CHM 941: MEDIEVAL HISTORY

Topic One: BYZANTINE EMPIRE

Middles Ages 600 to 1200 AD

The critical issue with mediaeval history was the decline of Roman empire and the rise of
Byzantine Empire and other social and political as well economic institutions. Of importance was
the Byzantine empire that arose from 600 to 1453

BYZANTINE EMPIRE

Leadership

The stability of Byzantine rested on able leadership that laid the foundation of strong leadership
and protected the kingdom from external invasions. Such leaders included Heraclius from 614 to
641 and Leo from 711 to [Link] leaders developed strong military structures to protect the
empire from external invasion.

Efficient Bureaucracy

Byzantine had strong and efficient civil service that regulated the activities of the empire including
the provision of education. Regulated prices of goods wages, licensing, controlled exports,
observance of Sabbath army courts and diplomatic services.

Trade, Commerce and Industry

Byzantine engaged in long distance trade and comer with many cities abroad including Italian cites
of Venice and Genoa. The industries of silk making silver and gold coinage also developed rapidly.

Agriculture

Agriculture was the mainstay of byzantine economy under the free peasant and later the
aristocracy.
Religion

The Religious foundation of byzantine empire was crucial that unified the society together. Under
emperor Leo the Isaurian Byzantine was well protected from the Islamic invasion. The emphasis
on faith on traditionalism and religious piety contributed the social stability of the empire.

The elevation of women society

Women were elevated particularly in education and well acknowledge in society.

Architecture and art

Architecture design reflected in the principle of dome in building and art in ivory carving,
manuscript illumination, jewelry making, creation of mosaics

Influence of Byzantine civilization

Byzantine protected the west from the invasion of Islam and contributed in the preservation of
western civilization. The empire also contributed to Italian renaissance by introducing Italians to
humanism scholarship

Decline of Byzantine

 External Invasion particularly from Persians, Seljuk, Turks, muslims contributed the
weakening of the empire
 Internal revolts including palace revolts, were a common in the Kingdom
 The empire concentrated in oversea expansion without ability to protect it vast empire

Collapse of the Western Roman Empire

In the 5th – 7th century, the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire was a continuation of the Roman
Empire. The loss of the Western territories in the 5th century led to the loss of some important
cities such as Rome. The creation of the Germanic states of the Franks, Visigoths, Ostrogoths and
later of the Lombards out of the rubble of the Western Roman Empire meant that in time they
would seek to challenge the authority of the Eastern Roman Empire. The loss of the western
territories led to the Patriarch of Rome achieving greater independence from Byzantium, which no
longer provided adequate protection to the Pope. Consequently, the Holy See and Byzantium
would have disagreements, culminating in the schism of 1054 and the disaster of the Fourth
Crusade in the 13th century.

Rise of Islam

In the 7th – 9th century and the 11th – 15th century, Islam gave the Arabs a newfound zeal and
desire to conquer. They expanded to the territories in the Levant and Egypt. The Arab invasions
led to the loss of Egypt, Syria, Palestine and for a short period of time, Crete, Sicily, Cyprus and
Asia Minor. Though Asia Minor was recaptured and substantial parts of Syria and Mesopotamia
either taken back or subjugated, Egypt remained firmly in Arab hands as did the rest of Palestine.
The loss of Egypt was a major blow to the Byzantines since the province of Aegyptus had provided
much of the Empire's manufactured goods and natural resources, especially grain, ever since the
times of Roman Antiquity.

Civil Wars

A series of societal infighting also weakened the Byzantine Empire's military power. There were
two major civil wars during the late Byzantine Empire one in 1321 another in 1341. These Civil
wars also severely diminished the Byzantines' military capabilities.

Rise of the Ottomans

The arrival of the Seljuk Turks led to the rise of the Ottomans. Attempts by the Byzantine Emperors
to drive back the Ottomans yielded little short term success – the excessive use of mercenaries led
to much peasant resentment, giving the Ottomans support in the regions in Asia Minor. Following
a number of civil disputes in the Byzantine Empire, the Ottomans subjugated the Byzantines as
vassals in the late 14th century. .
Declining resources

The Byzantine Empire's survival depended upon its administration and the logistics that enabled
it to run the Empire. Though considered complex, its system was one more advanced than those
practised by the Frankish Kingdoms in the West and one modelled by the Islamic Powers of the
East. As the Empire evolved into an increasingly smaller and defensive state, the governing of the
state changed as well. However, by the 14th century the burdens of running an Empire surrounded
by many enemies became too much of a strain on Byzantium's increasingly smaller resources.

Politics of Byzantium

The Byzantine Empire experienced numerous civil wars. The defeats in the 7th and 12th centuries
to the Arabs and Turks respectively speaking were in no small part assisted by numerous internal
conflicts. The situation became worse later in the 14th and 15th centuries where Byzantine
Emperors were forced to fight their own grandchildren/children, as in the cases of Andronikus II
and Andronikus III.

Taxation

Taxes on the peasantry were collected at times of need so as to raise the supplies needed at the
time. However, this bureaucratic system was exploited by the social elite whose increasing power
challenged that of the Emperor. Furthermore, as the taxation system became ever more of a burden
on the peasantry, the lower classes of the Empire began to resent the state.

The structure of the military

Another major factor in the decline of the Byzantine empire may have been the disintegration of
its traditional military system, the 'theme' system. Under this arrangement, the empire was divided
into several regions which contributed locally raised troops to the imperial armies.
TOPIC TWO: ISLAM

The history of Islam begins with Mohammed, who was born in 570 and died in 632 A.D.
Mohammed lived in Mecca, which was the centre of caravan trade between the Arab World
and the Mediterranean World. In 610 AD Mohammed started seeing a series of visions in
which the angel Gabriel revealed to him a book that he was instructed to read. The book
(Koran) revealed to him that there was only one God and that was the message he was to
take to the Arab World. The Koran was uncreated but came into being with revelation of
the prophet. Islamic laws and religion are based on what the prophet said.

Mohammed was, therefore, the mouthpiece of God conveying a message of total

submission or surrender to God or Allah (Islam). This raises the fundamental question
about the character or personality of God. God is indivisible; there is no question of three
gods. Secondly how does one surrender his or her soul to God? This is done by adhering
to the five pillars or principles of Islam as stated below:

 Witness that there is only one God and Mohammed is the last prophet.
 Pray five times a day facing Mecca
 Taxation /alms to the community.
 Fasting during the month of Ramadan
 Pilgrimage to Mecca once in their life time.

The message was revolutionary and set its converts against those of their tribes who
worshipped old gods. It also created new social values, as the basis of brotherhood
or community of believers, rather than kinship. The converts faced hostility in
Mecca and as a result some migrated to Ethiopia, a country of monotheistic beliefs
and others including Mohammed, moved to Medina in 622 A.D. And here the
Islamic culture began to form. There was co- existence between Judaism,
Christianity and Islam. At times there were conflicts between the Jews who
practiced Judaism and Christianity with Arab Muslims on doctrinal beliefs.
Muslims classified Christianity as a polytheistic religion because of the Holy
Trinity.

The Message was that of Monotheism in a polytheistic world. It was a message of

recognition of a single God and Mohammed as the last prophet. On the resurrection
Mohammed said that it will not come once, and that the dead will sleep until the
judgment day.

After the death of Mohammed, in 632 A.D., four caliphs succeeded him. The fourth
Caliph Ali was assassinated and Mu’awiyah established the Umayyad dynasty in
Damascus in 661A.D. The Dynasty ruled the Muslim community until
[Link] Abbasid dynasty took control and ruled from Baghdad. The Abbasid
dynasty drew support from the Arab World and started spreading Islam to the
Middle East, Europe and Africa. In the 11th century there was a huge Arab invasion
in North Africa leading to the conversion of the Berbers.

