Ed.), Phonology: Assessment and intervention application in speech
pathology (p. 93). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
Beyond Therapy. (n.d.). Expressive language milestones. Retrieved from
http://centralfltherapy.com/?page_id=123
Beyond Therapy. (n.d.). Pragmatic/social milestones. Retrieved from
Beyond Therapy. (n.d.). Receptive language milestones. Retrieved from
LS Guide to

References, Websites, & Resources, continued
Bowen, C. (1998). Brown’s stages: The development of morphology and syntax.
Retrieved February 28, 2008, from http://members.tripod.com/Caroline_
Bowen/?BrownsStages.htm
Bowen, C. (1998). Typical speech development: The gradual acquisition of
the speech sound system. Retrieved February 28, 2008, from http://www.
speech-language-therapy.com/acquisition.html
Braintree Rehabilitation Hopsital. (n.d.). Speech and language developmental
milestones. Retrieved from www.braintreerehabhospital.com/pdf/speech-
and-language-milestones.pdf
Brooks, M., & Engmann-Hartung, D. (1987). Speech and language handouts.
Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
Brown, R. (1973). A first language: The early stages. London: George Allen &
Unwin Ltd.
Child Development Institute. (n.d.). Language development in children.
Retrieved from www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/language_
development.shtml
Communication Works. (n.d.). Play and pragmatics for school aged children.
Retrieved from www.cwtherapy.com/pragmatics2.html
Flahive, L., & Hodson, B. (in press). Speech sound disorders: An overview of
acquisition, assessment, and treatment. In B.B. Shulman & N.C. Capone
(Eds.), Language development: Foundations, processes, and clinical
applications. Boston: Bartlett & Jones.
Flahive, L.K., & Lanza, J.R. (2004). Phonological awareness cards. East Moline,
IL: LinguiSystems, Inc.
Gillon, G.T. (2004). Phonological awareness: From research to practice. New
York: The Guilford Press.
Goldsworthy, C.L. (2001). Sourcebook of phonological awareness activities Vol.
II: Children’s core literature. San Diego, CA: Singular.
Haskill, A., Tyler, A., & Tolbert, L. (2001). Months of morphemes: A theme-
based cycles approach. Eau Claire, WI: Thinking Publications.
KidTalk, Inc. (n.d.). Speech-language milestones. Retrieved from http://www.
kidtalk.org/milestones.html
Locke, J.L. (1983). Phonological acquisition and change. New York: Academic
Press.
National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. (April
2000). Speech and language developmental milestones. Retrieved from
http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/voice/speechandlanguage.asp
LS Guide to

References, Websites, & Resources, continued
Nicolosi, L., Harryman, E., & Kresheck, J. (2006). Terminology of communication
disorders (4th ed.). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
Oller, D.K. (1980). The emergence of the sounds of speech in infancy. In
G. Yeni-Komshian, J. Kavanagh, & C.A. Ferguson (Eds.), Child phonology:
Vol. 1: Production. New York: Academic Press.
Owens, R.E. (1996). Language development: An introduction. Boston:
Allyn & Bacon.
Peña-Brooks, A., & Hegde, M.N. (2007). Assessment and treatment of
articulation and phonological disorders in children. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
Retherford, K.S. (2000). Guide to analysis of language transcripts. Eau Claire,
WI: Thinking Publications.
Sander, E. (1972). When are speech sounds learned? Journal of Speech and
Hearing Disorders, 37(1), 55-63.
Shulman, B.B. (1991). Pragmatic development chart. Tucson, AZ:
Communication Skill Builders.
Stoel-Gammon, C., & Dunn, C. (1985). Normal and disordered phonology in
children. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
Touhy, J., Brown, J., & Mercer-Moseley, C. (2001). St. Gabriel’s curriculum for
the development of audition, language, speech, cognition. Castle Hill,
Australia: St.Gabriel’s.
United States Department of Education. (2003). Typical language
accomplishments for children, birth to age 6: Helping your child become a
reader. Retrieved from www.ed.gov/parents/academic/help/reader/part9.
html
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, School of Medicine. (n.d.). Oral and
written language milestones. Retrieved from www.med.unc.edu/ahs/clds/
files/early-childhood-resources/OralandWrittenLanguageMilestones.pdf
Wilkes, E.M. (1999). Cottage acquisition scales for listening, language & speech.
San Antonio, TX: Sunshine Cottage School for Deaf Children.
23-09-98765432
LS Guide to