In the 7th – 9th century and the 11th – 15th century, Islam gave the Arabs a newfound zeal and
desire to conquer. They expanded to the territories in the Levant and Egypt. The Arab invasions
led to the loss of Egypt, Syria, Palestine and for a short period of time, Crete, Sicily, Cyprus and
Asia Minor. Though Asia Minor was recaptured and substantial parts of Syria and Mesopotamia
either taken back or subjugated, Egypt remained firmly in Arab hands as did the rest of Palestine.
The loss of Egypt was a major blow to the Byzantines since the province of Aegyptus had provided
much of the Empire's manufactured goods and natural resources, especially grain, ever since the
times of Roman Antiquity.
The introduction of Camels revolutionized transport and opened the prospects for
the spread of Islam to West Africa. The Sanhaja Berbers and the Almoravids played
an important role in the spread of Islam in West Africa; East Africa and other parts
of Africa.

Branches of Islam

Further information: History of Islam and Succession to Muhammad

The original difference between Sunnis and Shias is over who the true first
successor to Muhammad is. Shias believe Ali ibn Abi Talib is the true successor to
Muhammad, while Sunnis consider Abu Bakr to hold that position. In addition,
there are several differences within Sunni Islam and Shia Islam. Sunni Islam is
separated into four main schools of jurisprudence, namely, Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i,
Hanbali. Shia Islam, on the other hand, is separated into three major sects:
Twelvers, Ismailis, and Zaydis .Similarly, Kharijites were initially divided into five
major branches: Sufris, Azariqa, Najdat, Adjarites and Ibadis. Of these, Ibadis are
the only surviving branch of Kharijites.

The Sunnis believe that Muhammad did not specifically appoint a successor to lead
the Muslim ummah (community) before his death, however they approve of the
private election of the first companion, Abu Bakr .Sunni Muslims regard the first
four caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar ibn al-Khattab, Uthman ibn Affan and Ali ibn Abi
Talib) as "al-Khulafā'ur-Rāshidūn" or "The Rightly Guided Caliphs." Sunnis also
believe that the position of caliph may be attained democratically, on gaining a
majority of the votes, but after the Rashidun, the position turned into a hereditary
dynastic rule because of the divisions started by the Umayyads and others. After
the fall of the Ottoman Empire in 1923, there has never been another caliph as
widely recognized in the Muslim world.

Shia Islam
Shia Islam is the second-largest denomination of Islam, comprising of the total
Muslim population. Although a minority in the Muslim world, Shia Muslims
constitute the majority of the Muslim populations in Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Bahrain
and Azerbaijan as well as significant minorities in Syria, Turkey, eastern Africa,
south Asia, Yemen, and Saudi Arabia and other parts of the Persian Gulf.

In addition to believing in the authority of the Quran and teachings of Muhammad,

Shia believe that Muhammad's family, the Ahl al-Bayt (the "People of the House"),
including his descendants known as Imams, have special spiritual and political
authority over the community and believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's
cousin and son-in-law, was the first of these Imams and was the rightful successor
to Muhammad, and thus reject the legitimacy of the first three Rashidun caliphs.

Kharijite (literally, "those who seceded") is a general term embracing a variety of

Muslim sects which, while originally supporting the Caliphate of Ali, later on
fought against him and eventually succeeded in his martyrdom while he was
praying in the mosque of Kufa. While there are few remaining Kharijite or
Kharijite-related groups, the term is sometimes used to denote Muslims who refuse
to compromise with those with whom they disagree. The major Kharijite sub-sect
today is the Ibadi. The sect developed out of the 7th century Islamic sect of the
Kharijites. While Ibadi Muslims maintain most of the beliefs of the original
Kharijites, they have rejected the more aggressive methods.

Islamic dynasties

Sasanian empire (224–636 A.D.) ...

Byzantine empire (about 330–1453) ...

Umayyad caliphate (661–750) ...

Spanish Umayyads (756–1031) ...

Abbasid caliphate (750–1258) ...

Samanids (819–1005) ...

Seljuqs of Iran (about 1040–1196)

Impact of Islam

Mathematics

Although the numbers we use today were developed in India and were originally
called "Hindu numerals," the symbolic system was spread across the Middle East
by mathematician al-Khwarazmi and has come to be known as "Arabic numerals."
al-Khwarazmi also authored several important books on math, one of which
includes various ways to solve quadratic equations using both words and letters to
represent numerical values, a common practice today. The transliteration of his
name, in fact, is Algorithmi, which is the origin of the term "algorithm." The word
"algebra" is derived from the Arabic word al-jabr, meaning to restore or complete.

Language

Like most languages, Arabic has spread throughout the world by way of trade and
conquest. The Moors of North Africa, who invaded Spain in 711 and were not
completely expelled until 1492, left a distinct mark on the Spanish language.
Because the Muslim world was the center of philosophy, science, mathematics and
other fields for most of the medieval period, many Arabic ideas and concepts were
spread across Europe, and trade and travel through the region made understanding
Arabic an essential skill for merchants and travelers alike. As a result, modern
English includes Arabic-based words such as "admiral" from "amir-ar-ahl,"
meaning chief of the transport; "sequin" derived from "sikkah," a die used for
coinmaking; and "jar" from "jarrah," a large earthen vase.

Islam contributed to the spread of the Arabic language in across the world. The
Arab conquest made Arabic, the imperial language and all those who spoke Arabic
and professed the Islamic faith were regarded as part of the Arab community. The
Arabic influence in Kiswahili language is enormous. The Swahili words of Persian
origin include Nairuzi (New Year), from the Persian word ‘Nauruz’. Swahili is a
Persian or Arabic word meaning Coast. Arabic language, together with the Bantu
languages, molded the character of Swahili language.

Astronomy

Because of the requirement to face Mecca during daily prayers, Muslims needed an
accurate way to determine their exact geographic location, so Muslim scientists
found a solution through astronomical research. Initially attacked as astrologers,
false soothsayers who used the night sky to divine the future, astronomers
eventually found favor when the religious establishment determined that science
could demonstrate the complexity of Allah's (God's) creation. Freed by this new
perspective and aided by translations of Greek scientific works (especially the
writings of Ptolemy), Muslim astronomers made many important discoveries using
various tools, including quadrants and even observatories. Ibn al-Shatir developed
the planetary theory and studied the radius of Mercury's orbit, information that
would be crucial to Copernicus' work 150 years later. Planetary movements were
closely charted, and Islam's Golden Age of science was so thorough in its findings
that even today two-thirds of the known stars have Arabic names. Unfortunately,
many scientific discoveries were lost when Baghdad was invaded and sacked by
Mongol forces.

Medicine

Persian intellectual Ibn Sina (980-1037), known as Avicenna in the West, made
great contributions to philosophy, mathematics and especially medicine. His Arabic
book "The Canon of Medicine" was so influential that it was used by doctors and
students of medicine for hundreds of years. In it he describes how to properly
quarantine patients to avoid spreading illness, and he provides criteria for properly
testing new medicine. During the medieval period, Muslim doctors were the first
to use antimony (a metalloid) for its medicinal powers. Hospitals were developed
during the Islamic Golden Age and surgical practices, shunned by other societies,
were further explored and refined in the Muslim world. Even Islam's ritual ablution
before prayer led to advances in hygiene.
Rise and fall of kingdoms

The spread of Islam was associated with the disturbing traditional equilibrium of
some societies, such as the Kingdom of Mali, where some chiefs were converted to
Islam then the subjects had to follow. There similar experience in [Link] was
associated with the rise of African kingdoms and the fall of non Islamic kingdoms.
These included the following kingdoms: the Almoravids under the Sanhaja Berbers
in Morocco, in 1125 to 1145; Almohad Empire under the Berbers, from 1125 to
1260 and the Fatimid Empire, under the Berbers, in 915. Indeed, Islam was also
responsible for the fall of Nubia and Axum kingdoms when the place came under
Islamic influence in the 16th century.

. In Africa for example the ruling dynasties that were Arabic in origin were
established in Pate, Kilwa, Mombasa, Zanzibar, among many other places. This led
to the growth of urban centres, such as Mombasa, Kilwa, Sofala, Malindi, Pemba,
Pangani and Mogadishu. These towns became centres of export and trade in ivory,
gold, slaves, skins and import trade including pottery, glass and spices.
Consequently urban commercial civilization developed in the coastal regions, of
Africa, due to Islamic influence.

Intellectual revolution

The spread of Islam is associated with intellectual awakening in many parts of

Africa in the 15th and 16th Centuries. This included University of Djami
Alkarawiyyin in Fez; University of Al-Azhar in Cairo; and University of Timbuktu,
where various disciplines, such as Humanities, Theology, Logic, Astronomy,
History and Jurisprudence, were taught.

Architectural changes

Islam also led to architectural changes in across the world (mainly in the form of
Mosques and Madrassa). Mosques that were rectangular in shape and roofs of lime
concrete appeared in Africa and in Europe. Cemeteries with pillar tombs that were
round, octagonal, hexagonal, and square; and some resembling parts of human body
have been traced in places such as Pemba. Houses with many rooms, with courts in
front where visitors were received have been located in places like Malindi.
Intermarriage between the emigrants from Persia and other Arab countries and the
(local people) pre-Bantu hunters (Witu) produced the Pajuni, at the Coast of Kenya.

Agriculture

The spread of Islam is also associated with agricultural revolution. It is through

Arabs that certain variety of wheat and aromatic herbs came from Middle East, and
rice, from South East Asia, reached Africa. Islamic influence, in Africa, also led to
the introduction of the Persian Solar Calendar, which was adopted from Persian
emigrants; with 365 days in a year. The calendar had a week with 10 days called
Muongo, in Kiswahili, and it conformed to agricultural seasons. Farmers in the
Coast used the calendar in collaboration with stars for agricultural operations.

Currency

Introduction of currency where coins of copper and silver were used is also credited
to Islam. The Shirazi dynasty, for instance, used copper and silver coins, by the end
of the 12th century in Kilwa, Kisimani, Mafia, Zanzibar and Pemba. The coins
became the medium of exchange alongside barter trade. Finally, the Spread of Islam
in Africa intensified slave trading activities with disastrous social, political and
economic consequences.

TOPIC THREE AFRICA AND NASCENT CHRISTIANITY

Christianity is one of the oldest civilizations of humanity. Although the religion

started with Jesus Christ (as it actually bears his name), its roots go back before the
coming of Christ. For this reason, the coming of Christ is regarded as a climax in
the history of this religion whose traditions goes far back to the Pharoanic and
Judaic times. This chapter details the contributions of Africa to nascent Christianity.
Contribution of Judaism : the first five books the Pentateuch were in place before
the Christian they laid the foundations of Jewish cultural and religious traditions.

The Patriarchs such as Abraham was the father of the christain Faith who offered
his son as a sacrificial lamb. Moses also got the ten commandments that were to
serve as the guide for ethical, moral and religious life of the people.

African Contribution to Nascent Christianity – Egypt

The pre-Christian Egypt was notoriously religious; Egyptian traditional (or nature)
religion was a stepping stone to the formation of Christianity. Egypt, therefore,
played a critical role in the nascent Christianity. Going back to ancient Egypt,
nature religion, and the cult of Osiris in particular, made the acceptance of
Christianity easier among the pre Christian population. According to the Egyptian
mythology, Osiris was regarded as the good one who taught people civilization
including agriculture, and Isis his sister and wife was regarded as the heavenly
mother who protected life. Osiris had a brother by the name Set who plotted and
killed him, but the grieving Isis put the pieces together and Osiris came back to life
and regained his kingdom. Osiris had a son by the name Horus who avenged the
death of his father by killing Set.

The cult of Osiris formed the Trinity of three: Osiris the father, Isis the wife and
Horus the son. Set represented the powers of evil. Secondly there was the death and
the resurrection of Osiris. Thirdly there was the killing of Set. The cult of Osiris
was in existence before Christianity and it has been argued that Coptic Christians
borrowed heavily from it in terms of doctrines, like the trinity, resurrection and the
concept of good and evil; as exemplified in the struggle between Jesus and the devil.

The virginity of Mary equated to the virginity of Isis for both gave birth without
compromising their virginity. The Egyptian cross Ankh meaning life in eternity,
immortality, and reincarnation. The original Christian cross was T shaped and later
embraced the Egyptian cross.

The name Christ in Egyptian language is translated as Karast; meaning, the

anointed one. Karast is the word we use today as Christ. In ancient Egypt, Ausar
was the first Karast and god of the underworld and the judge of the dead. He taught
people civilization and righteousness. Ausar is presumed to be the prototype of the
Judeo-Christian concepts of Christ. A Karast is defined as a process of preserving
or messaging. Christ is also defined as the as Messiah meaning the anointed one.
Anointing involves rubbing oils and messiah refers to the process of anointing
power. The theological roots of word Christ is found in ancient Egypt where Christ
was raised taught and trained.

The name Hebrew has its origin in Egypt and it means Hapiru or Habiru. The
Bibilical Hebrew is equated with these Hapiru or Habiru. This referred to the lowly
class of people, who were working as slaves.

In the era of Apostolic Age the first Christian African church was planted by St.
Mark at Alexandria in 62 A.D., with Annianus as its first Bishop. This is also
supported by archaeological documents such as the papyri, that were unearthed at
various sites in Egypt such as Fayyum (Baur:1994).

Scholarship
A number of Christian scholars sprung in the Mediterranean region and contributed
greatly to the growth of Christianity. In 180 A.D., a catechist school developed in
Alexandria, in Egypt, and produced Christian scholars, such as Clement of
Alexandria (150- 215 A.D.) and Origen (220-254 A.D.). These produced many
religious books that were used for religious instruction. Bishop Demetrius (189-
231 A.D.) and Bishop Peter (Justin) the Martyr (305-312 A.D.) regarded as the first
Egyptian saint and Bishop Athanassius (328-373), defended that Christ had same
nature as the Father.

Tertullian, born in Carthage, (160 A.D.) made important contributions to

Christianity. He preached that the Church was a brotherhood of believers and a
community of saints. He advocated that the church should be presided over by
elders. He also preached martyrdom and Puritanism. Then there was St. Augustine
of Hippo, born in Algeria, in 354. He converted to Christianity in 391 and became
the Bishop of Hippo in 395. His major contribution to Christianity is found in his
book the City of God, in which he gives a cosmic interpretation of human history.
The decline of the Roman Empire, under the Visigoths from Spain, brought a lot of
suffering to its subjects; leading to massive refugees in North Africa.