Red Flags in Communication Development
Parents often ask about warning signs of speech and/or language problems.
This list provides some warning signs that parents can refer to when observing
their children’s speech and language skills.
At age Red Flags

6 months • does not laugh and squeal
• does not look toward new sounds
9 months • has limited or no babbling

• does not indicate when happy or upset
12 months • does not point to objects

• does not use gestures such as waving or shaking head
15 months • has not used first word

• does not respond to “no” and “bye-bye”
18 months • does not use at least six to ten words consistently

• does not hear well or discriminate between sounds
20 months • does not use at least six consonant sounds

• does not follow simple directions
24 months • has a vocabulary of less than 50 words

• has decreased interest in social interactions
36 months • strangers have difficulty understanding what the child is saying

• does not use simple sentences
Other Concerns
• Is a very picky eater (willing to eat only four or five foods, gags on certain
textures)
• Has difficulty with transitions
• Uses repetitive and/or perseverative behaviors
• Shows no interest in communicating
• Drools excessively
• Stutters more consistently and for longer than six months
this section: BabyCenter (http://www.babycenter.com/0_warning-signs-of-a-
language-communication-developmental-dela_6734.bc); Braintree Rehabilitation
Hospital (www.braintreerehabhospital.com/pdf/speech-and-language-milestones.
pdf); and KidTalk, Inc. (www.kidtalk.org/milestones.html). For more information, please
see the full References, Websites, & Resources list on pages 22-24.
Covers.indd 3 9/30/2008 8:50:19 AM

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LinguiSystems, Inc. Copyright © 2008 LinguiSystems, Inc.

Covers.indd 2 1/24/2011 2:29:15 PM

Guide to CM_JK.indd 1 9/29/2008 2:46:15 PM

Lynn K. Flahive, M.S., CCC-SLP, has over 25 years

Guide to CM_JK.indd 2 9/29/2008 2:47:02 PM

We learned a great deal and were reminded of so much helpful information

Guide to CM_JK.indd 3 9/29/2008 2:47:02 PM

5–6 • Holds a bottle independently with one or both hands

6–9 • Feeds self crackers

9 – 12 • Holds a soft cookie in mouth (9 months) and bites through it

12 – 18 • Grasps a spoon with a full hand

18 – 24 • Gives up the bottle

24 – 36 • Bites through a variety of food thicknesses

Guide to CM_JK.indd 4 9/29/2008 2:47:02 PM

Stage Age Milestones

2—Cooing and 2–3 • Uses sounds that are acoustically similar to

3—Exploration/ 4–6 • Gains better control of laryngeal and articulatory

4—Canonical 7–9 • Continues to use CV syllables that have more adult-like

5—Variegated 10 – 12 • Continues to use CV syllables

Guide to CM_JK.indd 5 9/29/2008 2:47:03 PM

Data from Sander (1972)

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Processes Disappearing by 3 Years

Process Description Example

Diminutization adding / i / at the end of nouns dog → /dɑgi /

Reduplication repeating phonemes or syllables bottle → / bɔbɔ/

substituting a voiced consonant for a

Processes Persisting After 3 Years

Process Description Example

Data from Stoel-Gammon & Dunn (1985)

Guide to CM_JK.indd 7 9/29/2008 2:47:03 PM

Individual Likely Age of

Guide to CM_JK.indd 8 9/29/2008 2:47:03 PM

Age Intelligibility Level

2 – 3 years 50% – 75%

4 – 5 years 75% – 90%

5+ years 90% – 100%

Data from Peña-Brooks & Hegde (2007)

Approximate Age Pronouns

12 – 26 months I, it (subjective and objective)

Guide to CM_JK.indd 9 10/6/2008 2:52:31 PM

Age Grammatical Morphemes Example

29 – 38 • Regular plural –s socks

39 – 42 • Past tense modals could, would,

43 – 46 • Regular past tense –ed He kicked.

47 – 50 • Contractible auxiliary The boy’s talking.

Guide to CM_JK.indd 10 9/29/2008 2:47:04 PM

• Begins to use grammatical

• Increases in length due to use of

• Uses object-noun-phrase complements

• Coordinates simple sentences

• Adds negative interrogatives

Guide to CM_JK.indd 11 9/29/2008 2:47:04 PM

Birth – 6 • Startles to loud sounds

1 – 2 years • Follows simple directions, especially with a gestural cue

2 – 3 years • Watches other children and briefly joins in their play

Guide to CM_JK.indd 12 9/29/2008 2:47:04 PM

3 – 4 years • Follows two-step related directions without cues