The Roman Empire was perceived as divinely willed but with its decline, non
Christians started blaming the Christians for it. St Augustine, who had encountered
the refugees in North Africa, tried to provide an explanation to the decline of the
Roman Empire in his book, The City of God. He started by saying that it was wrong
to link the Christian faith to the Roman Empire. This, according to him, is because
the Church is a universal institution that must not be tied to any particular State. He
also re-defined the relationship between the sacred and the profane, by identifying
the two forces in the Cosmos: namely, the City of God and the City of Man. The
two cities are ruled by two loves. The City of Man is formed by the love of self and
sometimes to the contempt of God. The princes of the City of Man are consumed
by the desire of power and love of ruling; where subjects must obey with nothing
offered in return. Secondly there is no stability in the City of Man, for every state
or empire declined after fulfilling its historical mission .The Roman Empire could
not escape this decline. Individuals, like States, earned no merit in the eyes of God,
but Christians could expect stability from the City of God.

St. Augustine divided human history into three periods: the period before the law,
the period under the law and the period under God’s glory. The first period of two
thousand years was void; followed by the next two thousand years of the torah and
the last two thousand years, is the period of the Messiah. The City of God is the
church, while the city of man refers to those outside the church. The first church
begun in Jerusalem; it spread to Samaria, Judea and to the utmost parts of the world.
But the church is surrounded by fear, tormented by pain and endangered by
temptation. Christ becomes the mediator between God and the People, rekindled
by the Holy Spirit.

Monasticism

Monasticism had its origins in Africa, in100 A.D., and its founder was Anthony,
from Korma. His parents died when he was young and he devoted his life seclusion.
During the period of the Roman persecution of Christians, and during the time
taxation many people including Christians fled to the desert and lived in Caves in
Mephis and Seraphim. They abstained from sex, wine, eating meat and devoted
themselves to the life of prayer. Monastic life was accepted by the Egyptian
Christians who embraced Monophysite theology. St Pachomius established
monasteries at the island of Tebbennesi where he taught Coptic Christians the life
of chastity. Pilgrims came from as far as Nubia and Ethiopia to witness and imitate
the life of chastity.

Martyrdom
Martyrdom was the greatest glory of the Egyptian Coptic church, which was
persecuted in the era of Diocletian in 284 to 313 A.D. Between 303 and 306 there
were daily executions of the Egyptian Christians because of their support of
monophysite theology, which stated that Christ had only a divine nature. This made
a strong impression on Christianity and it was later accepted as part and parcel of
the Christian teaching.

Theological Foundations

Africa also contributed to the theological foundation of nascent Christianity with

the Monophysite theology. Majority of the Egyptians accepted the monophysite
theology and were expelled by the official Roman Church that preached the
Duophysite theology (Christ is both human and divine). They formed the Egyptian
Coptic Church that spread to the Red Sea region, Ethiopia and Aksum where they
established monasteries. These became the centre of learning for the monophysite
theology. The controversy of the nature of Christ is deeply rooted in the history of
Christianity. In 431 A.D., at the Council of Ephesus, St. Cyril, the Patriarch of
Alexandria, successfully defended the position taken by the Egyptian Coptic
Church against Nestorious, the patriarch of Constantinople, who supported the two
persons of Christ. But in 451 A.D., at the Council of Chalcedon, the Monophysite
theology was condemned and Coptic Christians rejected the position taken by the
mainstream church. Some of the Christians fled to Nubia and Ethiopia where they
established monasteries and continued to propagate monophysite theology (Baur:
1994).

Ethiopia

In Ethiopia the triumph of Christianity was due to the restoration of Solomon

Kingdom, reform of monasticism and revival of Amharic cultural renaissance. King
Amda Siyon (1314-1344 A.D.) traced the ancestry or his dynasty to King Solomon.
King Zara Yakob 1334-68, revived Christianity, monastic life, monogamy and
imposed the Christian faith on the conquered people. This religious nationalism
continued up to time of Emperor Hails Selassie. Monasteries, such as Debre
Libanos, at Shoa, was built and led by St. Takla Haymanot (1215-1313 A.D.), while
Debre Maryam at Tigre was built and led by Eustatuis (1273-1352 A.D.).
Monasteries were instrumental in the evangelization of the conquered provinces, as
well as the use of Amharic language and literature in the revival of Christianity.
The Eucharist was celebrated in Gee-ez language, accompanied by indigenous
musical instruments.

African Languages

African languages have been used in the preservation and translation of the
Christian scriptures instead of Latin and Greek. In about 300 A.D., the Bible was
translated into the Sahidic dialect of Upper Egypt, and the language was further
used in the spread of Christianity around Alexandria. Bishop Athanassius of the
Egyptian church used the dialect to vehemently propagate the divinity of Christ.
Similarly the Ethiopian language Gee-ez was used to preserve and maintain
Christianity during the Islamic wars and during the age of new imperialism.
Ethiopian Orthodox Church helped Christianity to acquire a unique African
expression. This was characterised by round churches, many saints and frequent
feasts, with exorcism as the major function of the church (Jones and Monroe:1955;
Panhurst 1955; Ullendorf: 1960).

Nubia

Christianity in Nubia dates back to about 5th century. Nubia also served as the
refuge of Coptic Christians, who were opposed to the Chalcedonian faith. During
the era of King Mercurios Makuria, of Nubia (697-710 A.D.), many churches and
monasteries were put up in Nubia. The Bible was also translated into the old Nubian
language and there were many black Bishops, such as Metropolitan Petros (967-
999A.D.). Christianity reached its peak from 700 to 1250 A.D., but started to
decline with the Arab invasion; leading to loss of sovereignty and destruction of
churches (Adams: 1977).

Kongo

Christianity begun to spread rapidly in Kongo, under King Afonso from 1506 to
1543 A.D., with local clergy. These included his son, Dom Henrique (Henry), who
was trained in Lisbon. He was nominated bishop, by Pope Leo X, in 1519
consecrated as bishop in 1521; thereby becoming the first African bishop south of
the Sahara (Hilton: 1985).

External factors that dealt a lethal blow to the Christian culture, in Africa were the
following: the Vandal occupation of North Africa and the Arab invasion. The West
contributed to the spread of Christianity in the 15th century, with the Spanish, the
Portuguese, the Italian the Dutch and the British missionary exploration. This
coincided with the age of imperialism and colonization of the continent.
Christianity was against African cultural values and it was, sometimes, perceived
as the agent of colonialism.

The rise of African Independent Churches was an attempt, by the African people,
to indigenize Christianity, interpret and apply its teaching in ways that will make it
practical and meaningful to Africans. Syncretism, which was more practical in
ancient Ethiopia, is a fundamental contribution by Africa to Christianity.

The coming of Jesus Christ born in 6 BC was an important climax in the history of this religion
whose origins goes back to Judaic times. The time Jesus was born was a period of great religious
and political turmoil in the Roman Empire. There was a popular dislike of the Jews at Rome itself.
Rioting was frequent in Alexandria and it spread to the near east. Judea was regarded as a
dangerous place and bedrock of religious ferment. Even in 37 BC when the Roman senate
appointed a Jew Herod the Great, as the King of Judea, he was unpopular having been regarded as
a Roman protégée. In-fact Herod was unpopular and demonized Christianity (beheading of John
the Baptist) . The Jews were also at logger heads with their Samaritan neighbours and resented the
influx of Greek and Syrians in the coastal towns. They also detested the Romans because of high
taxes. There were also internal divisions between the Pharisees and Sadducees. The coming of the
messiah was the along awaited moment to bring deliverance to the Jews from the political
bondage under Roman rule.

The message of Jesus was simple; deliverance from sin and acceptance of salvation by faith. He is
the Messiah and the son of the living God. The message was treasonable in the Roman empire
and Jesus was accused of blasphemy and executed. But he arose on the third day and adding
another chapter in the history of Christianity-resurrection.

His teaching encouraged feelings against the Sadducees and Pharisees. It also appealed to the
dissatisfied Jews who felt that law no longer satisfied them. He appealed to the poor and outcast.

After Jesus Christ the acts of apostles boosted the spread of Christianity. It contributed to the great
commission, church planting and baptizing in the name of the father.

The persecution of the early church; Paul and Stephen had a negative impact on the early church.
Diocletian in 303 AD launched the great Roman persecution targeting Christian officials, clergy,
books and churches.

But Christianity was becoming prominent in Asia and African provinces of the Empire. In Syria,
Cilicia and Cappadocia Christians were successful in their missionary work and even formed part
of the social elite.

In 303 AD Constantine the Great recognized Christianity in the Roman Empire; He established
Christianity as the official Roman church; restored to Christians their property and provided them
with tax concessions. He declared himself a Christian in 324 AD. And in 325 AD the first
Ecumenical council the council of Nicea met with 30 Bishops presided by Constantine . Its task
was to settle the emerging heresy on the nature of Christ. Arianism by its founder Arius taught that
Jesus was not divine and therefore he was a man . The Council decided that Jesus Christ was of
Divine nature though assuming human nature. Arianism was condemned and remained
underground. Constantine made Constantinople Christian capital.

In 378AD the Visigoths and Vandals ravaged the Roman empire leading to persecution and spread
of Christian refugees to Asia and Africa and eastern Roman empire.

Christianity as Roman state religion (380 AD)

On 27 February 380, with the Edict of Thessalonica put forth under Theodosius I, the Roman
Empire officially adopted Trinitarian Christianity as its state religion. After its establishment, the
Church adopted the same organizational boundaries as the Empire: geographical provinces, called
dioceses, corresponding to imperial governmental territorial division. The bishops, who were
located in major urban centers as per pre-legalization tradition, thus oversaw each diocese.

Early Middle Ages (476–799)

The transition into the Middle Ages was a gradual and localized process. Rural areas rose as power
centres whilst urban areas declined. Although a greater number of Christians remained in the East
(Greek areas), important developments were underway in the West

The Bishops of Rome, the Popes, were forced to adapt to drastically changing circumstances.
Maintaining only nominal allegiance to the Emperor in the East the Church maintained its structure
and character and evolved more slowly.

High Middle Ages (800–1299)

During the Middle ages and with the collapse of Byzantine empire Christianity spread to Europe
with help of missionaries -Roman Britain and German. By 800 Western Europe was ruled entirely
by Christian kings, East and Central Europe remained an area of missionary activity in the 9th and
10th centuries. Christian crusades against Islamic forces in southern Spain, southern Italy, and
Sicily, as wells in Northeastern Europe contributed to the spread of Christianity.

Fall of Constantinople
In 1453, Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Empire affected Christianity. As a result of the
Ottoman conquest of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, and the Fall of Constantinople, the entire
Orthodox communion of the Balkans and the Near East became suddenly isolated from the West.
For the next four hundred years, it would be confined within a hostile Islamic world, with which
it had little in common religiously or culturally. The Russian Orthodox Church was the only part
of the Orthodox communion which remained outside the control of the Ottoman empire.

The new Ottoman government that conquered the Byzantine Empire followed Islamic law when
dealing with the conquered Christian population. Christians were officially tolerated as People of
the Book. As such, the Church's canonical and hierarchical organisation were not significantly
disrupted and its administration continued to function.

Under Ottoman occupation the Church could no longer bear witness to Christ. Christian
missionary work among Muslims was illegal and dangerous, whereas conversion to Islam was
entirely legal and permissible. Converts to Islam who returned to Orthodoxy were put to death as
apostates. No new churches could be built and even the ringing of church bells was prohibited. In
the late Middle Christianity was influenced by Renaissance and reformation. (1300–1520)

TOPIC FOUR RENAISSANCE

Renaissance means rebirth. The renaissance spirit changed all aspects of social, cultural, political,
religious, intellectual, and artistic life. It emerged in Europe from 1350 to 1550 after Europe had
gone through the dark of ages and spread to Europe during half of the 16th century.

Factors that led to the rise of renaissance

Renaissance started in Italy for several reasons

 Urban culture
Italy in the middle ages encompassed the urban society in all of Europe. Italy aristocrats lived in
urban areas than in rural castles and became fully involved in urban public life. The Aristocrats in
Italy engaged in banking and mercantile enterprise. For example the Florentine family of medici
made fortunes in banking and rose into the aristocracy leading to great demand for education.
Rich and prominent families begun to seek the services of teachers to impart their children with
necessary skills and knowledge and consequently Italy produced a great number of
educators in politics, literature and ethics.

 Interest in classical past and literature

The people of Florence were interested in understanding their past. This made them to begin
keeping records of their history, invest in education and people who could educate them on their
past and history. Consequently it produced large number of teachers leading to the creation of
historical knowledge and ideas. Many of the teachers begun to look for ancient Latin and Greek
literature, which was more appealing to Italians because the literature referred to cities and sites
that Italians recognized as their own. The Italians were opposed to scholasticism closely associated
with France. Italians preferred intellectual alternatives offered by classical literature. Roman
literature helped Italians more than French Gothicism.

 Italian Economy

Italian economy was more prosperous in the 13th than in the 14th and 15th centuries. This means
that Italian writers and artists were likely to stay at home than seek employment abroad cities
invested in public monuments and supported and speeches. Rich families begun to patronize cities,
art and literature such as Visconti and Sforzain Milan, the Madici in Florence and Gonzaga in
Mantua. The Popes also supported art and literature Alexander VI 1492-1503, Julius 11; 1503-
1513 and Leo X 1513-1521 made Rome an artistic capital of the Western world.
 Political stability

The stability of Italian urban life meaning of the Italian urban cities for example Florence were
relatively stable hence encouraging people to stay home rather than go abroad and this are the
people who would want to invest in learning.

Accomplishments of Italian Renaissance

 Humanism: Scholarship- intellectual and literary advancement

One of the greatest accomplishments of humanism Francis Petrarch (1305-1374) was one of the
Christian humanists who opposed scholasticism as mere speculation rather than teaching people
how to behave properly and attain salvation. He argued that Christian scholar must inspire people
through literally eloquence to do good. He believed that models of eloquence were to be found in
Latin and Greek textbooks that inspired and influence his writings in Italian. He believed that ideal
human conduct was the solitary life of contemplation and asceticism. (He preferred solitary and
contemplative life).

Another scholar located in Florence was Leonardo Brun (1370-1444) and Leon Battista Alberti
(1404-1472). They developed an alternative to Christian humanism known as civic humanism.
They preferred active life. The civic humanists taught that man’s nature equipped for action,
usefulness to his family and society and for serving the state. They also argued to quest for glory
was noble and had to be encouraged. They refused to condemn striving for material possession,
for they argued that mankind’s success in gaining mastery over the earth and its resources. Alberti
his work on the family (1443) instituted that the family was instituted for the well being of
humanity. Many Italian scholars were inspired by these arguments and travelled abroad to Greek;
collected Greek literature that was translated into Latin.

 Linguistic analysis
Renaissance in Italy lead to the development of linguistic analysis. One of the highly influential
linguistic analyst was Lorenzo valla (1407-1457). He was an expert in grammar demonstrated that
study of language could reveal verities. He developed a keen knowledge of in Greek and Latin
texts. For example valla was to prove beyond reasonable doubt the papal temporal rule to Western
Europe on grounds of a charter purportedly granted by the emperor Constantine in the fourth
century was a forgery (work of medieval forger).

 Neo Platonism

Italian thought begun to blend the thought of plato, Plotinus, ancient Mysticism with Christian,
Platonic academy was established in Florence. Italian scholars such as Marsilio, Ficino (1433-
1499), Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494) were members of Platonic academy. Plato’s
work was translated into Latin making them available in Western Europe.

 Machiavelli

Italian renaissance contributed to greater scholarship. One of the greatest Italian renaissance
Political philosopher was Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527). Machiavelli the republic of Florence.
His duties included diplomatic missions to other states. While in Rome he became fascinated with
the achievements of Cesare Borgia son of Pope of Alexander VI who stressed n his writings the
supremacy of politics over morality. In 1512 when media family overthrew was deprived of his
position. Thereafter he devoted his time to writing. In his writings discourse to Livy, he lauded
constitutionalism, liberty and equality and subordinated religion to the interests of the state. He
was a greater supporter of the Ancient Roman republic. He also wrote the former in which he
described the policies and practices of government. He stated that the duty of the ruler was to
maintain power and security of the state. No amount of justice, mercy, and sanctity of treaties
should be allowed to stand in his way.

Leonardo Da Vinci

Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519), of the city of Florence in his paintings imitated nature. His
famous painting was the Mona Lisa. Michelangelo (1375-1564), in his paintings included the
creation of Adam, God dividing light from darkness and the flood.
 Separation of politics from Christianity

As mentioned earlier, before renaissance it was the priests and religious leaders ruled the people
faking ideologies which were against other humans but made them believe it was god’s wish to do
so. For example they argued that is god who chose the people to led and given that they were
chosen by God to lead the people in the church, they also had the right to led and make political
decisions for the public. Such ideas and assumptions made the church and politics one and the
same. This drastically changed during the renaissance period as the people now were able to view
religion and politics as two different entities.

 The feudal system was discontinued

This was Europe because some European societies like Spain, England, Italy and France had
developed feudal structures but because renaissance emphasized on equality and liberty people
begun to attack the feudal structures. Feudalism is a mode of production based on fundamental
social classes. The feudal lords and serfs owners of lands and tenants in lands owned by feudal
lord respectively

The feudal mode of production is a system whereby slaves were considered as human beings, and
entitled to minimal privileges, such as property and use of plough to till the land. It was
characterized by existence of two dominant classes – the feudal Lords and the serfs. The serfs later
became freeholders and over time they begun to accumulate property and eventually transformed
themselves into peasants. This system is what existed before renaissance but later on this changed.
As renaissance brought in new ideas which led to complete (Ferguson, 1962),

 Limited heredity power

Before the renaissance, Europe was based on monarchies a system where power would revolve
around the family lines. Renaissance was very critical to centralization of power, feudalism
allowing for the emergence of limited hereditary power (Ferguson, 1962),

 Democracy begun
Renaissance led to the decline of religion as basis upon which the political foundation of state was
to be based. In medieval period religion was a source of greatness for the state. Religion and
superstition governed political behavior of state. Religion is what legitimized leadership but the
coming of renaissance attacked this structures. It was anti religious and contributed to new
foundation of political governance. This included constitutionalism, liberty, and equality as the
foundational pillars of political organization.

 Reformed church was build

Renaissance led to reformation and Counter Reformation which offered international politics with
new ideological elements for example Spain was emerging as a strong imperial power as compared
to England and this was affecting power politics in Europe. Britain supremacy was threatened as
new nations emerged in the international systems.

 Establishment of Central government

As the strong rulers and Christian spread across Europe a new type of state was emerging,
Individual city-states were being combined by ambitious and strong central leaders. Feudal
nobility were losing influence as the merchant and business classes combined with the developing
monarchs to gain control of city-states. By the beginning of the 16th century there were already
strong central monarchies in England, France, and Spain – these would become important in the
political developments in the following centuries.

 Accelerated state of patriotism and nationalism

This was done among European societies. The nationalist spirit that resulted from renaissance
could be witness in Europe mainly in 15 and 16th century it increased completion between state
particularly for the control of trade commerce. Italy for example witnessed the rise of traders
particularly in cities like Venice and this promoted development of capitalism and creation of
national wealth. The spirit of patriotisms and nationalism made people to begin to desire to protect
their national values culture and even go beyond their national boarder to create wealth for their
nations.

 Philosophy of power politics

Renaissance creates a philosophy of power politics which was used to govern the function of nation
states. The political philosophy of the renaissance as exemplified by people like Machiavelli
opened the political foundation of the renaissance society, questioned medieval political structures
and emphasized on civic culture, for example Machiavelli was known for his political ideas of
promoting totalitarianism and also being critical of religion. He also gave qualities of a good leader
where he said that a good leader should be feared and not loved by the people among others.

 Emerging political revolutions in Europe

Renaissance was a catalyst upon which many revolutions upon which many revolutions were to
occur in Europe it contributed to emergence of enlightenment in which reason was advocated as
the primary source for legitimacy and autonomy of leadership. Many of the revolution in France,
great Britain can be traced back to the ideas of renaissance and enlightenment as society became
more rational, people begun to question the centralization of political autonomy. They also
questioned the legitimacy of the existing monarchies in Europe. The English glorious revolution
of 1688, American Revolution of 1776 and French revolution of 1789 would be traced back to
seeds to freedom, liberty, and equality planted in the renaissance era (Jensen, 1992). .

 Constitutionalism

Constitutionalism is the rule of law to settle differences rather than through personal power. He
advocated for centralization of power i.e. a monarch, dictator, or elected parliament to enforce the
rule of law. On the concept of delegation of power he advocated that citizens establish rules and
procedures to ensure that power is not misused by the political leaders.
The constitution limited absolute power by placing conditions on the use of that power, by
requiring the sharing of power with those subject to it through a process of debate, and by
establishing boundaries beyond which the law may not intrude.

 Scientific discoveries

Renaissance contributed to later development in scientific discoveries by Copernicus, Kepler

Archimedes etc

The Decline

The French invasion in 1495 destroyed the Italian cities of Florence, Naples and Milan

The financial burden: Italian paid a lot of financial tribute to the Spanish crown who took
control of Italy from about 1515. This affected the financial resources of Italy.

Counter-reformation and the Catholic Church

The Catholic Church interfered with the cultural renaissance which issued a list of prohibited
books which included the paintings of Michelangelo which were pulled down from the Sistine
Chapel because they showed naked bodies. The condemning of Galileo Galilei in 1616, also
contributed to the decline of cultural renaissance.

The shifting of trade routes from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic following the oversees
discoveries affected Italy as a centre of world trade.

After 1500 renaissance shifted to northern Europe. Many European students attended Italian
Universities such as Padua and Bologna and helped in the spread of ideas. The war between France
and Italy opened Italy to outside worlds including Germany, Spain and begun to spread of Italian
renaissance. One of the greatest accomplishment of renaissance in northern Europe was the spread
of Christian humanism such as Desiderius Erasmus who emphasized on morality and Christian
virtues.
Conclusion

In conclusion, renaissance which was a period of rebirth and change had far reaching impact on
human society, from Secularization, enlightenment, scientific discoveries political and economic
revolution, that preceded this period which were catalyzed by flowering of renaissance in Europe.
It changed the political scientific and economic thinking of the Europeans societies. It also ushered
in a new era of birth of nations, political institutions, and reformed society.

TOPIC FIVE REFORMATION

The reformation was initiated by Martin Luther hence started a new Christian movement. A variety
of causes contributed to the reformation which can be conveniently look at under the following;

Religious Causes

On the eve of reformation the church suffered from numerous evil practices this greatly
undermined the reputation of the church and it followers. The entire organization of the
church right from Pope down to the priest was corrupt and inhuman. Consequently they
neglected obligation {dioceses/parish} and took keen interest in politics. Some of the clergy
men had amassed huge wealth and were living a luxurious life.

The church leaders indulged in hunting expeditions and drinking parties and completely
neglected their religious duties. In short the church consisted of 'unholy men in holy orders'.
Often the churchmen used the church as a means of business. They had devised a number of
practices for this purpose. Thus the church office was openly sold and quite often unsuitable
men were appointed as priests.

They make as much money as possible and freely issued indulgences or pardon certificates
against payment. This practice of issue of indulgences invited severe criticism and was
described as 'sale of licenses to commit sin'.

The common people were also unhappy with the Pope and church. They were not only
unhappy with the prevailing corrupt practices in church and the flimsy grounds on which
the church collected funds from innocent people but also disliked its interference in the
secular affairs.
Consequently, with this environment they were eagerly looking for someone to provide them
a lead for a revolt against the church. Even the rulers were quite unhappy with the Pope and
strongly protested against Papal interference in the affairs of their states. Hence they were
willing to provide support to any movement which was launched against the authority of the
Pope.

Economic Causes

The emergence of a strong middle classes also greatly contributed to the reformation. The
middle classes protested against the dominance of the old church because it was largely
controlled by the upper classes and administered largely for their benefit. They looked down
upon the artisans, merchants, lawyers, doctors and so on. All these con¬stituted the middle
class and were not willing to associate with them.

In addition the middle classes greatly resented the practice of exempting the nobles from
taxation, while they had to bear the brunt of taxation. So the middle classes wanted to free
the church from the control of wealthy aristocracy which looked down upon them and cared
very little for their interests.

Further, even the princes of Europe were not quite happy with the Pope who claimed
considerable amount of their revenue in the form of First Fruits {Latin annatae} and other
contributions. The common people were also quite unhappy with the clergy which made
numerous taxations demands and hardly gave anything in return for their money.

Political Causes

The rise of nation-states and new monarchy that were keen to establish their absolute rule,
also greatly contributed to the Reformation. A number of monarchs like Henry VIII
considered the presence of a powerful church as a serious check on their authority be¬cause
it was in many ways outside the King's authority and the property of the church was
exempted from royal taxation.

Further the Bishops still administered justice in church in accordance with the Canon Law.
The flow of enormous amounts of money from the revenues of the country to the Papal
treasury was also disliked by them. No wonder these kings fully exploited the opportunity
offered by the teachings of Luther, Wycliffe and so on to challenge the authority of the
church with a view to strengthen their own authority in the country.

They established Protestant churches in their country knowing it fully well that the new
church would be dependent upon them and shall be willing to accept their political authority.
Thus Protestant churches were established in many German principalities, in Holland,
Denmark, Sweden, Norway and England.

New Learning and Spirit of Enquiry

The new spirit of learning and enquiry set in motion by the renaissance {Rebirth} also greatly
contributed to the Reformation. People began to assert themselves against blind faith and
useless religious rituals and began to feel that they could reach God with¬out the
intermediary of a priest.

Their reason also made them highly critical of the prevailing practices of sale of indulgences
{pardon certifi¬cates}, non-enforcement of the code of morality among the clergy, and undue
interference of Papacy in the secular affairs.

Schism in Church

The Schism in church in the fifteenth century also greatly lowered its prestige. Instead of one
Pope, two Popes began to be elected one by the French Cardinals and the other by the Italian
Cardinals.

This undermined the prestige of Pope and people lost faith and reverence for the holy
institution. How could people serve two masters? The things were further complicated in
1409 when the cardinals at a joint sitting elected a third Pope. This is known as the Great
Western Schism.

No doubt this Schism was bridged when the Council at Constance deposed both the Popes
and elected a new Pope. But these developments certainly undermined the powers and
prestige of the church.

Martin Luther
Martin Luther {10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546)

German monk, Catholic priest, professor of theology and influential figure of a

reform movement in 16th century Christianity known as the Protestant Reformation.

He strongly disputed the claim that freedom from God's punishment for sin could be
purchased with money.

He confronted indulgence salesman Johann Tetzel, a Dominican friar, with his

Ninety-Five Theses in 1517.

His refusal to retract all of his writings at the demand of Pope Leo X in 1520 and the
Holy Roman Emperor Charles V at the Diet of Worms in 1521 resulted in his
excommunication by the Pope and condemnation as an outlaw by the Emperor.

Teachings of Luther

Taught that salvation and subsequently eternity in heaven is not earned by good deeds
but is received only as a free gift of God's grace through faith in Jesus Christ as redeemer
from sin and subsequently eternity in hell. Luther held man was justified {saved} by faith
alone “sola fide” become the watchword and the touchstone of the reformation

He challenged the authority of the Pope of the Roman Catholic Church by teaching
that the Bible is the only source of divinely revealed knowledge from God and opposed
sacerdotalism by considering all baptized Christians to be a holy priesthood. Those who
identify with these, and all of Luther's wider teachings, are called Lutherans.

His translation of the Bible into the vernacular to replace Latin made it more
accessible, which had a tremendous impact on the church and on German culture.

Development of a standard version of the German language, added several principles

to the art of translation and influenced the writing of an English translation.

The King James Bible His hymns influenced the development of singing in churches.

His marriage to Katharina von Bora set a model for the practice of clerical marriage,
allowing Protestant priests to marry.
The revolt began in the Germany, due to lacked strong government to protect since its wealth
was drained away to riches Italy papal taxes. The condition so serious from peasant to the
prince hence German had long grumbled and they needed only a leader to rise against papal
control and so Martin Luther son of a peasant- miner, become that leader.

Indulgence were mission of the penance imposed and absolved sinners and shorten their own
time in the purgatory. These indulgences also had a religious purpose such as funding the
crusades, the building of cathedrals.

Ally and Bacon 1936 argued that Luther’s revolt began in his opposition to the sale of
indulgences. The pope was rebuilding St Peter’s Cathedral at Rome with great magnificence.
To help raise money for that purpose German Archbishop hard had a licensed John Tetzel
(a Dominican) to grant indulgences. Tetzel was a special offender in this way. A rude German
rhyme ascribed him as “the money rattles in the box; the soul from purgatory flies”

Then a visit of Tetzel to Wittenberg with a batch of the these papal letters, aroused Luther
to more passionate protest

On a Sunday October, 1517, Luther mailed to the door of Wittenberg church 95 thesis
{statements} against the practice of settling indulgences upon which he challenged all comers
to debate. These theses had consequences even beyond the University since the printing press
spread them out. They were especially, discussed passionately in German.

Five Roots of Reformation

Western Christendom as a grant key of gunpowder

With the rule of Pope Gregory the Seventh in 1075 issue of dictatorship papal had helped
make the Western Christendom of 16th century a giant key of gunpowder availing the
lighting of a match. The treatise had deified the papal office made him the actual emperor,
hinted at him as sinlessness and claimed among other things that the Roman church had
never erred and would never err.

Stephenson suggests that Luther’s theological formation would have been what it was if
Luther had not entered the Augustinian Order and been schooled the way he was. While
Luther followed the more modern teaching in contrast to the older scholastics, he did not
follow the modern way completely for instance, he rejects the motion that might paraphrased
“if you do your very best, Almighty God will do the rest.”

Problems with the Means of Grace

The problems with the mediation solution in Luther’s days, made him became a theologian
of the means of grace, the very concrete ways in which the sinner receives forgiveness such
as holy baptism, individual absolution and the sacrament of the altar. The Roman Catholic
Church seven sacraments were essentially replaced with three with the goal of emphasizing
the Free Salvation that God gives through the pastoral office to the individual sinner in need
of comfort and conclusion.

Recovery of Cyrilline Christology

Cyril of Alexandria had become bishop of Alexandria in 412 to 444 AD. In the Nicene Creed
he gave a teaching about Christ in a finished and definitive form. He said; Christ Being Of
One Substance with the Father and who for Our Salvation Came down from Heaven and
Was Incarnate by the Holy Ghost of the Virgin Mary and Became Man. For Cyril and
Luther, the personal union of the two natures cannot be separated and that would crucial
distinction in later controversial in fact even today.

The Rule of Faith

This notion of a canon of truth goes back to the second century and can also be called
confession Latin confessio and German Bekenntnis. It is the summary core of Christian truth
derived from Holy Scripture and pattern according to which Scripture is properly
interpreted. Luther did not abolish the rule of faith, rather he saw his role by virtue of his
office defined by the rule of faith and his goal was to purify the Church according to it. There
is really no innovation, rather restoration. Rule of faith is seamlessly integrated with
Scripture and Office in the life of the Church, each harmonizing smoothly with the other.

Context of reformation
In the early years of the 16th century, Europe especially Germany, was a churchly land.
strong and fervent personal piety, focused on terror of last things, such as death, purgatorial
pain and universal judgments. Since the Roman Catholic Church of that time taught that
one’s salvation depended on producing truly meritorious works, people were left wondering
if they had performed God-pleasing works and if so whether they had done enough. Where
there had been false teaching and criticism of same aspects of the church and its hierarchy,
the authority of the pope was greater in Germany than elsewhere, except for Italy itself yet
there was strong discontent and disaffection, especially over the selling of positions of
authority, giving of positions to family members, absent leaders and the taking of concubines.

As more and more people were to read and better educated these things were at least
perceived as a greater problem.

Effects of Martin Luther’s reforms on European Christians by Kyle Owenby, North Georgia
College and State University

For modern Christian of all denomination Martin Luther remains a controversial

figure. Seen in one respect he was a revolutionary who fragmented Christendom and
aggravated. He also led spiritual revival of Christianity, expunged or wiped out the corrupt
bureaucracy that had attached itself and returned the church to its Biblical roots.

Luther’s message resonated / echoed with these in Europe who sought reform in the
Roman Catholic Church. As a consequence of Luther’s in interpretation of the Bible and
mankind’s relationship with God, he improved the lives of European Christians.

Culturally, the arts with exception of music and architecture suffered a lot of
ecclesiastical patronage from Luther’s reform. As the movement of reformers used
vernacular and not Latin as liturgical language. There was raise of music status because
composers were free to create pieces. Luther was a lover of and proponent of vernacular
music for the church in spite of some regional criticism promoted the concept of singing
church. In architecture various denominations competed in building house of worship
The division of Christendom left the lower classes at the mercy of local lords to decide
which religion catholic or protestant served their spiritual needs guidance and
administration of sacrament.

With the spread of the belief that people could do their own interpretation of the
Bible, there was a strengthening of rise in denominations with protestant Christianity which
resulted in arguments between various denomination regarding theological issues

Luther’s reform did not improve the lives of European Christians politically because
nationalist continued to support by identifying with a particular denomination
division/fragmentation of Western Christianity.

Some denominations affiliated to each other to attract more supporters in this cause.
This is the case of Germany peasant’s revolt affiliation with the teaching of Luther.

As more reformers followed in Luther’s footsteps and interpreted the Bible

independently, there was no longer a single authority to determine what was appropriate.

The peasant revolt of 1524-1525 was condemned by Luther as unchristian and he led
his support to the princes as they put down the rebellion killing thousands of peasants. For
he said that to revolt against civil government was rich.

The reform of Luther and improved the spiritual lives of people for they could read
the Bible in their languages however, he did not improve their physical lives at least initially

Those who joined him enjoyed some benefits such as freedom from Catholic Church.
However, great risks were in the loss of lives during religious wars safeguard their spiritual
lives.

By the reforms of Luther, there was Catholic reformation through council of Trent
(1545-63) where the reformers tried to answer the challenges of Protestants.

In this period European states won the independence from Papal authority and
established their own leadership.
Luther’s reforms were necessary and constitute an improvement in spite of the cost of human
life and unity. However, if an individual does not accept one Christian either Luther’s
assertions, then one considers Luther’s reforms to be the source of centuries of European
religious strife which claimed million of lives and continues today for instance in Ireland
Catholic and Protestant or Catholic and Orthodox.

The religious belief held by the oldest in Europe the most numerous of the protestant sects
founded by the Wittenberg reformer, Martin Luther. The term Lutheran was first used by
his opponents during the Leipzig disputation in 1519 evangelical and today the usual title of
the sect is Evangelical Lutheran Church. In Germany, when the Lutherans and the reformed
have united since 1817 the name Lutheran has been abandoned and the state church is styled
the Evangelical or the Evangelical United

TOPIC SIX SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

Renaissance had its scientific manifestation that brought in new attitudes in Europe and
encouraging investment in time energy and resources to master nature by systematic experiment.

 The eye glasses were invented in Italy in the 13th century and by 15 the century Italy was
making eye glasses with concave and convex lenses for short and long lenses.
 Telescope and microscope were invented in Italy in around 1600
 The mechanical clock was developed in both Italy and England in 13th century replacing
the water clocks. . The mechanical Clock enhanced productivity and public activities as
people begun to measure their activities based on time.
 Printing was invented in China in the 9th century spread in Europe in middle ages In
German Gutenberg published its first bible in 1452-55 and 1505 millions of books were
printed in Europe.
 Nicholas Copernicus in 1500 developed the heliocentric theory in which he stated that that
the universe consists of planets, moving around the sun in cycles. He held the view that the
sun was the centre of the solar system and the earth revolved around the sun.
 Francis Bacon advocated the study of nature based on observation and induction or
evidence rather from deduction from the prior principle of knowledge. The purpose of
studying science is to enrich human life by new discoveries. He advocated experimentation
as means of answering questions. This meant that there must be a physical phenomenon to
be studied and measured by available evidence.
 In 1669 Italian Galileo Galilei built a telescope and that was applied in the study of stars,
and planets. In his book the dialogue of the Great systems of the world stated that the earth
moved around the sun and not vice versa. He discovered that earth was not the centre of
universe
 William Harvey in 1628 discovered the circulation of blood by theoretical investigation
but how the circulation took place was enhanced through the discovery of microscope.
 Isaac Newton 1642-1727 developed the theory of fluxions a method of calculating volume
of solids. The theory of optics: light consist of rays and rays are original properties of light.
Colors are not qualification of light derived from refraction of natural bodies but original
and cognate properties.

Impact of Science

 Social Impact

Scientific revolution led to the secularism and enlightenment or the age of reason in which
traditional beliefs and values were questioned and discarded. This led to rational, critical and
open discussion of public issues.

The monopoly of the church as the custodian of knowledge was affected by scientific ideas.
The religious beliefs came under severe scrutiny as people begun to liberate themselves from
the rigid traditions of the church.

Scientific discoveries also led to improved life and population as new medicines were
discovered

Scientific revolution led the emergence of academies, observatories and museums in France
and England bringing together scientists to provide information. This enhanced education,
printing and circulation of knowledge.
 Economic Impact

Scientific revolution enhanced industrial revolution and agricultural revolution in European

societies which in turn accelerated development creating new opportunities such as
employment, and creation of more wealth. It also contributed to the underdevelopment of the
new world.